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ؤǤϡβλѤĤߤ³ƤĤƤθ줬ɤΤ褦ʻѤäΤϤɤΤ褦˴طƤθĤäƤˤϡľܤʳˤޤ̤뤳ȤǤ뤬ǤʤˤŪˡǿ¬ۤʤ
ޤǤ3ĤŪʼˡƤƤ(1) 19ȯŸӸ (comparative_linguistics) ˤƷ (reconstruction)(2) (linguistic area) ˤŪƱꡤ(3) Ū˴Ť¬Ǥ롥(1), (2), (3) νˡ̤뤳ȤǤȤ֤礭ʤäƤ椯Ūʴפϼ夤Aitchison (166) ꡤϢڤѤ褦
Comparing relatives --- comparing languages which are descended from a common 'parent' --- is the oldest and most reliable method, but it cannot go back very far: 10,000 years is usually considered its maximum useful range. Comparing areas --- comparing similar constructions across geographical space --- is a newer method which may potentially lead back 30,000 years or more. Comparing resemblances --- comparing words which resemble one another --- is a highly controversial new method: according to its advocates, it leads back to the origin of language.
ӸؤηǥǤɤ夭˸¤Ϥ1ǯȤ줹ɾ⤷ʤ²ǤСˤŤޤ̤餻 Renfrew [2012-05-18-1]ε#1117. ĸθϤ Anatolia פȡˤΤȤƤ⡤8500ǯ٤Nostratic ²ȤۤϤ뤬뤹¿nostratic εȡˡƷμˡϡŪ˸ޤƤ2ˤꡤ롥
2ܡιͤŪ˸֤Ȥ館ǤꡤܤμѤʬۤѤˡǤ롥㤨СɤνǤϡ²ޤǤ岻 (retroflex) ԤʤƤ롥ŪѤˤħħŪкߤƤˤϡꤹ뤳ȤŬäƤ롥ǥйȾǥ (wave_theory) ˴ŤȤäƤ褤
ǶᡤJohanna Nicholas "population typology" Ȥ̾ΤȤˡƤ롥ŪʿưϥեꥫȤƼؤΰưäȸƱ뤫Τ褦˰췲θܤˤħŪʬۤȤ狼äƤ㤨Сinclusive we exclusive we Ω̾ʣɸ¡ͭʪξϤβݤˤͭɽκۤʤɤϡعԤйԤۤɡγϹޤȤ⤷ Nicholas 褦ˡΰưθܤʬۤȤ˴ϢŤΤȤСΰưˤɤŨŤޤǸ̤뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥СǯȤäƤ롥ͽۤȤꡤϹƤ櫓ǤϤʤ礭ˤ̤뤿1ĤοǤϤ롥˴ؤ붽̣ȤƤϡAitchison (169--72) ȡ
3ܤϡޤäۤʤ֤˶ΰפ¿ȤˡʤȤϹˤǤ롥㤨СȤơֻءפ̣Ƥꤵ tik ȤǤ츫ȴϢΤʤ¿θ˸Ȥ¤ŦƤ롥ơε10ǯ̤ȤΤǤ롥ñʤȤդ٤Τǡ˸ؤȤƤϤۤȤɼƤʤ
ӸؤǺǤ褯椵Ƥ²ˤƤ顤ΤʺƷκȤϺȼpopulation typology ⡤ޤäȤƤ⡤θܤޤʺƷˤȤɤޤ餶ʤλǤϡ̤֤ϡܤ˸1ǯȤȤǤϤʤ
Aitchison, Jean. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
ε#1311. ֻɸಽϤʤɬפ ([2012-11-28-1]) ȴϢơֻɸಽȰѤδطˤĤƺƹͤ#297. ѤƳϱѸɸಽʤݤ ([2010-02-18-1]) ȡ#871. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ ([2011-09-15-1]) εǡξԤؤ餫ˤˤĤơSchmitt and Marsden (160--61) ϰѤιٻոФƿҤ٤Ƥ롥
[A]lthough the new technology offered the opportunity for rapid standardization of orthography, in practice there is little evidence during the first hundred years of its use that printers were much concerned with such matters. As his own translations and the prefaces to his works show, Caxton himself was wildly inconsistent in his spellings. Within a few sentences in his prologue to Caton (c. 1484), for instance, we find boke, booke, and book, and lytel, lytell, and lytyl (and from another contemporary work of his we may add lityl and lityll). . . . The formative period of English spelling in fact lasted some 200 years; not until 1700 was the standard that we recognize today, with all its familiar conventions, just about in place.
Salmon (24) ƱͤˡCaxton ˻ϤޤꡤWynkyn de Worde, Robert Pynson, Robert Copland ʤɤΰؤȰѤ줿ѤνλˤϡӤֻؤδؿäȤƤ롥
In general . . . printers of the early sixteenth century demonstrate little obvious interest in working towards a standardised orthography. Their lack of concern has been well illustrated in a comparison . . . of five editions of Reynard the fox (1481, 1489, 1500, 1515 and 1550) in which it is difficult to discern any consistent progress towards a standard orthography . . . .
16ϡؤβϴǤ롥λͭ1ĤȤֻɸಽؤΤ⤬꤬ǧƤ⤬ǡƤȤäΤ⤷ʤǽŪβ1755ǯԤʤФʤʤä1ˤƤ⤽⤦100ǯۤɡ17ȾФޤԤʤФʤʤäΤǤ롥
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Salmon, Vivian. "Orthography and Punctuation." The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 3 1476--1776. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 13--55.
ѸֻȤθؤαƶˤĤƤϡ##53,219,193,562ϤȤ뵭ǤȰäƤѸؽԤˤȤäơ[2009-06-20-1]ε#53. Ѹ through ֤515̤פǤߤ֤ϡȤʾˡפ碌Ʊ˶òǰŤֻȤΤ⡤Τ褦˴֤Ƥʤꡤݸ¤ʤƤ椯ΤȤȤǤ롥ºݤѸΥƥȤɤǤȡ֤ȤΤ˾ĴƤ椯Τ¤ǡɸबʤȤդϲȤʤΤȤФˤʤäƤ롥ʹƤ뤦˼ƤΤƱǡ֤ϤܤǸǤ뤫顤ܤФϤǰƳȵǽΤ
ȤϤäƤ⡤ؤ礭㤨СѸΥƥȤɤͤϡǤΤˡϿƤֻĤƤʤФʤʤƥȤ˸ֻΤޤޤǼϿƤݾڤϤʤǤ롥٤ԺɡϿƤʤΤ뤳Ȥ⤷ФФǤ롥ˤϡѼԤɸֻƤˤ⤫餺ºݤֻˤɸʤȤޤޤ꤬롥
ֻɸಽ˾ޤͳɬפȤͳϡͤԹʳˤ⤢롥Schmitt and Marsden (156--57) 3Ƥ롥
(1) դϡ֤ȶ̵֤ۤ˾뤿μʤǤ롥μʤ¤Ѥ褦ȤС٤ʰᤵϤǤ롥
(2) դˤϡäդäƤȿȤʤɤξã˴ؤ¿μʤ礱Ƥ롥äơդˤݤ뤿ˤϡ졤ʸˡֻʤɤΤᤵ롥
(3) դϡäդȤϰۤʤꡤտŪʶˤΤǤ롥ΤˡӤֻηϤ뤳ȤϽפǤ롥
(1) (2) ˤĤƤ writing medium γƵȡ̣Τϡ(1) (3) ֻɸಽɬפǤͳǤƱˡֻפߤͳǤ⤢ꡤޤ줬ܾۤ˼ԤͳȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥspelling_reform) γƵȡˡ٤ηϤǤˤ硤Ѥ褦Ȥ뤳Ȥϰ붲줬뤫
ºݤˡֻɸಽ϶ȤνפʻȤǤä㤨СȤľܤ˻Ȥ˻Ϳ뤫ݤ̤Ȥơ㳰ʤλȤФꥢեڥϤ줾1582ǯ1634ǯ1713ǯ˥ǥߡꡤɸŪֻɥĤǤ1901ǯˡǤ1883ǯ1947ǯˡ줾ܤˤäꥹǤϡJonathan Swift (1667--1745) 1712ǯƤǥߡΩ¸ʤäJohnson μν (1755) ĺȤ뼭ԻưϤˤꡤֻɸಽζȤ⡤嵭ͳǡֻɸಽΤǤ롥äơȤΰҿȤͳ1Ĥä
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
ε#1309. ʸȾʸ ([2012-11-26-1]) ǡʸˡŪʵǽòƤȤ˿줿Ѹˤơʸ (capitalisation) ˤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤSchmitt and Marsden (156) Ƥβվǵ(a)--(c) ƬʸɬʸѤ٤硤(d)--(g) ϤƤʸѤ뤬ɤΤǤ롥
(a) the opening word of a sentence;
(b) proper names;
(c) names of the days of the week and months;
(d) names of the deity and religious celebrations (God, the Lord, Mass);
(e) key temporal events or epochs (the New Year, the Middle Ages);
(f) abstract nouns to which we may want to draw attention (Liberty, Education), along with scholarly or medical disciplines (Mathematics, Psychotherapy, Gerontology) and institutional labels (the State, Government);
(g) the main words in titles and other words to which we may want to give emphasis;
˴ޤޤƤʤΤ⾯ʤʤظѸˡŵ (242--45) 餤ĤȴФС;ñ̾ I OγƹԤκǽʸδƬ1줢뤤Ͽ졤Ƭ (acronym)դǶɽ魯ʬʸǼʹФʸʤɤǤʸѤ롥嵭¿ʸѤˤϡմͭ餫ζĴȤä̤̤ƴ롥;ñ̾ I ʸʸѤˤĤƤϡŪ˰ޤƤԤȤ¦̤⤷ʤĤƤϥǥեȤʸäʸξʸƬˤäꤵƤäˤפȡI ȤȤ˸ɷʳƮδ O ⺣ޤǤ褯Ƥ롥
Ϣơ#91. ʤ;ñ̾ I ʸǽ ([2009-07-27-1]) #583. ɥĸ켰̾ƬʸѤϱѸˤ⤢ä ([2010-12-01-1]) ȡ
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
ͧ ԡظѸˡŵ١Ʋ2006ǯ
ʤե٥åȤˤʸ (capital letters, uppercase letters) Ⱦʸ (small letters, lowercase letters) Τ
ޤե٥åȤʸ (majuscule) ȤȯãƤȤˤ롥2ܤʿδ֤ǼޤΤǡޤǤϡФĦΤѤ줿Ť square capital 䡤ܤѤ餫 rustic capital ʤɤԤʤ줿νΤ7ȾˤѤ롥4긽Ƥ䤹Ƽɮ (cursive) ǤʸΤδƤΤʤǺǤ褯Ѥ줿ΤߤߤΤΤǤ륢 (uncial) 顤ꥹǤ褯Ѥ뤳Ȥˤʤ half-uncial ȯã嵭ϤʸΤǤϤ뤬ä˺Ǹ˵ΤѼ狼顤ξʸ (minuscule) ȯã뤳Ȥˤʤä
ʸΤϡ2ܤʿξ岼ˤϤߤʸΤħǤ롥Τޤ줿Τϡ781--90ǯΥޡ˥ζפ˺ݤƥ衼пȤ Alcuin (c732--804) ν̤ΤȯãΤǤꡤɤߤ䤹ϹɾθѤȤ10--15˹Ѥ줿ʸΤ̲ǵäå (Gothic) Ǥ롥
ʸΤȯãƤϡʸΤʸƬѤʤɤζˡŪʵǽŪʵǽؤòƤ椯Τ褦ʸѤδѤŪˤʤΤȾˤʤäƤǤꡤϤȤƳΩΤ1800ǯ餤Ǥ롥
ʸȯˤϡʸν䤹ɤߤ䤹ɵˤäȤ롥̾ʴˤ̾ȯŸ˲߽̾ФܸΤˤȤӤ褦
Ϣơ#583. ɥĸ켰̾ƬʸѤϱѸˤ⤢ä ([2010-12-01-1]) ȡ
learn ˤϡԸšɸŪդȤꤵ줿Ѱʤֶ롤狼餻פθ롥He learned me how to skate. I'll learn you. ʻפΤ餻Ƥ뤾ˤʤɤʸ롥[2011-09-12-1]εǾҲ𤷤 EDD Online beta-version ˤСlearn θ4Ȥ "To teach, instruct; freq. used ironically as a threat of punishment." Ȥꡤ¾θ˭٤ʸäƤ롥
ֳؤ֡פȡֶפϻ180ٰۤʤꡤȿդȤߤʤ뤬줬 learn ȤΤʤ˶¸Ƥ롥[2010-11-14-1]εǾҲ𤷤#566. contronymפΤ⤦Ḥ̂Ȥˡξ碌ĸϡ leren ե apprendre ˤߤ롥
츻ɤȡ촴 *leis- "track, furrow" ̤롥Ф *laisjan 顤Gmc *liznōjan ˻ꡤ OE leornian "to learn" ȯŸGmc *liznōjan Ȥ OE (ġe)lǣran "to teach" ̤˴طƤꡤlore ʶƳμˤ⤽Ǥ롥"track, furrow" 촴θǤȤȤϡlearn ΰ̣κϡƻƳդˤꤽ
űѸǤϡleornian "learn" (ġe)lǣran "to teach" ̤ƤѸˤʤꡤlernen "teach" θӤӤ褦ˤʤäOED MED ˤȡϡ1200ǯ餤 Ormulum Ǥ롥
Uss birþþ itt [the Gospel] þurth sekenn, To lokenn watt itt lernet uss Off sawle nede. (19613)
ֶפθǺƵ̾ȤȤѤСѸ teach oneself Ʊͤˡֳؤ֡ؤפΰ̣Ȥʤ롥Sir Orfeo BlissǡAuchinleck MS, ll. 30--33ˤ l. 31 ǤϡƵ̾϶դǤϤʤʸ̤Ƶl. 33 lerned ϡֳؤ֡פǤ롥
Him-self he lerned for-to harp,
& leyd þer-on his wittes scharp;
He lerned so, þer no-þing was
A better harpour in no plas.
Ϣơƻ learned ʳؼΤ롤ؤʡˤ1300ǯ餤Фΰ̣ϡֶäפǤꡤlearn ΡֶפθβʬǤ롥12ѤƤ lered ӥɥĸ gelehrt ƱǤ롥
Bliss, A. J., ed. Sir Orfeo. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1966.
ѸˤϡǾ most mest Ȥ첻ȼäƸ뤳ȤʤʤѸʹߡԤѤƤäξεʬϤɤˤΤ
most Proto-Germanic *maistaz ̤뤳ȤǤޥǤ Du. meest, G meist, ON mestr, Goth. maists ʤɤʸڤ롥§˽СűѸ māst ȤʤϤǤꡤºݤˤη֤ Northumbrian dzǧΤΡǤϳǧʤǤϡ첻ȼ West-Saxon mǣst Kentish mēst Ѥ줿OED ˤС첻ϡlǣst "least" ȤȤ롥첻ηȤ mest(e) Ȥ֤ѸؤѾ졤Ǥ15ޤǻȤ줿
˵ķ֤ϡѸǤϸ첻ηȯãȤ most(e) Ȥ֤¿Ѥ줿Ǥ̲ȤλΰŪʿ˲äӵ mo, more 첻ȤäΤǤϤʤ롥
ŪˡѸʹߤˤϥޥĸ줫ε§Ūȯã most ɸŪȤʤäƤ椭űѸ줫ѸˤѤ줿 mest ɸफϼƤäְΡפ̣Ѹ formest (cf. ӵ former) 15 foremost ȤƺʬϤ줿طʤˤϡҤ most ˤ mest ִͿƤ뤫⤷ʤäȤ⡤űѸꡤǾ -est Τ -ost Ȥ褯Ʊ줿ΤǤꡤǾ˴ؤˤơξ첻θؤϾˤȤʤΤ⤷ʤ
ʤPPCME2 Ǥäȸ첻 (ex. most) 첻 (ex. mest) ʬۤĴ٤ƤߤȡԤ354㡤Ԥ168ҥåȤHelsinki Corpus ǤñĴѸǤ⸽ɸѸƱͤ most ήäȤϴְ㤤ʤ褦
for the nonce ʤäơ¤ϡʬˤȤ礬롥The team is called "the Lions," at least for the nonce. Τ褦˻Ȥ롥ɽˤϡ괧 the ΤĤƤζ̾Ĥߤ졤츻Ū˶̣
ߤη֤ľܤˤĤʤϡ1200ǯ餤κȤ Ormulum ˤ forr þe naness ȤƸ롥3θƬ n ϡľ괧νѸǤñͿʶ þen θ n ʬ (metanalysis) 줿ΤǤꡤ촴ΰȺƲᤵƸߤ˻äƤ롥ĤƤñͿʶճʤȤDzŪĤäƤǤ롥
ζϡŪˤ̣Ūˤ⸽ѸǤ *for the once б뤫Τ褦˸뤬Ūˤ3 once 뤤 one's [2009-07-18-1]ε#81. once twice -ce ȤϲפȡˤѸ°ʤ˴Ťɽľͳ褹Ȳˤ롥OED ˤС°ʷϳΤ˴ŪˤϴͿζϡषűѸ˸ to þam anum νѸ to þan ane ʤɤӤ٤one ͿʤޤɽȤƻϤޤäΤǤϤʤȤ夷°ʷϡͿʷִ줿Τȹͤ롥ִͳȤƤϡְ١פ̣Τ°ʤͳ褹 anes, ones ¤ǡͿʤͳ褹 ane, ene Ѥ줿Ȥ顤ξԤθؤäΤǤϤʤ
ѸǤϡʬϤη֤η֤¸ƤꡤMED ˤ ōnes (adv.) θ5 nōnes (n.(1)) θ1ξˡζ礬ϿƤ롥ԤˤСߤˡפȡ¤ϡפθΤۤˡոȤ "indeed" ۤɤθ䡤ΧŪȤƤΰ̣δˡȵܤƤ롥դ뤤ȤƤBliss Sir Orfeo (Auchinleck MS, ll. 51--56)
Þe king hadde a quen of priis Þat was y-cleped Dame Heurodis, Þe fairest leuedi, for þe nones, Þat miȝt gon on bodi & bones, Ful of loue & of godenisse; Ac no man may telle hir fairnise.
Ȥưʳˤ⡤nonce ˤϡΡפȤƻȤƤˡ롥̾ȤȤ˰ʣơؤνѸȤ nonce-word ˡnonce-form ˤʤɤȻȤˡνϡOED Ի James Murray 1884ǯ OED ǤѤȤǤ롥
1884 N.E.D. Fasc. 1, p. x, Words apparently employed only for the nonce, are, when inserted in the Dictionary, marked nonce-wd.
OED ˤλݤܤܤƤΤ顤OED ˤ뼫ˡȤäƤ褤
Bliss, A. J., ed. Sir Orfeo. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1966.
[2010-12-25-1]ε#607. Google Books Ngram ViewerפǾҲ𤷤 Google Υѥġˡ쥿դ줿եǤ Google Books Ngram Viewer θѤʤɸĤθϤǤ褦ˤʤäξҲˡϡSyntactic Annotations for the Google Books Ngram Corpus ǻȤǤ롥
ߡGoogle Books Ngram Corpus English, Spanish, French, German, Russian, Italian, Chinese, Hebrew 8ΥѥޤबѸ쥳ѥ˴ؤ¤ꡤ4,541,627ʬ468,491,999,492 tokens ʤĶƥȡǡ١ȤʤäƤ롥ǡåȤǽ
줿쥿ϡŪˤСʻ (POS) Ƚط (head-modifier) Ǥ롥ɸդ׳Ū˼ưǹԤʤƤ롥ʻϰʲ12ब̤롥
NOUN (nouns), VERB (verbs), ADJ (adjectives), ADV (adverbs), PRON (pronouns), DET (determiners and articles), ADP (prepositions and postpositions), NUM (numerals), CONJ (conjunctions), PRT (particles), '.' (punctuation marks), X (a catch-all for other categories such as abbreviations or foreign words)
ϼȤƤϡ㤨 "burnt" Τ褦˸뤳ȤǤ뤷"burnt_VERB" Τ褦ʻꤷ뤳ȤǤ롥 3-grams ϢǤ "_ADJ_" Τ褦ʰѤǤ롥ʾΥѥ碌ơ"the _ADJ_ girl_NOUN" ʤɤǽطλǤϡ"hair=>black", "read=>book" ʤɤϤǤ䤽¾ΥΥȤʤǤϤȤǽȤʤäƤ롥
̾ưˡͭƤˤĤơʻ̤Ѳߤͤ褦travel ̾ǤưǤ⤢뤬Ѹ쥳ѥΤоݤȤˤС20ä̾ˡưˡɤȴȤ狼롥оݥѥꥫѸꥹѸڤؤӤȡԤ̾줬ư٤ξɤȴΤ1960ǯȤä٤
ۤˡhave a look ڤ take a look ȤɽγĴ٤褦Ȥˡ괧θ˷ƻʤɤǽθ"have>=look, take>=look" ʤɤȸƤߤꥫѸǤ take Ѥɽ1970ǯɤȴƤ뤬ꥹѸǤ20˽˳礳Ƥ뤬ޤ have ѤɽɤĤƤʤ
ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫ȤˤĤơ[2012-10-14-1], [2012-10-15-1], [2012-10-16-1] 3ˤ錄äơGörlach ʸ˽äƹͻGörlach μĥϡꥫѸɬ褯ۤݼŪǤϤʤȤȤäѸαƺ˴ؤˤƤϡꥫѸݼȤƥ쥪פϳΤ˺դƤ롥ħΤAmerican Speech εǰ٤1ǽʸMcKnight "Conservatism in American Speech" Ǥ롥
McKnight ɤߤʤ顤ݼȤȤ2̤ɬפΤǤϤʤȵդ1ĤϸŤˡĤ䤹뤤ϿˡиˤѤˤȤäṲ̄ˤݼ⤦1ĤϡϽ٤Ȥ̣ǤݼξԤϸߤ˴ط뤳Ȥ⤢뤫⤷ʤܼŪˤ̸ĤΤΤǤϤʤ
Ԥΰ̣ǤϡꥫѸϡGörlach Τ̤ꡤɬݼŪǤϤʤȤǤ롥㤨С#315. ꥹѸϥꥫѸ٤ݼŪ ([2010-03-08-1]) #627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ ([2011-01-14-1]) #628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ (2) ([2011-01-15-1]) εǿ줿̤ǡԤΰ̣ǤϡꥫѸϾʤȤ⥤ꥹѸӤݼŪǤȵǤ뤫⤷ʤ#897. Web3 νǤ50ǯ ([2011-10-11-1]) Ǥ줿̤ꡤꥫѸεϽŻ٤ϤФлŦƤ롥McKnight ä˸Ԥΰ̣ǤݼˤƤ褦
18˵ϼӤ줿ΤϡꥫˤƤǤϤʤꥹˤƤäϥꥫؤ⤹ӲФäơϼĬήȤǤϡƴ֤礭ʺϤʤȹͤ롥ϼĬήΤΤζϤäΩĴסν٤3Ϥ줾̤Ƥɬפ롥ϼĬήϱƤƱ餤⤷ʤϤäΩĴפϡŪˤХꥫꥹϴѤǤꡤ٤ϥꥫΤۤκǸΰ̣ˤơꥫѸϡݼŪפȤ뤫⤷ʤMcKnight (11---16) ȯˡʸˡˤƺꥫѸεϽĥƤ롥
ꥫѸˤȤäƤεϤεˤĤոСƩ§Ȥä (reason) Ǥꡤޤȯ˴ؤƤϽաֻˤǤ롥
The natural order of things was inverted. The living colloquial idiom which should determine the written form was itself governed by the artificial forms of literary use. The writing governed the pronunciation. Sometimes English names such as Warwick, Chatham, Harwich, Lancaster, in American use are pronounced as spelled. At other times, as in Wooster, Warrick, an English pronunciation is provided with a new American spelling. In the same way idiomatic phrasal combinations in which the grammatical relations of the words are not apparent in parsing are replaced by artificial combinations in which the grammatical relations are regular. (McKnight 10)
ۤ˵ϼεȤƤȴѤΩˤĤƤϡ#141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1]) ȡ
Ρݼ (conservatism) ϤФˤʤ뤬ۤʤ٥Ǥݼ̤ƤʤȡΤǤϤʤ
Görlach, Manfred. "Colonial Lag? The Alleged Conservative Character of American English and Other 'Colonial' Varieties." English World-Wide 8 (1987): 41--60.
McKnight, George H. "Conservatism in American Speech." American Speech 1 (1925): 1--17.
ε#1302. ʤ¸ߤΤ --- ǥˤ ([2012-11-19-1]) ˰³ʤ¸ߤΤʤޤΤȤѤʵ롥Ҥ٤ǥ (family_tree) ˤη٤䤤ΤȾǥ (wave_theory)
Bloomfield (317) εҤڤơȾǥˤʬȤ褦
Different linguistic changes may spread, like waves, over a speech-area, and each change may be carried out over a part of the area that does not coincide with the part covered by an earlier change. The result of successive waves will be a network of isoglosses . . . . Adjacent districts will resemble each other most; in whatever direction one travels, differences will increase with distance, as one crosses more and more isogloss-lines. This, indeed, is the picture presented by the local dialects in the areas we can observe.
ȤƤΤϡ(1) ѲʸŪˤȾ˳Ȼ뤳Ȥȡ(2) ġθѲˤäȤãϰϤۤʤ뤳Ȥ2ˤꡤΥХˤϡʣȤ (isogloss) 뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ǥդ2Ȥȡߤ˶ᤱжᤤۤɡθѲ¿ͭƤΤǡΤȤƸŪʶ¿ᤤäȤˤʤ롥դ˱бۤɡŪ˶ͭƤѲϾʤΤǡΤȤư㤤礭äȤˤʤ롥ԤΥǤϡ֤ФƤзФĤۤɡŪʶʤʤꡤǽŪˤϸߤ̤ʤۤʤؤʬƤ椯
Τ褦ˡȾǥϡּ˱äʬȼѲ⡤ŪʵΥ˴ŤȤĴ롥ʬΤˤͥ줿ǥȤƤ뤬ǥ˴ŤӸؤƤΤϻ¤Ǥꡤξǥ䤤礦ΤȤƤȤ館ΤΥǥˤƤ⡤ѲȤƤ뤳ȤõƤ
Bloomfield (317--18) ϾΰѤ³ơȾǥˤʬˤĤơͤùŪʻͿƤ롥ѤƤ
Now, let us suppose that among a series of adjacent dialects, which, to consider only one dimension, we shall designate as A, B, C, D, E, F, G, . . . X, one dialect, say F, gains a political, commercial, or other predominance of some sort, so that its neighbors in either direction, first E and G, then D and H, and then even C and I, J, K, give up their peculiarities and in time come to speak only the central dialect F. When this has happened, F borders on B and L, dialects from which it differs sharply enough to produce clear-cut language boundaries; yet the resemblance between F and B will be greater than that between F and A, and, similarly, among L, M, N, . . . X, the dialects nearest to F will show a greater resemblance to F, in spite of the clearly marked boundary, than will the more distant dialects. The presentation of these factors became known as the wave-theory, in contradistinction to the older family-tree theory of linguistic relationship. Today we view the wave process and the splitting process merely as two types --- perhaps the principal types --- of historical processes that lead to linguistic differentiation.
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
顤ɸѤʵ䤬Ф줿ľμǡΤʤʤ
ñˤСۤʤ춦ƱΤϰۤʤѤδȯãΤ顤Ȥ뤳ȤǤ롥ܤ붦ƱΤǤ⡤ˡڴη֡衤ˡʤɤʸŪĤߤİۤʤäƤ褦ˡʸ1ĤǤʾ塤Ϥ궦ƱΤȤ˾İۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ϶ä٤ȤǤϤʤϡʸκϤʤ¸ߤΤפȤؤؤǡɸμФܼŪͿȤˤϤʤʤ
Ūˤϡ̤롥ǥ (family_tree) ˰͵ȡȾǥ (wave_theory) ˰͵Υǥϡʤ줬ʬƤ椭ۤޤƤ椯ΤȤ٤줿ǤȤɸѤʵβƤƤ롥ƥǥˤĤơ뤤ξǥΩˤĤơޤǤεǤ¿äƤ֤ʤ¸ߤΤפȤ˾Ƥʤ顤ƹͤƤߤ
ǥˤСAäƱaϡ̱ܽ²ʤɤαĤߤˤꡤ֤ȤȤ˶Ʊb, cؤʬ롥ʬ줿Ʊb, cθΤȤʤAħѤ֤ȤȤˤ줾줬ȼθѲʸŪˤ뤲ΤȤʤAȤϾİۤʤB, Cޤ롥B, CθŪۤΤǤꡤۤʤȤƱ2ĤȸƤ֤ۤŬڤ˻֤Фb, c줾ˤưܽʤɤγư֤ԤʤȡƱbϿʶ̤뿷Ʊd, eؤȡƱcϿƱf, gؤʬƤ椯ȼBϤʬ줿D, EؤȡCϿF, GؤʬƤ椯ŪˤäơüD, E, F, GγϡޤΤȤʤAθħ¿ĤƤߤκۤϤ֤礭ʤäƤ줬֤ⷫƤ椯ȡüγϸߤΥƤ椭ĤˤϸߤǽȤʤ롥ʳǤϡϤۤʤȸƤ֤ۤŬڤ

ǥδɸεȤС(1) 춦ƱΤϰ̱ܽ²ʤɤμҲưˤʬ(2) ʬ줾θ춦ƱΤȼθѲ뤲뤫Ǥ롤ȸ롥
ǥˤˤϽʷ롥¤Ĵ٤ƤߤȡʬȼѲפǤǤʤʣʸħʬۤѻ뤫㤨СDEΤ˶̤ħ¿뤳Ȥϡ̤BΤȤʾ塤ΤȤǤ롥ºݤˤϡDFΤƱ⤫ͽۤʾγǶ̤ħ줿ꡤHOΤƱͤδط뤳Ȥ⤢ꤦΤǤ롥ƱΤʬȤäƤ⡤Ū˳䤷Ƥʤ¤ꡤʬ⤢٤θή³Τ̤ǤꡤȤȤϤޤʤǥǤD, E, F, GΤʤɤβΤĤʤ̵꤬뤵ƤȤ٤Τ
ǤϡȾǥǤϤɤεǡ
ǯǤ줿 Gramley αѸ˳ѥ˥¤Ƥ롥ä Timeline Ȥ饢Ǥ˭٤̥Ϥ
äƤߤȡڡλˡ־ΤܤĻǼƤ롥¿ѸʤˤɽޤǤΤ⤢ꡤξ̤PDFǻɤɬפꡤ־ǥ쥹ˤȤϤʤõäƤߤͤϤ롥
ΥڡϡŤѸΥåդƥȡ91ʬˤꡤѶȤƤѤǤ
ޤ͡ʱѸѼȯ줿ե뤬롥ѼΥץ벻ˤĤƤϡʲεĥä⥢ǤΤǻͤޤǤˡ
#517. ICE 7ϰѼ拾ѥ ([2010-09-26-1])
#303. äѸȯΥץ벻 ([2010-02-24-1])
ܽΤ̤ɤܼ¤ꡤҲŪʴǤФƤꡤ̻ˤؤηФ褦αѸˤĬήȿǤơʹߤνѼˤ֤Ƥ롥438Ǥʬܤܤ̤
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Bloomfield (148) Ѹǡ̾Ǥ뤫Τ褦˰ȡβhypostatization ȤƤФ롥ʲˡ褦
That is only an if.
There is always a but
The word normalcy
The name Smith
the suffix -ish in boyish [2009-09-07-1]ε#133. ƻĤ -ish γηϩפȡ
Ǹ -ish ϡΩ Ish. ֤ߤʡפΤ褦˰ȤΩѤ褦ˤʤäƤꡤܼμβȤۤˤ⡤isms ʽμ, ologies ʽˤʤɤ㤬롥
ۤˡ̤ˤȤ館 realization ʸ²ˤȤ hypostasis ⤢롥kick the bucket ǡֻ̡פΰդƻ̤ˡ֥ХĤפȲȤhypostasis Ƥ롥¾Ԥȯ֤ (quotation) ⡤ǽŪˤ hypostasis ˤƶᤤȹͤ롥褯Τ줿ȤƤϡLewis Carroll Through the Looking-Glass μΰˤ nobody μβ롥ָդפˤ̤복ǰ
"I see nobody on the road," said Alice. "I only wish I had such eyes," the king remarked in a fretful tone. "To be able to see Nobody! And at that distance too! Why, it's as much as I can do to see real people, by this light!"
hypostasis ϥŪˡ1ĤȤȤ館Ƥ褤줬ŪʴؿоݤȤʤΤϡ̤Ȥ»줬̾ʤΤƻˤʤΤɤ°뤳ȤˤʤΤʤɤ꤬뤫Ǥ롥ޤΤʤ˭٤㤬ꡤ̣Ѳ¤ʤɤ¤ŪʸưˤؤäƤȤƽפˡȤؤ꤬
hypostasis ȴϢơεǽˤĤƤϡ#1075. ȳݻ ([2012-04-06-1]) Ǽ夲 Barthes ε2ѤȤƤ meta language 䡤#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) ȡ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ켭ŵ١ҡ2002ǯ298--99ǡ
ܿͤƤ֤ߤפϲߤʥ奦ߥˤؤƤǤΤƤ롥ѸǤ satsuma (orange) /sæˈʦuːmə, ˈsæʦʊmə/ ȸƤФƤ뤬ɤΤ褦ʷаޤǡ֥ĥޡפȸƤФ褦ˤʤäΤ
ˤȡߤθϤϸŤȸήäŷˤ硤縩ĹȿꤵƤꡤοꤵ븶Ϥˤʤ satsuma ȸƤФƤȤȤǤ롥
̣̤ˤȡϤʼˤǤ뤫ɤϴطʤꥫȴۿβ²Ʊߤꥫ˻äƾҲ𤷤ȤˤʤȤ⤵롥
OED ˤȡ1882ǯʸǽƤθ줬ȤƤ롥1943ǯȤƵƤʸ Webber and Batchelor (551) äƤߤȡΤ褦ʵҤä
The Satsuma was first introduced into the United States in 1876 by Dr. George R. Hall; and in 1878 General Van Valkenburg, then United States minister to Japan, brought in other trees. The name Satsuma was given to the variety by Mrs. Van Valkenburg.
˸ڤƤ Van Valkenburg ȤʪˤĤĴ٤ƤߤȡΥ֥ˡΤ褦ʵҤĤ뤳ȤǤ
ǯͤߤƤꥫιⴱRobert Van Valkenburg ȶ彣ιԤߥΤޤˤṬ̣̌˴㤷θζǤեڻȤФȤϿĤäƤ餷夷ơեƥӤˤλߥҲ𤵤졤쵤˻ߥκݤä褦ХޤΥݤƤϰ褬ߥκݳȶˡǯ˻ߥ˰̾Ѥƺ˻äƤ롥
ˡLouisiana ǥߥȪĤ Simon Citrus Farm ˤϡΤ褦ʵҤ⸫롥
The Satsuma mandarin may have originated in China but is was first reported in Japan more than 700 years ago. The first recorded introduction into the United States was in Florida by George R. Hall in 1876. The name "Satsuma" is credited to the wife of a U.S. Minister to Japan, General Van Valkenburg, who sent trees home in 1878 from Satsuma, the name of a former province, now Kagoshima Prefecture, on the southern tip of Kyushu Island.
ΤޤȤСޤ1876ǯ Dr. George R. Hall ʤʪˤäƲߥꥫ˻ޤ줿θ塤ӡ1878ǯⴱ Van Valkenburg ʤˤ겹ߥꥫƳ졤줬 satsuma ȸƤФ뤳ȤˤʤäȤȤ
ʤAlabama ˤ Satsuma ȸƤФ̾롥ƱԤHPˤȡΤ1878ǯƱˤߤҲ𤵤줿Ȥ롥ƱĮϡʹ30ǯ餤δ֤ˤߤκݤΤ褦ˤʤꡤ1915ǯ Satsuma ̿̾줿ۤˤ褦طʤǡFlorida, Texas, Louisiana ˤ Satsuma Ȥ̾롥
Webber, Herbert John and Leon Dexter Batchelor, eds. The Citrus Industry. Vol. 1. History, Botany, and Breeding. Berkeley and Los Angeles: U of California P, 1943.
ư will û̷ won't Ȱۤʤ첻ȤˤĤƤϡ#89. one ȯ¤äȯ ([2009-07-25-1]) Ǽ夲ϡѸ桦θ첻 wol ʤɤͳ褹Ȥ롥û̷ woln't ʤɤȤʤäϤ l δĶǾṳ̈ȤƸߤޤǤ /woʊnt/ Ϥ줿
Jespersen (10.452) ˤСl n ³Ķ l üϤۤˤ⤢롥shall shan't ⤽walnut l 18ˤ̵äϿ롥ߤ l ȯϡ֤ȯˤLancashire ̾ Colne /koʊn/ ⻲ȡ
첻ѲˤĤƤϡ (262) Τ褦ʸƤ롥
PE won't ϰ̤ ME *wolnt (Pt wolde ˴ŤˤȯãȤ뤬wol [ɔ] Ǥʤ wl ʸ̮ˤ /ɪ/ > /ʊ/ ä LME *wulnt > ɔ > ɔʊ > PE wount ȯãϩäȲΤǤ
ʤBloomfield (183) ˤȡ/oʊnt/ ȯΤϡѸǤ won't don't 2ΤߤǤ롥Ȥ2줫ʤ礬뤳ȤˤäβȤȤǤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
do /duː/ α߿Ĺ첻Фơdoes /dʌz/, done /dʌn/ ߿û첻ΤϤʤ
do ȤζѸǤϤĹ첻 /oː/ äƤȹͤ뤬줬첻ܤˤ /uː/ ؤѲdo ǤϤĹ첻ݤ줿ΤĤ does, doest, doth, done Ǥû/uː/ ȤȤ /u/ Ԥʤûȯ/u/ > [ʌ] Ѳ岽ˤ˹ήߤ /dʌz, dʌst, dʌθ, dʌn/ Ϥ줿 do СŪʲѲήϡ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1]) Ǽ夲 blood, flood ƱȤȤˤʤ롥ۤˤϡOE mōste > PDE must, OE ōþer > PDE other, OE mōdor > PDE mother, OE brōþor > PDE brother, OE mōnandæg > PDE Monday ʤɤ첻ѲƱͤǤ롥nothing, none 첻ꡥ
岽17Ȥ롥Jespersen ˤ뵭ҤѤ褦
The change /u/ > [ʌ], by which /u/ was perhaps first unrounded into the high-back-wide vowel and then lowered, must have taken place in the 17th c. (11.61)
The change /u/ > [ʌ] affects . . . all short /u/s existing in the 17th c. . . . (11.64)
岽βˤĤƤϡJespersen μĥʿưľưǤϤʤľưʿưäΤǤϤʤȤ⤢p. 300ˡ
岽 The Wash ¦ʥˤǤǤϸߤǤŪȯȤ /ʊ/ ʹ, p. 299) ʲ Chambers and Trudgill (128) θѸϿޤǤ褦some ˤ߿첻 [ʊ] ¤ǼƤ롥ʤ chaff ˤû첻 [a] ¤

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Chambers, J. K. and Peter Trudgill. Dialectology. Cambridge: CUP, 1980.
Ѹäع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) ϤȤƵǿƤϡ͡ŵ Schmitt and Marsden (89) Ѹʲؤ뤤 "general"ˡեؤ뤤 "formal"ˡƥꥷʾؤ뤤 "intellectual"ˤλع¤ʤɲäơɽηǼ
| Old English (general) | French (formal) | Latin or Greek (intellectual) |
|---|---|---|
| ask | question | interrogate |
| book | volume | text |
| fair | beautiful | attractive |
| fast | firm | secure |
| fear | terror | trepidation |
| fire | flame | conflagration |
| foe | enemy | adversary |
| gift | present | donation |
| goodness | virtue | probity |
| hearty | cordial | cardiac |
| help | aid | assistance |
| holy | sacred | consecrated |
| kingly | royal | regal |
| lively | vivacious | animated |
| rise | mount | ascend |
| time | age | epoch |
| word | term | lexeme |
| Old English (general) | French (formal) | Latin or Greek (intellectual) |
|---|---|---|
| folk | people | population |
| go | depart | exit |
| guts | entrails | intestines |
| word-hoard | vocabulary | lexicon |
#944. ration reason ([2011-11-27-1]) ǡեȥƥ줫Ѥ줿2Ÿ (doublet) Ĥreason -- ration, treason -- tradition, poison -- potion, lesson -- lection ȤäڥǤ롥Schmitt and Marsden (87) ¾㤬äƤΤǡ˼ѸäƤΤǥե졤ϽѸ˲ƼѤ줿ƥǤ롥
| French (in ME) | Latin (in EModE) |
|---|---|
| armor | armature |
| chamber | camera |
| choir | chorus |
| frail | fragile |
| gender | genus |
| jealous | zealous |
| prove | probe |
| strait | strict |
| strange | extraneous |
| treasure | thesaurus |
ʸꤲȡñʤ뤤Ϸǡˤ츻̤˿Ť֤äƤ褦ʸ츻ʬϥġ뤬Ȥ褤ʤȻפäƤ롥⡤ñ˸츻ΥȥؤΥĥƤ褦ʡøѸ춵ˤ褫ϤįƤǤ⤪⤷Τ褦ʥġˤ٤ι⤤ʬϥץȸ츻ǡ١δ礫ʤƤޤȼ¸Բǽ
ƱȤͤͤϤ褦㤨СVisualizing English Word Origins ϥġƤʤDouglas Harper ˤ Online Etymology Dictionary ˴ŤΥġǡĤûʸŤ츻ʬϤƤ롥ƥȤʬ̤ƥγ礬ѡȤǤ뤫ʤɤƤꡤ褽ͽ̤η̤Ф줿ȤϤ¤ˤ⤷ʬϤ˴ؤơThe Economist ˵ä
ޤϻǰʤڤȤʤäƤ뤬Ĥ http://huco.artsrn.ualberta.ca/~mburden/project/message.php?thread=Shakspere&id=174 ˴ʰŪʸ츻ʬϥġ뤬ƤξҲ ˤȤǡʤʤͭ˾ʥġä⾯ѤΤɤؾäƤޤäΤ
Ѹ츻ϢΥ饤ƥĤƤʲˤĤޤȤƤ
#485. 츻Τ뤿Υ饤: [2010-08-25-1]
Etymology Ϣγ
#361. Ѹ츻̤CGIʰǡˡ: [2010-04-23-1]
Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of First Names
Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of Surnames
츻̸פ˴ؤܥ֥ε: lexicology loan_word statistics
Etymologic! The Toughest Word Game on the Web: Ѹ츻
رμȤǡ"Breton lay" ȸƤФ른°Ѹޥ Sir Orfeo Burrow and Turville-Petre Ǥ˴ŤɤϤ롥ӤȤơBliss, Sisam, Treharne ˤǤѡ
Bliss, A. J., ed. Sir Orfeo. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1966.
Burrow, J. A. and Thorlac Turville-Petre, eds. A Book of Middle English. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005.
Sisam, Kenneth, ed. Fourteenth Century Verse and Prose. Oxford: OUP, 1921.
Treharne, Elaine, ed. Old and Middle English c. 890--c. 1450: An Anthology. 3rd ed. Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
WebǴϢõΤǡʲˤޤȤƤ
Page from the Online Database of the Middle English Verse Romances: Ѹޥ祵Ȥƶڤȴܤξ
Page from Middle English Compendium HyperBibliography: MED ƥȾ
Page from Wikipedia
Text and Manuscript from the Auchinleck Manuscript: Auchinleck ǤΥƥȤȼܲ
Text: Laskaya and Salisbury's edition (based on Auchinleck): ȥ並Auchinleck MS ˤĤƤϡ#744. Auchinleck MS ν ([2011-05-11-1]) ⻲ȡ
Text: Shuffleton's edition (based on Ashmole): ȥ
Introduction and Text: Hostetter's edition
Modern English translation in the Hannah Scot Manuscripts
Modern English translation by Hunt
Ѹʹߡh ϾȯǤꡤֻȯȤδطˤƲ褷褷Ƥh ˤĤƤϡ#214. ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1]) #459. ʻҲ /h/ (2) ([2010-07-30-1]) #494. hypercorrection ˤ h ([2010-09-03-1]) ϤȤ h γƵǼ夲Ƥ̤Ǥ롥Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤ŤˤĤƤϡäȤΤƤ뤬ܺ٤Ϥ狼äƤʤξڵȤˡ¬Ƥ椯ʤѸʹߤˤ h ȯֻδطˤĤơSchmitt and Marsden (140) εҤ˱ä褦
űѸǤ h ϵ§ŪȯƤΥޥʹߡեѸ줬̤ήˤä h 礭ѲAnglo-Norman ΥեǤ /h/ ϤǤæƤꡤֻǤ erbe (= herbe) ost (= host) Τ褦 <h> 뤳Ȥä츻Ȥʤƥη herba, hostem h ޤޤƤȤ <h> ֤뤳ȤȤʤä˽Ѹˤʤ etymological_respelling Ǥ롥θ̤Ū h ĥեѸΤ˵ڤӡ/h/ ȯʤ <h> ֤¿αñ줬߽Ф줿ºݤˤϡȯˤ /h/ Υȥդθؤɤ٤γǵäƤΤΤΤϺæˤäȤڵϤȤ㤨С18ˡ⤽ h ʸȤߤʤƤ褤ΤȤɾ餢äȤ (Marsden 140--41)
ʾϡϼӤ줿18˵Ÿ롥/h/ æϡ㤤̵üԤħǤȤơҲŪ (stigmatisation) 줿ΤǤ롥 Thomas Sheridan (1719--88) Course of Lectures on Elocution (1762) ǡh-dropping "defect" ȸƤƤɾԤäʤۤɤޤǤ˵® stigmatisation ΤϤ狼äƤʤʹߡɸѸˤƤ <h> = /h/ δطΤȤ夷ɤ櫓 heir, honest, honour, hour 4ʥꥫѸǤ herb ä5ˤˤƤϡ/h/ ζʤѸȯѤ줿ɸѼä˥ꥹѸνѼǤϡߤ˻ޤ h 뺮Ϣʤ³Ƥ롥üȤơHi'm hextremely 'appy to be'ere. Ƥ
Schmitt and Marsden εҤɤǤȡh ˤĤ椬ޤФȯȤƤϤľǤƤ⤪ʤä /h/ ɸѸˤƤϡֻȵϼϤǤܴ̤ۤȤȤˤʤ롥h Τɤäˤϡ̣ǤϱѸ˾絬ϤηŪ etymological respelling Ǥꡤspelling pronunciation Ǥ⤢롥Hope μĥ#1247. ɸѸϸŪˤꤽˤʤѼǤ ([2012-09-25-1]) ⤦ʤơɸѸϼθѲǤʤ褦ʸѲФѼǤפȤ
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
եѸˤĤƤϡfrench loan_word ¿εǼ夲Ƥɸ˴ϢȤƤϡ#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) #1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1]) Norman French Central French Τ줾줫Ѥ줿2Ÿ (norman_french doublet) ʤɤˤĤƽҤ٤ϡɸȴط뤬ޤǤ˿뵡ΤʤäSchmitt and Marsden (135--36) ꡤ3ۤɼ夲롥
ޤϡNorman French Central French 2Ÿ1ɲáåȥɱѸʹ leal /liːl/ "faithful, loyal, true" 13 Anglo-Norman French äCentral French ꡤƱ loyal 16ä
ƱեǤ㤨 Old French French 2ŸȤƤϡfeast (C13) fete (C18) hostel (C13) hotel (C17) 롥줾θԤθˤϡ/st/ ȤĶˤ /s/ æȤեǤβѲȿǤƤ롥
hostel hotel ˴ϢƤ⤦1Ķ̣ϡ˼Ѥ줿ԤǤϡ֤1ؤȱѸ첽Ƥ뤬٤˼Ѥ줿ԤǤϡϤޤ˸̤2֤Ƥ뤳ȤϡŬѤƤ붯§ Germanic Stress Rule (GSR) Romans Stress Rule (RSR) ΰ㤤ǤǤ롥GSR RSR ˤĤƤϡ#200. Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥϤ ([2009-11-13-1]) #718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1]) 褦ˡŪ꤬ޤޤƤ뤬եѸˤĤ绨ĤˤСä GSR ˽ʹߤä RSR ˽[2010-12-12-1]ε#594. ѸʹߤΥեѸħפȡˡʲ
| Earlier borrowings (--C14) | Later borrowings (C15--) |
|---|---|
| mústard | duét |
| léttuce | panáche |
| cárriage | brunétte |
| cólor | elíte |
| cóurage | ensémble |
| lánguage | prestíge |
| sávage | rappórt |
| víllage | velóur |
| fígure | vignétte |
ε#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) ˰³ֻȯꡥѸֻȯЪΥΤʤǤ⡤äۻ (silent_letter) ȸƤФΤΤ롥̵ֻб륱debt <b> island <s> ϡ츻ʸԤϸä츻ˤȤ줿ۻ (etymological_respelling) ¿ۻϡɸŪֻޤ꤫Ƥ뤤ޤäˡб벻üȤˤΤǤ롥Schmitt and Marsden (137) ˡȤƲüˤۻ˰ƤΤǡʲˤޤȤ
| Silent letter | Examples | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| k before n | knight, knee | k ceased to be pronounced during C17 (17th century); see [2009-08-27-1], [2012-04-26-1]. |
| g before n | gnat, gnaw | g ceased to be pronounced during C16 |
| m before n | mnemonic | Greek spelling; m never pronounced in English |
| p before n | pneumonia | Greek spelling; p never pronounced in English |
| p before s | psyche, psychology | Greek spelling; p pronounced by learned people probably until C18 |
| w before r | wrist, wrong | w probably no longer pronounced after C16m (mid-16th century) |
| w after s | sword | w probably no longer pronounced after C17m |
| l after a and before f or v | calf, half | l probably not pronounced after ME |
| l after a and before k | talk, chalk | l probably not pronounced after ME |
| l after a and before m | calm, palm | l probably not pronounced after ME |
| l in modal verbs | should, could | l ceased to be pronounced soon after ME in should; never pronounced in could (added to spelling by analogy with should) |
| g after a vowel and before m or n | sign, paradigm | g reflects French/Latin original spellings but was probably never pronounced in English |
| word-final b after m | bomb, thumb | b in some words never pronounced (crumb), in others it ceased to be pronounced quite early (thumb), in still others in EModE (dumb); see [2009-06-01-1], [2011-04-21-1]. |
| word-final n after m | autumn, column | n reflects original French spelling but never pronounced in English |
| t after s or f and before -en | listen, soften | t ceased to be pronounced in EModE; see [2010-05-11-1]. |
| word-initial h | honest, hour | The loanwords are French, where h not pronounced; English usually follows this, but sometimes not (e.g., host) |
ѸˤμȤʤɤ첻 (Great Vowel Shift) ȡΤ褦ʼ䤬뤳Ȥ롥name lake ʤɤ <a> 첻ܤˤ /eɪ/ ȤʤäȤʬä <e> ȯʤΤϤʤ
ϡ "magic <e>" ȸƤФˡľ뤹롥"magic <e>" ˤĤƤϡ#979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1]) (4) Ǽ夲ǤŵŪˤ <첻ܻҲe> ֻϢ³ˤƺǽ첻Ĺ첻פȯ졤<e> ΤΤ̵ȤʤȤ§Ǥ롥㤨Сtake, mete, side, rose, cube ˤƤ줾1첻ϡ/æ/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ɔ/, /ʌ/ Τ褦ʡû첻פǤϤʤ/eɪ/, /iː/, /aɪ/, /oʊ/, /juː/ Τ褦ʡĹ첻פȯ롥
嵭 "magic <e>" ħϡ첻βĹΰ㤤ɸΤˡλҲۤȤˤ <e> ̵ͭʤ <e> Τ̵ˤȤ츫ԼʼʤѤƤˤ롥̾ȯۤǤС첻ΤΤѲꡤȯʹ (diacritical mark) դꤹΤʥեΥɥĸΥ饦ȤʤɤˡʤѸǤϡۻ <e> ˤפȤŪʡ꤯ɤ첻褦ˤʤäƤΤ
¤ϡֻ§ϡǽ餫餳Τ褦˲꤯ɤä櫓ǤϤʤȤȤϤҤͤʤɤʤäΤǤꡤ<e> ۻǤϤʤȤۣ첻 /ə/ ǤϤä첻ȤƤβݻƤΤǤ롥䤤ŪˤϡʤȤűѸˤޤ̤ʤФʤʤ#1284. û첻ܻҲξˤϻҲŤͤ -ing ղäȤֻ§ ([2012-11-01-1]) ƱͤˡϴñǤϤʤʲάߤ褦
űѸǤϸ˸첻Ϥ줾촰ʲݤäƤꡤб첻ɽƤѸˤơ첻ϼۣ첻 /ə/ ؤȿʿƤäοʿ첻бʸȤƤϡ <e> ѤƤοʿ˰³ʿ첻æȤѲ /ə/ ˾äƤäֻȤƤϸ <e> ݤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
ơ /ə/ ̵ͭϲŪˤϺ٤ʤȤΤ褦˻פ뤬ṽ¤δǤ롥Ȥơ"name" ɽ魯űѸ nama /nama/ "take" ɽ魯ư niman 1 nam /nam/ ͤ褦ξԤΰ㤤ϸ첻̵ͭΤߤǤϤ뤬βȯãͤȡ줬ŷϤۤɤΰ㤤߽Фnama ϸ첻ʿʳޤǤϡ2αޤäƤꡤ촴ɽ魯1 na 첻ǽ볫Ǥ롥Ȥ첻æȡθ1ȤʤꡤҲ m ǽIJȤʤ롥nam Ϥδ椺äIJ1ΤޤޤǤ롥ΤޤޤǤϡξϲŪͻ礷ƤޤΤ褦ºݤˤϤʤʤäȤΤ⡤ӡѸˤ Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening (MEOSL) ȤѲƤǤ롥ˤäƤʹԤζ礬ۤʤäƤŪˤäơβѲˤ곫첻Ĺ
嵭νѸʹߤΰϢβѲˤꡤűѸ nama /nama/ ϼΤ褦ȯã뤲ޤ첻οʿˤ /namə/ ؤѲˡMEOSL ˤ /naːmə/ ءƸ첻æˤ /naːm/ ؤѲߤδϢˤĤƤϽ⤢ˡơ줬θ˳Ϥ첻ܤϤȤʤꡤѸ /nɛːm/ ƸѸ /neɪm/ Ϥ뤳ȤȤʤä
ʾޤȤСѸ <e> 첻űѸˤ¸ߤ餳Ѹ MEOSL ѤƸ촴첻ĹΤǤꡤĹ餳첻ܤؤǤΤǤ롥̤θСѸֻǸ <e> ȤȤϡҲޤäȤˤ첻첻ܤФȤڵʤΤǤ롥"magic <e>" ϡβ꤯ɤϤ뤬Ĺˤδ֤ʣƤֻȯδطŪˡȤƸˡȤ
ػˤȤʬΩʬȤǧ褦ˤʤäΤϡ1960ǯΤȤǤ롥ˤ⡤Jespersen Language (1922) Bloomfield Language (1933) ʤɤΰ̸سǸػˤ夲뤳ȤϤäؿιޤäΤϤ褦䤯1950ǯäƤäơ1960ǯˤϡŵŪȤäƤ褤 Robins A Short History of Linguistics (1967) 蘆ʤɡܳŪƤ롥
Ǥϡʤ1960ǯʤΤAyres-Bennett (114--15) ΤޤȤȤˤȡطʤ4ĤװäΤǤϤʤȤ1Ĥϡ1966ǯ Chomsky Cartesian Linguistics 路ȤǤ롥ΤʤǡChomsky ϼǤΩƤѷʸˡPort-Royal ʸˡȤ Herder, Schlegel, Humboldt ʤɤˤŪʸѤαĹ˰֤ŤƤߤ¿ɾԤϡChomsky ػˤΤʤ֤ȤˤäơҤŤäΤȲᤷʸˡȤʤ餺Ȥ⡤ؼԤϸ츦ˤؤ֤Ȥ줿ΤǤ롥ػˤؤ֤Ȥˤäơ"to guard against some of the more excessive claims to originality made by theoretical linguists" (115) ǽˤʤ롤Ȥ
2ܤˡ1960ǯϡؤ˸¤餺ʳ̤γػˤ˴ؿäȤȤ롥3ܤˡ1960ǯϸؤʬȤϤƤǤꡤ֤뤳Ȥˤäϰ̤Ǥ褦ȤĬήΤƤȤ⤢ä4ܤװȤơλϸؤѤˤƵѲƤǤ⤢ꡤưΤʤǸؼԤѤ̲ޤΤǤϤʤȤ̣Ƥ롥
1960ǯֶػˤȤʬϡ1970ǯꡤT. A. Sebeok Ԥ2 Historiography of Linguistics (1975) ϤȤפ˵ڤӡܳŪȯŸϤ1994ǯϡG. Lepschy 5 History of Linguistics ǤϤƤ롥
Robins (3) ˤСʪȤƤϰʲΤΤ롥
Studies in the History of Linguistics (Vols. 1--15)
Studies in the History of the Language Sciences (Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science) III (1973--)
Historiographia linguistica (1974--)
Histoire, épistémologie, langage (1979--)
Beiträge zur Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft (1991--)
ز⤤Ĥ (Robins 2)
International Conference on the History of the Language Sciences (1978--)
La Société d'Histoire et d'Epistémologie des Sciences du langage (1978--)
The Henry Sweet Society for the History of Linguistic Ideas (1984--)
The North American Association for the History of the Language Sciences (1987--)
Studienkreis: Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft (1990--)
Ayres-Bennett, W. "Linguistic Historiography." Linguistics Abstracts 3 (1987): 113--25.
Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.
ε#1286. ֲѲΰۤʤ2ưŤ ([2012-11-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Hooper ʸǤϡĴ1ĤȤưζܹԡʶѲưμѲˤ夲ƤHooper εñǤ롥ܹԤˤʿ (analogical leveling) ŵǤꡤ٤㤤ư줫˰ܹԤ뤲ƤΤȤ
Hooper ĴоݤȤưϸűѸζѲI, II, IIIͳ褹ưΤߤǤꡤθѸˤپˤĤƤ Kučera and Francis ɽȤƤ롥ٷ lemma ñ̤ǤֻΤߤȤФǤꡤdrive, ride ʤɤθʲɽ * դƤΡˤˤĤʻζ̤θƤʤӺʤΤޤǯʾˤ錄ѲˤƤȤˡѸˤ٤ΤߤȤƤ褤ΤȤ[2012-09-21-1]ε#1243. ٤θ̻ŪΤˡסˤˤĤƤڴŪǤ (99) ΤȤơ᤹Τ˻ͤޤǤˤȤâɬפʲ Hooper (100) ɽ䤹ѤΤǤ褦

ΤˤΤ褦˸ȡܹԤФưΤȤ٤Ūˤä㤤Ȥ狼롥Ϣơkeep, *leave, *sleep *creep, *leap, weep ˤĤơ3줬ŪʲݻƤΤФơ3ˤϼŪ creeped, leaped, weeped ΰ۷ǧȤԤ٤Ϥ줾 531, 792, 132 ФƸԤϤ줾 37, 42, 31 Ȥ (Hooper 100) ͤޤǤˤȤϤäƤ⡤ȤƤ餫Τ褦˻פ롥
ưζܹԤϱѸˤˤƴŪǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1]) ʤɤǿƤƳȤ狼äƤʤȤ¿ξܺ٤ʸ椬ؤ롥
Hooper, Joan. "Word Frequency in Lexical Diffusion and the Source of Morphophonological Change." Current Progress in Historical Linguistics. Ed. William M. Christie Jr. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976. 95--105.
Ѳȸ٤ȤδطˤĤƤϡPhillips θҲ𤷤ʤ顤#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis ([2012-09-17-1]) #1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ#1265. ٤ȲѲνδط˵ŤƤ Schuchardt ([2012-10-13-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ˲ŪѲϹٸ줫ϤޤȤȤ19ŦƤդ (analogy) δؤֲŪѲٸ줫ϤޤȤȤ⡤ۤƱ Herman Paul ˤäƻŦƤHooper 95)
Hooper ϡ1984ǯʸǡ٤Ȥ顤벻Ѳȹͤ븽Ѹˤ schwa-deletion memory ʤɤ2첻ˤˤʿȹͤưμѲĴ2Ω "phonetic change tends to affect frequent words first, while analogical leveling tends to affect infrequent words first" (101) ٻPhillips Ϥñ2ΩˤäƤǤʤΤ뤳ȤƤ뤬ΩνȯȤ뤳ȤϺǤ
Τ褦٤ȲѲδطˤäƤ褦˸ Hooper ¤ΤȤüԤϸپ˥ǤʤϤȹͤƤ (102)
I do not think the relative frequency of words is a part of native speaker competence, so I would not propose to make the rule sensitive to word frequency.
Ǥ٤ȲѲοʹԽشط뤳Ȥǧ³ΤǤСξԤϡüԤθǽϤǤϤʤ챿ѤΤʤˤȤȤˤʤΤHooper ϻҶθĤ褦ȤƤ褦
٤ȲѲν˴ؤΤŪʰյϡʷ֡˲Ѳˤϸΰۤʤʣμब뤳Ȥˤ롥ѲνۤʤȤȤϡ餯ѲΥᥫ˥बۤʤȤȤǤꡤѲθۤʤȤȤǤϤʤȤСѲν狼СѲưŤ狼뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ϤΤ褦ʸΰۤʤѲˡֽ벻ѲפŪʷֲѲפȤ٥ŽդƤϤ٤ʬबɬפHooper (103) ηƤ
. . . if it turned out that vowel shifts and some other phonetic changes affect infrequent forms before frequent forms, then we would have an interesting indication that phonetic changes arise from different sources, and furthermore, if my hypotheses are correct, a way of determining which types of changes are traceable to which source. Thus it appears that lexical diffusion, studied in terms of word frequency, may turn up some interesting evidence concerning the source of morpho-phonological change. (103)
Hooper, Joan. "Word Frequency in Lexical Diffusion and the Source of Morphophonological Change." Current Progress in Historical Linguistics. Ed. William M. Christie Jr. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976. 95--105.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
ޥؤȯ롤Ҷ饳ƥĤѰդƤΥΤʤˡTimeline of English Language ʤFLASHƥĤȯƤѸǯɽǡޤƳŪŪǤλѤǰƬ֤ΤäμˤϻȤ뤫⤷ʤΤǾҲ𤷤Ƥ
˴ؤ¾ΥƥĤؤΥϡˤ롥ΤΤʤɤϡ빽⤷
World Language Map
Borrowing Game
ʰǯɽȤȤǤСA brief chronology of English ʤΤĤܥ֥Ǥϡtimeline ȡ
ñʸˡֻ§Ȥɬؤֻ1Ĥˡɸֻ§롥dig digging, hop hopping, run running, swim swimming ϤʤȤѤʵ䤬줿Τǡά⤹롥
դƤΤϡ -ing ˤơֻǤҲŤͤΤΡȯˤƤҲʣ (geminate) Ȥʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤܸȤƤϡ֥˥פ /n/ Ťͤȯ뤬ѸǤϤޤǴΤȯ -ing ȯä /rʌnɪng/ Ǥ롥ѸζˤƤϡȯȤƤλҲʣ¸ߤʤȹͤƤ褤űѸǤñҲȽŻҲΩʤҲ̡ĹˤΩŪ¸ߤѸŻҲ (degemination) ʹԤʹߡҲ̤Ωä줿Ǥ롥äȤ⡤penknife /pɛnnaɪf/ ʤɤʣʤɤǤϷǴ֤ޤäƤλҲʣϤΤǡѸ˻Ҳʣ̵Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤ
ǤϡѸˤϲŪñҲȽŻҲΩʤˤ⤫餺ˡ <running> Τ褦֤뤳ȤˤʤäƤΤϤʤŪˤϡΤ褦ʽŻҲϡҲΤΤĹǤϤʤľ첻βǽ̤ƤȤ롥<running> Τ褦 <n> Ťͤ뤳Ȥˤäơ*/nn/ ɽ路ƤΤǤϤʤľβĹ첻 /uː/ ǤϤʤû첻 /ʌ/ Ǥ뤳ȤƤȤΤǤ롥⤷Ĺ첻ɽ路ΤǤСդ <n> Ťͤ *<runing> ȤФ褤ʼȤơ<hoping> <hopping> Ωʤɤ뤬Ϥ Magic <e> ֻ§ȤϢˡΤ褦ˡѸˡǤϡҲŤͤ뤫ݤˤäơľ첻βʴǤϤʤˤ褽ꤵȤȤߤˤʤäƤ롥
λȤΤɤΤ褦ȯΤŪõȤС˽Ҥ٤ŻҲλˤ벻ηϡṽ¤ֻμɬפȤʤ롥Ȥ櫓 Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening (MEOSL), loss of schwa, degemination ʤɡߤ˴ϢϢβѲ礫ʤΰϢβˤŪ¿äϹäƤ롥ñƧ߹ʤΰʤΤǡ̤εפळȤˤǤϴϢǶʸȤ Britton ˤȤɤƤ
Britton, Derek. "Degemination in English, with Special Reference to the Middle English Period." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 232--43.
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2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
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2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46
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