01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ε#4781. open warn -(e)n ư ([2022-05-30-1]) ǡűѸư -(e)nian 夲űѸˤϤۤ -(e)sian Ȥư⤢äϤѲư2ब롥
ƱͤˡLass Hogg and Fulk Ѥǡ-(e)sian ˤĤƤβñ
(i) -s-ian. Many class II weak verbs have an /-s-/ formative: e.g. clǣn-s-ian 'cleanse' (clǣne 'clean', rīc-s-ian 'rule' (rīce 'kingdom'), milt-s-ian 'take pity on' (mild 'mild'). The source of the /-s-/ is not entirely clear, but it may well reflect the IE */-s-/ formative that appears in the s-aorist (L dic-ō 'I say', dīxī 'I said' = /di:k-s-i:/). Alternants with /-s-/ in a non-aspectual function do however appear in the ancient dialects (Skr bhā-s-ati 'it shines' ~ bhā-ti), and even within the same paradigm in the same category (GR aléks-ō 'I protect', infinitive all-alk-ein). (Lass 203)
(iii) verbs in -(e)sian, including blētsian 'bless', blīðsian, blissian 'rejoice', ġītsian 'covet', grimsian 'rage', behrēowsian 'reprent', WS mǣrsian 'glorify', miltsian 'pity', rīcsian, rīxian 'rule', unrōtsian 'worry', untrēowsian 'disbelieve', yrsian 'rage'. (Hogg and Fulk 289)
űѸȤƤϤ褯ư줬¿Τǰʤ -(e)nian ƱͤˡߤޤǻĤäƤưϵǤ롥1줬 cleanse Ǥ롥ƻ clean /kliːn/ бư cleanse /klɛnz/ 첻ûʤäȤˤĤƤϡ#3960. Ҳûλ ([2020-02-29-1]) ȡ
ε#4780. weaken Ф strengthen, shorten Ф lengthen ([2022-05-29-1]) ǡư -en ˿줿 (suffix) ˤĤƤϡ#1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1])#3987. ťΥɸαƶ (2) ([2020-03-27-1]) εʤɤǤ夲Ƥ
ϸűѸ -(e)nian ͳ褷˥ޥˤ⤵ΤܤŤưǤǤ롥űѸǤϡ̾줢뤤Ϸƻ줫ưΤäѤ졤ưϼѲư2°롥űѸ줫 Lass (203) ȤȤ˰Ѥ롥
(iii) -n-. An /-n-/ formative, reflecting an extended suffix */-in-o:n/, appears in a number of class II weak verbs, especially denominal and deadjectival: fæst-n-ian 'fasten' (fæst), for-set-n-ian 'beset' (for-settan 'hedge in, obstruct'), lāc-n-ian 'heal, cure' (lǣce 'physician'). The type is widespread in Germanic: cf. Go lēki-n-ōn, OHG lāhhi-n-ōn, OS lāk-n-ōn.
Ʊ Hogg and Fulk (289) Ƥ
(ii) verbs in -(e)nian, including ġedafenian 'befit' (cf. ġedēfe 'fitting'), fæġ(e)-nian 'rejoice' (cf. fæġe 'popular'), fæstnian 'fasten' (cf. fæst 'firm'), hafenian 'hold' (cf. habban 'have'), lācnian 'heal' (cf. lǣċe 'doctor'), op(e)nian 'open' (cf. upp 'up'), war(e)nian 'warn' (cf. warian 'beware'), wilnian 'desire' (cf. willa 'desire'), wītnian 'punish' (cf. wīte 'punishment') . . . .
ߤޤ¸³Ƥư¿ʤ㤨 open, warn -(e)n ˤκפǧ뤳ȤǤ롥ߤ¿ -en ưϡűѸˤΤܤ櫓ǤϤʤѸʹߤοǤ롥
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
khelfʷѸ˥եˤؤäǶ̤ǤѸˡѸؾͷӤΤ褦ʤΤȤơ֤Ϥͥ (chiguhagu_channel) Ȥ줳2ǯۤ³Ƥޤγɤ֤ϤפФƤΤǡܳŪʵνȯȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ڤǤޤSlack ȤåȥġΤʤΡ֥ͥסʥʡΤ褦ʤΡˤȤΩƤΤǡ̾ĤƤޤΰյϼ̤ꡥ
'
ȿε17ʸ31ʸɽΤж硤ûΤȤСʱѸˤԾ1~2ԤɽΤ֤ϤͥפǤڤ̣Ǿ餹褷֤Ϥס֤פǾ餹褷Ǿ餹褷ؼԤǿ̤ͤʤƱɶǡֱӤפȤŰͥǤ
ơرԤ֤ϤפƤޤʤرȤϡܲΡرѸ˿ʹ2ԽѰĹ̳ƤƤǤ2𤦤ԡˡ
weakʷˡweakenư
strength̾ˡstrengthenư
ä2ԤǤƱԳѤʻŦäȤʤޤθ塤Ρ֤Ϥפ˥ԥ졼䤫鼡Τ褦ʼݤǡֲΡפޤ
ΤϤ˴ؾ褵Ƥ餤ޤ
shortʷˡshortenư
length̾ˡlengthenư
ͤʤ顤ɤɤȤʤȵλɤäƤʤΤǤư -en ϡΤΤβ֡˳äʡˤȤȤäȻפΤǤ͡ƻ strong long IJ /ŋ/ ǽΤǡ-en ³ʤʤȤ³ǤʤˤȤȤǤϤʤȡäĴ٤ƤߤޤȤפФƤߤޤ
θ塤ŵפФɤ夯ȤǤޤJespersen ǤJespersen pp. 355--56 濴Ȥơư -en ˴ؤܺ٤ʲ⤬ޤ§Ȥ -en ˳ (obstruent) ǽΤˤĤIJ (sonorant) 첻ǽΤˤϤĤʤȤȤǤΤ *strongen *longen ȤϤʤΥ롼ˤʤ̤δΡʺΥǤ̾ strength, lengthˤФ졤 -en ĤȤȤǤ
There are no examples of n-vbs formed from adjs in vowels (or diphthongs): free, blue, low, slow, hight, sly, shy, new; narrow, yellow, steady, holy; nor of such disyllables as able, noble; nor of adjs in m, n, ŋ, r: slim, thin, brown, clean, long, strong; far, poor, near. Note the contrast in Kipling L 135 to see the smoke roll outward, thin and thicken again | Hardy L 147 her hair greyed and whitened | Quincey 295 to soften and refine the feelings.
. . . .
Our rule accounts for the formation of length(en) and strength(en): there are no vbs long or longen 'make or become long, strong or strongen. On the analogy of these we have the rare depthen (17th c.) and breadthen (19th c.); no corresponding vbs without -en.
Adjs in -l generally have no vbs in -en (thus none from small, full, still); the two named above [= dullen and palen] are exceptional and late.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
¿αѸؽԤˤȤä shoe ϡַפ̣̾ȤѤΤۤȤɤǡ~˷롨ϡˤŴǤġפ̣ưȤƻȤäʹꤹ뵡ϤäˤʤưˡϤΤ餤ʤΤʤԵ§ưʤΤǤ롥ΤˤС§ shoe -- shoed -- shoed ⤢ˤϤΤԵ§ shoe -- shod /ʃɑd/ -- shod(en) /ʃɑdn/ ⤢롤ȤȤ
ʬȤƤ shod Ѥʸ
His feet were shod in slippers. (= He was shod in slippers.)
The children were well shod and happy.
She turned on her elegantly shod heel.
The horse was taken to be shod.
ܤƤưȤƤ shoe εϸŤűѸǤ⤹Ǥ scōgan ȤƸƤ롥ѲưȤƲ scōdʬ ġescōd Τ褦Ĺ첻ݤäƤѸʹߤû첻û첻ˤĤƤ OED Ǥ "anomalous" ȻŦƤ̤ꡤʤʤäΤʬäƤʤ
The doubling of the d and the consequent shortening of the vowel in Middle English schodde past tense, schodd past participle (whence the modern shod past tense and participle) are anomalous. (An Old English example occurs in Wulfstan Homilies p. 173, Unsceoddum fotum.) Compare Middle Swedish skodde past tense, and Swedish skodd past participle. The case is parallel to that of fledde, fledd < FLEE v. (where Swedish also has the corresponding gemination).
ʬ shod ؤƻȤ slipshod ֤ȤΤĤ֤줿ʷϤˡ餷ʤʡʡפƤֳ롨äꤹפ̣ư slip Ȥ߹蘆äʣǤ롥ФϽѸ1580ǯŪslipshod shoes ֤ȤΤĤ֤줿סa slipshod piece of work ֤ʺʡסslipshod management ֤ʷбġפʤɤȡ
khelfʷѸ˥եˤˤֱѸ˥ƥ50פޤƤ롥 hellog ϡ520˥åפ줿ˤ륳ƥ֤ɤǤ̤Ѹġˤ䤫ꡤǰѤƤɤλ Edmund Waller ˤ "Of English Verse" Ҳ𤷤
Waller 1606--87ǯˤ17ɤɽͤǡʸػŪˤϥͥνȿŵλϤޤλĤʤ̤Waller 32Ԥû "Of English Verse" ΤʤǡѤ椯աʱѸˤʤϤʤòʱ˸경줿ƥ䥮ꥷؤƴƤ롥Chaucer ڻͤȤư礤˽Фʤ顤ͤθդϤϤʤȤ⡤ͤοޤǻĤΤĤäߤΤڤʴꤤɽƤ롥
Waller ϡޤ1ۤɸ˥ɤեȤο̱褤ƸĤߡ1ˤϥꥹĺޤ1ˤϱѸ줬Ȥɤ뤮ʤϰ̤ۤʤɤȤ⤷ƤʤäWaller ϤޤǤͽۤǤʤä櫓ˤäƸλ䤿λɤȡʤϰ̡ˤѤ䤹ʤϤʤҤҤȴƤ롥
OF ENGLISH VERSE.
1 Poets may boast, as safely vain,
2 Their works shall with the world remain;
3 Both, bound together, live or die,
4 The verses and the prophecy.
5 But who can hope his lines should long
6 Last in a daily changing tongue?
7 While they are new, envy prevails;
8 And as that dies, our language fails.
9 When architects have done their part,
10 The matter may betray their art;
11 Time, if we use ill-chosen stone,
12 Soon brings a well-built palace down.
13 Poets that lasting marble seek,
14 Must carve in Latin, or in Greek;
15 We write in sand, our language grows,
16 And, like the tide, our work o'erflows.
17 Chaucer his sense can only boast;
18 The glory of his numbers lost!
19 Years have defaced his matchless strain;
20 And yet he did not sing in vain.
21 The beauties which adorned that age,
22 The shining subjects of his rage,
23 Hoping they should immortal prove,
24 Rewarded with success his love.
25 This was the generous poet's scope;
26 And all an English pen can hope,
27 To make the fair approve his flame,
28 That can so far extend their fame.
29 Verse, thus designed, has no ill fate,
30 If it arrive but at the date
31 Of fading beauty; if it prove
32 But as long-lived as present love.
Waller, Edmond. "Of English Verse". The Poems Of Edmund Waller. London: 1893. 197--98. Accessed through ProQuest on May 27, 2022.
ε#4776. оȸˤܤǤޤظɸಽͤ --- ʩоȸˡפλߡ١ ([2022-05-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ǤϡѸɸಽˤĤ2ܤͤǺܤƤ롥1Ĥϻ߷Ļرءˤˤ7ϡѸɸಽν --- 20ʹߤ濴ˡפǡ⤦1ĤΡ6ϡѸˤˤɸಽ١פǤ롥
⤽ɸѸ (Standard English) ȤϲȤŪˤĤƤϻ⤤ͤ³Ƥޤˤ褯ʬäƤʤʲεʤɤϡǺߤפȤ⤤롥
#1396. "Standard English" Ȥϲ ([2013-02-21-1])
#3499. "Standard English" "General English" ([2018-11-25-1])
#1237. ɸѸΥǥȱѸɸಽ ([2012-09-15-1])
#3232. ۲줿ŪѼȤƤɸ ([2018-03-03-1])
#4277. ɸȤͥ줿ΤȤǤϤʤҲŪʼΤȤǤ ([2021-01-11-1])
#1275. ɸѸȯȼҲкѡ ([2012-10-23-1])
#1228. ѸˤˤɸѸȯŸȳΩäơ ([2012-09-06-1])
衤ɸѸȤϡֳ̤Ѹפۤɤ̣Ѹ줫ϤޤäȻפ뤬ˤβǤĤΤޤˤҿ (prestige) ɤҲŪʼ깤ΤĤ֤餤ѸפȤϰ̤ˤؤäƤޤäΤ褦˻פ롥ɸפΰ̣ΩŪʤΤդΤΤƤƤޤäΤǤϤʤ餯Ƥ濴ϡѸ鸽ѸˤƤ
ƤHorobin (73--74) Jonathan Swift (1667--1745) Henry Cecil Wyld (1870--1945) ؤήΤʤ˸ƼäƤ롥
The application of the adjective standard to refer to language is first recorded in the eighteenth century, a development of its earlier use to refer to classical literature. A desire to associate English literature with the Classics prompted a wish to see the English language achieve a standard form. This ambition was most clearly articulated by Jonathan Swift: 'But the English Tongue is not arrived to such a degree of Perfection, as to make us apprehend any Thoughts of its Decay; and if it were once refined to a certain Standard, perhaps there might be Ways found out to fix it forever' (A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue, 1712). By the nineteenth century, the term Standard English referred specifically to a prestige variety, spoken only by the upper classes, yet viewed as a benchmark against which the majority of native English speakers were measured and accused of using their language incorrectly.
The identification of Standard English with the elite classes was overtly drawn by H. C. Wyld, one of the most influential academic linguists of the first half of the twentieth century. Despite embarking on his philological career as a neutral observer, for whom one variety was just as valuable as another, Wyld's later work clearly identified Standard English as the sole acceptable form of usage: 'It may be called Good English, Well-bred English, Upper-class English.' These applications of the phrase Standard English reveal a telling shift from the sense of standard signalling 'in general use' (as in the phrase 'standard issue') to the sense of a level of quality (as in the phrase 'to a high standard').
From this we may discern that Standard English is a relatively recent phenomenon, which grew out of an eighteenth-century anxiety about the status of English, and which prompted a concern for the codification and 'ascertaining', or fixing, of English. Before the eighteenth century, dialect variation was the norm, both in speech and in writing.
Horobin ¾ͤˤƤ⤽ʤΤWyld ȽĴǻդˤ⤷ʤȻפ
Horobin, Simon. How English Became English: A Short History of a Global Language. Oxford: OUP, 2016.
͡ʸˤɸಽˤȤܤǤޤ
ԡ Ϻ δˡظɸಽͤ --- ʩоȸˡפλߡ١罤ۡ2022ǯ

Ԥ1ͤȤƴؤäܤǤ5ǯλ֤ưǤǤȯɽȤȤʤäǴ褬Τ褦ʷǷ¤ޤȤ櫓оȸˡפȤϡֳθؤư路ΤǤϤʤ줬ȼΡ (p. 4) ȤƶĴƤȻפޤ㤨бѸܸ٤褦ʡоȸء (contrastive_linguistics) ǤϤʤѸֻˡפֻܸˡפ٤Ƥߤоȸˡ (contrastive_language_history) ȤǤ
ܤħ3˹ʤäƽҤ٤ȡΤ褦ˤʤޤ
(1) Ҳ˸ؾθŤƿ1ġָɸಽ (standardisation) ˾ƤƤ
(2) ʩ5ɸಽβҡˤȤɤޤ餺оȸˡפλФƤʤ٤֤оȤ
(3) ܽθȤʤäǤȤ촶Ƹ٤ŪȤ¿ʥ쥤ȤƳ
ܼϰʲ̤Ǥ
ޤ
1оȸˡסƳ
1ϡƳɸηˤоȤȤȡʹ ԡ Ϻ δ
2ϡʩ --- Ƹˤγά Ϻ δ졦 ԡ ԡ
2ˤˤɸಽλȤо
3ϡܥȥॢåפɸಽʽë ʡ
4ϡɤμ¼ ˡ
5ϡȤФȸʸס Ϻ
6ϡѸˤˤɸಽס δ
7ϡѸɸಽν --- 20ʹߤ濴ˡʻ߷
8ϡեɸȤ --- ˳Ȥե ԡ
9ϡˤɥĸʸϸ --- Ƚ𤵡ʹ ԡƣ á
10ϡɸಽμ֤λ --- ƥŬλ
11ϡʸȥ衼åѸΤϤޤǡ ɧ
Ȥ
hellog ǤɸಽϷ֤夲ƤޤѸɸಽˤϳΤäʤȤ⤢ޤǺΡоȸˡŪʵ̤ơ¾ӤǤӤȤ⤷¿ŤȤǤޤ
оȸˡפȤɤϡ2019ǯ328˳Ť줿ˤƸ˽ƤϪܤޤʡ#3614. 3 HiSoPra* ΤΤ餻 ([2019-03-20-1]) ȡˡθ塤#4674. ֽѸˤóȽλߡס ([2022-02-12-1]) 𤷤褦ˡǯ122ҤȡȤХեΥݥָˤȸŪץå --- оȸˡפλפˤơԼ3ͤǤä뵡ޤܽǤεȤ館оȸˤǤä뵡ͽǤ
hellog ɼԤγͤ⡤оȸˤȤץܤƤФȻפޤ
ԡ Ϻ δˡظɸಽͤ롡ʩоȸˡפλߡ١罤ۡ2022ǯ
褿611ڡˤ 15:30--18:45 νڤˡī㡼ɶˤֱѸˤѸ --- Ѹꤹ륷ֺ¤Ϥޤޤ4ΥǡȤѸ (world_englishes) ơޤ˱Ѹˤδ餪äƤͽǤ
ؿΤϡҤäֺ¾Ҳ𤪤ӻäߤɤ̤Τۤ饤Ǥλä٤ޤޤ1֤Υ쥳ǥۿͽꤵƤޤΤǡԹΤ褤ˡǤäޤ
ΤγפʲžƤޤ
ޤǤʤѸϸˤƺǤͭϤʸǤѸŪη̡̾䤿ؤǤɸѸװʳˤ͡ʱѸ줬ȯãƤꡤǯϤΤѸ (World Englishes) ȸƤ֤ȤƤޤ
4ΥǤϡѸȤϲѸϤˤƤޤdz礷ΤѸεϤɤˤΤƺαѸϤɤʤäƤΤȤä˱ѸˤȤޤ
4Υȥͽˤϰʲ̤Ǥ
1Ѹ611
2ˤƱѸϳ礷Τ86
3ƤαѸ̤
421αѸΤ椯̤
ȤʤѸפǤäƤϤ褽̤Ȥʤ븫ߤǤ
̾䤿ؤǤɸѸפϱƱѸפȤƤޤѤƤѸϥɱѸ졤ʥꥢѸ졤ޥѸʤɤȼ¤¿ͤǤǯϡѸסʱѸǤʣ "World Englishes"ˤȤƸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿ʤäƤޤֵܹǤϡΡѸݤȤϲʤΤƳȤȤˡʤɤΤ褦ˤθݤƤΤˤĤơ˱Ѹˤδޤ
ܥΰϡhellog λǡǤ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ǤۿƤޤΤǡҤ⤪İ
ѸȴϢơʲ hellog heldio ɤ
hellog #4558. ѸˤѸ ([2021-10-19-1])
hellog #4730. World Englishes γؤӻϤ˲ܤҲ ([2022-04-09-1])
heldio #141. ̡Ѹ X ݱѸkhelfʷѸ˥ե˸ǤྰȤ̡
heldio #173. Ω̿ءܹȤ̡ݱѸȤϲ
heldio #314. ߷ͧȤ̡ʤѸؤδؿޤäƤΤ
ͤܥؤλäԤƤޤ
ְʼδѸظإͥϤ3ۤɤФޤѸ졦˴ؤؤιֵݤΤǤϤʤޤǸԤɤϭǤΩäŪʡΤ٤ܻؤơ轵ȿ18:0010ʬưåץɤƤޤ¿˥ͥϿƤƤޤ꤬Ȥޤꤤޤ
25Ƥޤֿ⡪ go β went ͳǤYouTube ȤڤޤơΥȥǥⲾ⡪ĤƤޤʾСˡȿڲǽʲǤϤʤޤǻˤȤɤޤΤǤϤޤĹ餯ƤͤǤ
λñ㲽ƤСgo/went ˸¤餺ѸʤҤƤϸ̡ˤ˴ѻԵ§ʸܤϡޥƤʤĿͤϱѸüԽĤ֤Ƥʤ衤ȤҲؾΥȥޥȤƵǽƤΤǤϤʤȤȤǤgo Ȥ goed ǤϤʤ wentפȤ֤Τߤ˶ͭƤ礤դȽƤ뤫ɤΤȥޥʤΤǤϤʤȡ
Τ褦ʥȥޥ椬ΩƤ go/went ΥڥǤɬפϤޤۤΤɤʥڥǤɤäϤǤǤѸˤƤϡޤԵ§ŪθƤ go/went ҲŪʥȥޥȤФ졤ѤƤ롤ȤȤʤΤȹͤƤޤ
֤ʤ go β went ʤΤפȤѤʵˤϡ2Ĥ¦̤ޤ1Ĥϡʤˤä went ȤʤΤǤȤ䤤ǤؤβϱѸˤդȤȤǤ#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])#4094. ʤ go β went ˤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-07-12-1])#4403. δñѸ in English٤Ϣ3֤ʤ go β went ˤʤΡס ([2021-05-17-1])
ʤĤޤǤäƤ go βȤ goed ѤʤΤȤ䤤ФƤϡۤʤǤ褦˻פޤ嵭μҲŪʴβǤˤĤơ#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1]) 䡤رѸΡ֤ʤפϤƤαѸˡ٤ p. 78
դˤϤԵ§Ȥ櫤ФƤΤǤ
δ졡رѸΡ֤ʤפϤƤαѸˡ١ҡ2016ǯ

khelfʷѸ˥եˤǤϡ412ˤ錄뿷ǯٴֱѸ˥ƥ50»Ǥkhelf СȱѸˤ˴ؤɤʪåפȤǤĴ˷³Ƥޤޤ
hellog Ǥ⤪褽ȾȤ˾Ҳ𡦥ӥ塼Ƥޤcf. #4722. ǯ٤ΡֱѸ˥ȥåס״ϡ ([2022-04-01-1])#4739. khelf ٥ȡֱѸ˥ƥ50פ3ܤäƤޤ ([2022-04-18-1])#4757. khelf ٥ȡֱѸ˥ƥ50פޤ֤ޤ ([2022-05-06-1])ˡ⤳2֤ۤɤΥƥĤΰޤȾäƤѤ餺ϺΩޤѸˤΰȥԥåι褯ʬΤǤϤʤǤ礦
#30. ưưǤ⡤3ñ -s ĤʤưäƤʡ!!55ڡˡˤ륳ƥġ
#31. ܸǤ褯֥Ĥס56ʶˡˤ륳ƥġ
#32. Ĥʤ֥롼ࡼ57ڡˡˤ륳ƥġ
#33. She S Ȥϲ59ʷˡˤ륳ƥġ
#34. ֤襤ʤ510ʲСˡˤ륳ƥġ
#35. ֱѸˤʤäճܸ511ʿˡˤ륳ƥġ
#36. ֥ܥϷɲƸƤ٤Ф512ڡˡˤ륳ƥġ
#37. ָűѻξҲ (3): The Battle of Maldon513ʶˡˤ륳ƥġ
#38. ܤΥե514ڡˡ̿ˤ륳ƥġ
#39. do-gooding ƿ̾ơ516ʷˡˤ륳ƥġ
#40. at ǻϤޤ륤ǥγ517ʲСˡ´ˤ륳ƥġ
#41. դȿ --- ȶ㤫 ---518ʿˡˤ륳ƥġ
#42. ֡결פϺǶ̾519ڡˡ´ˤ륳ƥġ
#43. ֤ɤǤ̤Ѹ520ʶˡˤ륳ƥġ
#44. ox ٤ʤꥹͤȡ֥פ٤ʤܿ͡521ڡˡ´ˤ륳ƥġ
ϻĤ2֤ۤɤǤꤨ꤭ꤿȻפޤͤˤ⡤ɤΤۤɤꤤޤ
518Υ饤ʿơǥȥեɤ NATO ؤβƱ˿俷ʹī7̤ˡϪ硡ޤפꤹ뵭ǺܤƤȤϡХȳ⤫֥ǥΥåȥ (Gotland) ΤȤǤ롥 *

åȥɤϥǥμԥȥåۥफ190εΥˤ롥礫ϤǤ륫˥顼ɤޤǤεΥ300Ǥ롥ĤʤХȳפäߤŪʽѤäƤʤ
åȥɤˤϸŤϵ900ǯ饹ǥΰƤ̱ȼθʸ³ƤǤϸߤ˻ޤǥåȥɸ (Gutnish, Gutnic) ѤƤ롥ǥ1Ȥߤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ǥǥޡȤȤˡ̥ޥ췲 (North Germanic) Υɸ (East Norse) ΩСȤߤʤȤǤ롥ʥåȥɸΰ֤ŤˤĤƤϡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])#2239. ťޥʬ ([2015-06-14-1]) Ȥ줿奲ޥθϿޤ顥
12ޤǤˡåȥɤξͤϥΥΥɤǰơХȳǰץ롼ȤƤοĮ Visby ˤϥɥľͤ褦ˤʤꡤϥƱȤ߹ޤ˻ä14ȾФޤǤ˱ɤ
1361ǯ˥ǥޡΥǥޡ4ȡХȳǰץ롼ȤѤꡤåȥɤϿषƤäθ1645ǯ˥ǥ˾ϤȡϹžƤä19ˤƤϡάŪפȤ礬ɲ줿
ơ21θߡν̱6ͤۤɤˤʤιŪĥΤʤ̲ˤ1ĤȤʤäƤ롥
she θ츻ˤĤơϢ Laing and Lass ʸ夲Ƥcf. #4769. she θ츻 --- Laing and Lass ˤ "Yod Epenthesis" ξҲ ([2022-05-18-1])#4770. she θ츻 --- Laing and Lass ˤ "Yod Epenthesis" ɾ ([2022-05-19-1]))
Ʊʸμʴؿ3;ñ̾ʤη֤ˤĤƤгʤͿʤη֤ˤĤƤƤ롥űѸɸŪʥѥˤСгʤ hīeͿʤ hire η֤äˤߤ餫̤ꡤͿʷгʷ߹ǡŪ herפ뤳ȤˤʤäǤС¾3;̾ǤƱȤäƤ롥ñͿʤ him г hine ߹ߡʣͿʤ him г hīe ߹ʸˤ켫Ȥ them ִ줿ˡ
3;̾˴ؤͿʤгʤ߹ȤθݡͿؤгʤοʿˤϤޤܤ줺褽ĺΤȤäΤȵ䤬뤬ñ˴ؤƤ Laing and Lass (209) ˤǫä
By the time ME proper begins to emerge, and to survive in the written record in the mid to late twelfth century, the new 'she' type for the subject pronoun already begins to be found. For the object pronoun the levelling of the 'her/hir' type from the OE DAT/GEN variants is also already the majority for direct object function. For the fem sg personal pronoun used as direct object ($/P13OdF), LAEME CTT has 60 tokens of the 'heo/hi(e)' type across only 7 texts. If one includes hi(e) spellings for IT ($/P13OdI) showing survival of feminine grammatical gender in inanimates, the total rises to 77 tokens across 14 texts. Only 2 texts (with 3 tokens between them) have 'heo/hie' exclusively in direct object function for HER. The other 5 texts show 'her/hir' types beside 'heo/hie' types. Against this are 494 tokens of the 'her/hir' type for HER found across 51 texts. Or, if one includes 'her/hir' type spellings for IT showing the survival of grammatical gender, the total rises to 590 across 58 texts.
פˡгʤͿؤοʿϡճѸʳǤǤ˿ʤǤȤȤˤʤ롥餯ñʣǤ褦ʾä뤬ˤĤƤ̤ɬפ롥
ȴϢƴϢơ#155. űѸο;̾ζޡ ([2009-09-29-1])#975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1])#4080. ʤ she νͭʤŪʤ her ƱˤʤΤǤ ([2020-06-28-1]) ȡ
ε#4769. she θ츻 --- Laing and Lass ˤ "Yod Epenthesis" ξҲ ([2022-05-18-1]) ǡѸˤˤǯФ뿷ñ˾Ҳ𤷤Laing and Lass ʸηսѤȡΤ褦ˤʤ (231)
(a) For the history of she, we posit an approximant epenthesis of a type already found in OE, spreading to further items in ME, and occurring in all periods of Scots as well as PDE. This turns the word-onset into a consonant cluster with its own history, independent of that of the nuclear vowel (though it seems primarily to occur before certain nuclear types).
(b) The nuclear vowel derives in the normal way from OE [eo], with no need for 'resyllabification' or the creation of 'rising diphthongs'.
(c) This account allows an etymology with no interim generation of trimoric nuclei, or the problem of maintaining vowel length when the first element of the nucleus is the first vowel of the diphthong that constitutes it. It therefore allows for the unproblematic derivation of both [ʃe:] (required for PDE [ʃi:]) and [ʃo:] (required for some regional types such as [ʃu:]).
(d) We claim that the so-called 'she problem' has been a problem mainly because of a misconception of the kind of etymology it is. The literature (and this is true even of Britton's account, which is clearly the best) founders (sic) on the failure to separate the development of the word-onset and the development of the nuclear vowel.
The mistake has been the attempt to combine a vocalic story and a consonantal story and at the same time make phonological sense. We suggest that in this case it cannot be done, and that by separating the two stories we arrive at a clean and linguistically justifiable narrative.
ǵξܺ٤Ω뤳ȤϤʤοФ伫ȤɾҤ٤ʤСޤƤƤ¾ϤȤߤƤ롥
ޤLAEME ȤǿΥġѤĤġŪʼ̤λ˰͵ƤפǤ롥礭ʻ餳˼ȤǤȤ褯ʬȤ餯뿮괶ȤФ褤ιȿ˶ò롥
嵭ȴϢ뤬LAEME ϢȤƤ CoNE (= A Corpus of Narrative Etymologies from Proto-Old English to Early Middle English) CC (= the Corpus of Changes) ԻȤʸץȤΰĤȤơshe 夲ƤŦƤCoNE ϡѸʸڤñΤ۷֤ˤĤơѲֻѲδԤȤŪʴǤʡֽѸȤӸءפȸƤӤۤɤˡshe ˤĤƤСγƳʷޤ٤Ƥΰ۷֤Ϳ褦ȤƤꡤ[ʃ] ޤ֤ΰ⤢ޤǤΰˤʤΤǤ롥scha, þoe, þie, yo Τ褦㳰Ūʰ۷֤ˤĤƤ⡤̣ͿƤ롥
ơ"Yod Epenthesis" Ƥ켫Τڥ˥Ūžäshe θ츻ˤǤ [j] ˼ƳФ뤫ײ1ĤȤʤäƤ [j] ƳФ뤳Ȥ̣Ƿ餯ᡤ֤ [j] äƤޤäפȼĥΤǤ롥ˤ [j] ɬԼפȤ櫓ǤʤȯŪǤϤ졤㤬뤳ȤʸΤ˼Ƥ뤫
Ū¿ĤҤȤĤεˤĤƤԤ䤤Ƥߤ⤢ΤΤȤϤꡤĻɷŪʹɾ
Laing, Margaret and Roger Lass. "On Middle English she, sho: A Refurbished Narrative," Folia Linguistica Historica 35 (2014): 201-40.
Lass, Roger, Margaret Laing, Rhona Alcorn, and Keith Williamson. A Corpus of Narrative Etymologies from Proto-Old English to Early Middle English and accompanying Corpus of Changes, Version 1.1. Edinburgh: U of Edinburgh, 2013--. Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/CoNE/CoNE.html.
3;ñ̾ she θ츻ä100ǯʾ褬³ƤˤĤƤϡhellog Ǥ⼡εǼ夲Ƥ
#792. she --- Ǥ٤ι⤤츻Ծܤθ ([2011-06-28-1])
#793. she --- 奤ˤ۷ʬۡ ([2011-06-29-1])
#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1])
#829. she θ츻ν ([2011-08-04-1])
θŤ LAEME ȤǿΥġѤĩΤ2014ǯ Laing and Lass ʸǤLAEME ˤĤƤϡ#4086. Ѹ츦ˤ LAEME ([2020-07-04-1])#4396. ѸϿޤȥդѥƤ LAEME ([2021-05-10-1]) Ϥ laeme γƵȡˡ
she ϡüŪˤСѸǧ۷֡ʸɸ she Ϣʤ֤ޤˤ˸ (1) Ҳ [ʃ](2) [eː] [oː]ɤΤ褦ΤȤ2˽롥Ȥ櫓θȤʤܤƤ۷ [hjoː] ʤɤ˴ޤޤ [j] ɤΤ褦ƳФ뤫פȤʤ롥
Ǥϡ [j] ϴ¸βϢ³ΤʤŪƳФ뤳ȤȤƤLaing and Lass οϡ[j] ŪƳФ줿ΤǤϤʤŪ줿ˤʤȤȤñˤС [j] äƤޤäΤȤȤо嵭 (1), (2) Τ̵ʤǤ뤷LAEME ۷֤ʬۤδ̷ʤȤ
֤ [j] äƤޤäϡƱʸǤ "Yod Epenthesis" (= YE) ̾դƤ롥űѸ [heo] YE ͳ [hjeo] Ȥʤꡤθ "eo-Monophthongisation/Merger" (= EOM) ̤ [hjeː] 뤤 [hjoː] ƳФȤϩʼºݤˤϡκǸβطʤŪ [hjøː] ꤵƤ餷ˡˡƬ [hj] "Fusional Assimilation" (= FA) Ф [ç] ȤʤꡤǸ "Palatal Fronting" (= PF) η̡[ʃ] Ϥ롤Ȥƻڤ
űѸ줫ήмΤ褦ˤʤ (Laing and Lass 217)
*heo ((YE)) > *hjeo ((EOM)) >
1 *hjo: ((FA)) > [ço:] ((PF)) > [ʃo:]
2 *hje: ((FA)) > [çe:] ((PF)) > [ʃe:]
Laing, Margaret and Roger Lass. "On Middle English she, sho: A Refurbished Narrative," Folia Linguistica Historica 35 (2014): 201-40.
515俷ʹī7̤ˡ֡ǧξɡפȡ֥סĸƤ̾Ѥ̣ȽŤߡפꤹ륳बܤäƤεˤؤ *
ܤ3饤ʤμԤδŪʸƤ̾ä֥աפ֥פȸƤѤ뤳ȤꤷȯǤϤʤ饤ʸȯ˱äǤѹǤ롥̾ϸϸǤɤѤΤڤǤȤϾˤäˤ衤ʤΥߥѹΤ䤨С餫ܤΥ饤ʿ˰ۤ饤ʤٱ礹뤳ȤꤷǤ롥碌ơ֥ǥåפϡ֥ǡפء֥Υ֥פϡ֥ΡӥפؤѤäƱͤˡɥμԤ˴Ť֥˥աפ롼ޥ˥˴Ť֥ʥפ˸ƤѤĴʤǤȤפˡΰϢ̾θƤ̾ѹϡŪʤĤΤ
Υϡפ֤ܤפǧξɡפؤθƤ̾ѹ礤˽Фʤ顤Τ褦˵Ƥ롥
ʸƤ̾夷ˤʤäƤȡ֤ʤ虜虜ѤΤפܤʤʤǽ롥
ºݡǧξɤȤդޤ줿ΤͤϡϤ⤦¿ʤȻפ롥Ǥϡդڤؤ̣ΥʧˤϡҲ˰ѤƤ
ֻǰʤ顤ϽʬǤϤʤפȡϸǧξɼťĹ̳ҰաʣˤϻŦ롥ȤСǧξɤξɾͤΤȤ֥˥פɽ롥ˤϡοͤڤʷϵɤ롥Υʧ뤿˸դѤΤˡǧξɤȤʸդΥåƥŽäƤޤ롥
ŪʸƤ̾ѹϡλμҲŪŪʻǤλʪǤ뤳Ȥ¿ŪˤϤλ PC (= political_correctness) δ֤ɤƤ̾Ф졤ŤƤ̾ϤƤѤȤʤäƤߤгֲ͡פȤäƤ褤⤷ʤŤɽäƤޤСʤƤ̾ѹɬפäΤȤͳ⡤ɤΤ褦˸Ƥ̾ѹ줿ΤȤ⡤Ȥ˺ƤޤɤֲפΤ͡εäƤäƤޤΤǤ롥ȡ٤λ֤Фˡοɽ˴ؤƱ褦ʸƤ꤬̾ƤˡĤƤηиȿʤ褫ȤϤǤʤ
֥פȤäƤȤϽפȹͤ롥Ʊ餤פʤΤϡ֥աפơ֥פѹΤȤεǤ롥ʹ֤εƤˤʤʤΤǡϤ국ϿƤޤ˿ƵϿФƤȤ
ƱݤεȤơ#4105. Ƽ˲űPCʪۡ ([2020-07-23-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
18:00 YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥ23Ƥޤȥϡ֥ʸѤܿͤαѸϡܾϤ夲롪ڰʼδѸظإͥ # 23 ۡפǤ
ʤߤˡ轵ο˸줿122Ƥϡ֥˥åݥΥʸѸˤ¤롪ڰʼδѸظإͥ # 22 ۡפǤ2ơ֥ʸפˤĤƤ٤ꤷƤ櫓Ǥ2Ĺ碌Ƥ
ܥ֥Ǥ⥫ʸˤĤ͡˼夲ƤޤεåФȻפޤ
22ƤˤѸפʤֱ̡פֱʩפˤĤƤ⡤ܥ֥ǵƤޤˤĤƤѸޤפεåɤ
ʼ͡Τǡ֥ʸפεŸƤޤǶΤΤȤƤϰʲ⤷Ǥ
2021ǯ1120ABEMA Prime ǤΡڲʸ֥ۡʸ͢ϻߤʤסܸɽʤɽװռ⤤Ϥͭǥɤȿɤ
2022ǯ421SBS饸IPPOפǤΡץ饤ʹʤʸ
δñѸ in English٤6椬ȯȤʤޤϢܡˤѸΥܥʵפ15ϡѸ˾֤Ȥ⤤Ѥʵ夲Ƥޤʤ1;ñ̾ I ϾʸǽΤȤǤ

Ϣϡܥ֥Ǥ#91. ʤ;ñ̾ I ʸǽ ([2009-07-27-1]) Ϥ͡ʷǼ夲Ƥޤطʤˤξʸ <i> λΤ˴ؤԹʻ¤ޤʤ <ı> Τ褦˽ (minim) 1ܤǽ줿ΤǤ줬ΡפȤˤʤޤϢܵǤϡΤ䤳ʤ٤ʬ䤹⤷ޤΤǡɤɤ
¤ܲʹ khelf ٥ֱѸ˥ƥ50ˤơ415رˤ줿ƥĤޤˤνäƤޤ||||||||||ɤޤȤƥĤǡޤǤǺǤ͵Τ륳ƥĤ1ĤȤʤäƤޤϢܵȹ碌ơƤߤƤ
ϢܵǤϡ⤽ʤե٥åȤˤʸȾʸΤȤ⤦1ĤѤˤƤޤˤĤƤϰʲȤ
hellog-radio: #1. ֤ʤʸȾʸΤǤ
heldio: #50. ʤʸƬͭ̾ʸǻϤΡ
heldio: #136. ̾ʸǻϤƤ17-18
Ϣå
ۤ1ǯۤΤȤˤʤޤ2021ǯ514ʶˤ NHK Υƥȡ֥˼롪פˤơʸȾʸפꤷƤ꤬夲졤ƽԡԤȤƽб餷ޤʲǤͤˡ *
ε#4764. Ūʷʬεȼ ([2022-05-13-1]) ³ʬεˤĤơ
ιʸ Jespersen (407) "dangling participle" "loose participle" ȸƤӡڡˤ錄äƵƤ롥Ȥ櫓 pp. 409--10 Ǥϡ"perfectly established" ΤȤ allowing for, talking of, speaking of, judging by, judging from, saving, begging your pardon, strictly speaking, generally speaking, counting, taking, considering 㤬Ƥ롥
pp. 410--11 Ǥϡ˴ֻ˶ʤäΤȤơѸʹߤ˭٤ʸȤȤ˵Ƥ롥ιͻΤˤ⡤˰ѤƤ
22.29. A loose participle sometimes approaches the value of a preposition. This use is with possibly doubtful justice ascribed to French influence by Ross, The Absolute Participle, 30. Examples: Ch B 4161 as touching daun Catoun | More U 64 Now as touchyng this question . . . But as concernyng this matter . . . | Caxton R 11 touchyng this complaint | Hawthorne S 247 I am utterly bewildered as touching the purport of your words | Caxton R 54 alle were there sauyng reynard | Gay BP 40 . . . a Jew; and bating their religion, to women they are a good sort of people | Hawthorne Sn 51 barring the casualties to which such a complicated piece of mechanism is liable | Quincey 116 one may bevouack decently, barring rain and wind, up to the end of October | Scott I 31 incapable of being removed, excepting by the use of the file | Di Do 239 Edith, saving for a curl of her lip, was motionless | Dreiser F 292 what chance would he have, presuming her faithfulness itself | Defoe R 2.190 his discourse was prettily deliver'd, considering his youth | Hope D 77 Considering his age, your conduct is scandalous | Thack N 5 there may be nothing new under and including the sun.
Cf. also regarding, respecting (e.g. Ruskin S 1.291) | according to (Caxton R 57, etc.) | owing to | granting (Stevenson JHF 103 even granting some impediments, why was this gentleman to be received by me in secret?).
Cf. pending, during, notwithstanding 6.34.
On the transition of seeing, granting, supposing, notwithstanding with or without that to use as conjunctions, see ch. XXI; on being see above 6.35.
ˤȡʬϥեбʸαƶη̤Ȥߤʤ⤢褦εǤߤȤűѸ˥롼Ĥõ뤳ȤǤʾ塤ʤȤե줫αƶΤߤ˰͵ǤϤʤ
ѤκǸʬˤ褦ˡޤǤ˴ֻ첽뤤³첽Τ㤢Τǡjudging from ͻäơΤ褦ʻˤܤۤäƤɬפ롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 5. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1954.
#4754. ʬ ([2022-05-03-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡjudging from Τ褦˴ɽȤ夷Ƥʬ (dangling participle) 㤬롥speaking of, strictly speaking, considering, including ʤɤ֤ȤȸʬȤƻϤޤäɽʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ФơǽŪֻ˶ᤤΤȯŸƤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
칽¤ˤĤơVisser (1075) 1䤤Ƥ롥ŪɽϤǤ˸űѸˤäȤΤȤ
>>
1075 --- Types 'Speaking of daughters, I have seen Miss Dombey' 'This is, strictly speaking, no quibble'
Here follow a number of instances of the use of non-related free -ing adjuncts which have nowadays begun to be generally considered established usage. In this case the adjunct never takes the having + past participle or the being + past participle form. Some of the adjuncts are more or less halfway in their development to prepositions, e.g. 'talking of' = 'apropos of'.
It seems worth while to cite the following Old English passage as being a kind of forerunner of the idiom under discussion: Ælfric, Gen. 13, 10, 'eall se eard . . . wæs mirige mid wætere gemenged swa swa godes neorxna wang and swa swa Egipta land becumendum on Segor' (Auth. V.: as thou comest unto Zoar). A Middle English instance is: c1450 Cov. Myst. p. 387, 'My name is great and marveylous, treuly you telland.'
Visser ƱǡѸ¿Ĥġ16δϢɽƤ롥allowing, begging, considering, counting, excluding, excusing, granting, including, judging, letting alone, reckoning, speaking, supposing, taking, talking, waiving
Ʊˤϡ겼ƤäơɬŪ˸ŤΤǤϤ뤬ͭѤʻʸ¿Ҳ𤵤ƤΤǡդ꤫饹ȤΤ褵
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
#4509. "angloversals" --- ѸˤߤŪʡܡ ([2021-08-31-1]) "angloversals" ȤѸ졦ǰ˿줿αѸѼϤȡŪŪľܤδطʤѼ֤ˡ褯ܡʤȤ櫓ɸŪʸܡˤ̤ƴѻ뤳Ȥ롥̣ǡֱѸפ֤ʤΤǡȤ⤢Ȼפ뤫⤷ʤܤΤʤˤ9ʾαѸѼ˳ǧȤ˥С˶ᤤΤ⤢롥줬 angloversals ȸƤФΤ
Kortmann ϡ76αѸѼĴ¿Ѽ˶ͭƤ angloversals Υȥå11ϤФɸŪǵŪʸˡȤƤϥȤŪʹܤǤ롥Kortmann Υɽ (639--40) 䤹褦˲Ѥưʲ˼ "No." Ĵֹ桤 "AR" "attestation rate" ؤ
| No. | Feature | Absent in | Total | AR worldwide |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| F229 | no inversion/no auxiliaries in main clause yes/no questions (You get the point?) | North, SE, AppE, ChcE, NigE, TP | 70 | 92% |
| F34 | forms or phrases for the second person plural pronoun other than you (e.g. youse, yinz, y'all, you guys, yufela) | O&SE, SE, TznE, UgE, HKE, FijiE, Saramaccan | 69 | 91% |
| F221 | adverbs other than degree modifiers have the same form as adjectives (Come quick!) | PakE, SLkE, HKE, FijiE, BelC, Bislama, TP | 69 | 91% |
| F7 | me instead of I in coordinate subjects (me and my brother) | FijiE, EMarC, Saramaccan, TorSC, PalmE, Bislama, Norf'k, TP | 68 | 89% |
| F159 | never as preverbal past tense negator (She never came this morning) | O&SE, ChcE, JamE, UgE, NigE, IndE, SLkE, EMarC, Saramaccan, Sranan, RRC, Bislama, TP | 63 | 83% |
| F154 | multiple negation/negative concord (He won't do no harm) | NigE, TznE, PakE, SLkE, MalE, FijiE, RRC, TP, Bislama, GhP, NigP | 61 | 80% |
| F220 | degree modifier adverbs have the same form as adjectives (This is real healthy) | . . . | 60 | 79% |
| F147 | was for conditional were (if I was you) | . . . | 58 | 76% |
| F78 | double comparatives and superlatives (That's so much more easier to follow) | . . . | 56 | 74% |
| F172 | existential/presentational there's/there is/there was with plural subjects (There's three people in the garden) | . . . | 54 | 71% |
| F228 | no inversion/no auxiliaries in wh-questions (What you doing?) | . . . | 54 | 71% |
#3258. 17˺줿ư̾췲褹 (1) ([2018-03-29-1])#3259. 17˺줿ư̾췲褹 (2) ([2018-03-30-1]) Ǽ夲 Bauer ʸرμȤǤäɤǤߤѥˤˤäƥȥɤꡤ㤨¾줫αƶˤ꿷ܼƳǡŤܼѤȤʤäƤʤɱɸΥɥޤ롥Bauer ʸǤϥǥȤ̾첽ؾ꤬Ƥ롥
⤽ѥαɸθưϤϲʤΤBauer (197) ʸǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
We must presume that there is some rule at work in a community which constrains new forms: new forms receive the communal blessing only when they are sufficiently parallel to established forms to be seen as well-motivated. In a period of catastrophic change like the seventeenth century, virtually any Romance form could be motivated by foreign parallels. In the twenty-first century ,we have a community of speakers of "English" which is heterogeneous enough for different parallels to be accepted in different parts of that community. The result is that a form such as tread can be accepted as the past tense of TREAD in some parts of the community but not in others. Equally, Pinteresque, Pinterian, and Pinterish can all be accepted as "English" (see the OED at Pinteresque), and there may be more than one solution for the nominalization of the verb to English.
ηŪƧ߹ͤʤ⡤βսˤ⸽Ƥ褦ˡ¤Ͽ˼ҲŪƶߤ롥षɤˡҲؤʸäΤȤĤ֤䤤Ƥޤäۤɤ
ƤϤۤܤ٤ OED Ƥ뤬ˤõ뤿ƻȤ OED Ѥ뤳Ȥ˴ؤƤȽŪʵɤߤɤǤ롥Bauer ĴˤηŪʸѥȤۤɤ᤹Ƥ̣뤬ˤȰ˵ͤͤä
Bauer, Laurie. "Competition in English Word Formation." Chapter 8 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 177--98.
ܥ֥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)Ǥϡ-er, -or, -ee ʤɤΡ~͡ʤΡˡפֹ̣̾ټ (agentive_suffix) ˤĤơȼ夲Ƥ
#214. -er -or ¤äȤΥҥȡ (heldio)
#215. ټ -ster (heldio)
#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])
#1880. -ee εȯŸ (1) ([2014-06-20-1])
#1881. -ee εȯŸ (2) ([2014-06-21-1])
#3791. ټ -er, -ster ϥƥͳ褹롩 ([2019-09-13-1])
#4056. deme, demere, demande ([2020-06-04-1])
#4222. ټ -eer ([2020-11-17-1])
#4302. ټ -ar ([2021-02-05-1])
ޤǡ (suffix) ˤĤƿͤˡֹټ (agentive_suffix) ȸƤӡΤΥꤷƤBauer (285--86) εɤߡषּʼԡ (subject suffix) 餤Ѹ줬ȵŤԤϰ̣Ū̾դǡԤŪ̾դǤ롥
There is a class of nominalizations which is sometimes given the name 'agentive nominalization' in the literature . . . . This class is made up mainly of forms such as baker, examiner, killer, where the suffix -er is added to a verbal base. 'Agentive nominalization' is actually a misnomer because such forms do not always denote agents, in any normal sense of the term 'agent'. In words like curler, opener, synthesizer the derivative in -er denotes an instrument; in words like lover the derivative denotes an experiencer or patient. These various semantic effects, however, can be given a unitary explanation if it is said that the derivative is a lexeme which is a typical subject of the verb used in the base: a curler curls, an opener opens, a lover loves, and so on. A better name for this group of nominalizations, therefore, is subject nominalization, although this label will cover more than just -er suffixation.
ʵǤ롥ټ (agentive suffix) ȤѸ⤽ʤ夷ƤꡤˤϼΤƤȤ³ˤƤ⡤Bauer λŦռĤĻȤȤˤ褦
Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
#4349. ʤʬˤԵ§ʤΤ¿Τ˸ʬ -ing ǵ§ŪʤΤ ([2021-03-24-1]) ȤѤʵȴϢơ⤽ξԤͳ褬礭ۤʤˤĤơLass βѤ褦ޤʬˤĤơȤ櫓Ѳưͳ˾Ƥ (Lass 161)
. . . its [= past participle] descent is not always very neat. To begin with, it is historically not really 'part of' the verb paradigm: it is originally an independent thematic adjective (IE o-stem, Gmc a-stem) formed off the verbal root. The basic development would be:
IE PGmc *ROOT - o - nó- > *ROOT - α -nα-
Ѳư˴ؤ¤ꡤʬư캬ˤϤʤȤưѥȤ߹ޤƤʤäȤȤŪˤϡư줫Ωưζΰ㤤ˤ¸
ʬˤϡŪưζΰ㤤˰¸ʤȤ𤬤ä (Lass 163) ˤĤƤϤǤˡ#4345. űѸޤǤθʬȯã ([2021-03-20-1]) ǰѤȤǤ롥
֤ʤʬˤԵ§ʤΤ¿Τ˸ʬ -ing ǵ§ŪʤΤפȤ˸礦äơ⤽ʬȸʬͳ褬礭ۤʤäƤפȤʤ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
to εˤĤơ#2502. ʤˤ to ȸ2बΤ ([2016-03-03-1]) ǤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤
to פΤۤϡűѸֻ to ˡҤͿʤ˶ޤ -anne Ȥķ֡ϰ̾ȤäƤ褤ΤʤΤǡ̾줵ʤ˶ޤˤ³
ϡѸˤζʽʤɤǤ褯ŪʵҤΤǤ롥ȤɬΤǤϤʤ褦Los (144) ˰ۤʤƤꡤΤۤӸŪϤ롥
The etymology of the to-infinitive is often given as a bare infinitive in the complement of a preposition to, but this leaves the gemination ('doubling') of the -n- in the to-infinitive unexplained. The gemination points to the presence of an earlier -j-, probably part of a nominalising suffix. This parallells (sic) the origin of the gerund . . . , and indicates that the to-infinitive is not built on the bare infinitive, which was a much earlier formation, but on a verbal stem, like any other nominalisation:
(57) to (preposition) + ber- (verbal stem) + -anja (derivational suffix) + -i (dative sg) Common Germanic *to beranjōi, Old English: to berenne, Middle English: to beren/bere, PDE: to bear.
Τ˸űѸθ beran ̤̾ȸΩƤͿʤ˶ޤƤ *berane ˤʤ berenne ˤϤʤʤ첻ۤʤ뤷ҲνŤ (gemination) θˤʤФʤʤȤˡƵŤ
Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.
ؤμȤ¿֤;äꤹȤޤˤ뤳Ȥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ǤäƤߤޤ˱Ѹ˴ؤѤʵФƤ餤ξƤʤȤ⡤Ѹˤδ饳ȤƤˤȤΤǤ
10ʬ٤λ֤Ǽ夲뤳ȤϤǤΤ5ۤɤǤ1ۤΡֱѸˡפνȤΤȤ˳äꥹȤƬ5ǤʤνȤˤĤƤϡ#4728. 2022ǯ١ֱѸˡֵν --- ʸʸ칶ɬܡֱѸˡפϤޤޤ ([2022-04-07-1]) ȡˡslido Ȥ־Q&AӥѤơʸ̤˥饤äΤǤѤʵ礷ݤʸϡʲ̤Ǥ
饤ǤɤɤֱѸ졦˴ؤѤʵפƤҶݤѤΤۤѸŪˤϤ⤷Ȥ¿Ǥ
¦ȤƤϡɤʼ䤬Ǥ뤫ʬʤΤǥϥϥɥɥǤϤޤزȯɽΤȤμΤۤޤνǤƤΤǤϤʤȡǤ찭Ǥ졤٤ƤγؤӤȯ䤫ϤޤȤǡ䤤פ˽פʱĤߤȹͤƤޤ
Voicy Ǽ夲5θʸϡʲ̤Ǥ
ʤ water ԲĻ̾ʤΤޤ̣ tear Ļ̾ʤΤ
ʤܸˤϻ䡤ͤʤɤΰ;Τ¿ΤˡѸǤ I ʤΤ
ʤñ s ¾Υե٥åȤǤϤʤ s ʤΤ
ʤѸˤܸ3ΥޥȥڤʤΤǤ
walk work ֤ȯդʤΤϲΤ
ǤϤʤǡˤϲ˻ʤΤ¿ǤѸˡѸؤδֲ뤳Ȥ롤ȤΤݥȤǤҤİ
Voicy 饸ϥ־ǤİǤޤʲɤǤ륢ץ̵ˤȤȤäȲŬǤ碌ƥեƤФȻפޤ


41 khelfʷѸ˥եˤȤΩ夲ǯٴֱѸ˥ƥ50ƻ˾äƤơ⤷ٶˤʤ륳ƥĤ³Ф褦ˤʤޤcf. #4722. ǯ٤ΡֱѸ˥ȥåס״ϡ ([2022-04-01-1])ˡ2֤ۤɤδǤ礦ޤ֤ۤȤʤΤǡ#4739. khelf ٥ȡֱѸ˥ƥ50פ3ܤäƤޤ ([2022-04-18-1]) ˰³ƥĤĤҲ𤷤ޤѸˤΥСΰιʬ뤫Ȼפޤ
#15.ˤäơ襤 418ʷˡˤ륳ƥġ
#16."Watch your step" vs. "Mind the gap" 419ʲСˡˤ륳ƥġ
#17.ưϡܡפּμפء 420ʿ ˤ륳ƥġ
#18.ֲʶޡ 421ڡˡˤ륳ƥġ
#19.ֱȤˤƱ츻ɾ㤦ư 422ʶˡˤ륳ƥġ
#20. 423ڡˡˤ륳ƥġ
#21.ָűѻξҲ2: The Seafarer 425ʷˡˤ륳ƥġ
#22.ֳ+= 426ʲСˡˤ륳ƥġ
#23.ֿäư 427ʿˡˤ륳ƥġ
#25.r ˤޤĤ2Ĥθ rhotacism intrusive r 429ʶˡˤ륳ƥġ
#26.֥硼ȥäƤɤʥ 430ڡˡˤ륳ƥġ
#27.God bless you 52ʷˡˤ륳ƥġ
#28.ͤιʲμ King Gnu Ǥ 53ʲСˡˤ륳ƥġ
#29.ܸ줫Ѹäñ줿 54ʿˡˤ륳ƥġ
ʤߤˡǤ褯ɤޤƤ٥3ƥĤϰʲΤȤǤ
#13.||||||||||ɤޤ 415ʶˡˤ륳ƥġ56187ץӥ塼
#1.ִϤʤޤ줿Τ 41ʶˡˤ륳ƥġ168ץӥ塼
#3.űѸϻ 44ʷˡˤ륳ƥġ155ץӥ塼
ֱѸ˥ƥ50θȾ郎³ޤkhelf ǤϡѸˤξȯƤưŻ뤷Ƥޤhellog ɼԤγͤˤ⡤³δܤƤФȻפޤkhelf ưȴϢơʲƤޤ
khelf ĥå @khelf_keio ץƤޤֱѸ˥ƥ50פ˾夬äƤΥƥĤξҲ⡤ΥȤȯƤޤҥեꤤޤ
رѸ˿ʹϴȯԤƤޤʡ#4723. رѸ˿ʹϴ ([2022-04-02-1]) ȡ
رѸ˿ʹٿǯٹ泰ȯԤƤޤʡ#4731. رѸ˿ʹٿǯٹ泰 --- Ѹǽ줿Ѹ˳3Ҳ ([2022-04-10-1]) ȡ
شθűѸμȤ⾯ĵƻ˾äƤطʤ뤿ˡդǥάǯɽǤǤˡ#2526. űѸѸʸػǯɽ ([2016-03-27-1])#2871. űѸΥ饤ǯɽ ([2017-03-07-1])#3193. űѸμפʽǯɽ ([2018-01-23-1]) ǯɽǤƤ뤬Хꥨäۤ褤ȹͤƤΤǺ Godden and Lapidge (xii--xiii) άǯɽƸ롥
Chronological table of the Anglo-Saxon period
| from c. 400 | Germanic peoples settle in Britain |
| c. 540 | Gildas in De excidio Britanniae laments the effects of the Germanic settlements on the supine Britons |
| 597 | St Augustine arrives in Kent to convert the English |
| 616 | death of Æthelberht, king of Kent |
| c. 625 | ship-burial at Sutton Hoo (mound 1) |
| 633 | death of Edwin, king of Northumbria |
| 635 | Bishop Aidan established in Lindisfarne |
| 642 | death of Oswald, king of Northumbria |
| 664 | Synod of Whitby |
| 669 | Archbishop Theodore and Abbot Hadrian arrive in Canterbury |
| 674 | monastery of Monkwearmouth founded |
| 682 | monastery of Jarrow founded |
| 687 | death of St Cuthbert |
| 689 | death of Cædwalla, king of Wessex |
| 690 | death of Archbishop Theodore |
| c. 700 | 'Lindisfarne Gospels' written and decorated |
| 709 | deaths of Bishops Wilfrid and Aldhelm |
| 716--57 | Æthelbald king of Mercia |
| 731 | Bede completes his Ecclesiastical History |
| 735 | death of Bede |
| 754 | death of St Boniface, Anglo-Saxon missionary in Germany |
| 757--96 | Offa king of Mercia |
| 781 | Alcuin of York meets Charlemagne in Parma and thereafter leaves York for the Continent |
| 793 | Vikings attack Lindisfarne |
| 802--39 | Ecgberht king of Wessex |
| 804 | death of Alcuin |
| 839--56 | Æthelwulf king of Wessex |
| 869 | Vikings defeat and kill Edmund, king of East Anglia |
| 871--99 | Alfred the Great king of Wessex |
| 878 | Alfred defeats the Viking army at the battle of Edington, and the Vikings settle in East Anglia (879--80) |
| 899--924 | Edward the Elder king of Wessex |
| 924--39 | Athelstan king of Wessex and first king of All England |
| 937 | battle of Brunanburh: Athelstan defeats an alliance of Scots and Scandinavians |
| 957--75 | Edgar king of England |
| 859--88 | Dunstan archbishop at Canterbury |
| 963--84 | Æthelwold bishop at Winchester |
| 964 | secular clerics expelled from the Old Minster, Winchester, and replaced by monks |
| 971--92 | Oswald archbishop at York |
| 973 | King Edgar crowned at Bath |
| 978--1016 | Æthelred 'the Unready' king of England |
| 975--7 | Abbo of Fleury at Ramsey |
| 991 | battle of Maldon: the Vikings defeat an English army led by Byrhtnoth |
| c. 1010 | death of Ælfric, abbot of Eynsham |
| 1011 | Byrhtferth's Enchiridion |
| 1013 | the English submit to Swein, king of Denmark |
| 1016--35 | Cnut king of England |
| 1023 | death of Wulfstan, archbishop of York |
| 1042--66 | Edward the Confessor king of England |
| 1066 | battle of Hastings: the English army led by Harold is defeated by the Norman army led by William the Conqueror |
ѸˤμȤμΤ⤷Ҳ𤵤Ƥޤ
ݥȥե (apostrophe) ϾŪ˻ȤʤʤǽϤȻפޤ
ͥƥ֤ǤѤ¿褦ǡʤХԥڤˤʤȻפޤ
"I'm" "Im" ȤʤȸܤʤȤʤǤ"dont", "Whats", "Whos" ʤɤϤʤƤ褤ʤȻפäƤޤޤͭ 's Ϥʤʶ路礬뤫⤷ޤ
* ͵"Have we murdered the apostrophe?" By Hélène Schumacher, 24th February 2020
ϱѸˤ椷ƤޤαѸ줬ɤʤäƤѸͽԤǤϤޤΤǡʾСˡݥȥե (apostrophe) ιԤʬޤο֤αѸζˡ (punctuation) ήƧޤĤġǯ Netspeak ˤưįƤȡ줫ϼΤ褦ʤȤΤ⤷ʤʤȴ뤳ȤϤޤ
̣ξҲ𡤤꤬ȤޤݥȥեˤĤƤϡ⤤ȹͤƤޤ Laurel MacKenzie Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤ"the apostrophe is subject to whims of fashion, just like other things in culture and society are" ȹͤƤޤߤεŪˡŪˤȾХɥۥåޤäƤΤǡѸȤˤϸ§ȤƤ˽äƽƤޤѸνδѤϻȤȤѤäƤޤ˱ƵϤѤäƤΤȤȤѸ˸̤Ʒ֤ߤƤޤФƤϡ̵ѤƤޤ
鸽ޤǤαѸζˡ (punctuation) ˤįȡɵμƸäƤƤȤή줬ޤ夫鸽ˤƤ⡤ɵλѤϳΤ˸äƤƤޤ20Ⱦǥꡤή³Ф꤫¿ʤȤ®ƤȤǽϽʬˤޤSNS ϤȤŪ֥եޥפʥǥȡʹܤʤɤŪ֥եޥפʥǥȤǤϡѲΥԡɤ˺ޤԤαƶʤ顤ԤϤޤǤäѲƤȤȤˤʤͽۤƤޤ
ݥȥեˤĤƤϤ hellog ƤޤݥȥեγƼˡΥȤޤƤаޤȷ̤ˤĤƤϡȤ櫓#3656. kings' Τ褦ʣͭʤΥݥȥեθˤϲάƤΤǤ ([2019-05-01-1])ɤǤߤƤ
ؿСۥӥˡ δˡإڥαѸˡ١˼2017ǯɤݥȥեˤĤƤͤùޤ
Ԥͽ̤ꡤݥȥեϡ餯äȤڡȤϻפޤƤϤΤʤȻפäƤޤ
Ѹ˥ե (khelf) ǡGW夬äƤ꤬1Ĥ롥ʸˡǡַʬ (dangling participle) ȸƤФƤ븽ݤ塤ޤäƤʤΤǡѸ켭ŵŪʲƤޤؿѸؼŵ (283) ꡥ
dangling participle ʸ͡ʷʬ
Curme (1931, pp. 159--60) Ѹ졥ʬ칽ʸ (participial construction) ˤựμ줬ʸμȰۤʤΤ˼ɽƤʤʬʶˤHaving walked two miles, I was tired. 2ޥ⤤Τǻ줿ˤϤդĤʬ칽ʸǤ뤬Having walked two miles, the cabin was a welcome sight. 2ޥ⤤ǾΤǡäˤϷʬ칽ʸǤ롥ʬϳؼԤˤäơhanging participle, loose participle, unrelated participle Ϣʬˡunattached participle, unrelated adjunct ϢղûˤʤɤޤޤʸƤƤ롥
ʬʤˡǤȸʤͤ¿ʬΰ̣μȤο;Τ one 䤤 generally speaking, judging from [by] 䴷Ū I ɽ蘆ʤ talking [speaking] of Τ褦ʤΤϡλѤŪ˳ΩƤ롥ޤŪˤäƤʤ̣ΤǤʤ¤ɸˡȤǧ褦ȤΩ䡤Ƥʳ˺ĤƹͤΩ⤢롥Quirk & Greenbaum (UGE, 11.35) ˤС?Since leaving her, life has seemed empty. Ǥϼʸ seemed empty to me 䤤Τʬΰ̣μȤ I ǤΤФ*Reading the evening paper, a dog started barking. ϼʸʬΰ̣μꤵΤʤΤǵƤʤ
⤦1ġCrystal Ѹ켭ŵꡥ
dangling participle In traditional grammar, a term describing the use of a participle, or a phrase introduced by a participle, which has an unclear or ambiguous relationship to the rest of the sentence; also called a misrelated participle. If taken literally, the sentence often appears nonsensical or laughable: Driving along the street, a runaway dog gave John a fright. To avoid such inadvertent effects, manuals of style recommend that such sentence be rephrased, with the participial construction moved or replaced, as in When John was driving along the street, a runaway dog gave him a fright.
ܲ khelf ǵˤʤäƤΤϡʤ judging from Τ褦ʷʬϴѤȤǧƤΤȤŪʴؿϡġɤΤ褦ˡʤѲ˻äȤ䤤Ȥʤ롥
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
ܸʤѸʤΡʸˡפȤΤϡüԽĤˤΤʤǰ˺夲ߤ˽äƤδǤΰ̣ǤϡܸʤѸʤˤ餫ʸˡפäȤȤϤޤǤ⤢ޤʹֽĤäȤǤϸ̩ˤäƿŪʸˡǤˤϰ㤤ޤۤɰռŪˤ館ʸˡǤϤʤȤʤŪʸˡ餷ΤǤäƤȤθСޤǼȯŪʸˡȤޤ
ФưռޤäƤζˤƤϡʸ̤Ūʸˡ館ȤưФƤޤꥹǤ¾㴳٤ޤ18ޤˤλǤ٤ϤȤưռŪ˺줿ʸˡȤ̣ǵʸˡ (prescriptive_grammar) ȸƤФޤλˤǤäֵϱʸˡפϰŪ˻ٻ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ˻ޤǡֱʸˡפȤСǥեȤǤλˤǤäƸ˼Ѥ줿ʸˡؤȤȤˤʤäƤޤܤμʸˡ TOEIC αʸˡ⤳Ǥ
Τ褦Ūʻ𤬤äȤƧޤϤɸΤ褦ˡ֡رʸˡ٤250ǯۤ˵Ū˺夲줿פȽҤ٤뤳ȤˤƤޤ䤿ǥեȤƤֱʸˡפȤΤϡ250ǯۤ˥ꥹμ֤ͤͭǡֱʸˡפ尴͡˼줿ִ֤ˡޤ줿ȤäƤǤϤޤĤޤֱʸˡפȤϡ餬ֱʸˡפ夲ִ֤ˤǤäʪȤȤˤʤޤˤϡֱʸˡפϤʤäΤǤ
ո줿 YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥ19Ƥֱʸˡʤߤʤˤȿͤ18εʸˡȤǤڰʼδѸظإͥ # 19 ۡȤȥǤήǴط̾ˤϤᡤ18εʸˡλäڤӤޤ
ơ YouTube Ƥơäʤäʬ٤κī Voicy Ǥ18ȾФ˱ʸˡ夲 Robert Lowth ȤϤäԡꤷơϢ뤳Ȥäޤεʸˡλˤǽʪ Robert Lowth ȤͤǤ
ܤϡ#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]) ϤȤ lowth 뤤 prescriptive_grammar γƵ
427ʿˤ˸줿 YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥǤּΤߤʤط̾ʸˡְ㤨нˡǤ衼ڰʼδѸظإͥ # 18 ۡꤷƴط̾夲ޤʤʤ¿İƤ褦ǡ꤬¤Ǥºݤ2ͤǤ⤷Ȥ٤äƤޤʾСˡҤ
ɸѸǴط̾Ȥ which, who, whom, that, ƥʤط̾ξάդ꤬ޤΤ줬Ѥ뤫ȤˤϡʣΥѥʣ˴ؤäƤޤط̾Ǥ䤬ʤʤΤŪʤʤΤȤȤϤ¡ˡΰ㤤Ի줬̵ͭʤɤ̣Ūѥʣ˴ͿƤޤˡޤܤޤ¤ϻѰ (register) ȤŪѥط̾ˤȤƤפ̤ƤΤǤ
Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (608--21) ˤϡѥѤط̾˴ؤĴ̤ܺ٤˼ƤޤϤȤʤ顤ΤȤƺǤ٤ι⤤Ȥ which that ˾ơξԤʬۤ٤Ƥߤޤ礦
which that ¿ξؤǽǤعʸˡǶȤꡤ§Ȥ which Ի줬̵ξ˸¤졤ޤˡΤߤʤ餺ˡȤƤȤȤħߤޤthat ԻӤޤˡ˸ꤵޤ
which that ʬۤΰ㤤ˤĤƤ⤷ΤϡΤ褦̣ŪװƱ餤ѰȤװƤȤȤǤwhich ݼŪdzؽŪʴޤߤꡤؽѻʸǤˡ˸ꤹС70%ᡤthat ݤƤޤthat ϸŪǤޤߤꡤ㤨ХեǤˡ˸ꤹȡ75%ޤ
ޤꥫѸ줫ꥹѸ줫Ȥ㤤⡤which vs that Ǥޤ˥塼ǤˡܤȡꥫѸΤۤ餫 that ߡꥹѸǤ which ߤޤä٤ȡޤޤꥫѸǤ that ޤ졤ꥹѸ2ܤ٤Ѥޤ
ΤȤơLGSWE (616) which vs that зˤĤƼΤ褦礷Ƥޤ
The AmE preference for that over which reflects a willingness to use a form with colloquial associations more widely in written contexts than BrE.
ط̾αˤϻѰȤեҤǤΤǤ
ʤߤˡ18:00˸ YouTube #19 ϴط̾³ԤȤʤޤڤߤˡ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan, eds. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǽ: 2026-07-01 06:06
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow