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ʸȥߥ˥٤ɤߡϡʸסϡɤߡפʸ˴ؤ뷼ȯŪʻŦĤĤʲˡ˺ϿŪ˽αƤ
ԤϡʸաƥȤΡäդμΩ⤹롥Τ˽դˤäդμ̤ȤƤ¦̤ꡤΰ̣Ǥϰ¸ƤȤϸ뤬äդȤƤηϤȯŸȡμΩȤΤ¤Ǥ롥Ԥ勞ʸˡäդ벻ǤβΤޤޤʸؤ֤ (transliteration) Τ褦˹ͤΤϺФǤ (22) ˡʸäդñʤƻȸʤȤϤǤʤȤޤؤˤߤŪֲ濴 (phonocentrisme) ȯ褦 (26) ԤΤμĥˤĤơƱ롥phonocentrisme ˤĤƤϡ#748. ä ([2011-05-15-1]) ǡʸΩˤĤƤϡ#1665. äȤФȽȤ (4) ([2013-11-17-1]) #1655. ɤΤܤɤΤ ([2013-11-07-1]) εȤ줿
դѲߤ롤뤤٤ȤˤĤƤϡϼ䶵ȤȤؤ뤬ԤʸΤΤܼʸε֤ȤƤ˵٤ȹͤƤ롥(36)
ʸˡνиä夵뤤ϾʤȤ⤽οʲ뤳Ȥ˴ͿȻŦƤ뤬Ϥʤϵ®ѤꡤäΤˤʤäƤ뤿ˡ夫鼡ˤȤˤʤä礹Ƥ롥ޤǤʤϡפλѤˤäƵƳ줿ȤˤäƤ롥Ȥ櫓餫ηκפʤС뤳ϤǤʤȤñȤΤϡܼŪʸ줬⤿餷ΤΤ褦˻פ롥
ʸŪɽŪ (logographic) ʵǽ̤ȤŦפǤ롥ե٥åȤΤ褦ɽʸηϤǤäƤ⡤ʸѤμŪɽˤȹͤʡ#1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1]) #1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
ʸθ쵭Ūʤϥץ饤ǤǤְ㤤ˤäƾ롥ΤˤƤϡϢ³Ǥäơ꤬ʬΥƥȤȸΤ嫤ƤФ줬ñʸؤʬ뤳ȤϾʤɮȤϡŪʥե٥å礬ŪʽΤ˾äƤԷŪդɮؤΤ뤷ȸʤƤ롥Ȥǡץ饤ǽȤˤñʸؤʬʤɤ⡤ʸη³Ū˽äƤʤϤʤʤȤ⤤餫ηиĥԥȤξˤϡΤؤαưˡԥץಽդ롥ƤαưΤǤ롥λ scripteur spritceur Ƚ뤳Ȥ롥ǤϤ٤ƽиƤ롥ŪǤޤळȤν϶ΤΡѲ̣ϰ̵̤ΤޤĤ롥쵭桽ʤ켫Ȥֻǽ줿졽Ϥ椨ˡʸκǾ̣ͭñ̤ȹͤͤФʤʤ(38--39)
ơⷼȯŪʤΤϡʸν礫ʤեƥȤˤϴŪʵǽ2ĤȤŦǤ롥1ĤϸƬθ̤Ūǽ (discursif) Ǥꡤ⤦1ĤϾε֤ȤƤŪǽ (documentaire) Ǥ41) Ԥäդ˰¸뤬Ԥɬ⤽ǤϤʤˤդäդμ̤ǤȤϡƥȤθŪ¦̤ΤߤܤոǤꡤƥȤΤ⤦1ĤεǽǤŪǽθƤʤ꤬롥Ūǽ¤ȯ줿ƥȤϡ䥫ʤɤΥǡ١ȸƤӤ뻲ͿतǤ롥ǤϾƤꡤȤʤɤεǽƤ롥Τ褦ʵǽϡäդǤưפˤޤͤǤʤ
(44) ϡ⤦1դä٤ƥȤεǽȤŪǽ (iconique) Ƥ롥ϡʸη礭ʸζŪˤեߥ˥ƯǤ롥㤨пʹ1ǤΥ쥤ȤϥƥȤɤޤ˱ƶͿ뤬ϥƥȤοŪƯ椨Ǥ롥ʸ֤ˤäɽϤ褦ȤݻˤƤ⡤ι⤤֤˰̾ݤˤ⡤ƥȤοŪǽѤƤ롥εǽ⡤äդΤбΤϤʤդμΩΤǤ롥
١롦 衡ʸȥߥ˥١ҡʸ˥ӡ1988ǯ
#1650. ʸǤȤƤ j Ω ([2013-11-02-1]) εκǸǡ<j> (= <i>) = /ʤ/ бطޤ줿طʤˤĤƿ줿ƥ줫ťեؤȯŸˡͭŸܶ [j] ͭ˻ [ʤ] ѲȤβѲȡ#1651. j g ([2013-11-03-1]) εƤ˴Ϣơ (138--39) ˤ褯ޤȤޤäҤäΤǡѤOED εҤۤƱơˡ
6ˡƥˤơҤ [j] ϤФȯ尵̤졤̤ [j] ΰ֤ꤵ˹뤳ȤˤäƤ d ȯ iūstus > d-iūstus, māior > mā-d-ior, [dj] Ф [ʤ] assibilate 줿 g θŤ첻Ǹ [ʤ] ѤäƤǡconsonantal i 'soft' g ϥޥǤƱβĤ褦ˤʤä
ꥢǤϡconsonantal i ȯŸ [ʤ] e, i ˤ g a, o, u ˤ gi- ˤäƽѤ뤳Ȥˤʤäơj ֤ϼΤƤ줿ά
եǤ i ʸȯŸäƤΤޤ¸졤ä consonantal i 'soft' g ͵ǤꡤκۤϸεˤǤ롥
L OF It. ModE iūstus iuste giusto just iūdic-cem iuge giudice judge Iēsus Iesu Gesù Jesus māior maire maggiore major gesta geste gesto gest (jest)
Norman Conquest 塤consonantal i Ϥθեβ [ʤ] äƱѸ͢줿եǤϤθ [ʤ] ϤǤä [ʒ] ñ㲽줿ѸϺ˻ޤǥեθˤƤθ¸Ƥ롥
äơե٥å <J> θƾ /ʤeɪ/ ˤĤơ (141) εҤѤƤ
J ϸŤ jy [ʤai] ȸƤФƺɤʤƱ²ʸ I [ai] Ȳƥե̾ ji ȸƱθƤ̾ϺǤ⥹åȥɤ¾ˤ̤Ǥ롥奤ꥹ̾17ja 뤤 jay [ʤei] ϡ a [ei] ɤʤ k 餦 (O. Jespersen, B. L. Ullman) ɥ̾ jot [jɔt] ϡ16 j i ʬ̾ yōd 줿
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
ε#1826. 첻ĹûľܼȤǤʤ ([2014-04-27-1]) ǸڤѸˡˤĤƤ褯Τ줿§1Ĥˡ#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) 롥take, mete, side, rose, cube ʤ¿ <-VCe> ıñˤơ첻 V Ĺ첻뤤첻ɤޤ뤳ȤŪ˼ <e> ƤΤǤ롥ġ㳰ϤȤƤ⡤褽§ȾΤƺ٤ʤ
<-ve> ǽñ˴ؤơdove, glove, shove, ƻ -ive ĸ췲ʤɡ㳰¿ˤʤ롥⡤above, give, have, live (v.), love ʤɹٸ¿θǤϡ <ve> Ԥ첻û첻Ȥɤޤ롥gave, eve, drive, grove ʤɵ§ŪʤΤ¿ȤǧĤĤ⡤ΩԵ§ϤɤΤ褦
¤ϡ<-ve> ˤ magic <e> ε§ƤϤޤʤ¿Τϡ <e> ⤽ magic <e> ǤϤʤǤ롥 <e> ϡmagic <e> Ȥ̵ط̤ŪаޤˤȯŸƤΤطʤˤϡѸˤˤ /v/ βDz٤ä¡ڤ <v> ʸǤȤƤΩ٤ä¤ʤβǤʸǤȯŸξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡ#373. <u> <v> ʬ (1) ([2010-05-05-1])#374. <u> <v> ʬ (2) ([2010-05-06-1])#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#1230. over offer ϺǾФǤϤʤ ([2012-09-08-1]) Ȥ줿ˡꤷƤС<v> ñȤǸˤ뤳ȤǤ<e> ΥݡȤ <-ve> ȤƤˤ뤳ȤǤʤäơ <e> ϥݡȤ <e> ˤԤ첻̤ɸ뵡ǽôäƤ櫓ǤϤʤʲˡ2ŪͿ桤pp. 166--70 ⻲ȡˡ
(1) űѸǤϡ[v] ϤޤΩǤǤϤʤ /f/ ΰ۲ˤʤäŵŪˤ ofer (over) ʤ첻˶ޤ줿Ķ [v] 줿ľ첻ϼ岽뷹äȤ⤢ꡤѸˤƤ <e> ֤뤳Ȥ¿ʤäΤ褦ˤơ[v] β <ve> ֻ̩ܤ˴ϢŤ褦ˤʤä<e> ΤΤ̵ǤꡤޤǴǤ롥
(2) ҤΤ褦ˡѸȽѸ̤ơ<u> <v> ʸȤƤʬƤǤϤʤä첻ȤƤ <u>ҲȤƤ <v> ȤʬôΤˤǤƤʤäǤ⡤ؤϤä褦Ǥ롥㤨С̤ʬξǤСlove low ϤȤ <lou> Ȥֻ˹줷ƤޤǡȤꤢˡȤơҲ [v] Τˡ̵ <e> ź <-ue> Ȥ3Ĥ첻³ȤϾʤᡤ<loue> ֤С֤ <u> ϻҲɽ魯ϤȤˤʤ롥Ǥ <e> ΤΤ̵Ǥꡤľ <u> ҲǤ뤳ȤôäƤˤʤ䤬ơҲȤƤ <v> ̲ȡΰ֤ <u> Τޤ <v> ؤž줿<v> ҲȤƳΩΤǤ <e> ΥݡȤȤƤפȤʤ뤬 <e> ˤ긽ߤޤǻĤäƤ롥
ơ [v] <-ve> Ȥ֤뽬Ω<-v> ñΤǽϡAsimov, eruv, guv, lav, Slav ʤɡ¯졦ά졤ʤɤμѸ˸ꤵ졤ŪʱѸˡˤƤ⤤Ƥ롥
Noah Webster 䡤Cut Speling μ羧 Christopher Upward ʤɤϡgive <giv> Ȥ֤뤳ȤƤ϶ŪˤϹŪǡ嵭Τ褦Ūطʤܤ뤳ȤפǤ롥
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
Ѹֻȯ¿1Ĥˡ첻ĹûľŪ˼ʤȤ꤬롥Ѹ²ΰȤơ첻ĹûΤˤû첻Ĺ첻첻Ȥ̤ҴǤ롥С첻ñʣŪΩ롥ȤβΩֻľŪȿǤƤʤ㤨Сbat vs bate give vs five ǤƱ <a> <i> ѤƤʤ顤줾ԤǤû첻ԤǤ첻ɽ路Ƥ롥Τˡbat vs bate Τ褦ˡβ <e> ˤäơ첻ɤޤ뤫Ū˼ҥȤͿƤʡ#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) ȡˡ첻ΤΤ㤨뤳ȤDzΰ㤤ƤΤǤϤʤȤ̣ǤϡޤǴŪɸˡˤʤgive vs five ǤϡΥҥȤͿƤʤ
첻Ȥ߹碌Ĺ첻첻ɽ魯ˡϹΤƤ롥ޤĹ첻Ȥ첻ξûĹդā ă Τ褦ˤˡ⡤ˡȤƤϺѤƤʤŪǤϻѤ뤳Ȥ롥ȤʸηϤȤΤϲΩˤޤȤʤɸ櫓ǤϤʤʾ塤Ѹˡˤ첻ĹûʸξľŪɸʤȤȤϡä˶ä٤ȤǤϤʤΤ⤷ʤ
ξѸˤȤɤޤ餺ޥե٥åȤѤƤ뤢ˤߤȤܤͤ롥첻Ĺû첻ΤΤˤäƼ뤳ȤʤΤǤ롥첻ŤͤĹ첻ɽ魯ȤϤäƤ⡤Ĺ첻û첻Ȥޤä̤1Ĥεˤäɽ蘆ȤϤʤδ餹ȡꥷե٥åȤΦ vs ǡ vs ؤʸΩϡܤڤ褦ʳä
ե٥åȻ˾塤ꥷͤβ̤ϡʤȤ˲ɾ뤬˳Τ˳̿Ūä#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡꥷͤϡҲʸäϥե٥åȤ˽첻ʸƳ뤳ȤˤꡤǤʸΤܴۤʷ¸ΩȤˤȤäƤܼŪŪħФʸȤŪʷƤä줬1γ̿äȤС٤Ƥạ̈Ǥ뤳ȤʤƱ餤ܼͤ2γ̿⤢äϡ첻βǤϤʤ̡Ĺˤʸ˳Ƥ褦ȤȯۡҤ vs ǡ vs ΩϰƤΤȤꥷͤϥե˥ե٥åȤΤʤǥꥷˤȤä;äҲʸ5첻ʸʦšɡϡԡˤžѤ;äƤǤŤĹ첻ǤȤƺѤǦؤʤʸϤĹ첻ǤȤƿΤäʺǸ˺줿Τǡե٥åȤκǸ˲ä줿ˡ
Ȥˤζˤꡤޥե٥åȤˤĤʤꥷե٥åȤˤƤϡ嵭2γ̿ϾͿʤäꥷե٥åȤǤϡǡʸˤϸ褽줬ɽ路Ҳ [h] ɽ魯Ѥ줿ΤǡΤޤޥƥؤҲʸȤƻۤ줿ʸ˥ƥޥ [h] ü<h> ¸߰յȤϼ¤ǤˡޤؤϺΥߥ⡤ƥرƶͿˤ٤ơ2γ̿ϡˤޤäͿ뤳Ȥʤäʾ夬˥Ѥ¿θ줬첻Ĺûľ첻ˤäƶ̤뽬⤿ʤͳǤ롥
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
Ѹ <f> Ϥܾۤ /f/ бƤͣ㳰 ofˡΰꤷطѸˤޤ̤롥θűѸǤ <v> 礤ƤΤǡ<f> [f] ȤȤ [v] ˤбƤѸ˥եֻ˱ƶ <v> Ƴ뤳Ȥˤꡤ<f> = /f/ ΰդδطΩηаޤˤĤƤϡ#373. <u> <v> ʬ (1) ([2010-05-05-1])#374. <u> <v> ʬ (2) ([2010-05-06-1])#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#1230. over offer ϺǾФǤϤʤ ([2012-09-08-1]) Ȥ줿
ѸˤϰǸ¤ꡤ<f> äȤʤ뤳ȤϤʤʸ̵б褦ˤʤäΤϡƥˤ椨Ǥ롥奮ꥷΥե٥åȤΤäƤͤϡ<f> бʸʤȤ˵Ť奮ꥷǤˤ <f> ʸĤäƤǤǽʳˤϤ줬ä koiné Ȥʤ1ѼǤ Attic ǤϤ줬ƤΤǡ˻륮ꥷե٥åȤˤ <f> ޤޤƤʤΤǤ롥
ꥷˤ¸ߤ <F> ϡ岼ˤ餷2¤٤褦ʻäˡ"digamma" ȤΤƤϡࡦե٥åȤ6ܤʸʣ٤˻ǡ"wāu" ȸƤФˤѤΤǡꥷǤȾ첻 [w] ˶ᤤβɽ路ǤϤβϾüʸΤƵ줿Ⱦ첻 [w] Фƽ첻 [u] ƱΦʸɽ蘆졤줬˥ƥʹߤν <U>, <V>, <W>, <Y> ؤʬƤäĤޤꡤ <F>, <U>, <V>, <W>, <Y> Ϥ٤ƥࡦե٥åȤ wāu ˵ĤȤˤʤ롥
ơƥϥꥷǤޤĤäƤ <F> = [w] δط줿ƥǤ [w] <V> ɽ魯ΩΤǡ<F> פȤʤäפȤʤä <F> ϥꥷΤȤΤ褦ѤȤʤǽ⤢äƥϤ;äʸꥷˤϤʤƥˤϤä̵ [f] ɽ魯ΤžѤ뤳ȤϡľܤžѤˤä餷<F> ñΤǤϤʤ <FH> Τ褦2ʸ碌 [f] ɸ뤳Ȥߤڵ롥㤨С7κǸŤΥƥǵ줿֥ޥ˥ʸפˤϡ麸 "IOISAMVN DEKAHFEHF DEM SOINAM" (Manios made me for Numasios) Ȥꡤ3ܤ "FHEFHAKED" ʸŵƥ fecit Ťýŷ reduplicationˤ桤p. 71ˡˤ <F> ñΤ [f] ɽ魯Ȥˤʤäδطƥ줪ӤʹߤνݻƤ롥
Υե٥åȤ̤θ˰ܿݤˡפʸѤȤʤäꡤžѤ줿ꡤʸʤɡѹä뤳Ȥϡե٥åȻˤ̤Ʋ٤Ȥʤ֤ƤʸȲδطϡȤݻ뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤ѲΤ̤ΤȤäȤ狼
ʾ塤 (pp. 125--28) ȤƼɮ
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
ѸŵŪ <c> /k/, /s/ ˡ<g> /g/, /ʤ/ б롥줾ԤȯϡűѸ˱Ѹ줬 Roman alphabet 줿ȤΥƥβԤȯϡθαѸˤˤȯŸ<g> ˤĤƤϡ#1651. j g ([2013-11-03-1]) ȡˡƥ줫ޥǤ⡤βѲη̤Ȥơ<c> <g> ɽ魯ϡŵƥΤΤȤϰۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ¿ǵϤǤ뤫Τ褦˻Ȥƥ <c> = /k/, <g> = /g/ ȤбطΤΤ⡤ƥˤˤˤȯŸη̡ΩƤΤǤ롥
ƥϡ˥ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤ륢ե٥åȤꥷ饨ȥꥢ (Etruscan) 𤷤ƼäꥷȥޤξʸԤǤ륨ȥꥢͤȤθϡ#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1]) #1006. 롼ʸѼ ([2012-01-28-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡե٥åȻ˾礭̤Ǥ륨ȥꥢˤĤ¿ΤƤ櫓ǤϤʤȥꥢ̵ͭβŪΩʤäȤϤ狼äƤ롥ˤꡤȥꥢǤϡͭɽ魯ꥷΦ¤ȦĤפȤѤȤʤääˤĤƤĤꡤ줬 [k], [g] ɽ魯ʸȤѤ뤳ȤȤʤä
ơȥꥢ줫ʸäƥϡ顤 = [k], [g] δط³äơ̾ξάǤϡGAIUS Ф C. GNAEUS Ф CN. ƤƤ300ǯˡʸϤȤ櫓 [k] б褦ˤʤꡤ˲ /k/ ɽ魯ʸȤǧ褦ˤʤäΤ rounded ȸƤФ븽Ū <C> ؤȶŤƤ椭<C> = /k/ δطΩȡбͭ /g/ ɽ魯Τ <C> <G> ȯŸ뤳ȤˤʤѤ褦ˤʤäƵ300ǯ <C> <G> ʬȡԤϥꥷե٥åȤˤƦƤäƤ֤ˤϤޤ줿ƤϡƥǤϸ <Z> ȤƺƺѤ쥢ե٥åȤ˲ä뤳ȤˤʤäΤΡ[z] -> [r] rhotacism ФƽʳפȤѤȤƤΤǤ롥
ʤޥե٥åȤǤ̵ɽ魯Τ <c>, <k>, <q> ʤʣʸбƤꡤˤĤƱѸޤʣˤиƤϡѸγʸ̾ /siː/, /keɪ/, /kjuː/ żƤ褦ˡ³첻˱ȤʬäȤ˵롥ȥꥢǤϡ7뤤ϤθޤǡCE, KA, QO ȤϢѤƤ (cf. Greek kappa (Ka) vs koppa (Qo)) ߤˤޤ³ [k] ɽ魯ʸβϡꥷ䥨ȥꥢ줫ΰ仺ѤǤ뤬椨Ǥ롥
ʾ塤 (pp. 76--79, 119) ȤƼɮ
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
αѸܸǤ⡤ (Roman numerals) Ȥ뵡롥㤨Сֹ桤ǯ桤ܤΥڡפʸפʤɤ˸ǻѤƤ롥Ѹ줫Ĥ褦
It was built in the time of Henry V.
For details, see Introduction page ix.
Do question (vi) or question (vii), but not both.
a fine XVIII-century' English walnut chest of drawers
ϡۤοʸȤ߹碌ñʸФС礭ʿʤɽ魯ȤǤȤĹ衼åѤ2000ǯʾˤ錄ؤäƤ10ˡΤʤ5ˡߤƤꡤԤˤϥꥷΥåƥαƶ롥IV = 4, IX = 9 ʤɸˡѤðۤʵˡǤ롥ʲǤ褦
| 1 | I |
| 2 | II |
| 3 | III |
| 4 | IV |
| 5 | V |
| 6 | VI |
| 7 | VII |
| 8 | VIII |
| 9 | IX |
| 10 | X |
| 11 | XI |
| 12 | XII |
| 13 | XII |
| 14 | XIV |
| 19 | XIX |
| 20 | XX |
| 21 | XXI |
| 30 | XXX |
| 40 | XL |
| 45 | XLV |
| 50 | L |
| 60 | LX |
| 90 | XC |
| 100 | C |
| 500 | D |
| 1000 | M |
| 1998 | MCMXCVIII |
ܥ֥ǡޤʸʸˤ˴ؤȤơ#41. ʸˤ ([2009-06-08-1])#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1])#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])#490. ե٥åȤε North Semitic ̤롩 ([2010-08-30-1])#1006. 롼ʸѼ ([2012-01-28-1]) ʤɤ夲Ƥۤˤ⡤ʸˤĤ grammatologyե٥åȤˤĤ alphabet롼ʸˤĤ runicҤ餬ʡʤˤĤƤ줾 kanji, hiragana, katakana ˤ
ȯ (origin_of_language) ˤĤƤϡߡñ쵯⤬ͥʸȯˤĤƤ¿ĥԤ¿źǹԤƤʸηϤϡȯȿʲˤˤꤤĤηʬह뤳ȤǤ뤬Τˤ褬ñθʸ̤ȤȤϤꤽˤʤݥߥץȡꥫʤɤǡ줾ʸηϤΩȯȹͤΤ
ǤŤʸηϤϡݥߥ˵サƤͤˤܸʸǤ롥4ǯ餯3500ǯˡܸʸηϤϤܸʸϡ8000ǯˤǤ˸줿Ȥ롤Ģ˿̤ϿΤΥޡθǤȤ졤ǯλ֤ƤäʸηϤؤĹƤäΤǤ롥
Ʊ4ǯ뤤Ϥ⤦٤ơŪᤤץȤǤҥ (hieroglyphic) 䤽ҥƥå (hieratic) 롥Ͻʸڤ줿ʳǡǤˤܴۤʸηϤȤƵǽƤꡤݥߥܸʸΤ褦ŪȯŸˤǧʤ
ե٥åȤȯˤĤƤϡ#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1]) dz⤷ȤʤΤǵҤϾά롥
ϡ2000ǯ˸졤1500ǯʸȤƤκۤʸηϤȤƴΤϡī (BC202--220AD) λǤ롥
ʸηϤηȤƤϡʾ4ġ(1) ܸʸηϡ(2) ҥʸηϡ(3) ե٥åηϡ(4) ηϤ̤뤳Ȥˤʤ롥른塦 (136--37) οޤȤƺäʸηޤľŪƶϴŪƶ
(1) ܸʸη

(2) ҥʸη

(3) ե٥åηϡʿޤåƳ

(4) η

ʾ4˼ʤ¾ʸηϤ⤢롥̤ʸޤबīʸʥϥˡʸ⥽ʸХ̥ʸʸʵ3000ǯˡޥ䡦ƥʸʸʤɤǤ롥
źʸηϤˤĤƤϡΥȤͭѡ
Omniglot: Writing Systems & Language of the World
A Compendium of World-Wide Writing Systems from Prehistory to Today
ʸʳƹʸ
른塦 ʸ ƽⶶ ʸˡ١ϸҡ1990ǯ
ѸΡեФѸˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ reestablishment_of_english γƵˤƤƱ٤ΥեǤϡƥФեäƤĤޤꡤɤȥեξʤΤߤʤ餺ºݤˤϥ衼åѳƹˤǡˤ줳ۤʤ졤罰θ (vernacular) ƬƤΤǤ롥
Υեǡե줬˻̱ƤˡѤȤ鳵⤷褦եǤϡˡθȤƥƥ줬ŪǤäȤϴְ㤤ʤ13椫եλѤϤޤäƤä Charles IV μ (1322--28) ˤƹˡˤեλѤϡꤷΤȤϤʤʤäΤΡŸθ14ϡեΥǥƥƥȷӤĤȤơե¸ߴΤǧ褦ˤʤäƤ椯ơĤ1539ǯ815ˡˤեˡŪʤդͿ뤳ȤȤʤäե˾̾⤤졦ȥļ (l'ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts) Ǥ롥#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡޤˡ⳦ϥƥȥե2DzäƤե1 (Francis I; 1494--1547) ˡǤΥƥѤѻߤΤǤ롥Perret (47) ꡤļδطս
L'ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539) Articles 110 et 111
«Et afain qu'il n'y ait cause de douter sur l'intelligence desdits arrests, nous voulons et ordonnons qu'ils soient faits et escrits si clairement, qu'il n'y ait ne puisse avoir aucune ambiguïté ou incertitude, ne lieu à demander interprétation.
Et pour ce que de telles choses sont souvent advenues sur l'intelligence des mots latins contenus esdits arrests, ensemble toutes autres procédures, [...] soient prononcez, enregistrez et delivrez aux parties en langaige maternel françois et non autrement.»
ļϡƥʤζ̳ô餹ȤºŪŪ⤢äեեιȤꤹȤ̣礤äθˤˤơե¾ɸऱɸեڤȳͤʤǤ椯κǽηŪʰ⤬1539ǯͿ줿Ȥˤʤ롥ºݤˡ17ˤļƤϳ礷ե̿줿ȤϤޤǤʤ
ɤˤѸϡ#131. Ѹ ([2009-09-05-1]) #706. 14ѸϽˡ ([2011-04-03-1]) Ǽ褦ˡޤǽ˿ʤǤäΤˡ#324. IJˡDZѸѤǧ줿ǯ ([2010-03-17-1]) Ǥ1362ǯΤ褦ʡѸħϤˤϤ뤬졦ȥļΤ褦1ĤηŪʽΤϤʤ
ǤϥɡեȤɸꡤϤε夬äؤнˡξ֤礭ۤʤäƤκۤεϡǤˤλΤΤˤä褦˻פ롥
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
#310. PPCMBE ǹѸ̻ ([2010-03-03-1]) ǡPenn Parsed Corpora of Historical English Ҳ𤷤Helsinki Corpus ١Ȥʤĥä˱Ѹ쥳ѥǡܺ٤˹ʸϤ줿 Penn-Treebank format ˤĥȤ⸡ǤΤħǤ롥ηϤʣǡCorpusSearch ʤüʥץѤƸɬפ⤢ꡤ鿴ԤȤʤˤߵ郎⤤ŪΤ˵ꤵ줿ʸȤäӤǤϡΤȤ Penn Ϥιʸϥѥ (PPC) ˤʤΤϤʤ
PPC ιʸϤŪפʸˡѤѸü첽ΤΤǤϤʤŪŪʤΤʤΤǡ̤ƤʤȤⲿȤѤϤǤ롥㤨СCorpusSearch ̿ᷲˡ"Dominates", "iDominates" (=immediately dominates), "HasSister", "IsRoot" ʤɤ뤬ĥΤϤΤäƤСѸ줬ؤط뤳Ȥʤ
˵Τ⾯ä̿ˡ"CCommands" ȤΤ롥c-command 뤤 c-Ȥϡ1980ǯȯŸ« (binding theory) ˤƹڤ줿طǤ롥«ϡUG (universal grammar) ΰ̸§ΤʤǤˤʤΤȤäƸ椵줿ǤꡤȤ櫓Ƶ̾ʤɤɽȱ (anaphora) ̾졤¾̾ȡԻȤδطꤹ븶§ɵ椷ŪȯŸβǡȤ櫓פȤ褦ˤʤäط1Ĥc-Ǥ롥ۤˡϢοΤ« (binding) Ψ (government) 롥
ʲǡc- (c-command) « (binding) ˤĤƳ⤷褦βͶĥˤơ

B C F c-椷Ƥ
C F ϤȤ B, D, E c-椷Ƥ
D E E D c-椷Ƥ
ȸ롥ˤС X ۤƤǽλʬ̤ Y ۤƤȤX Y c-command סաp. 86ˡ
ʸˡ c-椬뤵줿ΤϡƵ̾Ȥ줬ؤԻδطꤹ뤿ˡc-ȤطṲ̄Ȥ狼äƤʲ2Ĥʸͤ褦
(1) *John's mother criticized himself.
(2) John's mother criticized herself.

ʸ (1) Ǥϡ"John" NP ۤƤǽλʬ TP Τ NP Ǥ뤫顤"John" "mother" c-command Ƥ뤳ȤˤϤʤäƤ⡤"himself" c-command Ƥ뤳ȤˤϤʤʤ"himself" Ω줫餤С"John" c-command ƤʤȤˤʤ롥Τ褦ʾ硤ʤ "himself" "John" «ƤʤˤϡȱΩʤȤΤѸǤΥ롼Ǥ롥
ʸ (2) ǤϡƵ̾ "herself" "John's mother" ɽ NP ԻȤƤ뤬 NP ۤƤǽλʬ TP Ǥ뤫顤"John's mother" "herself" c-command Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥"herself" Ω줫餤С"John's mother" c-command Ƥꡤ«ƤΤǡȱΩġʸˡȤϡc-桤«Ȥطε̤ơѸξȱ˴ؤ̸§줿ȹͤ
PPC äȡ㤨 his ouermoch fearinge of you Τ褦̾Τˡ"CCommands" Ȥ̿ˤ̾줬̤̾ c-椷Ƥ褦̾פȤꤹФ褤ʣΤȤǡ authentic ʸФȤˡPPC CorpusSearch ϰϤȯ롥
ʸˡ١ҡ2009ǯ
#1809. American Heritage Dictionary Notes ([2014-04-10-1]) ǡThe Free Dictionary ǥǤ Notes ؤΥäNotes ΤΤϡ1.6MBΥڡءˡϡΤʤ Word Histories ˴ؤ Notes Τǡ١#952. Etymology Search ([2011-12-05-1]) Τǡġ "AHD Word History Note Search" äƤߤ
츻ϿƤ븫ФǤСΥñФ褯ΥġͭϤޤʤΥġħϡNotes ȤɽǸǤ͡ʥǥեȡˤˤ롥㤨Сܤ˲餫θڤΤñθ츻ΤǤСθܥå Japan Ф褤ɴطǤ (Irish|Ireland) ʤɤۤˤϡsearch range "Search for entry words" ؤơ^[A-Z] ȸܥåȡͭ̾θ츻롤
#1618. Ѹ /l/ /r/ ([2013-10-01-1]) Ӻε#1817. Ѹ /l/ /r/ (2) ([2014-04-18-1]) ˰³/r/ ꡥܸ /r/ βŪ¸ˤĤƤǤ롥
ܸΥԤλҲ /r/ ϡŵŪˤϡͭԤϤ [ɾ] ȤƼ¸롥äˡ֤פΤ褦ˡ첻˶ޤ줿ĶǤϤ줬̤Ǥ롥βϡBrE merry AmE letter 2ҲȤŵŪ˸벻Ǥ⤢롥ĴŪˤϡβͭĺ /d/ ˤʤᤤ[ɾ] ǤȻԤˤĺ夯λ֤ûȤħ롥֥饤פʤɤθƬ֥å顼פʤɤ¥θǤܿʤꡤ/d/ ˤ˶ŤĺγϼǤ롥
ճΤƤʤȤܸüԤθĿͤˤäƤϡͭ¦ܶ [l] ˶ᤤҲԻҲȤѤƤ롥ƬθǸ뤳Ȥ¿첻֤Ǥ¦˶ʤͤ⤤롥ԤäβɸϤʤͭ [ɖ] ͭ¦̤Ϥ [ɺ] ܿĹΡˤͭ¦ܶ [l̺] ˤᤤΤǡѤˡ⤢롥ͭ¦̤Ϥ [ɺ] ϡ [l] ϤΤ˥Υ㥬ʤɤʹҲǤ롥
ۤˤ֤٤ᤨĴפŵŪȤͭԤդ뤨 [r] ܸ /r/ μͳ۲ȤƸ뤳Ȥ롥
ʾ塤ƣ (91) Ⱥƣ (43) Ȥ
ƣ ˡܸ첻ٲǡƲ2013ǯ
ƣ ˡŸ˾ܸ١ҡ1996ǯ
Ѹ /l/ /r/ ˤĤƤϡ#72. /r/ /l/ ϴְ㤨!? ([2009-07-09-1])#1597. star stella ([2013-09-10-1])#1614. Ѹ title Фƥե titre ǤΤϤʤ ([2013-09-27-1]) ʤɤǰäƤȤ櫓ĴˤĤơ#1618. Ѹ /l/ /r/ ([2013-10-01-1]) dzפϰʣΤΡƤε Crystal (245) ˰͵ƽ
εǤ⸫褦ˡѸβ /l/ ϡ͡ʲȤƼ¸롥[l] δŪĴϡԤܤ¦̤ƵȴΤΤȤ˱礭2ब̤롥줾 "clear l" "dark l" ȸƤФ롥 [l] ϡ夬Ÿ˸äƾ夬Τǡ첻ζRP Ǥ첻 [j] ֤ǵ (ex. leap) [ɫ] ϡ夬˸äƾ夬Τǡ첻ζRP ǤϤʳΰ֤ǵ (ex. pool) clear l dark l ʬۤϡѼˤ͡Ǥꡤ㤨СIrish ΰǤ֤ clear l ʹ줿ꡤScots AmE ¿Ǥ֤ dark l ʹ롥ޤplease, sleep Τ褦̵Ҳθ֤Ǥ̵ [l] Ѥ롥Τۤbottle Τ褦˲粻Ū l ǤϡԤ [t] ¦ȼCockney RP Ǥ顤peel ʤɤ dark l 첻[piːo] ʤɤȤʤ롥
Ѹβ /r/ ϡ餯Ѽˤ뺹ĿͺǤ¿ҲǤ̤ˤͭܶ [ɹ] ȤƼ¸롥d ˸³ˤϡ褬Ԥ˸¤ʤܶᤷ (ex. drive) 첻˶ޤ줿֤䤤ĤλҲθ֤ǡܸŵŪʥԤλҲƱ褦ͭԤϤ [ɾ] Ȥʤ (ex. very, sorry, three) ©ȼ [ph, th, kh] θ֤Ǥ̵Ȥʤ (ex. pry, try, cry)
Ѽˤ۲ȤƤϡǤͭ̾ʤΤͭܶ [ɻ] ǡԤ첻βӤӤ롥General American ŵŪۤˤ⥤ѼǤʹ롥ͭԤդ뤨 [r] ϡScots Welsh ΰʹ뤬¾ѼǤĴ⤤ȯˤƸ뤳Ȥ롥ΤۤեɥĸǰŪʹͭ [ʁ] 뤤ͭդ뤨 [ʀ] åȥǤʹ졤"Northumbrian burr" ȸƤФ뤳Ȥʡ#1055. uvular r θ춭ۤ ([2012-03-17-1]) ȡˡǸˡ19ȾΥɤǡred [wed] ȯ褦 /r/ [w] Ѥ뤳ȤϤäȤդäƤ
ʤǤȤƤ /r/ ǤϤʤAmE matter t ͭԤϤ [ɾ] ȤƼ¸뤳Ȥ¿party t ͭϤ [ɽ] ȯ롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Millar (111--13) ѸˤˤŤƿꡤdrift ʶήˤˬƤܥ֥δϢ뵭ϡcat:drift ȡˡ
Sapir ξ drift ϡѸʤѸȤ1ˤˤѲΰؤΤä drift γǰϳĥ졤Ϣʣθ˶̤ƤߤѲĬήؤ褦ˤʤäˤäơѸ drift в졤ޥˤߤ drifts ӡȤ櫓 drifts ®٤ӤȤ褦ˤʤäMillar (112) ⡤ΥޥȤ顤Ѹˤˤ drift ˬƤ롥
A number of scholars . . . take Sapir's ideas further, suggesting that drift can be employed to explain why related languages continue to act in a similar manner after they have ceased to be part of a dialect continuum. Thus it is striking . . . that a very similar series of sound changes --- the Great Vowel Shift --- took place in almost all West Germanic varieties in the late medieval and early modern periods. While some of the details of these changes differ from language to language, the general tendency for lower vowels to rise and high vowels to diphthongise is found in a range of languages --- English, Dutch and German --- where immediate influence along a geographical continuum is unlikely. Some linguists would suggest that there was a 'weakness' in these languages which was inherited from the ancestral variety and which, at the right point, was triggered by societal forces --- in this case, the rise of a lower middle class as a major economic and eventually political force in urbanising societies.
Ƥ Millar ȤǸʸμ "Some linguists" Τʤ1ͤǤ롥Samuels ήεǽŪʴˡҲŪװͤ碌ơѸ drift θġθѲθõȤΩSapir drift = "mystical" ȤȤ館ऱǤ¤Ū褦ȤΩǤ⤢롥⤳Ω˻ǤꡤȤ櫓ҲŪװ "trigger" ǽ˴ؿƤ롥Ϣơ#927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) #1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ˶̤Ƥߤܿθ̡ ([2012-09-02-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޥӤȤˤĤƤϡMillar (113) ϡdrift οʹԤ٤ϼŪ˼ޤͿƤ롥ʲ˾Ѥޤʤä˰Ϥޤ줿ϡŤʳǤθɽ魯ˡ

οޤϡ#191. űѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫 ([2009-11-04-1]) Ǽ Lass ˤ륲ޥΡָŤ (archaism) οľ̤ηɽ路ΤȤǤ롥ξ硤drift οʹ٤ȸŪʡ֥פδطˤȤɤߤˤʤ롥
οޤǤϡEnglish Afrikaans ANALYTIC ζˤ˰֤Ƥ뤬 DRIFT λȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤѸǤ⡤DRIFT η³ѲϿʹǤ롥
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
եϱѸθäֻˤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤʸˡ˵ڤܤľܤαƶϤۤȤɤʤȤ롥#1208. եαʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1]) 褦ˡŪʱƶȤȤǤС#1171. եȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1]) Ǽ夲Ϥ˵ͤ뤬֤ؤΥեαƶϤۤȤɤʤȤäƤ褤ʤ1ĤȤơ#204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡѸ;ư줪;ιʸäϥեäƤ뤳ȤŦ뤬줯餤ΤΤ
⤦1ġȤ˥ե줫ʸˡŪʱƶȤƻŦܤ롥One should always listen to what other people say. Τ褦Ѥ롤̾ one Ǥ롥줬бե̾ on (< L homo) μѤǤϤʤȤǶǤϡMillar (126) Τ褦˻ŦƤ롥
What is noteworthy about these large-scale French-induced changes is that they are dependent upon the massive lexical borrowing. Other structural changes not connected to this are limited (and also contested), such as the origin of the Modern English impersonal pronoun one in the ancestor of Modern French on.
OED one, adj., n., and pron. ˤȡեƶɬǤϤʤ⤷ʤݤƤ롥
The use as an indefinite generic pronoun (sense C. 17), which replaced ME pron.2, MEN pron. in late Middle English, may have been influenced by Anglo-Norman hom, on, un, Old French, Middle French on (12th cent.; mid 9th cent. in form om ; French on; ultimately < classical Latin homō: see HOMO n.1), though this is not regarded as a necessary influence by some scholars.
C. 17 ˵ƤϡMED ōn (pron) θ2νäΤǤ롥
a1400 (a1325) Cursor Mundi (Vesp.) 1023 (MED), Of an [a1400 Gött. ane; a1400 Trin. Cambr. oon] qua siþen ete at þe last, he suld in eild be ai stedfast.
Mustanoja (223--24) Ѹˤ one ΤˡȯˤĤơޤȤޤäŸƤ롥Ĺ٤ưѤ褦
'ONE.' --- The origin of the one used for the indefinite person has been the subject of some scholarly dispute. Some grammarians believe that it developed from the indefinite one (originally a numeral . . .) meaning 'a person,' just as man expressing the indefinite person developed from man meaning 'a human being.' It has also been suggested that the one used for the indefinite person is in reality French on (from Latin homo), though influenced by the native indefinite one. This view, first expressed by R. G. Latham (The English Language, Vol. II, London 1855), has been more recently advocated by G. L. Trager and H. Marchand . . . . The case of those who maintain that one is a direct loan from French is, however, somewhat weakened by the fact that in the two earliest known instances of this use one occurs as an object of the verb and as an attributive genitive ('possessive dative'); one of these is doo thus fro be to be; thus wol thai lede oon to thaire dwelliyng place (Pall. Husb. v 181). The earliest examples of one as an indefinite subject are recorded in works of the late 15th century: --- he herde a man say that one was surer in keping his tunge than in moche speking, for in moche langage one may lightly erre (Earl Rivers Dicts 57); --- every chambre was walled and closed rounde aboute, and yet myghte one goo from one to another (Caxton En. 117). It is not until the second half of the 16th century that the use of one in this sense becomes common.
From all we know about the first appearance and the subsequent development of one expressing the indefinite person it seems that this use arose as a synthesis of native one and French on. This view is further supported by the fact that in Anglo-Norman the spelling un is used not only for the numeral un but also for the indefinite person, as in the proverb un vout pendre par compaignie.
ɸϡޤ夬ĤƤʤ
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1]) ǡѰư (mutative verb) ϡ18ޤǡ̾ be + ʬȤǴλäƤȤѸˤǤϡ be λ18դ˿ΰӤɤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤƤ롥#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 CLMET3.0 ϡ1710--1920ǯС3,400줫ʤ緿ХѥǤꡤμθѲɤˤϺŬʥȻפΤǡѤ be λοǧƤߤ
ϡεǤ夲7ĤѰư (arrive, become, come, fall, flee, grow; go) ˸ꤷCLMET3.0 3Ĥλʬ (1710--1780, 1780--1850, 1850--1920) 6ĤΥʬ (Narrative fiction, Narrative non-fiction, Drama, Letters, Treatise, Other) ˤäơѥä3ĤλΥ֥ѥεϤϤ褽Ʊ٤̤Υ֥ѥϡ[2013-10-20-1]ɽǼ褦ˡNarrative fiction 礭ФäƤΤǡβˤդפ롥ʲ(1)--(7) ˳ư˴ؤܤѤ߾夲ա(8), (9) 7ưҤä̡ư̤ΥѤ߾夲դ(1)--(6) ˤĤƤϡӤΤYκͤ·Ƥ롥ǡեɽϥHTMLȤ줿

ưˤäƿΥԡɤ˼㴳ΰ㤤ߤ뤬ΤȤƵ˿षȤϡŪ䤫ˡ¤˿षƤäȤݤ롥(7) go ϡʸѸǤ be gone ǥಽƻĤäƤ뤳Ȥʬ褦ˡ˸ѸˤϤۤǤ餺¾ư礭äƤ뤿ˡ(8) (9) ˼褦 be λο¿ʤȤĤƤ뤳Ȥˤդɬפ롥
ɸƤˡϢεإĥäƤ
#251. IPAΥ㡼ȡ ([2010-01-03-1])
#669. ȯɽȱѸˡ ([2011-02-25-1])
#822. IPA άˡ ([2011-07-28-1])
#1376. ﴱοޡ ([2013-02-01-1])
#31. ѸλҲβǡ ([2009-05-29-1])
Ǥϡءʲ IPA 2005ǯ (PDF; 58KB) ٵήʡ#1672. ή ([2013-11-24-1]) ȡˤˤҲɽǡԤϤ줾첿ɽ路Ƥ

ޤĴ (place of articulation) ɽ路üο鱦üޤǡƻγƴﴱб롥βȤȤ館Ф褤
ԤĴͼ (manner of articulation) ɽ路夫鲼ء褽ƵФ˸٤ι⤤Τ¤Ǥ롥˸μ8Ĥ˶ʬƤ뤬ˤ¤ϰ롥ϡƣ (21) ˤޤߤаʬμ˱ѸĤĤġοޤƸ褦
θϲ (plosive)
ˡ
ɡ (nasal)
ĺĤΡդ뤨դ뤨 (trill)
ϤϤ (tap or flap)
Ū (fricative)
ࡡ
¦̡Ū (lateral fricative)
˷֤ĤΡ
Ūܶ (approximant)
ܡᡡ
¦̡Ūܶ (lateral approximant)
ܥ֥ǤϡѸ˴ؤơθ졤ǡǤʬۤܤȤơϿޤȤȤˡ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1])#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])#1320. LAEME Ǹ most ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2012-12-07-1])#1622. eLALME ([2013-10-05-1]) ʤɤƤʤۤˤ⡤me_dialect εȡˡޤŪѸʬޤ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) Ǽ
Ѹ˸¤ʤ֤̤벻б (isogloss) ʣϤ褯ΤƤ롥ѸǤ LALME LAEME Ȥܺ٤ʸϿޤǤƤΤǡζŪϿޤƤߤаǤ롥ǡ绨ĤˤǤ礿Ѱۤ䲻бʵڤӤȿǤƤȹֻͤбˤƤΤ褦Ūǡ#1341. Ѹʬ8ĤŪʷ֡ ([2012-12-28-1]) ΩĤLerer (92) μƤʰޤΩLerer ϡ⤤6 ("stone", "man", "heart", "father", "them", "hill") ǡѸ5ʰŪ˿ʲϡLerer ΤΤȤƺäޤǤ롥

äįƤȡͶäƤΤ Ƥhill -- hell -- hull ˸첻ѰۤˤĤƤϡϢơ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1]) ȡ
ʤ顤Ѹʬϡ奤ɱѸʬȤ̵ǤϤʤ8Ĥθˤ븽ζʬϡ#1030. England θѸʬ (2) ([2012-02-21-1]) Ȥ줿
Lerer, Seth. Inventing English. New York: Columbia UP, 2007.
ε#1810. ѰۤΥȥԡ ([2014-04-11-1]) κǸǡ٤ϤޤäѲϵ®˿ʹԤȤѲˤФиѥפ˸ڤɬŪΤƤ뤳ȤǤϤʤΤǡƤ¤ϤΥѥѲˤɤ٤褯뤳ȤʤΤϾܤ狼äƤ餺ϻοǯθơޤȤʤäƤ롥
ѲΤʤˤϡʹ®٤ slow-quick-quick-slow ѲóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȸƤФ륿פΤΤ롥óȻθˤȡѲϤ륿ߥϸˤäưۤʤꡤŪѲݤ߹ޤΤ顤Ū٤ޤѲΤޤ͡Ǥ롥Ogura Ogura and Wang λŦǶ̣ΤϡΥߥᤤ٤ˤäơϸѲοʹ®٤ۤʤǽȤȤ˳Ϥ (leaders) ϤäȿʤΤФơ٤ƳϤ (laggers) ϵޥԥåǿʤȤ좤ϰᵯɤ⤯Τ٤Τٹ魯륿פȡ˷ɤƤΤǴ֤˹礦פȤäȤɸ˵ "the later a change begins, the sharper its slope becomes" ϡOgura (78) ΰѤǤ.
伫ȡѸˤʣ -s γ˴ؤ2010ǯʸǡη餫ˤʸ顤Ogura Ogura and Wang ظڤƤʬʤ2սѤ롥
In their series of studies on Lexical Diffusion, Ogura and Wang discussed whether leaders and laggers of a change are any different from one another in terms of the speed of diffusion. In case studies such as the development of periphrastic do and the development of -s in the third person singular present indicative, they proposed that the later the change, the more items change and the faster they change . . . . (12)
. . . the laggers catching up with the leaders in SWM C13b and in SEM C13b concurs with the recent proposition of Lexical Diffusion that "the later a change begins, the sharper its slope becomes." (14)
Ѳ˻ͿƸ줾SȤɽ魯ȡ㤨аʲΤ褦ʿŪSνȤʤ롥

ǺХȥԡäΤ褦ʥդYХȥԡͤȤľСȤᤤʤߤ٤ϡĹٻλȤ٤ʤߤ®ϡäޥåۥȤˤʤ
óȻSȥԡ[2013-09-09-1]εǿ줿#1596. ʬˤβפʤɤϸߤ˲餫δطȸ졤ѲΥԡɤ䥹塼ȤŪҥȤͿƤ
Ogura, Mieko. "The Development of Periphrastic Do in English: A Case of Lexical Diffusion in Syntax." Diachronica 10 (1993): 51--85.
Ogura, Mieko and William S-Y. Wang. "Snowball Effect in Lexical Diffusion: The Development of -s in the Third Person Singular Present Indicative in English." English Historical Linguistics 1994. Papers from the 8th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Derek Britton. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1994. 119--41.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Leaders and Laggers of Language Change: Nominal Plural Forms in -s in Early Middle English." Journal of the Institute of Cultural Science (The 30th Anniversary Issue II) 68 (2010): 1--17.
ȥԡ (entropy) Ȥɤ褯ʹ褦ˤʤäȤδϢǡγǰˤ뤳ȤϤޤʤܥ֥Ǥϡ#838. ηϤȥȥԡ ([2011-08-13-1]) ϤȤơ##838,1089,1090,1587,1693 γƵǤѸ˿ƤޤŪŬѤȤϤʤä
ȥԡȤϡηϤȤƤٹ礤ɸǤ롥ǡ˰ͤ˻ФäƤ뤫ɽ魯٤ȸƤ褤ؤαѤϡGries (112) Ƥ롥
A simple measure for categorical data is relative entropy Hrel. Hrel is 1 when the levels of the relevant categorical variable are all equally frequent, and it is 0 when all data points have the same variable level. For categorical variables with n levels, Hrel is computed as shown in formula (16), in which pi corresponds to the frequency in percent of the i-th level of the variable:
Gries ϡ300Ĥ̾ˤ봧ʬۤȤƤ롥̵164㡤괧33㡤괧103Ȥä硤Hrel = 0.8556091 ȤʤꡤʤԶѼʬۤȤˤʤ롥
ۤ˻Ф礬ˤʤ륱Ϥȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥㤨Сܸνи٤ƥȡʤΥˤ˱ưͤݤ¬ȤȤǤ
ޤ˰۷ֻ֤ǧˡ줾Ѱ۷ (variants) ʬۤѰ줫ԶѰ줫¬뤳ȤʤɤǤ롥Τ褦ѰۤХȥԡƱΰۤʤƥȡʥˤδ֤ǤɤΤ餤ۤʤΤ뤤ŪʴؿϡۤʤΥƥȡʥˤδ֤ǤɤΤ餤ۤʤΤҴŪ˳Τ뤳ȤǤɸಽ¾βˤꡤѰۤ1Ĥηؼ̤Ƥ椯硤ȥԡ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ū˹ͤ뤿ˡ#1773. ich, everich, -lich ch ä ([2014-03-05-1]) Ǽ夲 ch æΥǡȤ褦ε Schlüter ˤ뽸̤ɽǤϡĶ (before V, before <h>, before C) ζ̤Ϥñ ME II--ME IV γƻ˸줿Ѱ۷ΥȡΤߤθ뤳Ȥˤ롥Ѱ۷γƻ Hrel ̤ɽ˼
| I | 1150--1250 (ME I) | 1250--1350 (ME II) | 1350--1420 (ME III) | 1420--1500 (ME IV) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ich | 853 | 589 | 7 | 0 |
| I | 33 | 503 | 1397 | 2612 |
| Hrel | 0.2295 | 0.9955 | 0.04531 | 0.0000 |
| EVERY | 1150--1250 (ME I) | 1250--1350 (ME II) | 1350--1420 (ME III) | 1420--1500 (ME IV) |
| everich | - | 12 | 10 | 9 |
| everiche | - | 12 | 3 | 0 |
| every | - | 5 | 112 | 152 |
| Hrel | - | 0.9406 | 0.3550 | 0.1962 |
| -LY | 1150--1250 (ME I) | 1250--1350 (ME II) | 1350--1420 (ME III) | 1420--1500 (ME IV) |
| -lich | 106 | 33 | 31 | 3 |
| -''liche' | 689 | 168 | 70 | 44 |
| -ly | 12 | 19 | 1088 | 1444 |
| Hrel | 0.4225 | 0.6390 | 0.3123 | 0.1342 |

#485. 츻Τ뤿Υ饤 ([2010-08-25-1]) ǿ줿American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed. (AHD) Ȥ¾μ˴Ť The Free Dictionary Ȥ饤롥AHD ϡꥫμ餷ɴʻŵŪʾл˭٤ǡ褯ȤμǤ緿ɤ༭ȤƤǤ롥ʤʤThe Free Dictionary Encyclopedia Article of the Day Ȥեɤ⤪ꡥ
äܤΤNotes ȸƤФ륳Ūʵ¤Ƥ뤳ȤUsage Notes, Synonym Notes, Word Histories, Our Living Language, Regional Notes Ȥä5 Notes 1,700ʾ塤ˤФƤ롥ʲǤϡꤳܤ⤢Ȥϻפ뤬¿ؤΥФĹꥹȤʤΤǡפΤܼƤ
Usage Notes
Synonym Notes
Word Histories
Our Living Language
Regional Notes
ۤˤ⡤ Notes ʬΤߤȴФ Notes ΤΤ֥饦DZǤ褦˺äƤߤ1.6MBȽŤʤΤǡɬפ˱Ƥɤ
[ Usage Notes ]
!Kung, -ee, -ess, -wise, .gov, a, A.M., aberrant, able, about, absolute, absolutely, accessory, acquiesce, act, acumen, ad hominem, admission, adopt, advance, advise, affect, affinity, agenda, aggravate, ain't, alibi, all, all right, alleged, allude, alongside, also, alternative, although, altogether, alumnus, Amerasian, Amerindian, and, and/or, Anglo, anticipate, antidote, anxious, any, anyone, apparent, archetype, as, as far as, Asian, Asiatic, assure, author, awhile, backward, bad, bait, baleful, banal, barbarism, barbiturate, be, bear, because, behalf, berdache, besides, best, between, bi-, black, Black English, blatant, boast, both, bring, but, callous, can, cannot, capital, careen, celebrant, celibate, center, certain, challenged, Chicano, child-directed speech, claustrophobic, cohort, collective noun, color, colored, compact disk, compare, complected, complement, complete, comprise, conflicted, contact, contemporary, continuance, contrast, controller, convince, council, couple, craft, credential, credible, crescendo, criterion, critique, culture, czar, dare, data, deaf, debut, deceptively, decimate, definite, demagogue, denote, depend, deprecate, dialogue, different, dilemma, disabled, discomfit, disingenuous, disinterested, disinvent, distinct, dive, domestic partner, double negative, doubt, dour, drunk, due to, each, each other, either, elder, else, empower, enervate, enormity, enthuse, envelope, epicenter, epithet, equal, err, escape, Eskimo, Eurasian, every, everyplace, except, exceptionable, fact, factoid, farther, February, few, finalize, First Nation, firstly, flammable, flaunt, flotsam, follow, foot, foregone, former, formidable, forte, fortuitous, founder, fulsome, fun, gambit, gay, gender, General American, get, glamour, good, gourmet, government, graduate, graffito, grieve, group, grow, handicapped, hang, harass, hardly, harebrained, have, he, headquarter, headquarters, healthy, hegemony, height, help, herb, hero, Hispanic, historic, hoi polloi, holocaust, homosexual, hopefully, host, however, hyphenated, I, identical, identify, if, impact, impeach, important, impracticable, include, Indian, individual, infer, infinite, infrastructure, input, insignia, intense, interface, intrigue, intuit, Inuit, ironic, irregardless, its, Jew, Jewess, kabbalah, Kanaka, kilometer, knot, kudos, lack, lady, late, Latina, lay, leave, legend, liable, lifestyle, light, like, likely, literally, literate, loan, look, majority, man, master, masterful, materialize, mean, medium, men, methodology, mid-, migrate, minimal, mistress, momentarily, month, moot, Ms., mute, mutual, myriad, myself, native, Native American, nauseous, need, neither, Net, none, nonstandard, nonwhite, nor, not, nothing, nuclear, number, oblivious, octoroon, of, off, officiate, often, old, on, one, only, or, oriental, ought, over-, pair, paradigm, parameter, participle, party, pass, people, percent, percentage, perfect, periodic, permit, person, peruse, phenomenon, pill bug, plead, plus, politics, poor, possessed, practicable, practically, precipitate, premiere, preposition, presently, principal, prioritize, process, protagonist, prove, quarter, queer, quick, quote, race, rarely, rather, redundancy, regard, replete, repulse, responsible, restive, sacrilegious, safe sex, said, salutation, same, saving, scarcely, schism, Scottish, seasonal, series, service, set, shall, she, short-lived, should, slow, sneak, so, so-called, someday, sometime, sonorous, soon, split infinitive, Standard English, status, staunch, stomp, stratum, strength, such, suffer, than, that, themed, there, they, this, Three Age system, thusly, tight, till, together, too, tortuous, toward, transpire, try, un-, unaware, unexceptionable, unique, utilize, various, verbal, very, victual, virtual, wake, want, way, we, wean, web, website, well, what, whatever, when, whence, where, which, who, whose, why, wish, with, wreak, Xmas, ye, yet, zoology
[ Synonym Notes ]
ability, abolish, abstinence, abuse, accidental, accompany, acknowledge, active, adapt, admonish, adulterate, advance, adventurous, advice, advise, affair, affect, affectation, afflict, afraid, ageless, agitate, agree, aim, airy, allocate, alone, amateur, ambiguous, ambush, amenity, amiss, amuse, analyze, ancestor, anger, angry, announce, annoy, answer, anxiety, apology, apparent, appear, appendage, applaud, appoint, appreciate, apprehend, appropriate, approve, arbitrary, argue, argument, argumentative, arrange, art, artificial, ask, assent, assistant, attack, attribute, authentic, authorize, average, aware, band, banish, banter, bargain, barrage, base, baseless, batter, bear, beat, beautiful, beg, begin, beginning, behavior, belief, belligerent, bend, beneficial, benefit, benevolent, besiege, bet, bias, binge, bite, bitter, blackball, blackout, blame, blameworthy, blast, blemish, blink, block, bloom, blunder, boast, bodily, boil, book, boor, border, boring, botch, branch, brave, brawl, breach, break, breeze, bright, broach, broad-minded, brood, brush, bulge, bulwark, burden, burdensome, burn, business, busy, cadge, calculate, call, calm, campaign, care, careful, careless, caress, caricature, catch, cause, celebrity, center, certain, certainty, chafe, chance, charge, charm, chief, choice, chronic, circumference, citizen, claim, clean, clear, clever, cliché, clothe, coagulate, cold, collision, comfort, comfortable, comment, commit, common, complete, complex, conceit, condemn, conduct, confidence, confirm, conflict, confuse, consider, contain, contaminate, contemporary, continual, convert, convey, cool, correct, corrupt, count, crisis, criticize, crowd, crude, cruel, crush, cry, cure, curious, dark, daze, dead, decay, deceive, decide, decision, decisive, decrease, decry, defeat, defend, defer, defy, degrade, delicate, delicious, demand, demote, deny, dependent, deplete, depressed, describe, desire, despise, despondent, development, deviation, devote, dexterous, dialect, dictate, dictatorial, differ, difference, difficulty, dip, dirty, disadvantage, disappear, discord, discourage, discover, discuss, disguise, disgust, dishonest, dismay, dismiss, display, disposition, dissuade, distinct, distort, distribute, doctrine, dominant, dry, dull, earn, easy, eat, echo, effect, effective, eject, elaborate, element, elevation, eliminate, embarrass, emphasis, empty, enclose, encourage, endanger, enemy, engagement, enmity, enormous, enrapture, envy, equipment, erase, escape, estimate, estrange, evoke, exaggerate, example, excel, excessive, existence, expect, explain, explicit, expressive, extemporaneous, extricate, fair, faithful, faithless, fantastic, fashion, fashionable, fast, fasten, fat, fatal, favorable, fawn, fear, feat, feeling, female, fertile, fidelity, field, figure, flagrant, flash, flexible, flirt, flock, flourish, flow, follow, foolish, forbid, force, foreign, foretell, forgive, form, forte, found, fragile, fragrance, frank, freedom, frighten, frown, function, furnish, futile, gather, gaudy, gaze, general, gesture, ghastly, giddy, glad, glib, gossip, gracious, grand, graphic, grieve, gruff, guide, habit, hamper, handle, happen, happy, harass, hard, harden, haste, hateful, healthy, heap, heavy, help, heritage, hesitate, hide, hinder, honor, humane, idea, ideal, imagination, imitate, immaterial, impetuous, importance, impression, improper, improve, inactive, incalculable, incisive, incline, include, increase, indicate, indispensable, infinite, inflexible, injustice, innate, inquiry, insanity, instinctive, insubordinate, intelligent, intense, intention, interfere, intimidate, introduce, irrelevant, isolate, item, jealous, jerk, join, joke, judge, justify, keep, kind, knowledge, lack, large, last, latent, lazy, lean, learned, lethargy, letter, level, liberal, lie, lift, likeness, limit, limp, living, logical, loose, loud, love, lure, luxury, makeshift, male, malign, malleable, manipulate, mark, mature, living, logical, mercy, method, meticulous, mind, miscellaneous, mix, mixture, moderate, moment, monopolize, mood, moral, morale, moving, multitude, muscular, mysterious, naive, native, nautical, neat, negligent, new, news, noise, noted, noticeable, nuance, nurture, object, oblige, observe, obstacle, obstinate, occurrence, offend, offensive, offer, old, opinion, opportunity, oppose, opposite, orderly, origin, outline, overthrow, pacify, pain, palliate, pamper, partner, passion, pathetic, patience, pause, pedantic, penitence, pensive, perceptible, perfect, perform, period, periodic, permission, persuade, phase, pity, plain, plan, plausible, please, plentiful, poisonous, polite, poor, possible, posture, practice, praise, predicament, predict, predilection, preliminary, presume, prevailing, prevent, produce, proficient, profuse, promise, proportion, propose, proud, provoke, prudence, pull, punish, pure, push, puzzle, quality, qualm, quibble, range, reach, real, reap, reason, recede, reciprocate, reckless, recover, refer, refrain, refuse, regard, regret, relevant, reliable, relieve, religious, relinquish, rely, remember, reparation, repeat, replace, represent, resort, responsible, restrain, revere, reverse, revive, rich, ridicule, right, rise, rival, room, rough, rude, ruin, rural, sad, sarcastic, satisfy, save, saying, scatter, scold, secret, see, seem, send, sensuous, sentimental, separate, series, serious, severe, shade, shake, shameless, shapeless, sharp, shelter, shorten, shout, show, showy, shrewd, shy, sign, silent, sinister, slant, sleek, slide, sloppy, slow, small, smell, social, solitude, solve, sour, spacious, sparing, speak, speed, spend, spontaneous, stain, standard, state, stay, steal, steep, stem, stench, stiff, still, stoop, stop, strange, streak, strength, subject, substance, sufficient, suggest, summit, superfluous, supervise, support, supposed, sure, surprise, surrender, surround, swerve, swing, tact, tardy, task, taste, teach, tear, teem, temporary, tend, tendency, theoretical, think, think, tight, tire, tireless, tool, touch, treat, trial, trivial, trouble, trust, truth, turn, ugly, uncertainty, unctuous, unfortunate, unruly, unspeakable, urgent, use, usual, vain, valid, vent, versatile, vertical, victory, vigor, vociferous, voluntary, voracious, wander, waste, way, weak, weird, wet, whole, wile, wit, wonder, wordy, work, yield, young, zest
[ Word Histories ]
abacus, abracadabra, accolade, acorn, adder, adolescent, agnostic, alcohol, Allegheny River, alligator, amateur, Amazon, an, anesthesia, appendicitis, arena, arrowroot, artery, artichoke, Aryan, asparagus, assassin, automatic, avocado, baby-sit, badger, ballyhoo, banquet, barnacle, bayonet, beef, belfry, berserk, Betelgeuse, bigot, bless, Bolshevik, book, boomerang, boycott, Brazil, brickbat, broker, buccaneer, buffalo, bumpkin, bury, butterfly, bylaw, Canada, canter, cappuccino, caricature, carouse, casino, caterpillar, caviar, chagrin, chameleon, chaperon, check, Chicago, china, chivalry, chortle, churl, ciao, circus, cleric, cockroach, codex, cologne, comet, comrade, coroner, cot, coupon, coward, crayfish, croissant, crucial, cuckold, cushy, cute, cynic, dandelion, debunk, deer, delta, dervish, desert, diabetes, diatribe, digitalis, dinner, dirge, ditto, do-gooding, Don River, drench, dress, dungeon, dynamite, easel, economy, edit, eleven, empty, encyclopedia, English, ennui, enthusiasm, erudite, ethnic, eunuch, exorcise, fascism, fear, fee, fellow, fey, fiction, film, fire, fizzle, flunky, fool, fornication, fraction, freeze, friend, fuck, funky, garage, gauntlet, geezer, gerrymander, giddy, glitch, goatee, goodbye, gorilla, Gothic, grass widow, Greenland, gremlin, gringo, guillotine, hall, hamburger, harlot, hassle, haywire, hectic, helicopter, hell, helpmate, hex, high muckamuck, hobnob, holocaust, hooker, Hoosier, hubbub, husband, iconoclast, ilk, impeach, industry, inkling, interloper, internecine, island, item, janitor, Japan, jaunty, junk, kangaroo, ketchup, kidnap, kiosk, kith and kin, laconic, landscape, larva, lava, lemon, leprechaun, lieutenant, limbo, lingo, lion, loaf, lobster, long-lived, lucre, macabre, maharajah, malaprop, mannequin, mantis, marshal, mascot, mattress, mealy-mouthed, Melba toast, menu, mesmerism, metal, midwife, milquetoast, Minnesota, misericord, Mississippi, modern, mortgage, mosquito, Muse, mutt, namby-pamby, nap, naughty, neighbor, nerd, nest, New Jersey, noise, nonchalant, numb, OK, ombudsman, one, opossum, orange, orgy, oscillate, otorhinolaryngology, Ouse River, outlaw, oyez, Pakistan, pal, pant, paradise, pariah, pay, peeping Tom, penthouse, period, petard, Philistine, pickle, pilot, plane, Platonic, plumber, Plymouth, poison, pollster, Pomerania, posh, posthumous, powwow, premise, pretzel, prison, prude, Pueblo, Punjab, Quaalude, quark, queen, queue, quiz, raid, rajah, rankle, rapt, read, reindeer, resent, rhinestone, Riot Act, robot, role, rose, roster, rune, sack, salad, sanction, sanguine, Sanskrit, sarcophagus, scan, scarce, scold, scuba, séance, seersucker, senile, serendipity, shadow, shambles, sherbet, short shrift, shyster, Singapore, slave, sleuth, slivovitz, soldier, soothsayer, Sophocles, south, speak, speed, spill, spoof, spree, stampede, stove, sunbeam, superman, surly, syphilis, taboo, tangerine, tattoo, tea, telephone, temple, testis, testy, Thames, theater, they, third, ticket, tin, tithe, toady, Tokyo, tomato, tooth, trek, trivial, true, tulip, tweed, tycoon, typhoon, umpire, underling, uranium, valentine, vegetable, vixen, vogue, vulgar, Wales, wallflower, war, water, Wednesday, went, werewolf, whiskey, whore, wigwam, window, winsome, worry, write, xylophone, Yankee, Zeus, zipper, zloty
[ Our Living Language ]
a-, agreement, all, as far as, ax, bad, basket case, be, breathe, call, cent, chill, comparative, cool, dig, downsize, dude, dumb, foot, geek, go, gung ho, hisself, historical present, hornswoggle, I'm, igg, it, izzard, knockout, like, me, might, mine, Ocracoke Island, of, plural, rap, redundancy, rent, right, schlock, sleigh, Smith Island, strike, trashed, were, za, zero copula
[ Regional Notes ]
absquatulate, agin, andiron, anymore, as, bare-naked, beignet, birth, bodacious, boughten, cayuse, chaw, chesterfield, chirren, clever, critter, damned, dogie, dope, dornick, dragonfly, drudge, everwhere, fair, faubourg, favor, feist, ferninst, fix, frosting, frying pan, gallery, goober, greasy, gum band, gunnysack, gutter, hey, highfalutin, holler, hosey, intervale, johnnycake, juke, kindling, krewe, krumkake, lagniappe, light bread, lightning bug, loblolly, luminaria, milk shake, mill, mozo, mud dauber, muffuletta, need, neutral ground, Old Scratch, old-field colt, olla, parking, pocosin, poke, pone, possum, powerful, preacher, purty, quoit, ramada, redd, reeling, run, scoot, shivaree, slatch, smart, so, spa, stateside, stob, stoop, submarine, summercater, tarnation, ted, teeter-totter, thataway, tit, tonic, tule, tumbleset, ugly, ukulele, vaquero, vum, wake, wanigan, whiffletree, woodchuck, yonder, you-all, you-uns
2֤ε#1806. ARCHER shew show ([2014-04-07-1]) ȡ#1807. ARCHER between betwixt ([2014-04-08-1]) ǡARCHER Untagged ѤơѰ۷٤̻ŪˤɤΤ褦˿ܤƤĴ
ѸνޤॳѥȤƤϡۤ CEECS (The Corpus of Early English Correspondence, LC (The Lampeter Corpus of Early Modern English Tracts), CLMET3.0 (The Corpus of Late Modern English Texts, version 3.0), PPCMBE, COHA ʤɤꡤ줾ħ뤬ARCHER ϡ1600--1999ǯȤޤȤޤä֤СѼ綠줾ˤĤƥʬʤƤꡤŪ緿˥ѥȤƲͤ⤤#1802. ARCHER 3.2 ([2014-04-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤߥ־ǰ̸ƤǤˤĤƤϡޤʤɤƤ餺ǽ¤Ѥ뤳ȤϤǤʤǤȳѤǤ롥Ƥ Frequency lists Keywords εǽϥǥͭ˻ȤѥΤñ٥ꥹ (TXT)Ƥ롥
̻ŪʸѲȤ ARCHER ˾ൡǽϡ2֤εĴ褦ˡ븡٤ɤäơʤĤǤ˥̤ˡˤɤΤ褦˿ܤƤñ˳ǧǤ褦ˤ뤳ȤRestricted query ǻȥʤꡤ˸ϤƥҥåȿƤ椯ȤȤϼȤǤǤ뤬֤뤷ݤ#607. Google Books Ngram Viewer ([2010-12-25-1]) COHA Ǥϡ̻Ūʰǽˤ뵡ǽƤΤǡARCHER Ǥ;פƱͤεǽߤʤ롥ǡߤΤʤкäƤޤȤȤǡñʥץȤȤARCHER θ̤Υ饤ˤϡƥȤɽ魯ե̾դƤ뤬ե̾λͤˤС3ʸ줾쥸롤ѼΤ줫ɽ魯ȤʤäƤ롥ǡ̤ԡơʲΥƥȥܥåŽդƤȡŬڤ˥ե̾Ϥ롤Ѽ老Ȥ˥ҥåȿƤ졤ղƤȤġ (ARCHER Period-Genre Sorter) ARCHER ǤνϷ̤ڡˤޤˤϡ뤬ƥڡԥڤѤƤФ褤

ε#1806. ARCHER shew show ([2014-04-07-1]) ˰³[2014-04-03-1]εǾҲ𤷤#1802. ARCHER 3.2פѤơ̤פࡥɸ between betwixt θѸˤʬۤˤĤơ#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ˤARCHER Untagged ǤϤɤΤ褦Ĵ̤Ф
ˤäƤϡȤ櫓17ʳǤֻޤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤᡤ줾θΰֻθ줿Ūˤϡbetween Ȥ between, betweene, betwen, betwene, betwn betwixt Ȥ betwixt, betwext ֻȤƵäƤƱͤˡҥåȿ12뤪1600--1999ǯ50ǯߤˤ8ʬƿ夲ʲˡ̤ΥդΤʥǡեɽϥHTMLȤ줿ˡʤbetwixt and between ηǤ1⸽Ƥʤ

ΤȤơ17--19ΤɤλˤƤ between ݤƤ뤳Ȥϡ CLMET3.0 ˤĴ̤ͽۤ줿ȤǤ롥P2--P3 (1650--1749) λ˸¤äƤǤϤ뤬betwixt 20%ۤɤΥƤȤ¤ܤƤ褤P1Υ֥ѥ¾γƻΥ֥ѥ1/3ۤɤεϤǤ뤳ȤˤաˡCLMET3.0 ˤĴǤ18ޤǤ bewixt 10%ۤɤΥƤȤ̤ФƤ뤫顤绨Ĥˤä1750ǯ餤ޤǤ betwix between ΰ۷ȤƤʤ¸ߴƤȤǧǤ
ɸθֻѰۤˤĤơ#1415. shew show (1) ([2013-03-12-1])#1416. shew show (2) ([2013-03-13-1])#1716. shew show (3) ([2014-01-07-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥϡ[2014-04-03-1]εǾҲ𤷤#1802. ARCHER 3.2פѤơѸˤξֻʬۤƳǧ褦
ARCHER: A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers Untagged ǡshew (shew, shews, shewed, shewn, shewing) show (show, shows, showed, shown, showing) θҥåȿ12뤪1600--1999ǯ50ǯߤˤ8ʬƿ夲ǡեɽϥHTMLȤƤ餦Ȥơ̤ղΤΤ

ιθϤƤȤơ̻Ūʿܤܤ褦P1 (1600--49) P4 (1750--99) ޤǡĤޤ17--18ˤϡ٤ shew Τۤ show ͥP5 (1800--49) ξԤ褽¤١P6 ʹߤˤ show 쵤 shew षƤ椯ƤȤ롥οܤγפϡεĴ Helsinki Corpus PPCMBE η̤Ȥ礹뤬CLMET3.0 η̤ȤϾۤʤ롥CLMET3.0 Ǥϡ[2014-01-07-1]εǸ褦ˡ18椫٤ show shew Ū˾äƤΤǤ롥Υѥ֤ΰ㤤ƥѥɽΰ㤤ˤΤʤΤȤ⥸ʬͿƤΤ뤤ʣθ礷ƿȤͳ褹ΤʤΤܤĴƤʤP1Υ֥ѥˤĤƤϡ¾γƻΥ֥ѥ1/3ۤɤεϤǤ뤳ȤաˡξŪǤϤʤshew οȤǹͤΤǤСΥѥȤƤ⡤19ȾνȤߤʤƤ褤
ɸϡꥫβȡȯ Samuel Finley Breese Morse (1791--1872) ȯſѤ硥ȥġȤΤ롥û (dot)3ܤĹʤĹ (dash) (space) Ȥ߹碌ʤꡤȤ߹碌ե٥åȤб롥
Morse ϡ1830ǯſۤơ1838ǯ˸Υ⡼륹θۤθ塤1844ǯ Baltimore Washington ؤκǽſ̤ŪʺǽΥå "What has God wrought!" ȯŪȿƤӡθ塤衼åѤDzä졤1851ǯ˹ݲĤˤ International (or Continental) Morse Code ꤵ줿1938ǯ˾ѹä줿ߤ˻ޤǹŪˤϹǤ§ȤѤƤʤꥫϥꥸʥǤλѤˤ³ˡ⡼륹ˤſϡä饸ȯˤŪ˱Ƥʤä̿ĶǤ¤ξǽǤ뤳Ȥ顤21θߤǤⴰ̵ѤȤʤä櫓ǤϤʤӡʸ⡼륹ʤɤθѼ⸽줿ߤǤϥޥ奢̵ȤˤѤʤɤ˻ϰϤ¤Ƥ롥
Ūˤϡ⡼륹ϤĤħäηϤǤ롥Ǥħϡ졤Ȥ櫓ʸ礭¸ηϤǤȤȤΩηϤȤϡѵȤäƤ褯Ǥ䥿ॿݸƱͤǤ롥Saussure #1074. Hjelmslev θء ([2012-04-05-1]) ѸǤС¼ (substance) Ѥäǡ (form) ѤäƤʤȤȤˤʤ롥⡼륹ǤϡȥġȤ߹碌ե٥å1ʸ˸̩бƤꡤ줬ȤʸƱǻ־夢뤤϶־롥¤ӽȤϤˤϤ뤬ϼΩͭǤϤʤظˤʸʤäΤˤʤӾ塤p. 125ˡ
⡼륹Τ⤦1Ĥħϡμ̤ǤȤϤĤĤ⡤Ȥϰۤʤʬ (double_articulation) äƤ뤳ȤΤ褦ʬͭ뵭ηϤȤΤ⡼륹ϿŪʵηϤǤ뤫顤ʬηкտŪȤ߹ޤ줿ȤȤ϶ä٤ȤǤϤʤʬĤۤεηϤȤơҤξã衤ֹʤɤ⤢ˡȤϰۤʤʬȤ߹ޤƤ뤳Ȥܤͤ롥⡼륹ǤϡβǤΤϥȥȥġ2Ǥ롥2ΡֲǡפޤäǷޤäĿȤ߹碌뤳Ȥǡ1ĤʸбַǡפΤ褦ʡַǡפ嵭θ¸§äƤ椯ΤӾ塤p. 87ˡۤˤϡɤε;㤤ʤɤħ褦
Ǥϡݥ⡼륹μºݤߤƤߤ褦ξܺ٤ϡRecommendation ITU-R M.1677-1 (10/2009) International Morse code (PDF) ǧǤ롥̤Ρʱʸ˥ƥȤȹݥ⡼륹Ѵϡ־ Morse Code Translator ʤɤʤΤ뤬ʲ hellog ǤäƤߤƥȤ뤤ϥ⡼륹Ϥȡ¾Ѵ͡
#1800. ͡ȿи ([2014-04-01-1]) εǡäȤŵŪȿиȤ "gradable antonym" ȾΤˤĤƿ줿"contrary" ȤƤФ뤬ŵŪ٤ηƻΥڥפ⤫٤Ф褤good / bad, big / small, hot / cold, old / young, long / short, happy / sad, clean / dirty Ǥ롥줾츫ñʥڥ̣ŪܳŪ˰ȤȡʤʤʣޤǤ롥
ȿոڥˤĤƤ褯ΤƤ븽ݤϡεǤ줿褦ˡڥΤ̵ɸ (unmarked) ǡ¾ͭɸ (marked) Ǥ뤳Ȥ㤨СǯҤͤ뵿ʸǤϡHow old are you? old ѤΤ̤Ǥ롥How young are you? young Ѥˤϡ֤ʤ㤤ȤȤϤǤΤäƤ뤬ҤͤΤϤɤ㤤פȤüޤȤʤ롥old ξˤϤΤ褦Ϥʤ̾ΩŪ˻Ȥ롥츫 old young Ϥ줾ƱλʤǥڥʤƤȿոΤ褦˸뤬ºݤˤ old ΩŪƯôäƤ̵ɸǤΤФơyoung ϾˤäƤü᤹ͭɸǤ롥old young ˸뤳Τ褦ʺϡŪ˸뺹ǤϤʤ̣Ū˵ꤵƤ뺹Ǥȹͤ졤̣ΰȤ롥
ȿոͭɸ̵ɸΩɽФΤϡ٤Ҥͤ뵿ʸȤʸ̮˸¤ʤ㤨С̾⡤ȿոƻ̵ɸС˴ŤΤ¿long / short бΩŪ̾ length shortness ȤƤޤȡ̣νſûطΩŪǤϤʤƱͤˡdeep / shallow Ф depth strong / weak Ф strength 줾ΩŪ̾
ͭɸ̵ɸΩɽФĶȤƵʸ̾2ǵLehrer (400) Ϥ6ĤιܤơΩȿոΰ̣˿Ƥ뤳Ȥ8ܤʲ˼
I Neutralization of an opposition in questions by unmarked member.
II Neutralization of an opposition in nominalizations by unmarked member.
III Only the unmarked member appears in measure phrases of the form Amount Measure Adjective (e.g. three feet tall).
IV If one member of the pair consists of an affix added to the antonym, the affix form is marked.
V Ratios can be used only with the unmarked member (e.g. Twice as old).
VI The unmarked member is evaluatively positive; the marked is negative.
VII The unmarked member denotes more of a quality; the marked denotes less.
VIII If there are asymmetrical entailments, the unmarked member is less likely to be 'biased' or 'committed'. Cf.
A is better than B. A and B could be bad.
B is worse than A. B must be bad, and A may be as well.
I II ˤĤƤϤǤ˿줿III ϡfive feet tall, two years old, three metres wide ʤɤñ̤ˤɽ̾ѤΤ̵ɸСȤ롥
IV ϡŵŪƬΤĤСͭɸǤȤȤǡlucky / unlucky, important / unimportant ʤɤ㤬롥impartial / partial unbiased / biased ΥڥǤϡ¾°˾Ȥ餹ȡषƬΤĤԤ̵ɸȤʤꡤȿ롥
V ϡtwice as long as . . ., ten times as heavy as . . . ʤɤܿɽѤС̵ɸȤȤǤ롥
VI ϡݥƥɾôС̵ɸǤȤΤgood, strong, happy, clean ʤɤߤ¤ꡤΤˤη褦˻פ뤬ʸˤɤѤˤѰۤϤȤСclean / dirty ΩˤơݥλԽԤˤȤäƥݥƥɾôΤ dirty Τۤ
VII ϡҴŪ̲ˡ礭ʤ̵ۤɸǤȤΤbig, long, heavy, wide ʤɤˤĤƤϤδϤ褯ƤϤޤ뤬clean / dirty ξ硤ԤԤ٤Ʋ̤礭ΤϤ褯ʬʤ餫äƤ르ߤ̤ǤСdirty Τۤ礭ȤȤˤʤ롥safe / dangerous, sober / drunk, pure / impure, accurate / inaccurate ˤƱ꤬ͤ롥
VIII ϡް (entailment) ˴ؤ붽̣㤨 good / bad ΩˤơThe steak is better than the chicken, but both are bad. ϵƤ뤬* The chicken is worse than the steak, but both are good. ϵƤʤȤϡgood bad ȰۤʤꡤΩŪʰ̣ôȤǤ뤳Ȥɽ魯դˡbad ΩŪǤꡤƤȤȤˤʤ롥bad ΤΤ褦ϡ"committed" ɽ롥ǡhot / cold, happy / sad ʤɤǤξСȤ "committed" Ǥ뤫顤ΥСΤߤ "committed" Ǥ good / bad, long / short Τ褦ʥڥȤۤʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
嵭8ܤϡΤȤ gradable antonyms ̵ɸͭɸΩͭ뷹뤳ȤΤˤȤɤޤꡤ٤ƤΥڥɬ8ܤΤ٤ƤȤȤˤϤʤʤI ǤϤ°ȤߤʤȤޤǤϤǤ뤬ʳ°ϸġȿոڥ˱줿ʤäȤޤޤ
嵭Ѹʳθˤѻ븽ݤʤΤޤ⤽ʤȿոڥ̵ɸͭɸΩΤʤΤȤŪ⤫Ǥ롥ȿոΰ̣ϡʾ˿Ǥ롥
Lehrer, A. "Markedness and Antonymy." Journal of Linguistics 21 (1985): 397--429.
Ҥ˶ǡּεסּʸפȤ롥ƥ paternoster Ȥ⡥ꥹȶˤƺǤפʵʸǤ롥Ǥ Matt 6:9--13ʴǤ Luke 11:2--4ˤ˸롥the Lord's Prayer ȤѸɽϥƥ ōrātiō Dominica Τʤǡ1548--49ǯ The Book of Common Prayer the Lordes prayer ȤƽƸ롥
#1427. פʱ˴ؤǯɽ ([2013-03-24-1]) Ǹ褦˱ѸˤĹLord's Prayer űѸǤ21κǿǤޤdzƼ綠äƤ롥Ѹ̻ŪѲ뤿ǺȤƤäƤĤʤΤǡʲ (1) 1000ǯ West-Saxon Gospels űѸǤ(2) 1388--95ǯ Wycliffite Bible θѸǤ(3) 1611ǯ The Authorised Version (The King James Version [KJV]) ѸǤ(4) 1989ǯ The New Revised Standard Version 긽ѸǤ(5) ͤޤǤ˿ƱܸǤ줾Ǥ롥ѤϡMatt 6:9--13 Lord's Prayer ޤսǤ롥ξܤˤĤƤϡ߷ΡǤɤѸˡ2--5ϤȤ줿
(1) 1000ǯθűѸ West-Saxon Gospels ꡥ
Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum, Sī þīn nama gehālgod. Tō becume þīn rīce. Gewurþe ðīn willa on eorðan swā swā on heofonum. Ūrne gedæghwāmlīcan hlāf syle ūs tōdæg. And forgyf ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forgyfað ūrum gyltendum. And ne gelǣd þu ūs on costnunge, ac ālȳs ūs of yfele. Sōþlīce.
(2) 1388--95ǯ Wycliffite Bible (Later Version) ꡥ
Oure fadir that art in heuenes, halewid be thi name; thi kyngdoom come to; be thi wille don in erthe as in heuene; ȝyue to vs this dai oure breed ouer othir substaunce; and forȝyue to vs oure dettis, as we forȝyuen to oure dettouris; and lede vs not in to temptacioun, but delyuere vs fro yuel. Amen.
(3) 1611ǯ The Authorised Version (The King James Versionˤꡥ
Our father which art in heauen, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdome come. Thy will be done, in earth, as it is in heauen. Giue vs this day our daily bread. And forgiue vs our debts, as we forgiue our debters. And lead vs not into temptation, but deliuer vs from euill: For thine is the kingdome, and the power, and the glory, for euer, Amen.
(4) 1989ǯ The New Revised Standard Version ꡥ
Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors. And do not bring us to the time of trial, but rescue us from the evil one. [For the kingdom and the power and the glory are yours forever. Amen.]
(5) Ʊꡥ
ŷˤ錄衤̾ޤ褦ˡޤ褦ˡ濴Ԥޤ褦ˡŷˤ褦Ϥξˤ⡥錄ɬפȤͿƤ錄餤ܤϤƤ錄⼫ʬ餤ܤΤͤϤޤ褦ˡ錄ͶǤ碌ԤߤäƤιϤȱɤȤϱʱˤʤΤΤǤ
ʤűѸ Lord's Prayer ˤĤơYouTube The Lords Prayer in Old English from the 11th century ʤĤΤǡͤޤǤˡ
߷ ⡡ǤɤѸˡ١罤۽Ź2013ǯ
ǯΤȤˤʤ뤬Ƹ쥳ѥ ARCHER: A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers Untagged 줿ܺ٤ϡ Documentation뤤 VARIENG ˤѥβɤѸ˸Υ饤ꡤߤεARCHERοǸ⻲ͤˤʤ롥
ARCHER ϡ1990ǯƬ Biber and Finegan ԻƤΤǡߤǤ14ؤƱǴƤ롥2013ǯ˸줿3.2Ǥ Manchester ( David Denison and Nuria Yáñez-Bouza) ˤǤ롥ѥƤӤüŪɽС"a multi-genre historical corpus of British and American English covering the period 1600--1999. The corpus has been designed as a tool for the analysis of language change and variation in a range of written and speech-based registers of English." ȤȤǤ롥
ѥεϤ1,710ե롤3,298,080줫ʤꡤǤα6:4ۤɡޤȤ8Ƥˤ12˥ʬƤ (a = advertising, d = drama, f = fiction, h = sermons, j = journals, l = legal, m = medicine, n = news, p = early prose, s = science, x = letters, y = diaries) եȸϰʲ̤ꡥ
| BRITISH | a | d | f | h | j | l | m | n | p | s | x | y | TOTAL | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1600--49 | files | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 30 |
| words | 0 | 32,342 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 21,026 | 0 | 0 | 32,741 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 86,109 | |
| 1650--99 | files | 0 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 21 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 75 | 10 | 177 |
| words | 0 | 30,328 | 41,667 | 21,818 | 21,186 | 20,466 | 23,811 | 22,304 | 0 | 21,427 | 38,767 | 20,488 | 262,262 | |
| 1700--49 | files | 0 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 14 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 77 | 10 | 173 |
| words | 0 | 27,862 | 44,057 | 21,511 | 23,265 | 21,315 | 22,066 | 21,612 | 0 | 20,812 | 33,896 | 20,495 | 256,891 | |
| 1750--99 | files | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 70 | 11 | 181 |
| words | 25,386 | 27,484 | 45,198 | 21,752 | 21,284 | 20,367 | 21,002 | 23,172 | 0 | 20,599 | 29,589 | 23,043 | 278,876 | |
| 1800--49 | files | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 25 | 10 | 126 |
| words | 30,804 | 31,211 | 45,107 | 21,777 | 23,249 | 20,531 | 20,286 | 22,951 | 0 | 21,015 | 12,671 | 20,883 | 270,485 | |
| 1850--99 | files | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 26 | 10 | 126 |
| words | 30,684 | 34,856 | 43,427 | 21,322 | 21,243 | 20,757 | 22,265 | 23,072 | 0 | 21,810 | 10,819 | 21,789 | 272,044 | |
| 1900--49 | files | 10 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 29 | 10 | 130 |
| words | 26,717 | 31,391 | 45,408 | 21,123 | 22,208 | 21,160 | 20,213 | 21,977 | 0 | 21,664 | 12,529 | 22,424 | 266,814 | |
| 1950--99 | files | 10 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 13 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 28 | 10 | 132 |
| words | 23,437 | 32,200 | 45,109 | 21,093 | 22,723 | 20,721 | 20,994 | 22,935 | 0 | 21,385 | 11,361 | 22,060 | 264,018 | |
| TOTAL | files | 50 | 82 | 72 | 70 | 72 | 80 | 98 | 70 | 10 | 70 | 330 | 71 | 1,075 |
| words | 137,028 | 247,674 | 309,973 | 150,396 | 155,158 | 166,343 | 150,637 | 158,023 | 32,741 | 148,712 | 149,632 | 151,182 | 1,957,499 | |
| AMERICAN | a | d | f | h | j | l | m | n | p | s | x | y | TOTAL | |
| 1750--99 | files | 3 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 12 | 9 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 58 | 10 | 152 |
| words | 9,214 | 29,980 | 38,980 | 21,271 | 21,896 | 41,177 | 23,541 | 22,265 | 0 | 20,668 | 27,860 | 21,315 | 278,167 | |
| 1800--49 | files | 1 | 10 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 12 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 83 |
| words | 2,822 | 40,568 | 44,676 | 0 | 21,476 | 33,409 | 0 | 37,107 | 0 | 20,904 | 20,739 | 20,695 | 242,396 | |
| 1850--99 | files | 8 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 28 | 11 | 128 |
| words | 24,480 | 32,721 | 44,394 | 21,056 | 22,436 | 28,506 | 20,547 | 21,994 | 0 | 21,311 | 11,361 | 23,419 | 272,225 | |
| 1900--49 | files | 10 | 10 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 11 | 0 | 15 | 0 | 10 | 52 | 10 | 138 |
| words | 30,460 | 52,514 | 53,430 | 0 | 21,661 | 21,607 | 0 | 22,802 | 0 | 20,984 | 25,021 | 20,731 | 269,210 | |
| 1950--99 | files | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 12 | 10 | 10 | 0 | 12 | 30 | 10 | 134 |
| words | 29,563 | 31,037 | 44,382 | 21,051 | 22,109 | 25,517 | 22,617 | 23,069 | 0 | 25,623 | 11,961 | 21,654 | 278,583 | |
| TOTAL | files | 32 | 50 | 51 | 30 | 50 | 57 | 29 | 55 | 0 | 52 | 178 | 51 | 635 |
| words | 96,539 | 186,820 | 225,862 | 63,378 | 109,578 | 150,216 | 66,705 | 127,237 | 0 | 109,490 | 96,942 | 107,814 | 1,340,581 | |
homonymy Ʊˤ polysemy ¿ˤζ̤ȤˤĤƤϡ#286. homonymy, homophony, homography, polysemy ([2010-02-07-1]) #815. polysemic clash? ([2011-07-21-1]) εˤƱ֤2ĤθǤ2ĤƱǤΤ뤤1Ĥ¿ǤΤϡ̻Ūʰ̣ͤˤơ¾ǤüԤζŪľͤˤȽǤȤΤ̾٤2Ĥλ㤦Ȥ⤢롥
㤨СʥȥפΡȻʰΡ˥ġʾ٤3Ĥθ suit Ȥͤ褦3Ԥϸ츻ŪˤϴϢꡤˤȤʤ̣Ȥ "a following or natural sequence of things or events" ۤɤġȻפȡ֥ġפϰȡ³Ȥ̹Ǥ줽ʾ١פϸ餬æƤ褦˻פ롥ʾ١פϡŪǼήȤˡʤפͳ褷ŪˤϸȤĤʤݤäƤΤŪʴФȤƤϰæȤƤȤäƤ褤Voyles (121--22) ϡ̣Ω줫顤3Ĥθ1ĤθȤƶ¸ʳΰ̣§ (1) Ȥơ2Ĥθʬ줿Ȥ˶ᤤʳΰ̣§ (2) Ȥ꼰

(1) polysemous(2) homonymous ȤȤˤʤ뤬(2) ΤҤȤˤƤȤǤϡɬ2Ĥ̤θȤߤʤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤ⤷ʤݥȤϡhomonymy polysemy ζ̤٤ȤȤǤ롥Voyles (122) ۩
We are suggesting that for most contemporary speakers the meaning of suit as a set of cards or a set of clothes is an instance of polysemy: these two meanings share certain semantic markers in common. The other meaning of 'legal action' has become completely divorced from the meaning of 'collection' in that it has virtually no features in common with this meaning. This is then an instance of homonymy. The question of whether two or more different sense of a word should be considered the same or separate lexical items is, we believe, a function of the number of semantic features shared by the two (or more) senses. Often such a question does not admit of a simple yes or no; rather, the answer is one of degree.
̣Ǥΰ̣ѲιͤˤĤơҤ٤ƤVoyles ˤС̣«ΰ̣ɽФợäꡤæꤹ뵬§ŬѤ뤳Ȥˤäơθΰ̣Ѳȹͤʸˡ̣ݤ˾˥쥹秤ȤʤΤϡɤΰ̣Ūʰ̣Ȥꤹ뤫ȤǤ롥Voyles (122) ⡤ɡƱˤ֤ĤäƤ褦Williams (462) ˤ Voyles ʸФɾϡŪ
A formal system for representing semantic structure is no less a prerequisite to describing most patterns in change of meaning. Voyles 1973 has attempted to represent change of meaning, building on the formal semantic theory of features and markers first proposed by Katz & Fodor 1963. He tries to demonstrate that semantic change can be systematically explained by changes in rules that generate semantic representations, much as phonological change can be represented as rule change. But a great deal of investigation is still necessary before we understand what should go into a semantic representation, much less what one should look like and how it might change.
̣ŪˤϲΤΤȤäƤ褤homonymy polysemy Τ褦ʸ̤ˤĤƤϡɤⲿ餫ΥҥȤͿƤΤǤ롥
Voyles, Joseph. "Accounting for Semantic Change." Lingua 31 (1973): 95--124.
Williams, Joseph M. "Synaesthetic Adjectives: A Possible Law of Semantic Change." Language 52 (1976): 461--78.
ȿи (opposite) ˤȿո졤ȿʤɤθƤ̾뤬Ѹꤵ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤äȿФȤ뤫ˤĤƤ͡Ǥ롥
ȿФȿФϹȡ֡ˤȤͤΤǤϤʤ֤ȹ٤ȤȤ߹碌⤢뤷浡פ⤫٤֤ġʼºݤοСˤȤΩͤ롥ޤֹ⤤פȿФˤϡ㤤פȡְ¤פ2Ĥ뤬㤤פȿФˤϡֹ⤤1ĤʤȿФ狼뤤ϻФϤޤ夫ФǭФ륤ȿиȤΤhappy ȿФ unhappy Ȥ sad ĹûȻࡤȳ̤פȺʤϡ줾ƱˤäȿиȸƤ٤Τ
̣Ǥϡȿиˤ͡ʼब뤳ȤǧƤ롥ʲ Hofmann (40--46, 57--60) ˵äơɽŪʤΤޤȤ褦
(1) (gradable) antonym
ǤŵŪȿиϡhigh / lowlong / short, old / new, hot / cold Τ褦٤ɽ魯ƻФǤ롥ȿиƻϡѸǤӵǾˤǤ롤very ٤ʤɤħġ٤Ҥͤ뵿̾˻ѤΤϡФΤ줫Ǥꡤ餬ŪΩŪʰ̣ôȤˤʤ롥㤨Сlong / short Ф˴ؤƤ long ̵ɸȤʤꡤHow long is the train? the length of the train ʤɤ¤̣Ѥ롥ܸǤ֤ɤΤ餤ĹΤפȿҤͤ뤷̾ϡĹפȤǤϡĹûס羮סִȡפʤɤФˤΩŪ٤ɽ魯ȤǤΤ⤷
(2) complementary
on / offtrue / false, finite / infinite, mortal / immortal, single / married ʤɤΧȿФ롥(1) ФȰۤʤꡤvery ʤɤǶ뤳ȤϤǤ٤ȤɽǤʤǥʴطǤ롥ŪˡƬղäƤơɤ餬̵ɸǤ뤫뤳ȤǤʤФΰ (1) ¾ (2ˤĥ⤢롥㤨Сopen / shut, cooked / raw, invisible / visible ϡ줾ΥڥΤԤ gradable Ǥ롥
¾ʻǤϡmale / female, stop / move ʤɤ롥
(3) antonymous group
black / white / red / blue / green Τ褦ˡȿСפȤʤꤦΤޤäưϢθ췲ʤξˤϿ̸áˤΡȿиȤϡषƱ췲°Ȥ̣ǤȤ٤Ǥ롥ߤƱǤʤ⡤°Ǥϸͭϰ̤Ƥߤ˺ŪǤȤǡˤäƤϡȿиפȤ⤵ˤʤdog cat Ϥ줾ƱǤʤ顤Ʊ°ߤ˰ۤʤäƤΤǡantonymous group ΰʤƤȤ롥ǭܸǤѸǤⴷŪ˥ڥʤΤиȸʤ뤬Ʊ롼פιȤƤϡ͡ڡѡޤ¿ưʪ뤳ȤǤ롥ƻȤƤϡbig / small Ǥ (1) Ʊͤˤߤ뤬huge / big / small / tiny Ȥ4ʳΤʤǹͤ (3) ˤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ĥޤꡤ(3) ϡ(1) (2) 2ΩȤϰۤʤꡤʣΩȸƤ褤north / south / east / west 4ܤʤɡ˴ؤ¤äƤ褦ʥ롼פ⤢롥
ܸǻȿФϳʤ뤤ˤ̤ꥫǤ mountain ФƤ valley ̤Ǥ롥Τ褦ˡ롼ԥʸŪƶΤ¿
(4) reversative
ưưˤĤơžطɽ魯tie ʷ֡ˤ untie ʤۤɤˡclothe 夻ˤ unclothe æˤʤɡʬƻˤ tied / untied, clothed / unclothed Ωžȡ(1) (2) Ȥʤ롥appear / disappear, enable / disable Ʊ͡
(5) converse
husband / wife, parent / child Τ褦ߤ˵Ǥʤ䤤礦ط"X is the (husband) of Y." ΤȤ"Y is the (wife) of X." Ωġson / father ϾθɬǤʤΤǡ converse Ǥ (ex. "X is the father of Liz")
ϰۤʤ뤬buy / sell, lend / borrow Τ褦ñνȿФδǸΤ䡤above / below, in front of / behind, north of / south of, right / left Τ褦˶Ūִطɽ魯Τ⡤converse Ȥ롥
嵭Τ褦ˤ줤ʬǤʤ褦ʡȿиפ⤢ϤζʬȤƻͤˤʤ
Hofmann, Th. R. Realms of Meaning. Harlow: Longman, 1993.
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