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2018-06-30 Sat

#3351. ꥫѸǤ "mandative subjunctive" λѤ "colonial lag" ǤϤʤפ [subjunctive][ame_bre][colonial_lag][inflection][emode][lmode][americanisation][mandative_subjunctive]

"mandative subjunctive" 뤤ϲˡߤȸƤФˡˤĤơ#325. mandative subjunctive should ([2010-03-18-1])#326. The subjunctive forms die hard. ([2010-03-19-1])#345. "mandative subjunctive" Υꥹȡ ([2010-04-07-1])#3042. Ѹ³ˡλѤäͳ ([2017-08-25-1]) ʤɤǰäƤ
ޤοࡤˤϡ礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤѸˤ礭ĬήǰƬˤȡΥꥫѸʤ٤ƥꥹѸǤˤˤ벾ˡߤοĥϡʵήȤƤȤ館롥ä͡ʸ椬ԤʤƤŪʲͿƤʤޤŪ˥ꥫѸǤλѤϡꥫѸݼŪʷʤ colonial_lag 򼨤1ĤȤФвᤵƤβˤ⵿褦ˤʤäƤʤŸˡλ¸ȤϡѸ˰٤ѤȤʤ꤫ŸˡθѸˤη̤ǤϤʤȡ
Ը򻲾Ȥʤ顤Mondorf (853) Τ褦󤷤Ƥ롥

[R]ecent empirical studies concur that the subjunctive had virtually become extinct in both varieties; rather than witnessing its delayed demise in AmE, we are observing its revival in AmE and --- though at a slower pace --- also in BrE . . . .
   The trajectory of change takes the form of a successive decline from Old English to Early Modern English, ranging from a relatively wide distribution in Old English, with competition between indicatives and modal periphrases (e.g. scolde + infinitive), via a reduction of formal marking in Middle English (when the indicative preterit plural -on and subjunctive preterit plural and past participle of strong verbs -en were fused and final unstressed -e was lost), to rare instances in Early Modern English. It is only at the end of the LModE period that the subjunctive re-established itself and "nothing less than a revolution took place" . . . .


ʤѸΥꥫ³ˡѤ褷ƤΤȤ䤤ˤĤƤϡĤε롥ޤ#3042. Ѹ³ˡλѤäͳ ([2017-08-25-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡʸˡαƶϤҲŪװŻ뤹븫򤬤롥ǽŪʴ顤󸽼 (irrealis) ɽȤˡΤΤѤäƤ餺ηˡư줫³ˡ߶ޤإեȤˤʤȤ븫⤢롥ԤθǤϡꥫѸˤƤĤˡưλѤȤȤδϢͤ (Mondorf 853--54)
ꥹѸǤ⥢ꥫѸ٤Фʤ顤³ˡߤλѤƤƤ褦ϰ̤ˤϥꥫѸαƶ (americanisation) ȹͤƤ롥⤷ȾʤȤʬŪˤϡĤƤΥꥫѸǵäΤƱͤˡꥹѸǤΩŪȯãȤǽΤƤʤȤ (Mondorf 854) ޤ;Ϥʬ˻ĤäƤΰǤ롥
ĤǶδϢ븦ν󤲤Ƥ

Crawford, William J. "The Mandative Subjunctive." One Language, Two Grammars: Grammatical Differences between British English and American English. Ed. Günter Rohdenburg and Julia Schlüter. Cambridge: CUP, 2009. 257--276.
Hundt, Marianne. "Colonial Lag, Colonial Innovation or Simply Language Change?" One Language, Two Grammars: Grammatical Differences between British English and American English. Ed. Günter Rohdenburg and Julia Schlüter. Cambridge: CUP, 2009. 13--37.
Kjellmer, Göran. "The Revived Subjunctive." One Language, Two Grammars: Grammatical Differences between British English and American English. Ed. Günter Rohdenburg and Julia Schlüter. Cambridge: CUP, 2009. 246--256.
Övergaard, Gerd. The Mandative Subjunctive in American and British English in the 20th Century. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1995.
Schlüuter, Julia. "The Conditional Subjunctive." One Language, Two Grammars: Grammatical Differences between British English and American English. Ed. Günter Rohdenburg and Julia Schlüter. Cambridge: CUP, 2009. 277--305.

Mondorf, Britta. "Late Modern English: Morphology." Chapter 53 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 843--69.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-02-26-1]

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2018-06-29 Fri

#3350. ѸϿܻؤ [lmode][morphology][synthesis_to_analysis]

ε#3349. ѸˤƻӤζ޷ vs ηװ ([2018-06-28-1]) ³ơѸ˷ƤȤֿפˤĤơ̤ˡѸϰαѸɸಽ뤲줿ΤΡޤѰۤɤ줬ѻ졤Ѹ٤Сֺ𤷤פ褷Ƥȸ롥Mondorf (843) ϡΤ褦ɽŪʺظˤϡʶѹդܻؤǽŪưŤƤꡤषѸ줫鸽ѸˤƿĤĤΤ⤯

When LModE morphology and morphosyntax are addressed, this is often done in reference to a "confused situation" (Poldauf 1948: 240), by portraying this period as undergoing regularization processes that are triggered by standardization or by relating the high degree of simplification of morphology achieved by that time . . . . The present overview sets out to show that what at first sight look like divergent developments of individual morphological structures can occasionally be shown to form part of a larger development towards a new equilibrium governed by functionally motivated requirements.


Ѹˤ⡤űѸʤ뤤Ϥˤ˻Ϥޤä礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) 礭Ĭή³Ƥñ˲᤹ˤȤɤޤ餺ǽŪ¦̤Ȥ̤δळȤǡ츫ȤȿΤ褦˻פ㤬Ǥ褦ˤʤȤȤѹդޤǤȤϤμळۤʤ졽Ѹ˲ѸˤƳΩƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥

Mondorf, Britta. "Late Modern English: Morphology." Chapter 53 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 843--69.
Poldauf, Ivan. On the History of Some Problems of English Grammar before 1800. Prague: Nákladem Filosofické Fakulty University Karlovy, 1948.

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2018-06-28 Thu

#3349. ѸˤƻӤζ޷ vs ηװ [lmode][comparison][synthesis_to_analysis][variation]

ѸϡӵǾΤ -er, -est ʤɤζޤѤ뤫more, most ʤɤαŪˡ뤫ˤĤơ츫Ƥʤ򼨤Ƥ;ȤϸѸޤ³ƤȤäƤ褤Mondorf (863) ϡǽŪʴߤиѸξϡƤʤפȤߤʤȤϤǤषĤĤȼĥ롥

The distribution of comparative variants in Late Modern English reveals an emergent functionally-motivated division of labor, with the analytic form becoming the domain of cognitively complex environments (e.g. if the adjective is accompanied by a prepositional or infinitival complement or if it is poly- rather than monomorphemic, etc.), while the synthetic form increases its range of application in easier-to-process environments . . . .


ĤޤꡤƻӤѰۤϡñˡ礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤѸˤ礭ĬήΤʤǤȤ館٤ǤϤʤǧŪʥץפޤ᤿ǽŪ¦̤դį٤ǤȤѰۤϺɽ魯ΤǤϤʤʬ ("division of labor") η̤Ǥꡤष1ĤʤΤMondorf (864) ηѤ롥

The system of comparison in Late Modern English develops a remarkably clear pattern of reorganization. Comparative alternation becomes more systematic by exploiting the options offered by the availability of morphosyntactic variants. As regards processing requirements it makes the best possible use of each variant: cognitively complex environments (such as adjectives accompanied by a complement) consistently increase their share of the analytic comparative to such an extent that the analytic form can even become obligatory. By contrast, easy-to-process environments can afford to use the synthetic comparative. What is at stake in the diachronic development of comparative alternation is an economically-motivated division of labor, in which each variant assumes the task it is best suited to. This division of labor emerges in the LModE period, around the 18th century . . . . The benefit of creating a typologically consistent, uniform synthetic or analytic language systems is outweighed by forces following functional motivations. The older synthetic form can stand its ground (or even reconquer formerly lost domains) in easy-to-process environments, while the analytic form prevails in cognitively-demanding contexts.


Ϣơ#3032. ӤȶӤζάˡ ([2017-08-15-1])#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1])#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1]) ⻲ȡ

Mondorf, Britta. "Late Modern English: Morphology." Chapter 53 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 843--69.

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2018-06-27 Wed

#3348. Ѹ˼ѷϤܼΤ˿ĥ [word_formation][prefix][suffix][neologism][french][latin][loan_word][lexicology][renaissance][emode]

Wersmer (64, 67) Nevalainen (352, 378, 391) 򻲾Ȥ Cowie (610--11) ˤСܼѤˤơϤܼѤΤȼѷϤΤΤΨѸ礭ѲȤ

The relative frequency of nonnative affixes to native affixes in coined words rises from 20% at the beginning of the Early Modern English period to 70% at the end of it . . . . The proportion of Germanic to French and Latin bases in new coinages falls from about 32% at the beginning of the Early Modern period to some 13% at the end . . . . Together these measures confirm the emergence of non-native affixes as independent English morphemes over the Early modern period. They also seem to contradict claims that the native affixes in Early Modern English are just as, if not more productive, than ever . . . , although it is always less likely that words coined with native affixes would be recorded in a dictionary . . . .


λνˤϼѷϤ20%äˤ70%ˤޤäƤ롥ΤܤȡѷϤФϤΨϡ32%ۤɡ13%ۤɤǤ롥ΤȤơѸˡѷϤܼӴΤΩĤ褦ˤʤäƤȤϵʤѤκǸâ񤭤ϽפǤϤ롥
Ϣơ#1226. Ѹˤäǯʬۡ ([2012-09-04-1])#3165. ȤƤ conspicuous external ([2017-12-26-1])#3166. ȤƤβʳѸ ([2017-12-27-1])#3258. 17˺줿ư̾췲褹 (1) ([2018-03-29-1])#3259. 17˺줿ư̾췲褹 (2) ([2018-03-30-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Wersmer, Richard. Statistische Studien zur Entwicklung des englischen Wortschatzes. Bern: Francke, 1976.
Nevalainen, Terttu. "Early Modern English Lexis and Semantics." 1476--1776. Vol. 3 of The Cambridge History of the English Language. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 332--458.
Cowie, Claire. "Early Modern English: Morphology." Chapter 38 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 604--20.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-11-24-1]

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2018-06-26 Tue

#3347. ʤư̾ۤɶޤवˤΤ [inflection][verb][noun][adjective][phonetics][phonology][consonant][vowel]

ޤοϱѸ˾Ѳ1Ĥư̾٤Сߤ˻ޤǶޤ¿¸Ƥ롥̾ζޡʤȸƤ٤ʤСˤˤʣȽͭʷۤɤʤưˤ3ñ -sʬ˷ -edʬ -ing ĤäƤۤԵ§ưǤϼȤ첻Ѱۤ˴ŤޤĤäƤ롥ޤŪäǤϤ뤬Τư̾ޤ褯ݤäƤȤ롥
ͳ1ĤȤơ̵ʤȤ櫓ޤôˤ첻μ岽üȤŪ׷ФơưΤۤ̾ƻ趯ϤͭƤȤ󤲤롥Wełna (415--16) üŪˤҤ٤Ƥ롥

Verbs proved more resistant because, unlike nouns and adjectives, their inflectional markers contained obstruent consonants, i.e. sounds not subject to vocalization, as in PRES SG 2P -st, 3P - (-eth) or PAST -ed, while the nasal sonorants -m (> -n) and -n, frequently found in the nominal endings, vocalized and were ultimately dropped.


#291. ;̾ thou ξüưؤαƶ ([2010-02-12-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡѸˤϡ餯Ǥ趯ư޸Ǥä2;ñ -est ⡤ʷŪʲȤƤǤϤʤ˼ҲŪͳˤꡤб;̾ thou Ȥ˾äƤäˤꡤưޤΥꥨ󤬤褤ϼ岽ȤȤϻŦƤƤ褤

Wełna, Jerzy. "Middle English: Morphology." Chapter 27 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 415--34.

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2018-06-25 Mon

#3346. A is as . . . as B. ϡA B [comparison][adjective][presupposition]

(178--83) ǤϡA is as . . . as B. Ѹ춵̾ﶵƤ褦ʡA BפǤϤʤɸΤ褦ˡA Bפª٤Ƥ롥СA B Ʊ餤?פǤϤʤA B 餺?פ褤ȤȤˤʤ롥Τ褦˲ᤷۤ򤷤䤹Ȥʸȵ󤬤äƤΤǡβƧޤĤʤѤ롥

(1) Tom is as tall as Jim. ֥ȥؤι⤵ϥʤ
(2) Tom is not as tall as Jim. ֥ȥؤι⤵ϥʤϤʤʡ᥸ؤ㤤ˡ
(3) Fred was as brave as any soldier. ֥եåɤϤɤʼΤˤ餺ͦä
(4) She works as hard as any. Ϥˤ餱̿Ư
(5) John works as hard as his brother.֥Ϸ餱̿Ư
(6) She is as wise as (she is) beautiful.θϡˤʤ
(7) Her skin is (as) white as snow.ȩ򤵤ˤʤ
(8) This car can run as fast as 100 miles an hour.֤μ֤Ф륹ԡɤϡ®100ޥ򲼲ʤ
(9) As soon as she sat down, she picked up the telephone.Ϲ򲼤ݤ䡤ôä
(10) He gave us food as well as clothes.ϻ䤿Τ򤯤줿Ф꤫ʪ⤯줿
(11) John has as much money as Fred; in fact he has more.֥λϥեåɤλ򲼲ʤºݤˤϤäȻäƤ롥
(12) Not only is John as tall as Bill, he's even taller.֥ؤϥӥʤȤǤϤʤ¤Ϥ⤤Τ
(13) John is as tall as, if not taller than, Bill.֥ϥӥ⤤ȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤ӥ㤤櫓ǤϤʤ

ΤˡA Bפ˹ͤȡä (3) (4) as . . . as any ʤΤ褦ʰ̣ˤʤΤåǤ롥ޤ(11), (12), (13) Τ褦ˡָľפΩĤȤ⡤as . . . as (presupposition) ̩ʰ̣ǤΡA BפǤϤʤȤ狼롥
as . . . as ˴Ϣ뵭Ȥơ#693. as, so, also ([2011-03-21-1]) ⻲ȡ

塡رѸѤʵ36ϡ١ҡ2018ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-01-25-1]

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2018-06-24 Sun

#3345. ѲưƳ෿γ̿Ǥ [oe][verb][conjugation][inflection][suffix][tense][preterite][germanic][morphology][dental_suffix]

ޥɤκǤΩäħ1ĤˡѲư¸ߤ롥#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1]) ǿ줿褦˻ (dental suffix) դȤǡȤñ˲뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤä˴Ť෿δߤȡˤäƸűѸޤॲޥϡ޸ (inflecting languages) æ (agglutinating language) 뤤ϸΩ (isolating language) ؤȰŤȤˤʤ (cf. #522. ˤ෿ ([2010-10-01-1])) ΰ̣ǤϡѲưƳϡ緶ˤС෿γ̿ŪפäȤ롥von Mengden (287) βʹƤߤ褦

It is remarkable that in a strongly inflecting language like Old English (in contrast to both agglutinating and to analytic), there is a suffix (-d-) which is an unambiguous marker of the tense value past. The fact that this suffix -d- is the only morphological marker in all the paradigms of Old English with a truly distinctive one-to-one relation between form and value may indicate that this morpheme is rather young.


֤ȵǽƩ٤ι⤤11δطˤȤȤϡѸܸΤ褦ʥפθˤƤȡˤʤʤΤΤ褦ʥפǤϤʤäűѸζ޷ǰƬ֤ĤIJƹͤƤߤȡΤ˶ˤȤä-d- ̿1ȤϡθϢŪ˳̿ȤͶȯѸ෿ŪѤƤȤˤʤäΤǤ롥

von Mengden, Ferdinand. "Old English: Morphology." Chapter 18 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 272--93.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-25-1] [2019-05-15-1]

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2018-06-23 Sat

#3344. ָǡüԤա [functionalism][language_change][systemic_regulation][teleology][invisible_hand][causation]

Aitchison (175--76) ߤ뼫ǽ (systemic_regulation) 夲ĤġˡüԤդȤƤ롥ξǡȤβλˤ3ब̤ȽҤ١⤷Ƥ롥

[L]anguage has a remarkable instinct for self-preservation. It contains inbuilt self-regulating devices which restore broken patterns and prevent disintegration. More accurately, of course, it is the speakers of the language who perform these adjustments in response to some innate need to structure the information they have to remember.
   In a sense, language can be regarded as a garden, and its speakers as gardeners who keep the garden in a good state. How do they do this? There are at least three possible versions of this garden metaphor---a strong version, a medium version, and a weak version.
   In the strong version, the gardeners tackle problems before they arise. They are so knowledgeable about potential problems that they are able to forestall them. They might, for example, put weedkiller on the grass before any weeds spring up and spoil the beauty of the lawn. In other words, they practice prophylaxis.
   In the medium version, the gardeners nip problems in the bud, as it were. They wait until they occur, but then deal with them before they get out of hand like the Little Prince in Saint-Exupéry's fairy story, who goes round his small planet every morning rooting out baobab trees when they are still seedlings, before they can do any real damage.
   In the weak version of the garden metaphor, the gardener acts only when disaster has struck, when the garden is in danger of becoming a jungle, like the lazy man, mentioned by the Little Prince, who failed to root out three baobabs when they were still a manageable size, and faced a disaster on his planet.


³ʸ̮ Aitchison ϡȤڵϸĤäƤʤȤ⤭ºݤ˼ϡ֤Υȼ夤2ĤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤդϡװͽɤˤޤǤϴؤʤβ꤬ŦǤȤȤϤ뤷뤤ޤɤޤ줿缣ŤܤȤȤ⤹롥üԡʤƸˤϡͽɰؤǤϤʤоˡȤդǤ롤ȤƤ褤⤷ʤ
ѲΡͽɡפȡּšפȤˤĤƤϡ#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1])#546. ѲϸĿͤδ˾̤˿ʤޤʤ ([2010-10-25-1])#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1])#2533. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" (2) ([2016-04-03-1])#2539. ָפˤѲ ([2016-04-09-1]) ⻲ȡ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.

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2018-06-22 Fri

#3343. drink--drank--drank Ω [verb][conjugation][inflection][vowel][emode]

ߡꥫѸθǡʬȤɸŪ drunk ǤϤʤƱ drank Ѥ뤳Ȥ뤬ϸѤȤϡŪˡη³ȸ٤Ǥ롥
#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1]) #492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ褦ˡ߷ʬ3׷ˤδ֤첻Ѱۤ򼨤ŪʶѲưμѥѥϡġưˤäưۤʤꡤѸŪˤŪʵ§Ф뤳Ȥ񤷤ºݤˡűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹ̤͡3׷Υѥ󤬶˴򷫤깭ƤCowie (608) ȡ˰ѤƤ Lass ΥȤƤߤ褦

Tense marking on strong verbs in Early Modern English often had a different pattern for the form of the preterit and the past participle to both Middle English and Modern English. Different verbs go through different patterns, taking some time to stabilize . . . As Lass says, "it seems as if each verb has its own history" (1999: 168--70), which can be illustrated by changes in the paradigm for DRINK:

late 15thdrink, drank, drunk
end of 16th to 19thdrink, drunk, drunk
17th to 19thdrink, drank, drank


3ĤΥѥΤɸѼǤϺǽΤΤ򤵤줿ɸѼǤϺǸΤΤ򤵤줿Ȥˤʤ롥Τ褦ˡ츫ָѡפȻפΤϡĤ¸ߤʣ褫ΰۤʤ˴ŤΤ¿
Ϣơsing βɸŪ sang Τۤ sung Ѥ륱⤢뤬Ʊͤ˹ͤ٤Ǥ롥

Cowie, Claire. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 38 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 604--20.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-28-1]

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2018-06-21 Thu

#3342. ֺ¡ˤؤֱñθ츻פΤΤ餻 [notice][etymology][lexicology][hel_education][asacul][link]

721ڡˤ13:30?16:45ˡī㡼󥿡ɶˤñȯιֺˤؤֱñθ츻򳫹֤ޤƾҲʲ˺ƷǤޤ

ѸǤܸǤ⡤ñθ츻Ȥ¿οͤ椭ĤޤĤҤȤĤñȼεꡤǤϸԤˤꡤߤޤ³ƤǤޤѸˤĤƤС츻ˤñθä䤹Ȥؽˡ⤢ꡤμνҤ¿ǤƤޤ
ֺܹ¤Ǥϡޤǰʾ˱ñθ츻ڤिȤɬפȤʤѸˤ˴ؤμˡ򼨤줫ΤߤʤαѸؽ˿ʻƳޤŪˤϡ(1) Ѹˤ򤿤ɤʤѸäȯŸ⤷ (ñ㡧cheese, school, take, people, drama, shampooˡ(2) ñˤọֻ̇ѲΰŪʥѥˤĤƽҤ١ñ㡧make, knight, nice, ladyˡ(3) 츻ŵѸ켭ŵθ츻ɤ߲ˡ򼨤ޤñ㡧one, oat, father, theyˡˤꡤ츻ѤñϤǽȤʤФǤϤʤΤαñο¦̤˵Ťñڤߤʤ̣臘ȤǤ褦ˤʤȳοޤ


ñθ츻ȰˤäƤ˹ϰϤޤΤǤֺܹ¤ǤϡѸθûˤ䲻̣ѲΥѥ򰷤ԤȡѸ츻ɤ߲򤤤ƥܥӥΩƤԤȤХ󥹤褯ۤơñ̥ϤФͽǤ"chaque mot a son histoire" (= "every word has its own history") ο̣äƤ (cf. #1273. Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze chaque mot a son histoire ([2012-10-21-1]))

ܥ֥Ǥֺܹ¤ȴϢ뵭¿񤤤ƤޤȤ櫓ʲΤΤ򻲹ͤޤǤ˵󤲤Ƥޤ

#361. Ѹ츻̤CGIʰǡˡ ([2010-04-23-1])
#485. 츻Τ뤿Υ饤󼭽 ([2010-08-25-1])
#600. Ѹ츻ν ([2010-12-18-1])
#1765. ܤǽ¤ƤѸ츻ؤ Klein αѸ츻ŵ ([2014-02-25-1])

#2615. Ѹä ([2016-06-24-1])
#2966. Ѹä (2) ([2017-06-10-1])

#466. 츻ؤϵݤʳؤ ([2010-08-06-1])
#727. 츻ؤμΧ ([2011-04-24-1])
#1791. 츻ؤϵݤʳؤ (2) ([2014-03-23-1])
#598. Ѹ츻ؤά (1) ([2010-12-16-1])
#599. Ѹ츻ؤά (2) ([2010-12-17-1])

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-06-20 Wed

#3341. ƥ󡦥ե󥹼ѸϱѸζѥĸصꤵ [rsr][gsr][stress][germanic][indo-european][gradation][vowel][morphology]

Ѹʹߡƥե󥹸줫μѸ줬Ѹä̤˼ޤ줿ȤˤꡤѸζѥ礭ƤȤˤĤơ#718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1]) #200. Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥ󥹷Ϥ ([2009-11-13-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ
ƤϡGermanic Stress Rule (gsr) ξ˿ Romance Stress Rule (rsr) դääΤ󤹤뤳ȤǤ뤬˹ŪߤȡĸŪʶѥؤβ󵢤Ȥߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĸǤϲѤäζ֤ޥĸǤϸƬ˸경ƥե󥹸ȤܿˤꡤƤӲѤȤʤäƤȲǤ뤫ơβѤζϡΤδ֤첻μ̤Ѱۤ뤳ȤˤʤäǸθݤϡĸηħŤ첻Ѱ (gradation or ablaut) ˤۤʤʤ
Kastovsky (129--30) ǻ̩ʸϤǤθˤĤƾҲ𤷤Ƥ롥

[T]here are . . . typological innovations like the vowel and/or consonant alternations in sane : sanity, serene : serenity, Japán : Jàpanése, hístory : históric : hìstorícity, eléctric : elètrícity, close : closure resulting from the integration of non-native (Romance, Latin and Net-Latin) word-formation patterns into English with a concomitant variable stress system, which reverses the original typological drift towards a non-alternating relation between bases and derivatives and is reminiscent of Indo-European, where variable stress/accent produced variable vowel quality/quantity (ablaut).


Kastovsky ϡѸηˤ෿Ūª٤ȤĥƤ뤬ñʤ붦Ū෿ˤȤɤޤ餺෿Ȥ⤤٤ʻƤǤ⤢褦˻פ롥
ǿ줿2Ĥζ§ˤĤƤϡ#1473. Germanic Stress Rule ([2013-05-09-1]) ȡ#1474. Romance Stress Rule ([2013-05-10-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-07-08-1] [2018-07-07-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-06-19 Tue

#3340. ޥˤưζѲȸƬȤߴط [germanic][indo-european][stress][gradation][exaptation][aspect][tense][suffix][contact][stress][preterite][verb][conjugation][grammaticalisation][participle][dental_suffix]

#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) 6ĤκΩäޥŪħ󤲤Kastovsky (140) ˤȡΤʲ3ĤˤĤƤϡޥĸ줬ȯãǸߤ̩ܤʴطäȤ

(2) ư˸ߤȲ2λ
(3) ư˶Ѳ (strong conjugation) ȼѲ (weak conjugation) 2γѤ
(4) 촴1˶

One major Germanic innovation was a shift from an aspectual to a tense system. This coincided with the shift to initial accent, and both may have been due to language contact, maybe with Finno-Ugric. Initial stress deprived ablaut of its phonological conditioning, and the shift from aspect to tense required a systematic marking of the new preterit tense. From this, two types of exponents emerged. One is connected to the secondary (weak) verbs, which only had present aspect/tense forms. They developed an affixal "dental preterit", together with an affix for the past participle. The source of the latter was the Indo-European participial -to-suffix; the source of the former is not clear . . . . The most popular theory is grammaticalization of a periphrastic construction with do (IE *dhe-), but there are a number of phonological problems with this. The second type was the functionalization of the originally non-functional ablaut alternations to express the new category, i.e. the making use of junk . . . . But this was somewhat unsystematic, because original perfect forms were mixed with aorist forms, resulting in a pattern with over- and under-differentiation. Thus, in class III (helpan : healp : hulpon : geholpen) the preterit is over-differentiated, because the different ablaut forms are non-functional, since the personal endings would be sufficient to signal the necessary distinctions. But in class I (wrītan : wrāt : writon : gewriten), there is under-differentiation, because some preterit forms and the past participle have the same vowel. (140)


Kastovsky ˤСޥĸϡ餯 Finno-Ugric Ȥθܿη̡(a) ĸŪ (aspect) Ż뤹줫 (tense) Ż뤹ؤɤڤꡤ(b) ѥȤŪʸƬȤؤڤؤäȤ˶̤٤褦ˤʤäη֤ϡȤȤϰĸŪʥѰۤ˰¸Ƥ첻Ѱ (gradation or ablaut) ǽŪˡѤƺäΤȡ (dental suffix) դȤΤȤäηȿʣȤؤˤꡤѸưŪʻѲϢʤפΩƤäΤǤ롥츫ȸߤ̵ط˻פ븽ݤ֤εˤƸߤ˴ϢƤȤ1Ĥ
ΰѤǿƤȴϢơ#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1])#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥ꡼Ȥؤ ([2015-03-20-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) ⻲ȡ

Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-07-07-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-06-18 Mon

#3339. ѸδŪԵ§ư [verb][conjugation][inflection][vowel][oe][hel_education][tense][preterite]

ѸԵ§ư (irregular verb) οϡʣưޤС褷ƾʤȤϤʤ⤷ʤѸ춵δŪư˸¤С60٤Ǥ롥㤨СعؽƳΡ٤dzؽ٤Ȥ139ĤưΤ§ư82졤Ե§ư57Ǥ롥 (44--45ˤƷǤƤ57ΥꥹȤʲ˵󤲤Ƥ

*become*begin*breakbringbuildbuy
catch*comecutdo*draw*drink
*drive*eat*fallfeel*find*fly
*forget*get*givego*growhave
hearkeep*knowleavelend*let
losemakemeanmeetputread
*ride*rise*runsay*seesell
send*singsit*sleep*speakspend
*spring*stand*swimtaketeachtell
think*wind*write


57ĤԵ§ưΤűѸǶѲư°ƤΤϡˤ뤬ۤȾʬ29ĤǤ* դΡˡĤΤۤȤɤϡŪʴԵ§Ǥ뤫Τ褦˸뤬űѸȤƤϵ§ŪưäȤ櫓
ѸԵ§ư˴ؤ붦Ū̻Ūϡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1])#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1])#2210. think -- thought -- thought γѡ ([2015-05-16-1])#2225. hear -- heard -- heard ([2015-05-31-1])#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1]) ϤȤ뵭Ǽ夲ƤΤǡ

塡رѸѤʵ36ϡ١ҡ2018ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-25-1] [2019-05-15-1]

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2018-06-17 Sun

#3338. Ǿ¤αʸˡѸ [terminology][hel_education]

ӽˡرѸѤʵ36ϡ٤ˡѸ춵ˤѤ٤¤ʸˡѸȤơʲΤΤǺܤƤ (198--99) ϡ1984ǯ˺ˡ͸ض鸦θȯɽ줿ععˤʸˡѸ 101פΥꥹȤǤ롥* عˤʸˡѸ졤̵Ϲ⹻ǽƳʤ٤ʸˡѸǤ롥Ӥ⤳ΥץȡС1ͤä

ʿʸʸʸ
ղõ*̿ʸ*òʸ
*Ҹư
ŪSVSVCSVO
SVOOSVOC
**
*ʤ̾*ͭ̾*ñʷ
*ʣʷ*1;*2;*3;
*
;̾*ư
¾ư*be ưγưư
*
*
*ط̾ط*
*̤*ʹԷ
*߿ʹԷ*ʹԷ̤ʹԷ
*ߴλλ̤贰λư
ǽưʬ
ʬ*-ing ʬ칽ʸ
ư̾*
ˡʬ*̾
ƻ̾
ƻ°
*̾ˡ*ƻˡˡ
ˡ


(199) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤΥꥹȤϡּư֡פȡּȷפκߤʤɤޤᡤ¿ŶλʪǤ롥Ѹ񤷤ˤĤơӤϼΤ褦˥ȤƤ (200)

ϡɽ⤽ǤäΤʸˡѸפ︺ϤʤʤʻŻǤȻפäƤ롥ϡѸ춵հͰͤΡʸˡѸפΰİĤؤλפ줬뤫Ǥ롥ڤ뤤ϡ줷ߤʤ齬ФѸפƤʤΥ른Ǥ롥
ϡΥ륿른Ǥ϶ϤǤʤȹͤƤ롥μΥΥ른ϡФСޥʥ̤⤿餵ʤФС̤γؽ𤵤롥ѰդǤ٤ؽʤΤѼ롥⤹٤ؽ­ĥ롥व롥


ѸؤȤƤѸ䳵ǰ¿ɬפʤˤפʤΤ⤢ȤϤȤʣʤΤ򸦵椷뤿ˤ͡ڤɬפǤꡤȼäѸ줬ĤǤΤ̵̤ȤǤ롥Ѹ춵ȤȤˤʤСؽԤΥåȤˤʤ褦Ѹ¿ξ硤︺ˤ뤳ȤɬפǤ뤳ȤؤʤȤϤǤ롥Υ른ȤΤϡȤƤ褯ʬäƤޤɽʤΤ
Ѹ˸ǤƱͤˡŪѸ줬Τ褦˸Τפʤˤ衤ǽƳʳǤϺǾ٤˼褦ȤϤɬפȻפ

塡رѸѤʵ36ϡ١ҡ2018ǯ

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2018-06-16 Sat

#3337. Mulcaster θåꥹ "generall table" ˤ츻Ūֻ (2) [mulcaster][spelling][etymological_respelling][lexicography][dictionary][orthography]

ɸϡ#1995. Mulcaster θåꥹ "generall table" ˤ츻Ūֻ ([2014-10-13-1]) Ǽ夲Mulcaster <ph> ΰˤĤƵŤȤΤ­롥
Richard Mulcaster (1530?--1611) 1582ǯ˽Ǥ The first part of the elementarie vvhich entreateth chefelie of the right writing of our English tung, set furth by Richard Mulcaster "Generall Table" ˤϡƤñֻ󤵤Ƥ롥θåꥹȤϡEEBO TCP, The first part of the elementarie Υڡ THE GENERAL TABLE CAP. XXV. 뤳ȤǤ롥  *  *
ΥꥹȤ <ph> ǻϤޤ췲ñ줬ǺܤƤսߤȡPhantasie, phantasticall, pheasant, phisician, pharisie, phisiognomie, philip, phrensie, philosophie, phenix 10Фư礷ƥåꡤ"vvhy not all these vvith f" 롥

Mulcaster's Proposal of <f> for <ph>

Ƥ Mulcaster ϸ츻Ūֻμ˾öŪǤꡤ <ph> ⡤鼨褦ˡܿȤƤ <f> ֤ꤿäΤ⤷ʤºݡ<f> ιǤϡfantsie, fantasie, fantastik, fantasticall, feasant, frensie 󤲤Ƥʤ10Τ٤ƤǤϤʤˡ
λ䤿ˤθηäǷ̤ΤäƤ뤬Mulcaster <f> ˴ؤ뤳Ƥ¤Τϡ10Τ fantasy, fantastical, frenzy 3ΤߤǤ롥ϡ츻ŪֻθؤαƶϤ礭äȤʪäƤȤ褦

Referrer (Inside): [2020-02-14-1]

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2018-06-15 Fri

#3336. ܸθѤƤ [japanese][proverb][lexicology][etymology][genre][hel_education]

ڲ (84--87) ܸθѤƤäִס¸סֺ졿פ˶ʬ󼨤Ƥ롥

 ¸
ۤˤ夦ݡƤ󡤤Ҥ礦ϡʲʪӤϡϡߡĤ͡ޡꡤ롤̤סǭͤߡӡڡसʡ 
ĻҤ롤ࡤ⡤餹ߤߤᡤɤꡤĤߡĤФᡤĤ롤ȤӡϤȡҤФꡤۤȤȤᤸĻ褿路 
ࡦξ롤Ȥؤӡޤष  
󤳤ꡤӡ路ʤӡĤˡޤ줤顤餲Сᡤޡߡˤɤ礦ʤޤʤޤϤϤޤꡤϤ⡤ҤᡤդդʡޤޤĤᤦʤ 
 ֡ꡤष⡤顤ߡߡĤꡤʤ᤯ΤߡϤϤۤ롤ߤΤषफ 
ưʪ󡤤夦ˡäѡ̤ 
ʪ𡤤礦֡礦󡤤ܤ󡤤ߡᡤФ顤Τ䡤䤭ݡǡȤɤ󤰤ꡤơޤӡޤ⡤⤮ 
ƻϡġġۡСỌ̃̄΢구ᡤݡҡ礦ŴˤΤȭȽӤ礦֡ʩšդȤ䤫󡤤褦äѡꡤ塤顤ᡤʤŤ⡤⡤ޤɡ桤ߤꡤʡ͡ꡤţסޡ롤ʤ롤ϡꤳšˡê餤롤󡤤ĤܡƤСĤŤ顤ʤʤΤߡϤߡȤϤˡǤСҤ⡤ޡɮؤ顤ޤʤ𡤤䤹ȢȭФڡȢ
٤󡤤ޤ󤸤夦ӡоơ桤ɿȡ顤Ĥʪɤ礦ʤޤѤᡤӡܤӡ㡤ĤСĻҡҤŴˤƦ
ʡ礦ˤ㤯֡Ȥ󤷤礦礦桤㡤Ʀ塤ǼƦߤĤ֤ơ򡤱ݡޤƦ
ڡʪܤޡ纬ˤ󤸤󡤤Ҥ礦󡤤Ӥ椺㡤Ʀ͡⡤ɡߡơᤸСΤĹ⡤ʤʤͤϤؤޡޤĤ⡤ܤ
˹ҡ̡̡ꡤϤƤӡޡӤ顤ߤ⡤µᡤ­ޡµߤΡĤʤġˡ餸դɤयⲼ̡ޤ֤ȡФ


ϡָȤƥȥפˤ̾ˤʬۡפɽ魯ʬɽǤꡤºݤ˲ΩĤΤʬʤΤΡįƤƤʤ⤷ʤ餫ˡǸø˹׸ͽ롥ѸθǤäƤߤ顤ʤˤ⤷ʤ뤫⤷ʤ
ζʬɽǤǡڲ (88) Τ褦˥ȤƤ롥

ƻ񡤰ʤɤϡʤߤǤϡۤȤɸʤʤäƤޤäΤ¿ޤ褬ˤʤäȾ̡ܤŪƻ񤬤˻䤿Τޤ꤫ѤäƤޤơ⤷Ȥˡ줿ƻϡޤˤȤ虜ΤʤˤϸĤޤ󡥾衤ƥӤ饸󤿤ʤɤȤäȤФȤäȤ虜Ǥ뤫⤷ޤ͡
ưʪˤƤ⡤ʪˤƤ⡤ˤƤ⡤̾򡤤Ȥ虜˸뤳ȤǤޤβफϡ⤦錄ΤޤǤϸ뤳ȤǤޤ󡥼˲ʤǡ¤ʤʤꡤⳤѤѤĤĤޤ䤿ˤ٤ʸ夲뤿ˤϡʤ¦̤⤢ΤǤΤȤ虜ʹӤˡӤˤʤޤ͡


ƸθȤΤϡ̤ǥåȤʤꤽ

ڲ ůؤȤ虜ˤϤʤ١ꥹۡ1997ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-08-22-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-06-14 Thu

#3335. Ѳưβʬ -n [participle][oe][inflection][reconstruction][indo-european][germanic][suffix][gradation][verb][verners_law]

ѸΡԵ§ưפβʬˤϡŵŪ -(e)nwritten, born, eaten, fallen ǡǤ롥ϡűѸǶѲưȸƤФưβʬͳ褹ΤǤꡤűѸǤ⤽줾 writen, boren, eten, feallen Τ褦ˡ§Ū -en 줿ʡ#2217. űѸ춯Ѳư෿ΤޤȤ ([2015-05-23-1]) ˼ѥ򻲾ȡˡ
űѸζѲư ablaut 뤤 gradation ȸƤФ첻Ǥϡߡ12ʬ4̤졤碌ưΡ4׷ (four principal parts) ȸƤФ롥4ܤβʬγʤΤűѸ줫餵̤СϤȤȤư줽ΤΤ°볬ǤϤʤäषư줫Ωƻͳ褹餷ޥĸǤ *ROOT - - n- ƷƤꡤĸǤ * ROOT- o - nó- ƷƤ롥ķ˴ޤޤɡ n ѸˤޤǻĤʬ -(e)n εȹͤƤ롥
θϡ촴β֤ˤ⾯ƶͿƤ롥äդ٤ϡĸķǤ϶ n θ³ȤϡޥǤ Verner's Law ͳƸ촴λҲѲȤͽۤ롥ʤߤˡѲ V, VI, VII ˤĤơʬθ촴첻γˤ긽߷ƱˤʤäƤ뤳Ȥˤդ (ex. tredan (pres.)/treden (pp.), faran (pres.)/faren (pp.), healdan (pres.)/healden (pp.))
ʾ塤Lass (161--62) 򻲾Ȥ-en ˤĤƤϡϢơ#1916. ˡȽˡǰۤʤ֤ķƻ ([2014-07-26-1]) ⻲ȡ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-06-13 Wed

#3334. ³ˡߤ should ϸűѸ줫餢ä [auxiliary_verb][subjunctive][mandative_subjunctive]

ŵŪʥꥫˡ I advised that John eat more. ȥꥹˡ I advised that John should eat more. κۤ䤽ŪطʤˤĤơ#325. mandative subjunctive should ([2010-03-18-1])#326. The subjunctive forms die hard. ([2010-03-19-1])#345. "mandative subjunctive" Υꥹȡ ([2010-04-07-1])#3042. Ѹ³ˡλѤäͳ ([2017-08-25-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
Ū¤ǧС³ˡߤѤ륿פˡư should Ѥ륿פϡξȤűѸѤߤ롥θѸ졤Ѹξפʻ¸Ƥꡤʬۤαƺ褦ˤʤäΤϡޤǶḽˤĤƤʬۤ˴ؤƤΤߤǤ롥ޤϤλ¤ǧƤ
Visser (III, 1546) ˤϡ'He commaunded, that the ouen shulde be made seuen tymes hoter' should ѤΥפɽȤƥȥ˵󤲤Ƥꡤ¾űѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤ¿㤬󤵤Ƥ롥ʲƻ夫˼Ф󼨤롥

Genesis 800, he unc self bebead þæt wit unc wite warian sceolden.
Menelogium 48, fæder onsende . . . heahengel his, se hælo abead Marian mycle, þæt heo meotod sceolde cennan, kyninga betst.
Ælfric, Hom. i, 310, God bebead Moyse . . . þæt he and eall Israhela folc sceoldon offrian . . . an lamb anes ȝeares.

c1200 St. Katherine 1439, Hat eft þe keiser þat me schulde Katherine bringen biforen him.
c1352 Minot, Poems (ed. Hall) iii, 53, He cumand þan þat men suld fare Till Ingland.
1440 Visitations Relig. Houses Diocese Lincoln (ed. Thompson) 176, Laghe and your constytucyons forbeden that any nunne shulde were any vayles of sylke.

1593 Shakesp., Rich. II, IV, i, 129, forfend it, God, That in a christian climate souls refin'd Should show so heinous, black, obscene a deed.
1749 Fielding, Tom Jones (Everym.) Vol. II p. 130, the ostler took great care that his corn should not be consumed.
1888 Henry James, The Aspern Papers (Everym.) 268, Heaven forbid I should ask you.

1928 Virginia Woolf, Orlando (1928) 64, prescribing . . . that he should lie in bed all day.
1961 Angus Wilson, The Old Men at the Zoo (Penguin) 195, he suggested that I should go down with him for a day or two.
1963 Iris Murdoch, The Unicorn (Avon Bks.) 67, Who decided I should come and why?


Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.

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2018-06-12 Tue

#3333. ʤ doubt ֻˤȯʤ b Τ [indo-european][etymological_respelling][latin][french][renaissance][spelling_pronunciation_gap][silent_letter][sobokunagimon]

츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ⹭ƤκǤɽȤäƤ褤 b ޤ doubt ʤˤ夲褦
doubt θ츻ҤȤȡƥ dubitāre ̤롥Υƥñϡĸǡ2פɽ魯 *dwo- θ캬ʱѸ two ƱˤޤǤ롥2Ĥδ֤ФʤФʤʤ׾֤֤餦ס֤ס֤פʤɤθ
θ塤Υƥñϡťե󥹸 douter ֤ס֤פȤƷѾ줿첻˶ޤ줿ȤȤ b ťե󥹸ʳޤǤ˲פüƤ뤳Ȥդ줿äơťե󥹸ǤȯˤƤֻˤƤ b ϸʤʤäƤ
θťե󥹸1200ǯˤۤܤΤޤѸؼѤ졤ñȤƤ doute(n) ޤ줿ʥե󥹸 -er бѸθ -en ؤƼˡΤˤС132Ⱦ˽񤫤줿 Ancrene Wisse ľܥƥֻ򻲾ȤȤܤ doubt 㤬ߤĤΤϵ㳰ȹͤƤ褤
θ塤15ˤʤȡѸǤľܥƥֻ򻲾Ȥ b 䤦츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) λ㤬롥16˻Ϥޤѹͥ󥹤ϡƥ濴Ȥŵؤηݤޤꡤ̤˸츻ŪֻºݤˤϤ15桤ˤäƤ14ƥؤηФϸ졤츻Ūֻ⻶ȯŪ˸ƤƤb 򿷤 doubt ֻܳŪŸƤΤϡΤ16ʹߤΤȤȤäƤ褤
Τ褦ˤƽdoubt ֻ̲ɸಽ˻äȯˤĤƤϽ b ʤȯߤˤޤǷ³Ƥ롥b ȯʤ̵ͭˤ˴ؤƱμŪʥȤϡ#1943. Holofernes --- 츻Ūֻ黿ԡ ([2014-08-22-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤Ǥ롥
⤦1ĿƤ٤ϡ¤ϥե󥹸¦Ǥ⡤13ȤᤤʳǡǤ˸츻Ūֻ줿 doubter ڤƤ뤳ȤѸ˱ʩʸˤδط̩äȤͤСѸˤĤƤϡľܥƥֻ򻲾Ȥ롼ȤΤۤˡƥֻ򻲾Ȥե󥹸ֻäȤ롼ȤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2058. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (1) ([2014-12-15-1]) Hotta (51ff) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Hotta, Ryuichi. "Etymological Respellings on the Eve of Spelling Standardisation." Studies in Medieval English Language and Literature 30 (2015): 41--58.

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2018-06-11 Mon

#3332. Aitchison ˤѤ4Ĥħ [borrowing][contact]

Aitchison (150--52) ˤС (borrowing) ˤ4ĤνפħȤ

First, detachable elements are the most easily and commonly taken over --- that is, elements which are easily detached from the donor language and which will not affect the structure of the borrowing language. (150)


ϡɽŪʸäǤڤ䤹ñ̤ǤȤȤˤʤ롥ǤꡤŪʸáʸˡʤɡ¾θμѤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ (cf. #902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1]))

A second characteristic is that adopted items tend to be changed to fit in with the structure of the borrower's language, though the borrower is only occasionally aware of the distortion imposed. (150)


ϡ㤨бñ줬ʸȤܸ˼ѤȤˡọ̇Ѳʤɤ¿쾯ʤܸ첽ƼޤΤ̤ȤȤ롥

A third characteristic is that a language tends to select for borrowing those aspects of the donor language which superficially correspond fairly closely to aspects already in its own. (151)


μѤ˺ݤơζθ礬¦θǤƤˤϡѤ䤹ʤ롤ȤäΤȤξǤ褽бطäۤʤѤ䤹ȤΤϤäȤä෿ΰפȤǤ (cf. #1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1]))

A final characteristic has been called the 'minimal adjustment' tendency --- the borrowing language makes only very small adjustments to the structure of its language at any one time. In a case where one language appears to have massively affected another, we discover on close examination that the changes have come about in a series of minute steps, each of them involving a very small alteration only, in accordance with the maxim 'There are no leaps in nature.' (151)


̤μѤˤäơ¦θ줬礭Ѳ褦˸륱ǤäƤ⡤ϻ֤򤫤ƾĤʤäΤǤäơŪ11Ѥ˺ݤƵäƤ뤳Ȥ϶ϾѲˤʤȤǽ3ϡ衤ܿ (contact) ʬǤŦƤȤ4ܤλŦŪˤʤ줿ȤϡۤɤʤäΤǤϤʤȻפ롥
ϢơѤȤѸȳǰäơ#44. ּѡפˤߤ ([2009-06-11-1])#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1])#3008. ּѤȤϻͤˤǤ¤Ǥס ([2017-07-22-1]) ƤΤǡȤ줿

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-10-20-1]

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2018-06-10 Sun

#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ [indo-european][germanic][category][voice][mood][tense][aspect][number][person][exaptation][sanskrit][gothic]

Lass (151--53) ˤȡSanskrit ŵŪưˤϡ;ΡΥƥ꡼˱126롥ޥΤʤǺǤʣʶޤ򼨤 Gothic Ǥϡ22ζ޷롥ޥΤʤǤ⤪褽ŵŪȤäƤ褤űѸϡ8Ĥζ޷򼨤ʤѸǤϺǤ3Ĥλ¤ϡŪФ뤴ȤˡޤμबäƤƤΤǤ롥
ĸǤϡ̤Ƥʸˡƥ꡼Ȥ̣ϰʲ̤ꡥ

(voice) ǽư (active) ư (middle)
ˡ (mood) ľˡ (indicative) ³ˡ (subjunctive)ˡ (optative) ̿ˡ (imperative)
ꡦ (aspect/tense) (present) ̵ (aorist) λ (perfect)
(number) ñ (singular) ξ (dual) ʣ (plural)
; (person) 1; (first) 2; (second) 3; (third)

Υƥ꡼ˤĤơĸ줫饲ޥĸؤκͻҤάҤ褦
֤Υƥ꡼ˤĤƤϡĸǽư vs ư֤ζ̤ϡޥĸǤϡǽư֡ vs ʼư֤ȺƵ֡ˤȤǤ⤤٤̤˺줿
ˡΥƥ꡼˴ؤƤϡĸ4Ĥζʬϡ̡ޥɤǤϡľˡ³ˡ̿ˡ3ʬ뤤Ϥͻ礬ʤߡűѸǤľˡ³ˡ2ʬؤȺ줿
ĸλΥƥ꡼ϡŪˤ˴ŤΤȹͤƤ롥Ϥ褦ȤưĸΡִλפޥĸˤֲפ˺줿褦̤ȤơޥĸǤϡοֲפȡߤޤפȤΡ˴Ť2ʬˡΩ롥
Υƥ꡼ϡűѸǤξ;̾ˤ鷺˻¸ƤΤΡŪˤСñʣ2ʬ˺줿κˤĤƤϡ#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥ꡼Ȥؤ ([2015-03-20-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
Ǹˡ;ΤΥƥ꡼ˤĤƤϡѸΡ3ñ -sפˤħ褦ˡ褽3ʬˡޤǼѤƤ롥

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2018-06-09 Sat

#3330. ʡ "how" "why" [how_and_why][language_change][methodology]

Ѳʸˤˤ "How" "Why" εˤĤơ#784. ˸ؤ abductive discipline ([2011-06-20-1])#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])#2255. Ѳθɵ椹ͤˤĤơ ([2015-06-30-1])#2642. ѲμȻȤߤν̡ ([2016-07-21-1])#3133. Ѳ "how" "why" ([2017-11-24-1])#3175. group thinking tree thinking ([2018-01-05-1]) ޤ how_and_why γƵǹͤƤ
67īʹīΡʡưŪʿաפȤˡõ椹ݤ how why ˤĤƼΤ褦ʸϤäϡʡDzĤ͵»ȤβäΤʤǼ夲Ȥ

why ʸ礭䤤Ǥꡤ䤤Ǥ⤢롥ʤ䤿¸ߤΤʤϵϤʤ˭̿ˤʤäΤʤ²ΤʳؤݽѤޤʹ֤ɽưϡŪˤ why ʸФĤߤȤ꤬롥礭䤤褦ȤСɬŪ礭ʸդˤʤäƤޤ礭ʸդˤϲ٤ʤȤϡϥॷ󥰡쥤ȡʰʤ벿ԤˤäפΤ褦ˡϷɡʤȤ˸¤ʤᤤ
ɽԤ뤤ϲʳؼԤޤʤФʤ̤Ȥϡwhy ʸ˰°פͶǤФƶߤ뤳ȡƲ٤ι⤤դǡʤ뤤ɽǡðǰ˾ how 򤯹԰٤Ű뤳ȡʤʤ顤 how ʤȤˤϡ褷 why ã뤳ȤϤǤʤǤ롥


ޤä̤Ȼפwhy ʸФư°פ뤳Ȥ򼫲Ū˿񤦤Ȥɬפ㤤٤Ȥơ֥ॷ󥰡쥤ȡפˤޤǤޤΤϡޤ˶üǤ롥٤ȤϤȤƤ⤪⤷ȻפΤѤ³ʤСιŪǤ櫓顤why ʸ how ʸκ٤ȤȤˤʤϢ³ΤξüʤΤŪˤϰüʤ why ʸؤܻؤĤĤ⡤Ūˤ¾üʤ how ʸ߻Ϥ٤ȤʡμݤˤĤƤϰ¸ʤ
Ѳ "how" "why" ⡤Τ褦٤ɵ椷ƤɬפȻפ

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2018-06-08 Fri

#3329. ʤϾάʸˤ¿Τ [abbreviation][shortening][acronym][blend][lexicology][word_formation][productivity][sociolinguistics][sobokunagimon]

иŪʻ¤ȤơѸǤܸǤ⸽ϰ̤˾άʸˤηӻѤ¿ΤĬήˤĤƤϡ#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹 ([2011-01-12-1])#631. blending γ ([2011-01-18-1])#876. Ѹˤ뤫Ф˹⤤ ([2011-09-20-1])#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ ([2011-09-22-1])#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1])#889. acronym 20 ([2011-10-03-1])#2982. ܸ˰륢ե٥åƬ ([2017-06-26-1]) ʤɤεǿƤѸοȤơƼξά (abbreviation) ޤû (shortening) ݤ򼨤Ƥ롥
ǤϡʤϾάʸˤΤ褦¿ѤΤˤĤؤμȤǥ֥쥹ȤƤߤ顤ȶ̣ոޤäޤȤȡʲ3ۤɤ˹ʤ롥

û̡ͥ륮ṳ̂ߵιޤꡥι̩ٲ (densification) η
άɽȤäƤͤϡɽ䤽λؼоݤˤĤ̤ƤȤСʤֻȤʤƤ봶פ롥ΥΤ̾ΤʤͤФͥ۴Τ褦ʤΤΤǤϤʤɽûȤϡɽΤƤȤξΩĤᡤʹɺ碌뤳ȤǤ롥
άʸˤѤưϤĤλˤ⤢äϤĤƤϸѤˤפȤΥåƥŽ줬ǡѤ뷹äϼҲŪ꤬ˤǤƤꡤΤ褦ʡפĤƤƤĬ뤿ᡤŪʾάߵ᤬߲ƤȤȤǤϤʤ

2ܤΡֻȤʤƤ봶פλŦԤȻפϡ#1946. ǽŪʴߤû ([2014-08-25-1]) ǿ줿ִŪʸ̡ ("emotive effects") ȯŸǤȹͤ뤷#3075. άȰŹ ([2017-09-27-1]) ǸڤƿŪפˤ̤롥ʤθϡΤɽΤäƤ뤫ݤˤäüԡʽġˤ̲ȤƼҲŪʵǽ¸ߤ򼨺Ƥ롥ҲŪʬϤСֻή줬®뤿ˡ庹ˤҲʬǤ㤷ʤäƤƤꡤ٤ɽ魯ɸȤƾάʸˤ¿ѤǧפȤȤǤϤʤ

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2018-06-07 Thu

#3328. Joseph θѲ˴ؤƶ5 [language_change][contact][linguistic_area][folk_etymology][teleology][reanalysis][analogy][diachrony][methodology][link][simplification]

ϢεǡJoseph ʸ "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture" 򻲾ȡѤƤ (cf. #3324. Ѳ̸Τʤ礦褦ˤƿʤǤ ([2018-06-03-1])#3326. ̻ŪȶŪ ([2018-06-05-1])#3327. ѲˤüԤ϶ŪǤ ([2018-06-06-1])) ѲˤˤĤƤκŪƹͤľƤ롤ͥ줿ͤǤ롥
ϡJoseph ŪỊ̇Ĺʲս˺Τ˲ȴƤ

[T]he contact is not really between the languages but is rather actually between speakers of the languages in question . . . . (129)


ϸƤߤФȯۤ˻פ뤬̡뤤ϸܿˤƤ顤Ф˺ƤǤ롥ʲε⻲ȡ#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])#1168. ܿȤüܿǤ ([2012-07-08-1])#2005. üԺߤθѲؤηپ ([2014-10-23-1])#2298. Language changes, speaker innovates. ([2015-08-12-1])
ˡХ륫 (Balkan linguistic_area) ˤܿ夲ʤ顤ͿƤսꡥ

. . . an overemphasis on comparisons of standard languages rather than regional dialects, even though the contact between individuals, in certain parts of the Balkans at least, more typically involved nonstandard dialects . . . (130)


2ĤθѼܿͤݤˡξԤɸŪѼǰƬ֤뤳Ȥ¿ºݤθܿˤƤϤषɸѼɤܿʤΤˤɸѼüԤɤܿˤΤ̤ۤǤϤʤäȤʸǤ롥
Ѥäơָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ؾ塤פǤ뤳ȤˤĤơ

Folk etymology often represents a reasonable attempt on a speaker's part to make sense of, i.e. to render transparent, a sequence that is opaque for one reason or another, e.g. because it is a borrowing and thus has no synchronic parsing in the receiving language. As such, it shows speakers actively working to give an analysis to data that confronts them, even if such a confrontation leads to a change in the input data. Moreover, folk etymology demonstrates that speakers take what the surface forms are --- an observation which becomes important later on as well --- and work with that, so that while they are creative, they are not really looking beyond the immediate phonic shape --- and, in some instances also, the meaning --- that is presented to them. (132)


Ǥ Joseph ϸѲˤüԤָ̱츻ŪȯۤΰյɾˤȤɤޤ餺ǤüԤζפָ̱츻ȤӤĤƤ롥#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1])#2932. salacious ([2017-05-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
ˡüԤζȴϢơʬ (reanalysis) ñ㲽ʣˤɤؤ뤫˼1ʸ󤲤褦

[W]hen reanalyses occur, they are not always in the direction of simpler grammars overall but rather are often complicating, in a global sense, even if they are simplificatory in a local sense.


ѲΡñ㲽פ˴ؤŪȤơ#928. ޤ neutralization simplification ([2011-11-11-1])#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#1693. §ŪʲѲԵ§ŪʷѲ ([2013-12-15-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
ǸˡѲζŪˤĤƤΰѤ󤲤ƤؼԤ϶Ū˷кȤƵ뤬ɬǤϤʤȤƤ

[T]he grammars linguists construct . . . ought to be allowed to reflect uneconomical "solutions", at least in diachrony, but also, given the relation between synchrony and diachrony argued for here, in synchronic accounts as well.


Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-08-23-1]

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2018-06-06 Wed

#3327. ѲˤüԤ϶ŪǤ [language_change][teleology][invisible_hand][glottochronology][drift][indo-european][inflection]

#3324. Ѳ̸Τʤ礦褦ˤƿʤǤ ([2018-06-03-1]) ǡѲˤüԤŪǤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ѲʤƤüͤθŪ϶ޤθ̤ƤʤϤʱƶηŪʾ׷ʤɤˤϵڤӤĤʤĤޤꡤѲȤüԤιưϡܴۤŪŪǤȤȤ
Joseph (128) ϤüԤζ򷫤֤ĥĤġդ˱ŪʸѲȽƤ롥㤨СĹ֤ʣˤ錄Ѳ٤ƤƤǯ (cf. #1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1])) Τ褦ˡϡʤȤ롥ȤΤϡǯؤǤϡºݤüԤ褷Ƽ뤳ȤΤʤƻŪʴȤƤ뤫Ǥ롥㤨С2018ǯλƤ뤢ѸüԤǯδ֤ˡɤαñ̤ñ֤ʤиǯؤεꤹִΨãʤʤɤȤȤϡͤƤߤʤϤǤ롥ǯؤִΨϷиŪƳФ줿ͤǤϤ뤬򥴡˿ǡŪŪʸѲؤȲƤޤ
Ѹޤ˿ǯˤ錄äƤȤޤοʿȤή (drift) ˤĤƤƱͤǤ롥ˤ錄ꡤ˸줬ѲƤ褦ˤߤ뤫ȤäơġüԤŪʴѲƤȹͤΤϴְ㤤Ǥ롥ǤϤʤġüԤ϶ŪʴưʤƤˤ줬ޤǽŪ˺Ѥ̤ȤơѲؤȲʤ򤹤٤
ϡKeller ξ롤Ѳ˺Ѥָ (invisible_hand) ˤۤʤʤ#2539. ָפˤѲ ([2016-04-09-1]) ׻ȡ

Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.
Keller, Rudi. "Invisible-Hand Theory and Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 113--27.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-06-07-1]

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2018-06-05 Tue

#3326. ̻ŪȶŪ [diachrony][linguistics][methodology][link]

ɸ˴Ϣϡܥ֥Ǥ¿εǼ夲ƤܵΥ򻲾ȡˡ˴Ϣ Joseph ʸɤߡƹͤƤߤ٤3սѤ褦

[W]hile it might be said that there is always an historical explanation for some particular state of affairs in a language, it is equally true that relying solely on historical explanation means ultimately that an historical explanation is no explanation . . .; if everything is to be explained in that way, then there is no differentiation possible among various synchronic states even though some conceivable synchronic states never actually occur. Moreover, universal grammar, to the extent that it can be given meaningful content, is in a sense achronic, for it is valid at particular points in time for any given synchronic stage but also valid through time in the passage from one synchronic state to another. Thus in addition to the diachronic perspective, a synchronic perspective is needed as well, for that enables one to say that a given configuration of facts exists because it gives a reason for the existence of a pattern --- a generalization over a range of data --- in a given system at a given point in time. (124--25)


[A] synchronic account should aim for economy and typically, for example, avoids positing the same rule or constraint at two different points in a grammar or derivation (though the validity of the usual interpretations of "economical" in this context is far from a foregone conclusion . . ., while a diachronic account, being interested in determining what actually happened over some time interval, should aim for the truth, even if it is messy and even if it might entail positing the operation of, for instance, the same sound change at two different adjacent time periods, perhaps 50 or 100 years apart. (126)


[T]he constraints imposed by universal grammar at any synchronic stage will necessarily then be the same constraints that govern the passage from one state to another, i.e. diachrony. Diachronic principles or generalizations do not exist, then, outside of the synchronic processes of grammar formation at synchronic stage after synchronic stage. (127)


ΰѤˤƤ⼨Ƥ뤳Ȥϡ̻ŪȶŪȤȿиˤʤ礹餢ΤΡ䤦ȤˤäơǤǼΤǽȤʤȤʤϰۤʤ뤬ƱܻؤƤ2ͤȤǤ⤤̤ΥãΤ˼ȤΤ褷ʤΰۤʤڤΤ褷ɤ餫Ф뤳ȤʤΤȻפ

#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1])
#1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1])
#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1])
#1076. 塼뤬֤̻֤ͥ褵3Ĥͳ ([2012-04-07-1])
#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1])
#1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1])
#2159. ֤̻֤ӤĤ diffusion ([2015-03-26-1])
#2197. 塼ζ֤̻֤ǧ ([2015-05-03-1])
#2295. Ѳϸξ֤ϳؤǤ ([2015-08-09-1])
#2555. 塼ˤζ֤̻֡ ([2016-04-25-1])
#2563. ̻ءؤȤѸäơ ([2016-05-03-1])
#2662. 塼ˤζ֤̻ (2) ([2016-08-10-1])

Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-12-04-1] [2018-06-07-1]

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2018-06-04 Mon

#3325. ֥פܸǤθ츻ŪֻȤ뤫⡩ [etymological_respelling][japanese][silent_letter]

Ѹˤˤ츻ŪֻˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ etymological_respelling γƵǼ夲ƤʤۤˡְŪʢѸȯ֤꤬פʤͳȤʹ˹Ԥä顤ȿͤˤƤΡָɡפȡפäɤˡ
դȻפĤΤܸΡ֥ס֥奢ס֥ɥס֥ƥס֥פʤɤѤ褦ˤʤäƤ֥פɽϡ1Ρָ츻ŪֻפȤʤޤǤϡ֥Хס֥ӥ奢ס֥֡ɥס֥ܡפɽΤ̤äǯϡ֥פƤ֥פɽƤΤɤˡɬ [v] ǤȯƤ餺 [b] ξ¿ΤǤϤʤξ硤ɽϳʱѸ˵ǡ֥פѤƤ뤬ȯϽ̤ [b] ³Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ñ doubt, receipt, indict ʤɤˤơƥθ츻򻲾Ȥơɽ <b>, <p>, <c> ΤΡȯˤȿǤ줺ȯθ³Ȥ˻Ƥ롥
Ѹξˤϡdoubt Τ褦ˡʸ줿̡ۻ (silent_letter) ˻ä¿ܸˤƥйɽɽ˽񤭴졤ȯϥйԤǿ֤줿ȤϻϰۤʤäƤ褦ˤߤ뤫⤷ʤѸˤ⡤ۻȯ doubt Τ褦ŵŪФǤϤʤamatist amethyst, autorite authority, trone throne Τ褦 <t> <th> ˽񤭴졤ȯ˱ѤäϤȤꡤtime thyme Τ褦ȯ [t] ˿֤줿⤢ (cf. Antonie Anthony) thyme Υʤɤϡ֥פɽơ֥Хפȯ륱˻𤬹Ƥ롥
֥פȴϢơ[v] [b] ͿϡʤȱѸˤ⤢롥Ѹ describe ϡѸǤϥե󥹸 descrivre ˤʤä descriven <v> ֤Τ̤äѸʹߤˡƥθ츻 dēscrībere 򻲾Ȥ <b> ޤ̲Ƥʤɤ⡤<b> ֤褦ˤʤäƤ⡤Ф餯Ͻ /v/ ȯƤΤǤϤʤ

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2018-06-03 Sun

#3324. Ѳ̸Τʤ礦褦ˤƿʤǤ [language_change][syntax][teleology][invisible_hand][lexical_diffusion]

ѲȤ櫓ѲοʹԤλˤĤơؤʬ䤹Ҳ𤷤Ƥ뤳ȤɾΤ Aitchison (100) Τ褦󤷤Ƥ롥

Syntactic change typically creeps into a language via optional stylistic variants. Particular lexical items provide a toehold. The change tends to become widely used via ambiguous structures. One or some of these get increasingly preferred, and in the long run the dispreferred options fade away through disuse. Mostly, speakers are unaware that such changes are taking place. Overall, all changes, whether phonetic/phonological, morphological, or syntactic, take place gradually, and also spread gradually. There is always fluctuation between the old and the new. Then the changes tend to move onward and outward, becoming the norm among one group of speakers before moving on to the next.


ѲϡˤäȿʹԤ뤿ˡ줬ƤüԤˤȤäƤƳŤʤΤǤ롥ξ¸֤ˤϡ#3318. Ѳκˤ뿷Ѱ۷äơ ([2018-05-28-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡξԤΤ˲餫δỤ̄Ѱΰ㤤ռ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ۤɰռ줺ˡ¾夿Ρɤ (fluctuation) ȤƸ뤳Ȥ¿Ѳϸä˥äƿʤफΤ褦ηŤƤǡ춦ƱΤǤ⤢üԤ̤üԤؤŤƤ (lexical_diffusion) Ѳ creep 礦ˤ褦˿ʤȤȤϡ̯Ǥ롥
ޤ̤βս Aitchison (107) ϡJoseph (140) Ѥʤ顤ѲΥ뤤϶˸ڤƤ롥

[S]peakers in the process of using --- and thus of changing --- their language often act as if they were in a fog, by which is meant not that they are befuddled but that they see clearly only immediately around them, so to speak, and only in a clouded manner farther afield. They thus generalize only 'locally' . . . and not globally over vast expanses of data, and they exercise their linguistic insights only through a small 'window of opportunity' over a necessarily small range of data.


ġüԤϡ礭ήΤʤˤѲṲ̄ϸƤ餺Ū˹ưƤǤ롥ѲΡָ (invisible_hand) Ū (teleology) ˤľ뤹븫Ǥ롥
ɸΤ褦ˡָѲ̸Τʤ礦褦ˤƿʤǤפΤʤΤ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-06-07-1] [2018-06-06-1]

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2018-06-02 Sat

#3323. ֤ȤФεϰռϡưǤ [prescriptivism][prescriptive_grammar][standardisation]

ܸء٤5ǡɸܤζ̸פꤹýԤǤ롥Ѹˤˤɸಽ (standardisation) ˤĤƴؿäƤˤȤäơŤʾˤǤ롥ƬϤܸɸˤĤƤͤʤΤɮԤα (21) ʸϤκǸǸεϤˤĤưŪʥȤĤƤ롥

ȤФεϰռϡưǤεϤɤΤˤΤȤѡפܤäƤȡƤȤˤĤƤߤʤǵƤȡ̡֥ȡХȥסͤڤʤΤ⤷ޤ


ܥ֥DZѸˤδ鵬ϼ (prescriptivism) 䵬ʸˡ (prescriptive_grammar) ˤĤ͡˹ͤƤˤ뵬ϤȤϲȤ䤤ȯȤˤϡȤˤ¿¿ͤΩοͤȰո򴹤뤳ȤʤΤǤϤʤȻפؼԡ쥳ơ̤θѼԤޤᡤΩ֤ΰۤʤ͡ˡʸˡȯʤɤˤޤĤ֥ȡХȥפĤġѡפƤȤפαĤߤˤϼŪʰյ⤢뤷Ūʻɷ⤢롥
äȤСإǤ⡤Τ褦ʵԤʤ٤Ǥ롥ҸؼԤΤʤˤ⵬Ϥؤ٤˴ؤƲٺ⤽ؼԤȤƸ椫Υл԰1ѼԤˤʤ櫓ǡ¿쾯ʤ쵬ϼŪ¦̤碌Ƥ롥ҼȵϼϳǰŪ֤ΤǤϤ졤ĿͤΤʤǤ³Ǥꡤ߰¸ƤȸʤʤΤ
ϡʰռˤΤΤ֤Τʤǰܤ椯ΤǤʾ塤θѲɤˤˤƤ⡤濴Ū˰٤ʤΤǤϤʤȤФεϰռϡޤư̤üԽĤ߽ФƤʪǤ롥
Ϣơ#1684. ʸˡȵʸˡ ([2013-12-06-1])#1929. ؤΩ줫鵬ϼŪѤɤ٤ ([2014-08-08-1])#2630. ϼѸˡʵҡˤ礹뤳ȤˤĤơ ([2016-07-09-1])#2631. Curzan ۩ָǤꡤϼɤǤס ([2016-07-10-1])#3047. ؼԤȵϼԤäɬס ([2017-08-30-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

ͺ硡ܸȡɸ졦̸١סܸء375桡ýɸܤζ̸ס񱡡2018ǯ6--22ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2020-05-29-1]

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2018-06-01 Fri

#3322. Many a mickle makes a muckle [proverb][phonaesthesia][sound_symbolism][alliteration][folk_etymology]

ֿФѤлȤʤפбѸθˤĤơ#564. Many a little makes a mickle ([2010-11-12-1]) Ǽ夲岻᤬֤ trochee οϤ褤ꥺξˡƬȤ m 3ٷ֤Ƭ (alliteration) ͿƤꡤΧŪˤե졼Ǥ롥
θˤɸΡ줿ץ󤬤ꡤ褯ʹ褦muckle ϸ츻Ūˤ mickle ΰۤʤˤƱȤäƤ褤
#1557. mickle, much θ캬ͥåȥ ([2013-08-01-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡűѸ myċel ƱѸǤˤä1첻2Ҳ͡Ѱۤ¿ΰ۷֤ǧ롥绨ĤˤСmicklemuckle ȤȤ館ƤƤ褤MED muchel (adj.) ΰֻ򻲾ȡˡ
mickle muckle ƱȤȤˤʤȡɸΥϡֻѤлȤʤפȤȤˤʤꡤȤựʤʤ줬ͭյ뤿ˤϡmickle little ƱǤȴ㤤ƤʤФʤʤơΥϡºݤˤΤ褦ʸΤȤΩäƤ˰㤤ʤָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) 1Ȥߤʤ
θʤ괪㤤˴Ṯָ̌츻ϡʤʤ褯ǤǤ롥ޤŪ1¿ƬƧǤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤꥺŪˤϴ˶ᤤˡmickle ־פ muckle פȤʤ뤤ϸˤϡ#242. phonaesthesia 羮 ([2009-12-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸβ (phonaesthesia) бƤ롥Ѹˤϡ첻 /ɪ/ ʤΤ, 첻 /ʊ/ ʸߤ /ʌ/ Ϥθ첻ȯãˤ礭ʤΤħ㤬ʤʤơ줿ץϡѸüԤβħ (sound_symbolism) ľˤŬäƤΤǤ롥ΥϽ㤬1793ǯȤʤäƤꡤ1250ǯʤˤ٤ФäȿΤ͵夲Ƥǽ뤫⡪

Referrer (Inside): [2018-08-22-1]

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