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3ǯۤǯˡ#2470. 2015ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2016-01-31-1]) ȤȤäǯ٤ؤDZѸ˳ιֵ̤꽪ȤǴۤոäƤߤĤܤˤȤޤäΤƸ
ѸŪʡ֤ƤߤפȤäͤäȤ礭Ȼפޤάͤʤa apple ϤʤΤʤ children ʤΤʤñΤʤɡΤ褦ʵʬγعߤäȤפƤʬ⤢ޤ1ǯdzؤȤ줫餵˿ᡤμ褫ϤĤȹͤƤޤ
αѸؽˤƵ䤬⤫ݤˡ֤ϱѸŪʴǤϤɤΤפȤĤδǤȤϡˤȤäƤȤƤ礭ʺǤȹͤޤ⡤ʹ֤ˤȱѸˤŤͤƸ椷ƤȤΤΤȤƤڤäǤ
ˤdzФƤ˱ѸˤȤˤդƤӤޤ
ʤѸˤʹȤȤäĤˤäѸˤȤΤϡ빽ʹ֤Ƥ⤷Τʬä
դϤθդȤäƤǺꤢΤȻפޤʤΤǺʬѸٶƤޤˤäȵڤ˱ѸȤڤȵŤȤǤͤΤؤӤäȻפäƤޤ
ϤȿӤĤѤ뤳Ȥϡޤ˱ƼҲθϴطȿ뤳ȤǤꡤ̵ռŪ˹ԤΤΤ뤳ȤǤϤʤȴ줿դ̤ơʤΤª褦ˤʤä
줬ˡʸƲ͡ mind ĤФǤȴ褬ȼ˵ᡤŪʹͤήԤиɽˤȤ롥ѲĤŤ٤ǤäƸϴñʤǤʤˤѲƤޤǤȴ
ϱѸζܻؤʤǡ̤˱ѸڤؤǤ餦ˤϤɤ٤ȤȤˤȤƤƬǺޤƤǯ٤αѸˤ֤ƤΥҥȤȤʤ뤳ȤĤ뤳ȤǤ롥ѸΡּ¤ϡפΤäơʬȤƤ勞勞ΤƱ褦ˡ̤ˤ⡤Ѹ勞勞ʤؤǤ館ȤȻפ
αѸ줬ϺɤΤ褦ѲΤΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ̣襤μȤȤʤФʴʤäȻפ
ʪȽǤݤϲȤʤ1ĤηˤȤޤطʤ褯ƤȽǤƤɬפΤ
ˤμȤΤ褦ˡֳФ뤳Ȥ¿ѤפȤ褦ʥޥʥǻϤޤäѸˤǤǤ϶Ƥ֡פεϿȤǧäƤΤǤȤƤڤǤάֱ͡ѸˤϰήΥȤǤפ1ǯ֤αѸˤμȤ̤ƳؤȤǤ
ޤdzعΤDzǯѸؤǤơ֤ʤפȻפäƤ֤롼פήƤޤäƤαѸˤιֵ̤Τ뤳ȤǤȻפäƤޤάͤ餯ιֵƤʤΤ뤳ȤΤȤ뤳ȤʤäȻפޤޤιֵ̤ơĤȤνפΤ뤳ȤǤޤʲȤפäƤʤ褦ʻĹˤ뤳ȤʤɤΤ뤳ȤǤޤ
ȤΤϡʹ֤ѤƻȤƤĤǤʤʹ֤ˤȿʹ֤ΤΤɽƤȤȤǤ롥
ĤŤ꤬ऺΤ̤ΤǤϤʤȤȤǤ褦ˤʤޤ
ñʤ붵ʤȤƤΡָפˡʤˤطʤˤȤδؤ꤬äȤ狼ꡤ©ޤ줿ȤƤפΤʤȴ
ΤäƤɤ狼äƤ櫓ǤϤʤäȤ˵դ줿ȤȤ˻ϲͤФޤ
ϤΤܤäƲۤȤϤǤ뤱ɡ̤ηͽۤǤʤȤȤǤ
֤⤷פˤθѸˤμȤؤ٤ȤϡȤƤͤäȻפ
ֱѸפȤ礭ʲǤϤʤͤˤ롤ѤȤƤȤ䤹ʤ롥ϱѸζȵμܻؤƤ뤬ˤʤäǤˤϡ̤ˤȻפؤӤǤä
줫ѸĹǯƾŤѤäƤΤ⤷ʤ桹ιư˴ŤƷƤΤȤȡ桹ȤФȤ1Ĥƻ֤˳Ѥ뤳Ȥϡ䤿θȤϵ̳ʤΤ⤷ʤȤפ
ƳغŪʳɤФ餷˵ŤƤ줿ȤˤȤäƺǤͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Ѹ䤹ΩȤƱѸˤμɬԲķǤ뤷θˤܤ̵ؽԤȤΰ˭μ廊뤳ȤǤȴ롥
ѸȤ줬¸ߤޤƤŪȤϰ̤ˤΤܤޤǤˤϡˤο͡ιưϤˤäƤʤ줿ΤʡȤͤ뤳ȤǤȻפޤե줫ۤƤꡤ⤷ե줬ѸäƤ˶Ū˽̱ˤեǤѸϾäƤΤȹͤȱѸ¸ߤϤǤȴޤãΤ褦˻ȤˤϷäƤΤˤܺ٤ؤ֤ȤǤ¸ΤȻפ롤ΤȤѸˤdzؤ٤ޤ
ϺѸٶä⤹뤬ɴǯλ͡©äդȤäƤΤȻפʤ餹ȡ˥說說ɥɥ롥ƱѸ줬˹ˤʤ롥μȤ̤ơѸ˿礭̥ϤФȤ褿
Ѹˤؤ֤ޤǡѸϿؤʪƱȲܡɤȤפäƤޤǤάͱѸϵ̳ǽܤ1ĤǤϤʤܸƱ1ĤʤȤȤ˵ŤƤ줿ǡѸˤϻˤȤäƲͤΤǤ
ѸȤݤ졤ѲƤǤꡤ줫ѤäƤȹͤȡѸγؤӤˤˤʤä롥
͡ʥ٥Ρֳؤӡפä褦ǡֵôԤȤƤϴ¤Ǥ롥ǯ٤ѸˤƱѸˤ顤ؤǤޤ礦
ѸˤϡŪ첻 (Great Vowel Shift; gvs) Ȥ̤ˡѸζŪʸݤȤƤ "Modern English Vowel Shift Rule (alterations)" ȤΤ롥ԤϡѸڥˤߤ벻ŪѰۤ˴ؤ붦Ūʵ§Ǥ롥Chomsky and Halle üȯθθ÷ǤⰷƤȥԥåȤСΤ褦ʥڥ첻˴ؤƸؤߤ롥various ? variety, comedy ? comedian, study ? studious, harmony ? harmonious; divine ? divinity, serene ? serenity, sane ? sanity, reduce ? reduction, fool ? folly, profound ? profundity (McMahon 342) .
McMahon ϡζŪʵ§Ŭ (Optimality Theory; ot) ʬϤԸŦʤ顤ƱϱΧ (prosody) ΤˤĹƤ뤬첻ؤΤ褦ʬ˴ؤˤŬѤˤΤǤϤʤƤ롥ξϡ̤ˤƱֲפˤȤϤºݤˤΩ⤤ΤǤϤʤȤMcMahon (357) ϡΩκʤ鼡Τ褦Ƥ롥
. . . we must recognise prosodic and melodic phonology as two different systems, and in fact there are many different strands of evidence pointing in that direction. For instance, prosodic phonology shows clearer connections with emotion, with gesture, and with aspects of call systems in other primates. Prosodic and segmental phonology behave very differently in cases of language disorder and breakdown, with some children who are seriously language-impaired finding considerable compensatory strength in prosody, for instance. Prosodic phonology is also acquired early, and there is evidence that the brain lateralisation of prosody and melody is different too, with more involvement of the right hemisphere in prosody, and strong left hemisphere localisation for segmentals. If prosody phonology and segmental phonology are actually two very different systems, which have evolved differently, are processed differently, are acquired differently, and interact with different systems (as with the paralinguistic uses of prosody, for instance), then there is no need for us to expect a single theory to deal with both.
θϡOT Ūʰ˴ؤˤȤɤޤ餺ؤˤ벻ΰ֤ŤˤĤƤƹͤ¥ΤȤʤ
Chomsky, Noam and Morris Halle. The Sound Pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
McMahon, April. "Who's Afraid of the Vowel Shift Rule?" Language Sciences (Issues in English Phonology) 29 (2007): 341--59.
Brengelman ϡ17˳ΩѸֻɸಽϡȼԤμˤΤȤؼԤʤȥܤԤˤθӤǤȹͤƤ롥ϡ#1384. ֻɸಽ˹Τ17ؼԤȶա ([2013-02-09-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȤǤ롥ֻɸಽϡ17ȾФĤ٤äݤBrengelman (334) Ѥ褦
Above all, it is significant that the English spelling system that emerged from the seventeenth century is not a collection of random choices from the ungoverned mass of alternatives that were available at the beginning of the century but rather a highly ordered system taking into account phonology, morphology, and etymology and providing rules for spelling the new words that were flooding the English lexicon. / Printed texts from the period demonstrate clearly that, during the middle half of the seventeenth century, English spelling evolved from near anarchy to almost complete predictability.
ǤϡؼԤ϶Ūˤɤˡβ⤿餷ΤΩä5Brengelman (347) ꤢ褦
1. The rationalization of the use of final e.
2. The rationalization of the use of consonant doubling, including the use of tch and ch, dg and g, ck and k.
3. The rationalization of the use of i and j, v and u.
4. Resolution of the worst problems relating to the use of i, y, and ie.
5. The almost total regularization of morphemes borrowed from Latin, including those borrowed by way of French.
βϡġñ٥ǤߤзʤΤˤʤŪˤֻθɤȸŪˤƤ줿
ֻɸಽ˴ؤ Brengelman νפͤˤĤƤϡ#1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1])#1385. Caxton ֻɸಽ˹ʤäȹͤ뺬 ([2013-02-10-1])#1385. Caxton ֻɸಽ˹ʤäȹͤ뺬 ([2013-02-10-1])#1387. 츻ŪֻκѤ17 ([2013-02-12-1])#2377. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (1) ([2015-10-30-1]) ǤڤƤΤǤΤȡ
Brengelman, F. H. "Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling." JEGP 79 (1980): 332--54.
ε3562. may ʸ ([2019-01-27-1]) ޤᵯ may ˤĤƤ may γƵǼ夲ƤŪˤˡưѤʸȤơmote ʡ#2256. ɽ魯 may ν ([2015-07-01-1]) ȡˤ might ʡ#3423. might (1) ([2018-09-10-1])#3424. might (2) ([2018-09-11-1]) ȡˤ㤬ʤԤ may ȰۤʤŪˡ
⤦1Ūˤ˵ʤΤmote β most(e ʷŪ˸Ѹ must ϢʤˤѤʸ¸ߤVisser (1800) ˡ㤬Ƥ롥
13.. Curs. Mundi 25387, "Amen," þat es "Sua most it be." (But cf. 25294, þi nam mot halud be).
c1425 Chester Pageant of Abraham, Melchisedec & Isaac, Everym. Libr. p. 41, 12, Abraham, welcome must thou be . . . Blessed must thou be.
c1450 Chester Pl., Noah's Flood (in: Pollard, Eng. Mir. Pl.) 284, Ah lord honoured most thou be!
c1475 Siege of Rouen (ed. Gairdner; Camb. Soc.) p. 25, Hym wanted no thynge þat a prynce shulde have: Almyghty God moste [v.r. mote] hym save!
Visser ϡ most(e 㤬ޤ˾ʤȤ顤̻ mote äΤǤϤʤȤ⼨Ƥꡤޤ2;ñξˤĤ most ϸűѸθ߷ݻƤΤǤϤʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ʵ must ¸ߤƤΤȤ櫓Τ˾ʤʸįƤȡmote ȤκƱȤʤǤʤ
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
may ʸˤ丽ǤλˤĤ may optative εǰäƤ (78) ѤƤ Declerck (416) ˤȡmay ʸħȤ4ŦƤ롥
a. In a main clause, a wish (malediction or benediction) is introduced by may.
b. This use of may is very formal and rarely found in modern English, except in standing expressions.
c. May always expresses a present wish with future actualisation.
d. Might cannot be used in a similar way.
a, c, d ˤĤƤʤ뤬b ˤĤƤϤɤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤ɬפʤ褦˻פ롥
may ʸθߤ뤿ˡBNCweb Ƥߤư may ʸ "may_VM0" Ȼˤϡ3,537ΥƥȤ112,397㤬ҥåȤΤʤ龯ɤεˡϳʤõΤˤϤޤ˹ޤ롥ǡmay ʸŵŪѥ䴶ò¸ߤʤɤˡʤ٤¿㤬֤ˤϤȤκǺ뤳ȤˤξǡȤˤƳΤʸФ
̤ȤƼФΤ100ĤۤɤʸǤʷ̤ޤȤƥȥեˡĤ1줫ʤ륳ѥ100ȤȤϡ٤ȤϼȤϤ롥ޤ귿ɽ (Declerck "standing expressions"ˤ¿ȤȤǧ줿äȤ⡤ҤΤ褦귿ɽʤɤΡַפ˸ƤΤǡη̤ȤǤ롥Ȥ May God bless/forgive/rest . . . Long may it flourish/continue/last . . . May . . . be with you . . . Much good may it do . . . ʤɤϡ餫ʥѥƤ롥
ηˤϤޤ꤭äΤФǤϤʤmay ʸϡΤ褦ʤޤΥѥ˴ŤƸؤΡ֥ѥǥפȤϤ߽Ф¿ʤȤϤʥפʸΤƤΤǤ롥ΰ̣ǡ١פ㤯ȤפɬꤨƤʤȸΤǤϤʤΤ褦Ƥ
Happy days, Jack, and may all your troubles be little ones!' (A73 91)
AN OLD CAMBRIDGE toast is, 'Here's to pure mathematics - may she never be of any use to anyone!' (B7C 2026)
St Augustine taught that God had created man in his own image and so it was by looking at his own soul that man would discover God: 'May I know myself! may I know thee!' he had cried. (CD4 417)
May you be doing so well into the next century! (CGB 37)
With joy may we burn and cleanse!' (CM4 255)
May all dealers have this problem! (EBU 2407)
May you take that knowledge to your grave!' (HGV 6054)
⤦1 authentic 1ۤǯϤ˳鼡Τ褦ʸǻϤޤä
We hope this email finds you all well and settling in to the New Year. May it be a productive and enjoyable one for one and all!
ʡ"May the Force Be with You!"Ѹ may ʸˤĤơסطضס642015ǯ77--84ǡ
Declerck, R. A Comprehensive Descriptive Grammar of English. Tokyo: Kaitaku-sha, 1991.
[2019-01-24-1], [2019-01-25-1] ˰³Ƥꡥǫʰꡦ̿ɽ魯ɸ (pragmatic_marker) ȤƤ please ȯãνˤĤƤߤƤȯã˴ؤ2Ĥβ (1) Please (it) you that . . . ʤɤˤꡤưǤ please ʲڤΥƸɸȤȡ(2) if you please, . . . ʤɤˤꡤɽ魯° please ΩƸɸȤ⤬뤳Ȥˤʤ롥(1) ϼᤫȯã(2) Ͻ°ᤫȯãȤȤˤʤꡤоŪʲΤ褦ˤߤ롥
Brinton (21) ⡤ɤ餫ٻ櫓ǤʤAllen θ˴ŤξŪ˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
An early study looking at an adverbial comment clause is Allen's argument that the politeness marker please originated in the adverbial clause if you please (1995; see also Chen 1998: 25--27). Traditionally, please has been assumed to originate in the impersonal construction please it you 'may it please you' > please you > please (OED: s.v. please, adv. and int.; cf. please, v., def. 3b). Such a structure would suggest the existence of a subordinate that-clause (subject) and argue for a version of the matrix clause hypothesis. However, the OED allows that please may also be seen as a shortened form of if you please (s.v. please, adv. and int.; cf. please, v., def. 6c). Allen notes that the personal construction if/when you please does not arise through reanalysis of the impersonal if it please you; rather, the two constructions exist independently and are already clearly differentiated in Shakespeare's time. The impersonal becomes recessive and is lost, while the personal form is routinized as a polite formula and ultimately (at the beginning of the twentieth century) shortened to please.
ɸ please θϤɤʤΤ뤤ξȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤˤϡѸˤξԤζ٤ܤĴɬפꤽ
Brinton, Laurel J. The Evolution of Pragmatic Markers in English: Pathways of Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.
Allen, Cynthia L. "On Doing as You Please." Historical Pragmatics: Pragmatic Developments in the History of English. Ed. Andreas H. Jucker. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995. 275--309.
Chen, Guohua. "The Degrammaticalization of Addressee-Satisfaction Conditionals in Early Modern English." Advances in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak and Marcin Krygier. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1998. 23--32.
ε ([2019-01-24-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥθɸ (pragmatic_marker) ȤƤ please ϡưθ³ǫʰꡦ̿ɽ魯Ūˤ please ˸³Τưθˤ餺͡ʥѥꤨOED please, v. 6d ˡ;ŪˡȤơ͡ѥεҤ롥
d. orig. Sc. In imperative or optative use: 'may it (or let it) please you', used chiefly to introduce a respectful request. Formerly with bare infinitive, that-clause, or and followed by imperative. Now only with to-infinitive (chiefly regional).
Examples with bare infinitive complement are now usually analysed as please adv. followed by an imperative. This change probably dates from the development of the adverb, which may stand at the beginning of a clause modifying a main verb in the imperative.
1543 in A. I. Cameron Sc. Corr. Mary of Lorraine (1927) 8 Mademe..pleis wit I have spokin with my lord governour.
1568 D. Lindsay Satyre (Bannatyne) 3615 in Wks. (1931) II. 331 Schir pleis ȝe that we twa invaid thame And ȝe sell se vs sone degraid thame.
1617 in L. B. Taylor Aberdeen Council Lett. (1942) I. 144 Pleis ressave the contract.
1667 Milton Paradise Lost v. 397 Heav'nly stranger, please to taste These bounties which our Nourisher,..To us for food and for delight hath caus'd The Earth to yeild.
1688 J. Bloome Let. 7 Mar. in R. Law Eng. in W. Afr. (2001) II. 149 Please to procure mee weights, scales, blow panns and sifters.
1716 J. Steuart Let.-bk. (1915) 36 Please and forward the inclosed for Hamburg.
1757 W. Provoost Let. 25 Aug. in Beekman Mercantile Papers (1956) II. 659 Please to send me the following things Vizt. 1 Dozen of Black mitts. 1 piece of Black Durant fine.
1798 T. Holcroft Inquisitor iv. viii. 49 Please, Sir, to read, and be convinced.
1805 E. Cavanagh Let. 20 Aug. in M. Wilmot & C. Wilmot Russ. Jrnls. (1934) ii. 183 Will you plaise to tell them down below that I never makes free with any Body.
1871 B. Jowett tr. Plato Dialogues I. 88 Please then to take my place.
1926 N.E.D. at Way sb.1 There lies your way, please to go away.
1973 Punch 3 Oct. Please to shut up!
1997 P. Melville Ventriloquist's Tale (1998) ii. 140 Please to keep quiet and mime the songs, chile.
ʸ狼褦ˡthat , to 졤졤and do ʤɤΥѥǧ롥Τ줬³ΤΰŪǫʰꡦ̿ɽ魯ˡȤƹޤäƤäΤǤ롥
ǫʰꡦ̿ɽ魯졦ȤƤ please ϡǽŪˤϥݥ饤ȥͥ (politeness) ̤ɸ (pragmatic_marker) ȤäƤ褤ȤȤϡ?Ф롤?˵פΰդưǤꡤưȤƤˡϸߤߤ줬ˤƸɸƤäΤOED please, adv. and int. θ츻ˤСƻڤȤƤ2̤꤬ͤȤ
As a request for the attention or indulgence of the hearer, probably originally short for please you (your honour, etc.) (see please v. 3b(b)), but subsequently understood as short for if you please (see please v. 6c). As a request for action, in immediate proximity to a verb in the imperative, probably shortened from the imperative or optative please followed by the to-infinitive (see please v. 6d).
ͤƻڤ1Ĥϡ;ưȤѤƤ please (it) you ʤɤޤäȤΤǤꡤ⤦1Ĥϡ;ưȤѤƤ if you please ޤäȤΤǤ롥ȤƤԤԤԤ˴ŤΤǡ1530ǯ˽ФƤ롥;ưȤƤ please ˡϡ15˥åȥɤκȤˤäѤФΤǤ롥Τ줫ɽޤäΤŪʸɸȤƽƸΤϡOED ˤ1771ǯǤ롥
1771 P. Davies Let. 26 Sept. in F. Mason John Norton & Sons (1968) 192 Please send the inclosed to the Port office.
Ūˡ please ɽȯãΤꤹΤȤʤꤨɽϾ嵭2Τۤˤ⡤͡ɽäǤ롥㤨СۤƱȤ if it please you (cf. F s'il vous plaît), may it please you, so please you, please to, please it you, please you ʤɤäˡϡΤʤ뤤Ϥ٤ơˤ˵ĤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
ȸƤ֤뤤Ϥ̾ɽ蘆ƤϲȤϡҲŪ˿Ǥ롥̾ȡ줬ɤθؼ뤫ȤŪطǤ롥
ܤξ硤̸ȬŻʤɤξ줬Ĥ뤳ȤϾΤǡ¾ָ̾ü̱̾̾²̾פΤ褦˽ǰ̾ܡפǤ줤˰פΤǡܸפȸƤ֤Ȥ˲꤬ʤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤcf. #3457. ܤξǴ졦 ([2018-10-14-1])ˡΤ褦˽ǰ̾ۤܰפϡǤȤȤΤäƤɬפ롥
եꥫʿϰϤȤꡤճ˻פ뤫⤷ʤ衼åѽǤ졤üԡȡ̱²ϰפäƤȸƾΤ뤫ȤϡȤ˿ˤʤΤcf. #1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ ([2013-01-30-1])ˡȤСܥ֥Ǥϡ#1659. ޥɥ˥μҲء ([2013-11-11-1]) #3429. ޥɥ˥ο̾ ([2018-09-16-1]) ǥޥɥ˥ʸˤˤĤƤ#1636. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ([2013-10-19-1]) Ǥϵ桼ν̾夲Ƥ
ܥ֥δؿǤȶʤȤǤСֱѸפȤƾΤؤΤȤȤѲƤűѸˤϡ"English" ϥɤäƤޥ췲νŪ˻ؤƤѸˤϡθüԤϥɰʳǤ⡤ʬŪˤǤϤ쥹åȥɡ륺ɤǤѤ褦ˤʤꡤ"English" λؼоݤŪŪˤޤä˶ѸˤƤϡѸϥ֥ƥ礫ӽФơ͡Ѽޤ "English" ȸƤФ褦ˤʤꡤǤϥꥫѸ䥤ɱѸϤȤϤǹԤʤƤԥѸޤǤ⤬ "English" ȸƤФ褦ˤʤäƤ롥ֱѸפεŪطǯȺȤǤۤʤäƤ롥
ʤ "English" Ȥ̾λؤϰϤѲˤĤƤ semasiological ʹͻդ A ȸƤФƤѼ郎Ȥ B ȸƤФ褦ˤʤäȤ onomasiological Ƥ#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤåȥ˺դѸѼϡ15ˤϤޤ "Inglis" 1ѼȤߤʤƤ15Ⱦ "Scottis" ȾΤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥 "Scottis" Ȥϡ衤ѸȤϱ椫ʤȸɤ°륲ؤƤˤ⤫餺Ǥ롥ʿ (57) Ŧ̤ꡤΤ褦ʸ̾θطʤˤϡɬ䤽ôΥǥƥƥѲ롥
ťåĸϡ졻ǯ켷ǯޤǽåĸ졤åĸˤĤäȤ礭Ѳϡ˸Ƥ̾ѤäȡʤꥹƥScottis Scottish θťåĸ۷Scots Scottis ֲάˤȸƤФ褦ˤʤäȤǤ롥ĤƥƥȤդϤ餫˥ϥɡʤȥɡˤΥؤƤåȥϥȷӤĤƤȤɿͤϡθѼθƤ̾ϥƥǤȼĥϤϤäȤǧžǤäƥϤʸϥʳθؤ褦ˤʤäϥåȥɤθŪʥǥƥƥžȤƤΤǤ롥
ȸ̾εۤɡƼҲŪϤʤ
ʿ رѸθ1500ǯˡ١̼ҡ2016ǯ
źΡѸˤơ3ñưϤɤΤ褦˶ޤƤΤĹ餯ɤƤǡܥ֥ǤʲεϤȤ 3sp γƵǼ夲Ƥ
#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])
#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1])
#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1])
#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1])
#2310. 3ñΥ ([2015-08-24-1])
#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1])
#2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬϡ ([2015-03-03-1])
#2566. 3ñ -s Ȥϲס ([2016-05-06-1])
#2857. Ϣ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤס ([2017-02-21-1])
ߤΡѸˤƤϡ3ñθϤɤΤ褦ˤʤäƤΤMesthrie and Bhatt (66--67) εҤޤȤƤ
3ñ -s ȥؤ륱ϡ¿𤵤Ƥ롥ʥꥢѼ쥢եꥫѼϤᡤꥫǥѼѼɷեꥫѼեꥫѼեԥѼ (e.g. He go to school.)ݡѼʿѼʤɤ롥
ɸѸȿФԤ̣Ѽ⤢롥ñǥȤʤꡤʣ -s ȤʬۤꥫǥѼΤʤǤ⥤쥿²Ѽ (Isletan) ǤϡΤ褦ʸ㤬ǧȤ
there are some parties that goes on over there.
Some peoples from the outside comes in.
All the dances that goes on like that occur in the spring.
The women has no voice to vote.
Maybe the governor go to these parents' homes.
About a dollar a day serve out your term.
This traditional Indian ritual take place in June.
By this time, this one side that are fast have overlapped.
The governor don't take the case.
쥿²ѼƱͤηʿѼǤǧȤ (e.g. They drink and they makes a lot of noise.)
ɸѸεդԤѼʸˡ⤢̣ǤϹŪȤ롥줬ñǤм̾ˤҸưˤ -s 줺줬ʣǤФˤ -s ղäȤǰӤƤ뤫Mesthrie and Bhatt (66) ϡηϤ "-s plural symmetry" ȸƤǤ롥
"-s plural symmetry" Ѽ inherent variety ʤΤ뤤üԸĿͤɸѸʤɤɸȤƲ꽤 (hypercorrection) ̤ӸݤʤΤϡĴԤʤФʤʤޤѼ郎ɤŪ Northern Present Tense Rule (nptr) Ū̴طΤɤ⿵Ť˸ƤʤФʤʤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
ε#3555. إץȥѹˡʸػˡ٤Ρֱѹˡפܼ ([2019-01-20-1]) ˰³Ʊإץȥ٤꺣ϡֱʸػˡפʬܼ (ix--x) Ǥ褦ꥹˤƱѥȤʱʸػ˳Ȥƴ롥
ꥹˤܼΰĤȤơإץȥѹˡʸػˡ٤Ρֱѹˡפʬ˴ؤܼ (vii--ix) Ǥ褦إץȥ٤αѹˤϡꥫɴ Compton's Encyclopedia 1987ǯǡ˽ܤ "England" "History" ʬΤǡûʤ褯줿ꥹˤγȤƴ롥
⤦1ĤΥꥹˤܼȤơ#3430. ʪ졡ꥹˡʾ岼ˡ٤ܼ ([2018-09-17-1]) ⻲ȡ
#3552. 첻ܤ5Ĥ ([2019-01-17-1]) 첻 (gvs) ˤޤĤפۤˤϢ꤬ѤƤ롥ε#3553. 첻ܤγƲѲǯ ([2019-01-18-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡ첻շǤȤξȾʬ첻ʹ첻ˤѲŪᤤǯƤ뤬Ⱦʬ첻첻ˤǤϿǯ1ۤɤ٤Ƥ롥ΤȤϢŪʿܤꤹΤǤСĻ֤ƤΤϼ֤Τ礭ˤϡ1Ĥ礭ʿܤȤߤΤǤϤʤ2ġʰʾˤξʿܤΩȲ᤹ۤ褤ΤǤϤʤ1Ĥܤȼĥ뤿ˤΤɤΤ餤λ˼ޤäƤФ褤Τ50ǯۤɤʤOKǡ100ǯǤϥʤΤҴŪʴϤʤξȾʬȲȾʬϢ롦ʬΥ첻ܤξ岼פȸƤǤ
⤦1ġ첻ܤκפȸƤ٤꤬롥Ū첻ܤǤϡ¦첻첻ˤȱ¦첻ʸ첻ˤʿŪ˾夲2첻ФȤˤʤäƤꡤоϤʤȤƤ롥¦ѲɬŪ˱¦Ѳʤ뤤ϤεաˤȤȤä˲Ū˻ٻ櫓ǤϤʤؤˤʤʡ#1405. ̤첻 ([2013-03-02-1]) ȡˡǤʤȸʤСоȤƤ褤ȹͤ뺬ߤ뤤ŪĹ첻ξ夲ή (drift) ѸˡʤʤϸˡˤˤϤȤȤǤʤСϤꤽξڵߤ
Krug ϡ־岼פȡֺפȤɽϻȤ鷺Ȥξ˸ڤʤ顤첻ܤ͡ΩϡѲλ¤˴ؤ븫Ȥϡ˴ؤ븫ȸڤ롥Ω⡤켫ΤǤȤäƤȤ⤤ʤȤȤ
In terms of the classic musical chairs analogy, we might ask: how long may it take for a chair (or a gap in the system) to be filled to still qualify as one and the same game? For those theorists who allow a gap of up to 150 years . . . the whole series of changes . . . can be interpreted as forming a unitary Great vowel Shift --- even though . . . it would seem preferable to speak of one shift in the back and one in the front since the two are not interrelated. For those who require lockstep or a maximum time gap of 50 years, however, it will be two smaller shifts (affecting the upper half of the ME vowel inventory) followed by another small chain shift raising ME /aː/ and /ɛː/ in the first half of the 17th century plus an individual, but roughly contemporaneous change from ME /ɔː/ to [oː]. Both of these positions are legitimate and neither one is inherently superior from an analytic point of view.
Krug, Manfred. "The Great Vowel Shift." Chapter 14 of The History of English. 4th vol. Early Modern English. Ed. Laurel J. Brinton and Alexander Bergs. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2017. 241--66.
ε#3552. 첻ܤ5Ĥ ([2019-01-17-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡ첻 (gvs) ˤ꤬͡ΩϤäƤ롥5Τ٤Ƥ줹뺬Ū䤤ϡνդ餷ʤ˴ŤΤȤʸŪǤ롥ֻʬϤλ˱ơĹ첻2첻βѲΥߥ˴ؤԴ֤ǰۤʤäƤޤȤȤˤʤ꤫ͤʤ줬첻ܸκʤΤǤ롥
ʸѤˤꡤƲѲǯˤĤƤ٤λ¤ʬäƤƤ뤳ȤΤǤ롥ֻʳˤ⡤εӱδӱμؼԤˤ뵭Ҥʤɤⲻ˹Ƥ礹Ф٤μ֤⤫Ӿ夬äƤΤǤ롥Krug (249) ϡפԸޤȤǡ첻ܤγѲǯޤʲˡ"Dating the changes of Middle English long vowels" ꤵ줿οޤƸ褦
| Middle English | c.1500 | c.1600 | c.1700 | Modern English | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| c.1300 | (RP) | ||||||||
| (I) | iː | > | ɪi | > | əɪ | > | aɪ | ≈ | aɪ |
| (II) | uː | > | ʊu | > | əʊ | > | aʊ | ≈ | aʊ |
| (III) | eː | > | iː | ≈ | iː | ||||
| (IV) | oː | > | uː | ≈ | uː | ||||
| (V) | ɛː | > | e̞ː | > | eː | > | iː | ≈ | iː |
| (VI) | ɔː | > | oː | > | oʊ > əʊ | ||||
| (VII) | aː | > | æː > ɛː | > | eː | > | eɪ |
첻 (gvs) θϡJespersen 1909ǯˤѸƳư衤110ǯδ֡Ѹˤ䲻θԤ̥λƤĹˤΤʤǤ⡤40ǯۤɤϡѲˡפǤΤơֿܡפǤΤȤܼŪܤޤäƤβ GVS ͡¦̤Ƥä˽פ5ˤޤȤȤLass Stockwell and Minkova Ȥ Krug (242--43) ꡤ5
(i) Inception: where in the vowel space did the series of change begin?
(ii) Order: what is the chronology of individual and overlapping changes?
(iii) Structural coherence: are we dealing with interdependent changes forming a unitary overarching change or with local and independent changes?
(iv) Mergers: is the assumption of non-merger, i.e. preservation of phonemic contrasts, viable for language change in general and met in the specific changes of the GVS?
(v) Dialects: how do we deal with dialects which did not undergo the same changes as southern English or in which the changes proceeded in a different order?
5ˤĤǫƤΤMcMahon Ǥ롥McMahon ϡġФñФȤϤǤʤȤʤ⡤Ρ첻ܡפθƾΤʤΤǤϤʤȷƤ롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
Krug, Manfred. "The Great Vowel Shift." Chapter 14 of The History of English. 4th vol. Early Modern English. Ed. Laurel J. Brinton and Alexander Bergs. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2017. 241--66.
Lass, Roger. "Rules, Metarules and the Shape of the Great Vowel Shift". English Phonology and Phonological Theory: Synchronic and Diachronic Studies. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1976. 51--102.
Stockwell, Robert and Donka Minkova. "The English Vowel Shift: Problems of Coherence and Explanation." Luick Revisited. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky, Gero Bauer, and Jacek Fisiak. Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1988. 355--94.
McMahon, April. "Restructuring Renaissance English." The Oxford History of English. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 147--77.
ѸˤϤäȱѸɸಽ (standardisation) ܻؤ줿ɸಽȤ Haugen ˤ "maximum variation in function" "minimum variation in form" ΤȤǤʡ#2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1])ˡԤüŪˤС1ĤñˤĤ1ĤηȯֻˤбƤ٤Ǥꡤʣΰ۷ (allomorphs) бƤ뤳Ȥ˾ޤʤȤΩǤ롥
ɸεǽΥڥϡn ķ֤츻ŪǤϤ뤬ѸǤ n æ۷֤̤ѤƤꡤä˱ʸʤɤǤϲ䱤ΧԹ˻ȤʬΩѰۡפäŪ˰ܲ⡤ŪԹΤ¿ͤĤƤΤ褷Ȥ߷פäȤǤ
ȤѸ˱ѸɸಽʤǤȡȤϵդˡŪͳˤƷŪŻ뤹߷פƬ⤿Ƥ롥ɸγƸϡn ̵ͭδ֤Ǽͳɤ뤳Ȥʤʤꡤ줫η֤ɸȤƺѤʤФʤʤʤäΤǤ롥n Τ֤ʤ֤줬Ф뤫ϸˤäưۤʤäƤ괧1;νͭ̾Τ褦ˡѤʬۤŪʸˡŪΤ˵ꤵ줵ξ֤¸뤳Ȥ⤢ꤨΤ褦ʸġθοΰ㤤졤ŪʻۤȤƤϡͳѰۤȤƤΰ۷֤¸ߤ줾η֤1ĤηޤäͿȤȤȤʤä
a my Ǥ n Τʤ֤Ф졤in on Ǥ n Τ֤Ф줿Ȥ㤤ϡŪˤĤΤɸಽˤ۷֤Ȥ礭ʸ߷פδϡɽŪʰ㤤ˤʤȤȤˤʤαԤ Schlüter (29) ꡤϢսѤ褦
Possibly as part of this standardization process, the phonological makeup of many high-frequency words stabilized in one way or the other. While Middle English had been an era characterized by an unprecedented flexibility in terms of the presence or absence of variable segments, Early Modern English had lost these options. A word-final <e> was no longer pronounceable as [ə]; vowel-final and consonant-final forms of the possessives my/mine, thy/thine, and of the negative no/none were increasingly limited to determiner vs. pronoun function, respectively; formerly omissible final consonants of the prepositions of, on, and in became obligatory, and the distribution of final /n/ in verbs was eventually settled (e.g. infinitive see vs. past participle seen). In ME times, this kind of variability had been exploited to optimize syllable contact at word boundaries by avoiding hiatuses and consonant clusters (e.g. my leg but min arm, i þe hous but in an hous, to see me but to seen it). The increasing fixation of word forms in Early Modern English came at the expense of phonotactic adaptability, but reduced the amount of allomorphy; in other words, phonological constraints were increasingly outweighed by morphological ones . . . .
ɸθ n æ۷֤ˤĤƤϡ#831. Why "an apple"? ([2011-08-06-1])#2723. ֻ on ˤ n æ ([2016-10-10-1])#3030. on foot afoot ؤʸˡȽز ([2017-08-13-1]) ʤɤȡ괧#907. 첻 the εŪȯ ([2011-10-21-1]) ȤϢʵ롥
Schlüter, Julia. "Phonology." Chapter 3 of The History of English. 4th vol. Early Modern English. Ed. Laurel J. Brinton and Alexander Bergs. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2017. 27--46.
Ȥаޤˤꡤ119ڡˤ15ػĥѥ446ֶˤˤơܸز϶ιֱˤƤä뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤȥϡֱѸ may ʸεȯãפǤס̵ǤΤǡؿθϤӤ
May the Force be with you! ʥեˤȤˤɽ may ѤʸˤˤĤƤϡǯ֡ؿ³ƤޤرѸΡ֤ʤפϤƤαѸˡʸҡ2016ǯˤ4.5Ǥ夲ޤܥ֥Ǥ#1867. May the Queen live long! θ ([2014-06-07-1])#2256. ɽ魯 may ν ([2015-07-01-1])#2484. may ʸǤޤǡס ([2016-02-14-1]) ʤ optative γƵˤƤ̤Ǥ
ʤˤä may Ȥư줬ѤƤΤʤ VS ˤʤɬפΤʤɡŪ椬¿ʤΤǤ̻ŪˤߤȤ٤ͳʬäƤޤ̻ŪˤߤƤȤʬ¿ĤäƤꡤ;ϤޤܳŪĴ٤Ƥߤ褦ȻפΩäΤŪǶǤΤǡ٤ιֱǤϤޤǤʬäƤ뤳ȤޤȤꡤܲͤƤȤäȤȤˤʤޤԲĻĤ̥ŪʹʸˤĤơŪʻޤĤĵƤߤȻפäƤޤ
ȤۤȯɽϤˤΤǤʸƱνǤꡤܸز϶ڤƤʼΥץå⤢Ҳ𤷤Ƥߤޤʤߤ˰ϡǯ121--2˳Ťܸز212ܤ˹Ԥʤ줿1ץˤơʤͥޤԤǤαξμ̿ȡ
#3531. ֺ¡αѸ졡硼إ٥ʪ١פΤΤ餻 ([2018-12-27-1]) ǹΤ褦ˡ112ڡˤƱȥǹֺ¤ޤä줿ˤޤƤϡ600ǯΥ硼αѸ줬Ѹμǰճɤ뤳ȤʬäΤǤϤʤǤ礦ष硼αѸӤʤ顤Ѹޤ뤳ȤˤⵤŤΤǤϤʤȻפޤΤ褦ʥ˥塼äޤ
1. ޤ General Prologue Ƭ
2. 硼ȡإ٥ʪ
3. Ѹθ
4. إ٥ʪ٤θ
5. General Prologue Ƭ
6. Ѹ줫ۤѸε
ֺ¤ǻѤ饤ɻ˥åפƤޤޤ饤ɤΥڡȤΥʲĥäƤޤ饤椫ܥ֥δϢإ˭٤ĥĤƤޤΤǡȤ
1. ֱѸˡ1αѸ硼إ٥ʪ
2. ֺܹ¤Τͤ餤
3. Ellesmere MS, fol. 1r
4. General Prologue Ƭ18 (Benson)
5. Ѹ (Բϡϲp. 191
6. ơˡ֤פפ (pp. 7--8)
7. 硼ȡإ٥ʪ
8. Ѹθ
9. ΥޥѸޤǤά (#131)
10. إ٥ʪ٤θ
11. General Prologue Ƭ
12. Ѹ줫ۤѸε
13. ۤʤܤƤߤ7ܤܡ
14. ޤȤ
15. ʸ
꤫äƤ븦ơޤĴΤˡCoRD ( Corpus Resource Database ) Parsed Corpus of Early English Correspondence (PCEEC) ơThe Oxford Text Archive (OTA) ͳ PCEEC ꤷ쥿դѥȤƤΤʣĶξˤ륵ɬפʤΤǡ°Υץ졼ƥȤʻ쥿դƥȤʤ륳ѥǺϽʬѤɬפȤиġ Corpus Search 2 ѤƶŤäǤ롥
ΥѥθȤʤäƤ Corpus of Early English Correspondence (CEEC) ϡ1996--98ǯ˥إ륷ؤˤԻȤʤ줿ѥǡ1410?--1681ǯνʥƥȤξȤȤ˽ѤƤ롥96νʽʤꡤ778͡ʤ6039̡270˵ڤ֥ѥǤ롥ԻϡҲŪʼˡ˱ѸŬѤ뤳Ȥˤä
CEEC 餤Ĥλ女ѥƤꡤ1Ĥ쥿դ PCEEC Ǥ롥CEEC Τϰ̸Ƥ餺̤ǤΤ PCEEC Corpus of Early English Correspondence Sampler (CEECS) ΤߤǤ롥PCEEC ϡCEEC δط1/4ۤɤѥȤʤäƤ롥
¾Ρ̤ѥǤ롤Corpus of Early English Correspondence Supplement (CEECSU) Corpus of Early English Correspondence Extension (CEECE) 碌ơŪʾƤ
| Corpus | time covered | words | letters | writers | collections | published |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CEEC | 1410?--1681 | 2.7 million | 6039 | 778 | 96 | ---- |
| CEECS | 1418--1680 | 0.45 million | 1147 | 194 | 23 | 1998 |
| PCEEC | 1410?--1681 | 2.2 million | 4979 | 657 | 84 | 2006 |
| CEECE | 1681--1800 | c. 2.2 million | c. 4900 | > 300 | 74 | ---- |
| CEECSU | 1402--1663 | c. 0.44 million | c. 900 | > 100 | 20 | ---- |
| Period | Date | Word count | Token count |
|---|---|---|---|
| M3 | 1350--1419 | 19,505 | 684 |
| M4 | 1420--1499 | 364,317 | 20,039 |
| E1 | 1500--1569 | 309,220 | 11,056 |
| E2 | 1570--1639 | 910,675 | 44,067 |
| E3 | 1640--1710 | 555,415 | 29,185 |
źʸμˤĤơ#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1])#2341. ɽʸɽʸ ([2015-09-24-1])#2344. ɽʸɽʸɽʸ ([2015-09-27-1])#3443. ɽʸɽʸ ([2018-09-30-1]) ʤɤˤƤ
ѸΥե٥åȤϸ§ȤɽʸȤ櫓ñʸȤäƤ褤ֻȤƤߤɽʸΤˤɽʸˤ˶ᤤȤǺŪäƤ롥ϡŵŪɽʸȾΤ뤬ȤɽŪѤ⤹롥ɤʸηϤ⡤ɽʤɽʤȤñεǽôäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ⺮ŪȤȤ館٤Ǥ롥ޤdzƸʬХȤߤƤ褤
ǡֵǽפȤָפȤƤǤΤϡɽפȡɽʤ뤤ɽǡˡפ2ˤĤ䡤⤦1Ĥꤽ˻פ롥ϡˡפ뤤ϡפǤ롥ɤȤȤȡ塼¤ֹ¤ؤ Jan Baudouin de Courtenay "phonetic", "etymological", "historical" 3ĤʸηϤˤ3ĤθȤơĤޤˡηװȤƵƤΤ (Rutkowska 206) ϡ "pronunciation", "origin", "tradition" Ǥ롥
2Ĥ "etymological/origin" ȤϡŪ˰ĤƤɽ졦ɽǵǽؤƤȤäƤ褤ơ3Ĥ "historical/tradition" ȤϡŪɽɽ쵡ǽȤƤǤʤ¾ΰڹڤֻݤ뤿ΡʺǸΡ˼ʤؤȥͤϡŪˤߤԵ§ʤΤ3ȢꤲȤȤ
ʤۤɡԵ§פǽפȤäƤޤäƤϿȤʤȤˡפפȤХޡȤʹ뤫顤Τϸ褦Ǥ롥䤬إڥαѸˡ Simon Horobin ⡤ѸֻˤϡˡפȡפɤäƤȼĥɮΤʸСԵ§פȤ̵פΤΤ褤ʤΤ⤷ʤ
֤Τϸ褦פȤȤ⡤켫Ȥ1ĤΤΤθ褦ʤΤǤäơ̤θСָžפʤΤǤ롥ʸηϤʶŪǽͭ뵡ǤȤ빽¤ŪʸΤФäƤΤ餯ʸηϤβ䤫̻ŪʻʪȤƤǤˤ߽ФΤȹͤʤʪʤΤȻפ
Rutkowska, Hanna. "Orthography." Chapter 11 of The History of English. 1st vol. Historical Outlines from Sound to Text. Ed. Laurel J. Brinton and Alexander Bergs. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2017. 201--17.
ѸˤѸ츻ؤѸؽ˹ǤΤΤϡ츻ѤñΰŵǤ롥ƥϤƬʤɡ츻ŪμѤƱѸä䤹ˡΤߤƤ롥ǶǤرñθ츻աܤƤ褦
γؽѤθ̤ϻ⵿ʤǤ˥ƥåפܻؤΤǤСұѸ˳ν줿ʤȤΩĤΤܤۤԤΡإɱѸ츻ŵ٤ϿǤ롥óؽ˥ޥ줿ʰŪʱѸˤγȤơ˾롥pp. 611--41 Ȥ40ǤۤɤΡƤγˤϡ˥ѥȤʲ褯ƤꡤɤǤΤȤʤΤȤǤϥȥ饤㤦ȻפʲˡθФƸʷϵĤǤ餪äδΩäѸƺ٤ʤ
1. Ѹθ츻
1.1. Ѹθ츻Τ뤿ͽμ
ѸˤƱϤν
1.2 ˸ (historical linguistics) Υ
Ÿ
饦Ȥȥץ饦
1.3 ñι¤
졤ʣ
1.4Ѳ (phonetic change)
Ʊ
۲
ž
1.5 ƱǤ뤫ɤθʬ
ƤƸ츻ۤʤ
ۤʤäƤƱξ
1.6 캬
1.7 Ѹ졦ɥĸ졦եδط
ɥĸȤʸˡñ줬
եȤϸä
2. ĸ줫饲ޥ
2.1 åȤȯȰĸ
ӸؤΩ
²ȯ
2.2 ĸȰ²
ĸκƷ
²η
2.3 ޥ̱²ȥޥ
ޥĸ
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ޥĸʬ
2.4 ĸ줫饲ޥ
ˡ§
ʡˡ§
ޥΥȤħ
ޥʬοŸ
3. Ѹ --- űѸ졦Ѹ濴ˤ ---
3.1 Stratford-upon-Avon ˤĤ
Ѹˤθ
֥ƥθ̱
ȸ쵯θ
ƥ쵯θ
αѸ --- ޥθ ---
3.2 Ѹˤλʬ
3Ĥλʬ
űѸѸ
űѸλ
Ѹλ
3.3 ˤĤ
ƥ줫μ
ťΥɸ줫μ
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3.4 űѸߥ˲
θűѸ
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4. ƥ졦ꥷߥ˥ޥ
4.1 衼åѤʸ
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4.2 ƥ
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4.3 ꥷ
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ʤɮԤ̤δָóؽΤαѸˡפߤȤʡ#3381. ֺ¡ˤؤֱñθ츻ס ([2018-07-30-1]) ȡˡ
ͺ ͺ¼ סԡˡإɱѸ츻ŵ١罤ۡ1989ǯ
ƣãϯˡؤä˳ؤľܻˡ塦ڶԡۡ٤ɤǤ롥͡Ǽ٤ܻˤpp. 30--31 ˡʸμơפꤹ륳बꡤαԤƶܤȤޤä
ۼʸƤˤϡ̤3Ĥξ郎롥ˡ줬ŪʤΤǤʤСƤǽϤʤФʤʤ㤨С˲ƶʸƤǤΤϡܿͤˤǤ˹ŪˡϤ⤢ꡤѤФ⤫ʤʤǤǤ롥ˡƤ뤳ȤɬפȤʤФʤʤ㤨СκݤܷϸΡ֤ƤĤϤפǺޤʤ⡤ؿˤŴˤȿǯ˹褦ˤʤäΤϡһˤϽ郎̲ƤʤäǤ롥軰ˡƤ˺ݤơƤ¦μŪˤäʤ졤ѹä롥㤨ʩƤȤζϼŪ¦̤˴ؿ졤ǤøȤʩȤʤꡤǤ¯Ĥ̩夷ƤäȤϤ
ʸμƤˤϡ(1) ǽϡ(2) Ƥɬ(3) ѹ3ᤵȤȤ
ˤ˴ϢʸμƤκǤΤϡʸμƤѸܸʸˤ֤ȡʤʸʸäƤΦαƶʸȤФͤܿͤ⡤Ȥܿ夫餢äɬ⤽ʳǤּơפϤʤäޤʸƤ餺ƤΡǽϡפɬפʤäפϤޤǤƤʤäΤǤ롥ǤܤǤ⡤Ūʸ5--6ˤʤäƤ褦䤯ΩεΦνήȤȷӤĤǡܳŪ˼Ƥ˻äʸƤǽϤɬΤˡǽܿ衤λ֤פΤǤ롥
ޤѹפȤ顤ξҲʸμƤƹͤƤߤΤ⤪⤷ͤϥƤˤǤ˥롼ʸäƤΤǤꡤΰ̣Ǥ2ĤΤʤ鳰ʸåȤơפȤ⤤롥뤤ϡ˾Ѥ褦ˤʤäåȤΤʤ˥롼ʸͳ褹 <þ> <ƿ> ƳΤ⡤ΡפȤѹפȤ⤤롥ܤδμƤˤĤƤ⡤λ֤פåȤʬѤʷ֤䵡ǽΡѹפФƲ̾ФΤä
ѤʸμƻˤˤĤƤϡޤǤ⤤ȽƤȤ櫓ʲεͤȤƵƤ
#296. 轡ѸܸͿŪƶ ([2010-02-17-1])
#850. դȯŪͤδط ([2011-08-25-1])
#2386. ܸʸˡʸԡˡ ([2015-11-08-1])
#2485. ʸȽ ([2016-02-15-1])
#2505. ܤǤ˴ΤƤ ([2016-03-06-1])
#2757. Ferguson ˤҲŪʡȯŸפٹ礤 ([2016-11-13-1])
#3138. ȻѤǯ ([2017-11-29-1])
#3486. ͭʸȯʤäȤƤġġ ([2018-11-12-1])
ƣ ãϯؤä˳ؤľܻˡ塦ڶԡۡ١ηкѿҡ2016ǯ
Dixon (242--44) ꡤѸ˴ؤ뼭ˤάǯɽǤ롥ޤǼפʼ (dictionary) Ѹ콸 (glossary) ˹ʤäƤΤաȤ櫓18ʹߤˤϡǵƤʤ¿μǤ줿Ȥαդ줿줾Υȥä˵ܤΤʤñ켭ؤƤꡤǯϽǤǯɽ魯
| c725 | Corpus Glossary. Latin to Latin, Old English, and Old French. |
| c1000 | Aelfric's glossary. Latin to Old English. |
| 1499 | Anonymous. Promptorium Parvalorum [ms version in 1430]. English to Latin. |
| 1500 | Anonymous. Hortus Vocabularum [ms version in 1440]. Latin to English. |
| 1535 | Ambrogio Calepino. Dictionarium Latinae Linguae. Monolingual Latin. |
| 1538 | Thomas Elyot. Dictionary. Latin to English. |
| 1552 | Richard Huloet. Abecedarium Anglo-Latinum. English to Latin. |
| 1565 | Thomas Cooper. Thesaurus Linguae Romanae & Britannicae. Latin to English. |
| 1573 | John Baret. An Alvearie or Triple Dictionarie. English, Latin, and French. |
| 1582 | Richard Mulcaster. Elementarie. [List of English words with no definitions.] |
| 1587 | Thomas Thomas. Dictionarium. Latin to English. |
| 1596 | Edmund Coote. The English Schoole-maister. |
| 1604 | Robert Cawdrey. A Table Alphabeticall. |
| 1613 | Academia della Crusca. Vocabulario. Monolingual Italian. |
| 1616 | John Bullokar. An English Expositor. |
| 1623 | Henry Cockeram. The English Dictionarie. |
| 1656 | Thomas Blount. Glossographia. |
| 1658 | Edward Phillips. The New World of English Words. |
| 1676 | Elisha Coles. An English Dictionary. |
| 1694 | Académie française. Dictionnaire. Monolingual French. |
| 1702 | John Kersey. A New English Dictionary. |
| 1721 | Nathan Bailey. A Universal Etymological English Dictionary. |
| 1730 | Nathan Bailey. Dictionarium Britannicum. |
| 1749 | Benjamin Martin. Lingua Britannica Reformata. |
| 1753 | John Wesley. The Complete English Dictionary. |
| 1755 | Samuel Johnson. Dictionary. |
| 1765 | John Baskerville. A Vocabulary, or Pocket Dictionary. |
| 1773 | William Kenrick. A New Dictionary of English. |
| 1775 | John Ash. The New and Complete Dictionary. |
| 1798 | Samuel Johnson, Junr. A School Dictionary. |
| 1828 | Noah Webster. American Dictionary. |
| 1830 | Joseph Emerson Worcester. Comprehensive Dictionary. |
| 1835--7 | Charles Richardson. A New Dictionary of the English Language. |
| 1847--50 | John Ogilvie. The Imperial Dictionary. |
| 1872 | Chambers's English Dictionary. Robert Chambers and William Chambers. |
| 1888--1928 | Oxford English Dictionary. James A. H. Murray et al. |
| 1889--91 | The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia. William Dwight Whitney. |
| 1893--5 | A Standard Dictionary. Isaac K. Funk. [Later known as Funk and Wagnalls.] |
| 1898 | Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. [No editor stated.] |
| 1898 | Austral English. Edward E. Morris. |
| 1909 | Webster's New International Dictionary. William Torey Harris and F. Sturgis Allen. |
| 1911 | The Concise Oxford English Dictionary of Current English. H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler. |
| 1927 | The New Century Dictionary. H. G. Emery and K. G. Brewster. |
| 1933 | The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. C. T. Onions. |
| 1935 | The New Method English Dictionary. Michael West and James Endicott. |
| 1938--44 | A Dictionary of American English. William A. Craigie and James R. Hulbert. |
| 1947 | The American College Dictionary. Clarence Barnhart. |
| 1948 | The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. As. S. Hornby. |
| 1951 | A Dictionary of Americanisms. Mitford M. Mathews. |
| 1965 | The Penguin English Dictionary. George N. Garmonsway. |
| 1966 | The Random House Dictionary Unabridged. Jess Stein. |
| 1969 | The American Heritage Dictionary. Anne H. Soukhanov. |
| 1971 | Encyclopedic World Dictionary. Patrick Hanks. |
| 1978 | Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Paul Proctor. |
| 1979 | Collins English Dictionary. Patrick Hanks. |
| 1981 | The Macquarie Dictionary. Arthur Delbridge |
| 1987 | COBUILD English Dictionary. John Sinclair. |
| 1988 | The Australian National Dictionary. W. S. Ramson. |
| 1995 | The Oxford English Reference Dictionary. Judy Pearsall and Bill Trumble. |
| 1999 | The Australian Oxford Dictionary. Bruce Moore. |
ܲ may ʸȴϢ optative (mood) ̤ˤĤĴ˺Τ˹ڡ°ԡˡظʸˡŵ (963--64) ꡤƱѸβѤƤ
optative (mood) ʴ˾ˡˡˡɥ衼åѸˤǧˡ (MOOD) 1ġꥷˤȼζĴ˾ˡ뤬ƥ䥲ޥϤǤϴ˾ˡϲˡ (SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD) ȹή1ĤȤʤäޥɤ°ѸˤƤϡOEŪΩ˾ˡϤʤ
˾ˡɽꡦ˾ΰ̣ϱѸǤ㤤벾ˡޤˡư (MODAL AUXILIARY) ˤ뱪ˤäɽ롧 God bless you! ʤʤ˿Τ߷äߤޤ褦ˡ/ May she rest in peace! ̽ʡ/ O were he only here. बˤƤ줵褤Τˡˡ¿ʬΤᡤTrnka (1930, pp. 64, 67--74) 'subjunctive' ȤѸ 'optative' Ѥ롥Kruisinga (Handbook, II. 1531) ưθ촴 (STEM) ˡ1Ĥ˴˾ˡ뤳Ȥǧᡤˡθ촴˾촴 (optative stem) ȸƤ֡ Suffice it to say .... ...ȸнʬǤˡˡQuirk et al. (1985, 11.39) ϲˡΰȤƴ˾ˡ (optative subjunctive) ǧᡤ˾ˡϴ˾ɽ魯Τʤꤷɽ˻ȤȽҤ٤Ƥ롧 Far be it from me to spoil the fun. ʳڤߤ̵ˤ褦ʤɤȤϻˤϤޤäʤ/ God save the Queen! ʽŲС
첽줿˾Ŭڤ˰֤Ť褦ȤȡɬȵǽʣʴطȤʤˡ̻֤ȶ֤δΰ㤤ؤäơȤʤ롥ҤȤĤδϡŪΩ줫˾ȯù (speech_act) Ȥߤʤơθ츽ݤФƲ餫ΰ֤ŤԤʤȤŪʴ٤ȤƤδ˾뤤ϵȤϲʤΤ䤤Ϥȡưפ˿ŪҲŪůŪŪؤȯŸƤޤ궯ơޤ
Ϣơ#3538. Ѹ subjunctive ֤ϰĸ optative ֤ ([2019-01-03-1])#3541. Ѹˡμ --- Jespersen ˤŪʶʬ ([2019-01-06-1])#3540. ˾ʸȴʸ̯ʴط ([2019-01-05-1]) ⻲ȡ
ͺ° ̭ ԡظʸˡŵ١Ʋ1992ǯ
15ȯīǼҤαѸؽCNN English Express2ˡˤΤǼѸΡ֤뤢絿ספꤹǺܤƤޤѸˤδѤʵȤýǡѸˤεȤƤ8Ǥۤɤʬ̤䤤ƤޤԽΰˤϤäˤʤޤˡ
ѸؽԤ˱ѸˤҲ𤹤뤿ˡʤ٤ʬ䤹ʸϤޤȤޤرѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡؽ2011ǯˤرѸΡ֤ʤפϤƤαѸˡʸҡ2016ǯˤμݤŪʵȤʤäƤޤܥ֥ɤƤ¿ˤƤȤʤäƤȻפޤΤǡɤɤ

ʸϼ̤Ǥ
ֱѸˡפʤɤȤᤷɽʹȡ¿οͤȹƤޤ⤷ޤäȤΤƤߤСʬϡѸФѤʵ륹ɹƤ롤ѸؽԤο̣Ȥ狼ϤǤɼԤγǼʤ顤ϤȴĤijؽʤ褦ѸˤȤ顤ѸˤޤĤ뤵ޤʵǰۤƤޤ礦
ʲΤ褦ʸФǽƤޤۤƦμ⤢ޤҤɤ
Ϥ
Ѹˤγά
ܿͳؽԤͭʤȡ
ʤѸϸ礬ޤäƤΡ
ʤ a apple ʤΡ
ʤ3ñ -s դΡ
ʤ doubt ˤȯʤ b Ρ
ʤꥹѸȥꥫѸϰ㤦Ρ
δ졡ˤΤǼѸΡ֤뤢絿ססCNN English Express2019ǯ2桤īǼҡ2019ǯ41--49ǡ
ڡ° (414--15) ϡѸˡ (mood) ˤĤơŪ˶ʬ Jespersen The Philosophy of Grammar (1924) ĤľҲ𤷤Ƥ롥ˡ (mood) ȤüԤοŪ٤ΤȤǤ뤫顤̣Ū˶ʬ褦ȤȺݸ¤ʤ٤ʤäƤ˰㤤ʤť¤ˤϤޤΤɤˡJespersen ϤޤǷŪʬˤȤɤƤ롥
i) ջ֤ɽ魯
̿ˡ (jussive): Go.
ˡ (compulsive): He has to go.
̳ˡ (obligative): He ought to go. / We should go.
ˡ (advisory): You should go.
òˡ (precative): Go, please.
ˡ (hortative): Let us go.
ˡ (permissive): You may go if you like.
«ˡ (promissive): I will go. / It shall be done.
ˡ (optative)μ¸ǽ: May he be still alive.
˾ˡ (desiderative)μ¸Բǽ: Would he were still alive.
Ūˡ (intentional): in order that he may go.
ii) ջ֤ޤޤʤ
ɬˡ (apodictive): Twice two must be (or is necessarily) four.
ɬˡ (necessitative): He must be rich (or he could not spend so much).
ˡ (assertive): He is rich.
ˡ (presumptive): He is probably rich. / He would (or will) know.
ˡ (dubitative): He may be (or is perhaps) rich.
ǽˡ (potential): He can speak.
ˡ (conditional): if he is rich.
ˡ (hypothetical): if he were rich.
ˡ (concessional): though he is rich.
Jespersen ϡηŪʬˤ餳äƤʤˡȤϤޤǸФŪʤΤȹͤƤۤ褤
ͺ° ̭ԡˡظʸˡŵ١Ʋ1992ǯ
Referrer (Inside): [2019-01-08-1][ | ѥڡ ]
#3514. ˤֵפν ([2018-12-10-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡ (optative) ȴ (hortative) ζܤۣǤ롥
߷ (540) ˤȡPoutsma ʬ˴Ťȡʸˤ (1) ʿʸ (declarative sentence)(2) ʸ (interrogative sentence)(3) ̿ʸ (imperative sentence) 3ĤꡤΤ (1) ʿʸ̤ʤΤȤ (a) òʸ (exclamative sentence)(b) ˾ʸ (optative sentence)(c) ʸ (hortative sentence) Ƥ롥(1c) δʸŵȤƼΤ褦ʤΤ롥
Part we (= Let us part) in friendship from your land!---W. Scott ʤʤι褯̤ޤ礦
So be it! ʤϤǤ褤
Suffice it to say . . . ʡ. . . ȤС˽ʬ
Be it known! ʤΤȤΤäƤޤ礦
Be it understood! ʤΤȤƤޤ礦
ơ#948. Be it never so humble, there's no place like home. (1) ([2011-12-01-1]) ʤɤǼ夲 be it ever so humble ʤ˼ǤǤȡˤⵯŪˤϡδʸͳ褹ȤߤǤϡ嵭Τ褦˲ˡߤѤΤ귿ʸ˸¤졤let ˤ뱪ˡΤۤŪǤ롥
ͽۤȤ˾ʸȤζ̤ϸŪˤ̯Ǥ롥̤Ĥ䤹ΤϡLet's . . . . ŵŪ˴ʸǤꡤLet us . . . . ̿ʸ뤤ϴ˾ʸǤȤ餤
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ켭ŵ١ҡ2002ǯ298--99ǡ
tip ʿդˤθ츻ԾܤǤ롥åץ (628) ϡΤ褦˵ҤƤ롥
tip [típ] ǡüå
θˤϰ̣Ĥꡤθ츻ۣ¿ַǡפȤ̣Ǥ tap ʷڤˡüפȤ̣Ǥ top ĺˤ˴طΤȻפ롥
ɤӥФƻʧ뤪Ρ֥åספϡ¾θǤϤŪǤꡤ㤨Хե pourboire ʥåסˤϰʪФΤǤ롥Ѹ tip ϡɥΥҡϥǤ18νǤȤ⤬롥ŹˤȢ֤ƤäơޤǤͤϤդˡ˾۹ŲߤȤ褦ˤʤäƤꡤȢˤ to Insure Promptness ʿ®ݤ뤿ˡˤȤ٥뤬ŽƤΥ˥ä T.I.P. ȤʤäȤ
桼 (140) ⡤ҡϥ˰äƱݤθ츻Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
֥åספȤդȤν⡤ҡϥǻϤޤäȤ롥ҡϥˤϡȢ֤졤Τ˥褦ˤʤäƤȢˤϡֿ®«뤿 To Insure PromptnessפȽƤơƬʸȤTIPפȤ줬ǤȤ롥
θ츻ϲ褦ǡOED ϤȤҤפʸ츻ҤǤϡϿƤ餤ʤ츻⡤ȸȰ̸ΥեǤϡ⤽äƤʤȤꡤ츻ؤ롥
硼 T. åץ ƻ ϻ إåץѸ츻ŵ١罤ۡ2009ǯ
ꥢ H. 桼 ʸ ALL ABOUT COFFEE ҡΤ٤ơ١KADOKAWA2017ǯ
ŤѸˤ³ˡ (subjunctive) εˡ (optative) ˤĤưӸؤ̮ǹͤ褦Ȥݤ˵ĤʤФʤʤΤϡĸȥޥɤδ֤ˤäȤѸξʤȺˤ뤳Ȥ
ĸǤϡ̿εǽô "imperative", 餯̤εǽô "subjunctive", εǽô "optative" δ֤Ƿ֤̤Ƥθ塤ޥɤػʬ줷Ƥʤǡĸ "optative" η֤̼ˤ³ˡ (subjunctive) ȤƼѤ줿Ĥޤꡤ֤˴ؤ¤ꡤĸ "subjunctive" ȱѸޤॲޥ "subjunctive" ȤϡƱ̾ͿƤˤ⤫餺̵طǤȤȤޥĸʤȤʲνˤ "subjunctive" ȸƤФ륫ƥϡŪˤаĸ "optative" ѤΤʤΤǤʤ䤳ˡäơŤѸ³ˡηεǽͭΤϡĸ줫ȤԻĤǤⲿǤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
̤θɤǤϻϰۤʤ롥㤨ХХȡɤˤƤϡĸ "optative" ϡ̿ˡפֵˡפȤƷѾƤ褦ǡޤޤ𤹤롥
ǤϡĸΤȤȤ "subjunctive" ϤɤʤäƤޤäȤȡޥˤϷѾƤʤ褦ɡɡꥷ졤ʬŪ˥ȸɤǤϡ̤פȤƷѾƤȤȵǽʬƳѸƤʤȺɬǤ롥
ʤΤϡӸؤΤȡHittite ʤɤξڵ˴Ť⤽ĸˤ "optative" "subjunctive" ¸ߤʤäΤǤϤʤȤ⾧Ƥ (Szemerényi 337) Ϥ䡥
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. "An Approach to Semantic Change." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003. 648--66.
Szemerényi, Oswald J. L. Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Trans. from Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft. 4th ed. 1990. Oxford: OUP, 1996.
#3527. ƾΤΥݥ饤ȥ̻ͥѲ̾ϥͥƥء̾ϥݥƥء ([2018-12-23-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸθƾΤѤݥ饤ȥͥάϡʤʤʣʤΤä褦̾ (66--67) ϡƾΤ̻ŪĴ٤Ƥߤϼ岽ñ㲽ǧȤμҲŪطʤˤĤƥȤƤս꤬ΤǡѤ褦
̻Ū˸ȡѤạ̈Ѳ (modification) θˤ address terms ι¤ñ㲽ʤɡĤѲ롥ȤƤϡΨθ塦٤ץ饤ХºšҲŪع¤ήưƤ롥ñ˸ȡˤƼΨ夹Ʊˡ٤뤳ˤꡤή˸¤Ƥ̱ˤꡤ¿οͤˤäˤ˽褦ˤʤäȤǤ롥⤦ˤϡ͡γήưޤꡤ͡ηɾΤʣȤ롥ҲŪʸŪʽˤ address terms ñ㲽ƤäΤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ͡γư¿ˤϡ뤳ȤΤʤȤ negative politeness ٹ礤ι⤤ address terms Ȥ褦ˤʤäƤäȤȤǤ롥
ְȤơϡ2;ñ̾ thou/you ΩѸ˥ͥƥݥ饤ȥͥɽ魯Ԥ you زä줿ΤʤΤˤ⡤Фа礤˽Ф (cf. #1336. ʤ thou ǤϤʤ you ̲ (2) ([2012-12-23-1])ˡμҲطʤäǺˬƤߤǤ롥
̾ ҡ3ϡ˸ˤʸˡȸѲסʸˡ --- Ÿ ---ٽ ¼ݺ ƻͺԡˡĬҡ2005ǯ59--74ǡ
ޤƤǤȤޤΥ֥11ǯܤޤʿ⽪˶ŤƤޤ褿٤ˤƤ⡤ɤꤤ夲ޤ
ǯȯܤϡ̣ꡥǶᡤ<o .. e> /ʌ/ ˤĤơ#3513. come some ֻ ([2018-12-09-1]) ǿ줿κݤˡone, none ʤɤˤ줿ȴϢ once ȤȤˡ3ϼ¤ʣˤäƤ롥#86. one ȯ ([2009-07-22-1])#89. one ȯ¤äȯ ([2009-07-25-1]) Ǥ⡤˻аޤϴñ˽Ҥ٤ܤĴ٤ȼ¤ʣŪаޤ褦첻̻ŪѲȶŪѰۤۤ߹äȯãƤ褦ǡñ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤȤǡ (207) β˴ꤲƤޤޤ
one/none/once: ModE Ǥ [ū?ō?ɔː?ɔ] θؤ᤹Ūȯã餤 PE [oʊ] Ԥ롥 only (<ānlic/alone (<eall ān)/atone ˤϤ줬ȿǤƤ롥PE [ʌ] 㤨 [wʌn] ϤǤ16--17ˤߤ뤬Ūޤ¯ŪǤꡤ1700ǯޤ StE ˤϼƤʤΤ [oːn] ִƤä
3 PE [ʌ] ȯãϤĤΤ褦ǤäȻפ롥ʤOE ɑːn > ME ɔːnŪ夲 . . . [oːn] ؾ夲줿ƬϤ겻 [w] (cf. Hart wonly) . . . woːn > (GVS) uː > û . . . ʊ > ߿ ʌ ã . . .
βǤϡƬؤ w ˤ夲ФƤˤˤ˾夲褻졤Ĥ˹첻ˤʤäƤޤäȤʥꥪꤵƤ롥ˤ衤ȯαƶȤŪ¦̤ؤäơñˤǤʤȯɽʤȤäƤΤ⤷ʤ
ʤǤ one, none, once 3ΤߤܤƤΥ롼פ˴Ϣ nothing (< nā(n) þing) դäƤ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
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