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ε#2285. hundred "great ten" ([2015-07-30-1]) hundred θ츻ˤűѸ hund ˴ؤƤ⤦1Ķ̣¤롥űѸǤϡ10ܿɽ魯ΤˡѸ9ޤǤο -ty ղäΤƱͤˡ-tiġ ղä (Campbell 284--85) twēntiġ, þrītiġ, fēowertiġ, fīftiġ, siextiġ ǡǤ롥Ȥ70ʾˤʤȡƬ hund ƬΤ褦ղäΤ⡤ˡ100110120ޤ³ΤǤ롧hundseofontiġ, hundeahtatiġ, hundnigontiġ, hundtēontiġ, hundændlæftiġ, hundtwelftiġθƬ hund- ̵ȯ졤ˤäƤ -un ȤʤäꡤüʤɡűѸǤ岽ƤϤ褦
100פˤĤƤϡβ꤯ɤʣ hundtēontiġ Τۤˡʤñ hund(red) ѤƤϡޥ̱²Ǥ12ˡѤƤȤȴط褦ŤޥǤϡ100פ hundtēontiġ Τ褦ʣȤɽΤǤꡤñ hund(red) Ϥष120פɽ路Ƥ (cf. long [great] hundred) ٤ޤǻĤƤΤϸťΥɸǡǤϡ100פ tīu tigir (= *tenty)120פ hundrað1200פ þūsund ɽƤرѸ츻ŵ٤ˤȡޥ̱²ϡˤ餯ꥹȶαƶ10ˡؤžΤȤ롥
ơűѸ hundseofontiġ, hundeahtatiġ ʤɤɽ뤬60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120 ˤ hund- ղäȤȤϡϤꥲޥ̱²θ12ˡȤδϢ虜ʤظˤɤΤ褦äղäƤΤˤĤƤ͡ʵ褦
OED hund, n. (and adj.) 2ƸƤ
2. The element hund- was also prefixed in Old English to the numerals from 70 to 120, in Old English hund-seofontig, hund-eahtatig, hund-nigontig, hund-téontig, hund-endlyftig (-ælleftig), hund-twelftig, some of which are also found in early Middle English.
[No certain explanation can be offered of this hund-, which appears in Old Saxon as ant-, Dutch t- in tachtig, and may be compared with -hund in Gothic sibuntê-hund, etc., and Greek -ʦϦͦӦ.]
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
#2240. thousand "swelling hundred" ([2015-06-15-1]) εǡthousand ϸ츻Ūˤ "great hundred" Ȥ٤ΤǤ뤳ȤҲ𤷤¤ϡhundred Ȥ褦ʸ츻äƤꡤ "great ten" Ȥ٤ΤǤ롥
űѸ Ǥ hund ñΤǡɴפɽ路2Ǥ red Ǥդäϥޥĸ *-rað (reckoning, number) ̤롥ʤhundred ϴŪˤϡɴοפۤɤαŪʣǤ롥hund Ȥ촴˴ؤƤϡӸؤǤϤ褯ΤƤꡤĸ *kmto- ̤Ȥ롥줬ˡ§ (grimms_law) 䤽¾βѲФơűѸ hund ˻ (cf. #100. hundred ȰӸء ([2009-08-05-1])#1150. centum satem ([2012-06-20-1])ˡ
Ȥǡ*kmto- λҲʬ *km(t)- ϡֽ (ten) ɽ路*kmto- ΤȤ "ten tens" ۤɤɽ魯*km(t)- ֽפɽ魯Ȥϡƥ vīgintī (twenty), trīgintā (thirty), quadrāgintā (forty) б륮ꥷο˸Τ롥
Ǥϡĸ *km(t)- ֽפɽ魯ȤơѸ ten ƥ decem θȤ櫓ƬλϤɤΤ褦ΤθƬҲФƤϰĸ *d ƷƤꡤֽפɽ魯ĸȤơλҲޤ *(d)kmtom ꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥ƥ decem ŪưפƳȤǤ뤷Ѹ ten *k 岽ƾü֤ȯŸ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤΰ̤ο˸ -ty (< OE -tiġ) Ǥϡ٤ɡüȤˤʤ롥
ʾΤ褦ˡǤϡɴʤˤȤϡ츻Ū˸ߤ̩ܤʴطˤ롥10캬ȤơǤä뤳Ȥ102 ("great ten" or "ten tens") ꡤ103 ("great great ten" or "ten of ten tens") äΤǤ롥
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
Klein, Ernest. A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, Dealing with the Origin of Words and Their Sense Development, Thus Illustrating the History of Civilization and Culture. 2 vols. Amsterdam/London/New York: Elsevier, 1966--67. Unabridged, one-volume ed. 1971.
eye ˤĤơʣŪ¿#219. eyes ɽ172ֻ̤ ([2009-12-02-1]) Ǽθϡȯ˴ؤƤŪʣʲФƤƤ롥ϡeye βѲˤάҤ褦
űѸθȥǤϡθ <eage> ֤줿ȯȤƤϡ[æːɑɣe] Τ褦ˡĹ2첻 [g] ³û첻³äޤűѸ˸Ƭ2첻경 [æːɣe] Ȥʤäˤ첻Ͼ夲βФơѸˤ [eːɣe] Ȥؤȯã
ͭ˴ꡤޤꡤ˸첻ۣ沽 /eːjə/ Ϥ줿λҲȾ첻ǽŪˤϹ첻 [ɪ] ȤʤäǡԤ첻 [e] Ϥ [ɪ] ͻ礷ơʤ夲Фơ[iː] Ȥʤ˻롥ۣ첻ṳ̈ȤƸѸˤϸΤȤ [iː] Ȥȯ褦ˤʤä
ϡѸ I [iː] ʤɤθȤȤ˻Ĥˤࡥ⤤Ĺ첻 [iː] ϡ첻 (gvs) Ф2첻ޤ [əɪ] ء [aɪ] ؤȯãɸѼʳǤϡʳȯãߤޤäꡤۤʤäȯã뤲Τ⤢ɸѼǤϰʾĹФƤʲȯãˤޤȤƼ
| /æːɑɣe/ |
| /æːɣe/ |
| /eːɣe/ |
| /eːjə/ |
| /eɪə/ |
| /iːə/ |
| /iː/ |
| /əɪ/ |
| /aɪ/ |
ѸΥƥ䥮ꥷ줫θüѤϡ夫鿶֤äƤߤȡμ¸ä#45. ѸäˤޤĤ͡ ([2009-06-12-1]) Ǹ̤ꡤ16˸¤äƤ13000ۤɤѤ졤Ⱦʬʾ7000줬ƥ줫Ǥ롥λθüѤˤĤƤϡʲε䥤 (inkhorn_term) ˴Ϣ뤽¾εǤƻ夲Ƥ
#478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ ([2010-08-18-1])
#1409. Ĥä졤ä ([2013-03-06-1])
#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1])
#1226. Ѹˤäǯʬۡ ([2012-09-04-1])
16ȾɽȤȤ Shakespeare Shakespeare θüѤϡ嵭νѸθüѤŪʻ˾Ȥ餷ƤɤΤ褦˰֤ŤCrystal (63) ϡShakespeare ˤƽФäˤĤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
LEXICAL FIRSTS
There are many words first recorded in Shakespeare which have survived into Modern English. Some examples:
accommodation, assassination, barefaced, countless, courtship, dislocate, dwindle, eventful, fancy-free, lack-lustre, laughable, premeditated, submerged
There are also many words first recorded in Shakespeare which have not survived. About a third of all his Latinate neologisms fall into this category. Some examples:
abruption, appertainments, cadent, exsufflicate, persistive, protractive, questrist, soilure, tortive, ungenitured, unplausive, vastidity
ä˾ΰѤ2बܤͤ롥Shakespeare νХƥѸä˴ؤơ3ʬ1ѸؼѤʤäȤ¤ŦƤ롥[2010-08-18-1]εǿ줿褦ˡλΥƥѸäȾʬۤɤʤäȤȤǸƤΤǡб Shakespeare ΥƥѸä3ʬ2γΨǻ¸ȤȤǤСShakespeare ϻʿͤ⤯ä˹Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Shakespeare ˴ؤ¸ΨŪʹ⤵ϡạ̈ΤϡShakespeare θˤĤƲΤʤΤ뤤ϡʿͤȤκϡϰʤΤˤϸäοȤˡؤäƤ̡̤ͤʤɤӤɬפ⤢Τ褦ͤ϶̣줬̣뤫ŤɾʤФʤʤ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ɸ˴Ϣơ#2243. ʥѸȤϲ ([2015-06-18-1])#2265. ѼȤϸѲηϩꤷեǤ ([2015-07-10-1])#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1])#1373. variety Ȥϲ ([2013-01-29-1]) ʤɡcanadian_english 濴˹ͻƤϡεˤ⤦1ĺä
ޤǤεǤ⼨Ƥ褦ˡʥѸΤˤϡŪˡȼҲŪˡȤ롥Ūʹͻ濴ˤʤΤϡʥѸħŤ륫ʥˡ (Canadianism) ƱBrinton and Fee (434) ϡ"Canadianisms" Ȥ "words which are native to Canada or words which have meanings native to Canada" ǤƤꡤŬä pp. 434--38 ǿ¿Ƥ롥
ҲŪˡΤʤСʥѸüԤε°ռȤ˸ڤФʤBailey (160) ϡʥѸȤѼ٤3ĤŪ˿Ƥ롥
. . . "Loyalists" in the Commonwealth; "North Americans" by geography; "nationalists" by virtue of separatism and independent growth. Each political assumption and linguistic hypothesis has adherents, but the facts of Canadian English resist unambiguous classification.
ġüԤˤäơ3ĤΤΤ뤤ʣɤΤ褦۹ǺߤƤΤϰۤʤäƤΤ̤Τ褦üԽΤäѼ盧ʥѸʤΤȤΤ褦ʥץǽǤ롥षѼȤϡˤƤΤ褦ΩƤΤʤΤ⤷ʤȤפ
Brinton, Laurel J. and Margery Fee. "Canadian English." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 422--40 .
Bailey, Richard W. "The English Language in Canada." English as a World Language. Ed. Richard W. Bailey and Manfred Görlach. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1983. 134--76.
Ѹ⳰ˤȯѲϡޤǤεǤ¿夲Ƥɤ餫ȤȻδؿǤȤǤȤŪñ̤ˤΤǡȤ˾ñ̤ѲѶŪˤƤȤаޤ롥ȯѲȰ˸äƤ⡤¤ϸΤɤΥ٥ˤƤ뤫ȽȤʤȤ¿ϡʪŪȯʤΤȤŪʲʲǡˤʤΤˤäƤϡ1ǤŪӤӤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤǤϲȤƤȤ館٤⤢롥ζ̤ۣˤȤơֲѲפȤ "sound change" ȤƾΤѤȤ⤢뤷ۣʤΤۣʤޤޤˡֲѲפȤȯѲפȤƨ¿ä¤ϡܸȤơʤѸȤƤˤɤƤ٤Ф褤Τᤫͤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤ롥
äƱѸˤˤƤ֥ʤΤǡѸѸǹͤ褦Ѳˤäơ"sound change" "phonological change" ȤΤ̤Smith ϡ̾Τʤ "sound change" ȤѸ̤˽ФͿĤΤ礷Ƥ롥Smith (13)
A sound change has taken place when a variant form, mechanically produced, is imitated by a second person and that process of imitation causes the system of the imitating individual to change.
Smith äΤ褦ˤʹ롥§ȤƲǤѲѲäƤǤϡ¤ŪʡŪʤΤ⤷ʤʤ˼ҲŪʼäƤΤSmith οȾȻפˡSmith ι¤Ū¦̤Ż뤹ʤСϡ#2268. ֤ʤޤפΰۤʤ˴ؤ붦Ū ([2015-07-13-1]) Ѹˤä "systemic" ѲΤȤؤΤɤǤʬ褦ˡ۲٥ѲȲǥ٥ѲȤΤޤǥ˶̤櫓ǤϤʤޤǥʥŪϢ³ŪʤΤǤ롥ˤ롤뤤ϸĿͤˤ붦ŪѰۤΩȤʤä̻ŪѲؤȰܹԤȤǤϡ٤ƤϢ³ΤʤΤǤ롥äơSmith ϡǤ "sound change" ˥ХäȤͿƤ뤬ܽΤۤȤɤʬǡΥʥŪϢ³ΤǧᡤξDZѸˤˤ벻ѲƤΤ
ŪȤªʤСphonetics phonology ζܤϤɤˤΤξԤδطɤߤʤФ褤ΤȤˤ䤤ˤʤΤ
ϡ졤϶̤տŪʤȤʤ˾ˤϡܸȤơֲѲפȤѸ줷褦ȻפäƤ롥۲٥ѲǤ뤳ȤΤǤСֲѲס䲻ǥ٥ѲǤ뤳ȤΤǤСֲѲפȸΤ褤ȻפȤˤϡֲѲפȾΤ
Smith, Jeremy J. Sound Change and the History of English. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤ24ʸܤ <x> ˤϡԤΥĤޤȤޤ1ʸʤΤ2ĤλҲ /ks/ бȤΤ٤⡤#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1]) Ǽ̤ꡤ<z>, <q>, <j> ˼ǵʸǤ롥̵̵ǺѤޤ줽ʸ
Ѹˤˤ <x> ñ˿֤äƤߤ褦ʸǤϡΤ /ks/ 뤤 /hs/ бʸȤƸűѸ줫鸫줿eax (axe), fleax (flax), fox, oxa (ox), siex (six), wæx (wax) ʤɤΰ찮ñ˸Τߤǡ餫ΩäʸǤϤʤä (Upward and Davidson 62) ñϡѸؤ <x> ݤäޤäƤ롥θ塤ѸȡˤäƤ <x> ¿ѤΤ⤢ä (cf. #663. Ѹؤˤֻȯδط ([2011-02-19-1])) Ϥ공٤ι⤤ʸǤϤʤä
Ѹˤʤȡ<x> ϥƥ䥮ꥷ줫μѸ¿ޤޤƤˡޤǤλ٤ƽи٤Ƭ ex- ¿θ˲ä anxious, approximate, auxiliary, axis, maximum, nexus, noxious, toxic ʤɤ˸줿Ǥ apex, appendix, crux, index ʤɤäۤˤ complexion, crucifixion, connexion, inflexion ʤɤ -xion 䡤ե줫 faux pas, grand prix˥եʣɽ魯 bureaux, chateaux, jeux ʤɡ<x> 뵡ܤ˸
<x> ϤȤ櫓ŪʼѸä¿롥Ƭ桤줾δĶ˸ <x> ⤦Ƥߤ褦 (Upward and Davidson 213--14)
θƬϡ xenophobia, Xerox, xylophone
θϡ anorexia, apoplexy, asphyxia, axiom, axis, dyslexia, galaxy, lexical, hexagon, oxygen, paroxysm, taxonomy
θϡ anthrax, calx, calyx, climax, coccyx, helix, larynx, onyx, paradox, phalanx, pharynx, phlox, phoenix, sphinx, syntax, thorax
Τ褦˥ƥ䥮ꥷ濴ȤѸäι礭ΤۤˤűѸ줫³Ҥθ췲 <x> ݻФǤʤcox (< cockswain) smallpox (< pl. of small pock) ʤɤṳ̂ˤäƺ줿 <x> 褦ˤʤäȤܤ롥20ˤϡƱͤṳ̂βФ sox (< socks), fax (< facsimile), proxy (< proc'cy < procuracy) ޤƤ롥
The X of cox 'boatman' arose from cockswain, while pox (as in smallpox) was respelt from the plural of pock (as in pockmarked). These replacements of CC or CKS by X are first attested in EModE; other examples are 20th-century: sox for socks, fax from facsimile. Proxy < proc'cy < procuracy. (Upward and Davidson 168)
ơѸˤ <x> ȯؤбCarney (377--78) ˵äƸƤߤ褦ƬǤϡ嵭1θˤߤ̤ /z/ ܤǤ롥㳰Ȥ Xhosa /ˈkoʊsə/ Xmas /ˈkrɪsməs, ˈɛksməs/ ˤ (<Xmas> Christ θƬҲб륮ꥷʸ <> ͳˡƬʳǤϡ³첻˶ /gz/ 롼 (ex. exact, exaggerate, exalt, examine, executive, exempt, exert, exhibit, exhort, exist, exonerate, exotic, exult) ʳϡ/ks/ ܤǤ (ex. axe, boxing, extra, fox, mixture, orthodox, praxis, texture, vixen, wax) . ֤Ǥ /ks/ /gs/ θؤˤĤƤϡ#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]) ȡ#2230. Ѹ̵ͭʸ ([2015-06-05-1]) Ȥ줿ۤˤϡ<i> <u> ֤ǡ/kʃ/ Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ (ex. anxious, connexion, flexure, luxury)
<z> ŪԤäȤϡ#446. ֤ȤĤäƤ <z> ([2010-07-17-1]) ǤǧȤ<x> 餱Ƥʤ̤Τοʪɽ魯Τ x äƤ봷뤬ͳԾܤǤ롥⤷ȡʤΤ̤ʤΤˤ <x> ԤȤƤߤͿƤΤǤϤʤȤ⵿롦
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ѸˤϡѸȥե졦ƥ줫μѸ줬Ѱ㤨ƶ¸롤äع¤Ȥ٤Τ롥̤ˡäŪŪ̱ŪάȤľܤäʤɤħѸϳŪŪʸŪʼΩ褽褽ȤäġλѰΩˤĤƤϡOrr εҤŪΤǤ롥
For two hundred years and more, things intellectual, things pertaining to the spirit, were symbolized by words that had a flavour of remoteness, of higher courtliness, words redolent of the school rather than of the home, words that often had by their side humbler synonyms, humbler, yet used to express the things that are closer to our hearts as human beings, as children and parents, lovers and workers. (Orr, John. Words and Sounds in English and French. Oxford: Blackwell, 1953. p. 42 qtd. in Ullmann 146)
ܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ω˴Ϣ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])#2072. Ѹäλع¤ ([2014-12-29-1]) ۤ¿εǼ夲Ƥ
줬㤯Ѹ줬⤤ȤѰʬۤ¿θåڥƤϤޤ뤳Ȥϻ¤طžƤ褦˸ڥʤǤϤʤ㤨СUllmann (147) ϡΥڥƤ롥ǽ2ȤΥڥˤĤƤϡJespersen (93) Ƥ롥
| Native word | Foreign word |
|---|---|
| dale | valley |
| deed | action |
| foe | enemy |
| meed | reward |
| to heed | to take notice of |
̣ۣ (semantic vagueness) ϡ̣Ѳˤƽפʰ̣ġۣ椵ȤϡȤϤäꤷʤפȤǡŪʸǤŪ˰ƤWittgenstein (1889--1951) äỌ̇̄ˤեǥʥʲ²Ū (family resemblance) Ŧư衤षˤפͭѤǤǤȹͤ褦ˤʤä (cf. #1964. ץȥ ([2014-09-12-1])) ۣȤäƤ⤤Ĥμब롥Waldron (146--48) ˽ä4Ĥʬष褦
(1) ambiguity. ̣2İʾ褬ꡤΤ줬տޤƤ뤫Ǥʤ硥ϡबɬŪˤ¿ (polysemy) η̤Ȥ롥He gave me a ring. ˤ ring ʤɸŪ ambiguity ⤢СFlying planes can be dangerous. Τ褦Ū ambiguity ⤢롥
(2) generality. Ū뤤Ūʸ줬ѤȤºݤˤɤ٤ΰ뤤տޤƤΤʾ礬롥㤨Сsome, often, likely, soon, huge Ȥä硤Ūˤϳơɤۤɤ٤ʤΤޤthing, act, case, fact, way, matter ʤɤŪʸǤϡºݤ˲ؼƤΤȽǤǤʤȤ롥ΰ̣Ǥۣϡ#1962. ǰ ([2014-09-10-1]) Ǥߤǰ (conceptual hierarchy) 뤤ݴط (hyponymy) ξ岼طȴϢ롥
(3) variation. θ̩üԤδ֤ɤƤ硥㤨Сhonour Ȥϲjustice, wicked, fair, culture, education, conservative, democratic ȤϲǤ뤫ˤĤƤϡĿͤˤäưոۤʤ롥ݸ˹븽ݡ
(4) indeterminacy. ؼоݤζܤϤäꤷʤ硥㤨Сshoulder, neck, lip ʤΤ̤ϰϤϳơɤɤޤǤʤΤmorning, afternoon, evening Τζ̤ϲʤΤؼоݼΤʪŪϰϤΤƤʤ뤤Τɬפä˴ʤǤ롥
(1) ϰ̣Ѳη̤ȤƤ¿˴Ť(2), (3), (4) ¿߽Ф̣ѲμȤʤꤦ뤳Ȥդۣ椵¿̣ѲߴطʣǤ롥
Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.
repair ʽˤϴܸȤäƤ褤̸츻ƱƱ۵ (homonym) ȤƤ repair ʹԤˤϤޤΤƤʤǤ̤θǤȤΩƤƤ롥
ֽפ repair ϡƥ reparāre ͳ褷ťե réparer ͳơѸ repare(n) ȤäƤƥ캬 parāre "to make ready" ۤɤ̣ĸθ캬 *perə- (to produce, procure) ̤롥εˤθ캬ϡapparatus, comprador, disparate, emperor, imperative, imperial, parachute, parade, parasol, pare, parent, -parous, parry, parturient, prepare, rampart, repertory, separate, sever, several, viper ʤɤθ줬Ƥ롥
ֹԤפ repair ϵۤʤꡤƥ repatriāre ťե repairier ȷ֤ơѸ repaire(n) ȤäƤΤǤ롥äơѸ repatriate ܹԤˤȤ2Ÿ롥츻Ūʸ캬ϡpatria ʸιˤ pater ˤǤ뤫顤ֽפȤ餫˶̤ǤǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ĸ *pəter- (father) ϡƥͳ expatriate, impetrate, padre, paternal, patri-, patrician, patrimony, patron, perpetrate ޤꥷͳ eupatrid, patriarch, patriot, sympatric ѸäƤ롥
ѸΡֹԤפ repair ϡǷŪʶǹԤˤԤפۤɤ̣롥Ĥʸ褦ǸΤ褦ˡ֡ʽʤɤơ롤ʤ롤㤭Ĥפθ⤢롥
After dinner, the guests repaired to the drawing room for coffee.
(humorous) Shall we repair to the coffee shop?
He repaired in haste to Washington.
May all to Athens backe againe repaire. (Shakespeare, Midsummer Night's Dream iv. i. 66)
Thither the world for justice shall repaire. (Sir P. Sidney tr. Psalmes David ix. v)
Ѹ줫˭٤ϡMED repairen (v) Ȥ줿
#1348. 13ʹߤ v ([2013-01-04-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡѸˤ¸ߤ [v] 줿줬ʤʤäˡ (156) Ŧ褦ˡ첻Ԥ [v] ƱФƼפϱѸˤǤʤĤ褦
OE hlāford > lord
OE hlǣfdiġe > lady (cf. #23. "Good evening, ladies and gentlemen!"ϴְ㤤 ([2009-05-21-1]))
OE heafod > head
OE havoc > hawk
OE lāferce > lark
OE wīfmann > woman (cf. #223. woman ȯֻ ([2009-12-06-1]))
OE hæfde > had (cf. #2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ ([2015-05-06-1]))
ۤ never > ne'er, ever > e'er, over > o'er of clock > oclock > o'clock ä뤫⤷ʤ
[v] ޤäơ[w] ؤȾ첻䤹줬 [u] ؤ첻䤹Τơ첻ݤ߹ޤƾüƤ椯Ȥ뤳ȤǤ롥
סOE byrðen "burden vs. fæder "fath''er"Ѹˤ˻ȯŪ˸ [d] [ð] θؤˤĤơסظդΤʿءˡ˶ǰʸ١ҡ2015ǯ155--66ǡ
Chaucer ɽѸβηϤ Cruttenden (65--66) ˵äƼηϤȤΤϡˤƤŪƤΤǤ뤫顤ʣβ⤬롥ޤƤ䡤٥Ǿܺ٤ʬäƤʤȤ¿ŸβηϤȤΤϡʤ鲾ŪȤ٤Ǥ롥äơʲ˼Τ⡤ޤ1ĤβŪʲηϤǤ롥
[ Vowels ]
iː, ɪ uː, ʊ eː oː ɛː, ɛ ɔː, ɔ aː, a ɑː ə in unaccented syllables
[ Diphthongs ]
ɛɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, ɪʊ, ɛʊ, ɔʊ, ɑʊ
[ Consonants ]
p, b, t, d, k, g, ʧ, ʤ
m, n ([ŋ] before velars)
l, r (tapped or trilled)
f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, h ([x, ç])
j, w ([ʍ] after /h/)
ʲˡChaucer The General Prologue Ƭʸ (cf. #534. The General Prologue Ƭθ߷ȴλ ([2010-10-13-1])) ǺȤơŪ IPA ȯ (Cruttenden 66)
Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote
hʍan θat aːprɪl, wiθ hɪs ʃuːrəs soːtə
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote,
θə drʊxt ɔf marʧ haθ pɛrsəd toː ðe roːtə,
And bathed every veyne in swich licour
and baːðəd ɛːvrɪ vaɪn ɪn swɪʧ lɪkuːr
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
ɔf hʍɪʧ vɛrtɪʊ ɛnʤɛndərd ɪs θə flurː,
Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
hʍan zɛfɪrʊs ɛːk wɪθ hɪs sweːtə brɛːθ
Inspired hath in every holt and heeth
ɪnspiːrəd haθ ɪn ɛːvrɪ hɔlt and hɛːθ
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
θə tɛndər krɔppəs, and ðə jʊŋgə sʊnnə
Hath in the Ram his halve cours yronne,
haθ ɪn ðə ram hɪs halvə kʊrs ɪrʊnnə,
And smale foweles maken melodye,
and smɑːlə fuːləs maːkən mɛlɔdiːə
That slepen al the nyght with open ye
θat sleːpən ɑːl ðə nɪçt wiθ ɔːpən iːə
(So priketh hem nature in hir corages),
sɔː prɪkəθ hɛm naːtɪur ɪn hɪr kʊraːʤəs
Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,
θan lɔːŋgən fɔlk toː gɔːn ɔn pɪlgrɪmaːʤəs.
Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
ˤ <ear> ֻɽ蘆ȯˤϡ3ब롥hear beard Τ褦 /ɪər/learn dearth Τ褦 /ər/heart hearth Τ褦 /ɑr/ Ǥ롥Ȥ櫓Ҳ³ˤϡ2Ĥ learn Τ褦 /ər/ ȯȤʤΤ̤ǡbeard heart ΥפǤä heart hearth Ե§ˤĤƹͤ
ͻˤäƤϡѸβѲˤĤΤɬפ롥Ѹ /er/ бֻˤϡŵŪʤΤȤ <er> <ear> äԤ첻2ʸ֤뤳Ȥ狼Ȥ긵첻뤤Ĺ첻ɽ路˻Ҳ³ĶǤϱˤûˡ<er> ˤʤä14餯 Chaucer λ夢ˡ¿ñˤơ <er> 뤤 <ear> ɽ蘆줿 /er/ 첻βФơ/ar/ ؤѲβѲȼäơֻ <ar> Ƚ㤬¿ä㤨Сdark (< derk), darling (< derling), far (< fer), star (< ster), starve (< sterve), yard (< yerde) Ǥ롥ѲξФ餯ɤƤȤȿǤֻǤ <ar> ѹ줺<er> <ear> ݤäΤ⤢ä17ˤȯ /ar/ ̤ȤʤäƤ18ˤֻȯαƶ /er/ äΤ⤢ꡤͿñ췲ˤơȯֻδطϰ괶礯Ȥˤʤä̤Ȥơȯ /ar/ ѲΤɸಽɡֻ <er> <ear> ǿ֤Ȥ㤬Ƥޤä
<er> ˤϡsergeant 䥤ꥹȯȤƤ clerk, Derby ʤɤcf. #211. spelling pronunciation ([2009-11-24-1]), #1343. ѸαƺʼȤȯȸáˡ ([2012-12-30-1])) ޤ<ear> ȤƤ heart, hearth Τۤhearken ʤ餯 hear ֻ˱ƶΡ<harken> ֻ⤢ˤͭ̾ Liskeard ʤɤ롥Kearney ʤɤǤϡȯȤƤ /ər/ /ɑr/ ξβǽʰʾ塤Carney (311)Jespersen (197--99), (207--08), Scragg (49) ʤɤȤˡ
beard μԵ§ˤĤƤϡƱ첻 fierce, Pierce ˤ⤫Ĥ /ər/ ȤѰȯ¸ߤȤҤ٤Ƥդˡߤ /ər/ vers /ɪər/ Ѱȯʹ줿Ȥ⤢ä (Jespersen 365)
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡѲεˤ "actuation problem" ˤ롥ʤξλ֤ˤѲΤ뤤ʤΤȤϲǽǤȤƼʤԤ⤤롥ȤΤϡ褷ȤȤϡѲθ̩ͽ¬ǽǤ뤳Ȥްդ뤬ºݤˤϤۤȤʤतΤΤѲͽ¬ (prediction_of_language_change) ˤĤƤϡ#843. Ѳͽκ ([2011-08-18-1])#844. Ѳͽۤ뤳Ȥϴݤ ([2011-08-19-1])#1019. Ѳͽ¬ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2012-02-10-1])#2154. Ѳͽ¬Բǽ ([2015-03-21-1]) ǸƤ褦ˡȤδ֤ŪʸΩġ
Ūʸ¿ϡ̩ͽ¬ǽ˸Ƥ褦˻פ롥ˤơͽ¬ǽϵ뤷ȤơȤ100%θ̵̩ǤäƤ⡤٤ʤ٤ƤȤ뤳ȤϤǤMilroy Smith ϡμݤǤͽ¬ǽٻƤ롥줾μĥѤ롥
Weather prediction is a convenient analogy here: we can predict from meteorological observations that it will rain on a particular day with a high probability of being correct, but if we predict that in a particular place it will start raining at one minute past eleven and stop at six minutes past twelve, the probability of the prediction being correct is vanishingly low. Nevertheless, we would be bad meteorologists if we did not try to improve the accuracy of our predictions, and of course this greater accuracy includes the ability to specify the conditions under which something will not happen as well as the conditions under which it will happen. In view of all this, we have no excuse as linguists for not addressing the actuation problem. (Milroy 20--21)
Predictability
There are several factors and processes that can be involved in a particular language change at a particular time, and these factors and processes are such and such; however, the interaction between these factors and processes is so complex and so various that exact predictability is not to be had. The precise nature of the interaction of these factors and processes can, it seems, only be distinguished after the event. (Smith 17)
Ѳͽ¬ǽĥ뤳Ԥϡ褷̵ʤȤĥƤ櫓ǤϤʤͽ¬ǽξ㴳ˤ뤳ȤˤäơŪˤΩȤƤΤȻפ⤳Ω˻Ǥ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. Sound Change and the History of English. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
Milroy, James. Linguistic Variation and Change. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
ǸɽˤŪ칽¤롥ʸˡѸǤСΩʬ칽ʸľ and 빽¤פФ褤Ѹ줫ѸˤѤ졤ߤǤ⥢ɱѸ䥹åȥɱѸ˸ä칽¤Kremola and Filppula Helsinki Corpus ѤƤι¤ˤˤĤƤΤŪ䤹ʸʲ˺ƷǤ뤳Ȥˤ褦
And thei herynge these thingis, wenten awei oon aftir anothir, and thei bigunnen fro the eldre men; and Jhesus dwelte aloone, and the womman stondynge in the myddil. (Wyclif, John 8, 9, circa 1380)
For we have dwelt ay with hir still And was neuer fro hir day nor nyght. Hir kepars haue we bene And sho ay in oure sight. (York Plays, 120, circa 1459)
& ȝif it is founde þat he be of good name & able þat þe companye may be worscheped by him, he schal be resceyued, & elles nouȝht; & he to make an oþ with his gode wil to fulfille þe poyntes in þe paper, þer whiles god ȝiueþ hym grace of estat & of power (Book of London English, 54, 1389)
. . . and presently fixing mine eyes vpon a Gentleman-like object, I looked on him, as if I would suruay something through him, and make him my perspectiue: and hee much musing at my gazing, and I much gazing at his musing, at las he crost the way . . . (All the Workes of John Taylor the Water Poet, 1630)
. . . and I say, of seventy or eighty Carps, [I] only found five or six in the said pond, and those very sick and lean, and . . . (The Compleat Angler, 1653--1676)
Which would be hard on us, and me a widow. (Mar. Edgeworth, Absentee, xi, 1812) ʢòŪˡ
and Ƴˤư줬礱Ƥꡤ졤ʬ졤ʬ졤ƻ졤̾졤ֻʤɤΤħǤ롥Ūˤϼˤˤи뤳ȤǤǽŪˤΩʬ칽ʸƱͤƱӾɽ魯ιʸ٤ѸǤϵǡѸǾȤϤ˼Ū칽¤Ǥäˤϰ㤤ʤKremola and Filppula (311, 315) ϡŪΩʬ칽ʸȹƤ뤬ȤľܤˤϴطʤȯãǤꡤäƥƥåʹʸȤʤطʤȹͤƤ롥
Ǥϡι¤εϤɤˤΤKremola and Filppula (315) ϡ줬ѤƤ륱ˤĤƤϡƥгդ칽ʸδͿ⤢뤫⤷ʤȾ⤷ƤΤΡʳΥˤĤƤϥȽб빽¤αƶƤ롥
The infinitival type, which at least in its non-exclamatory use is closer to coordination than the other types, may well derive from the Latin accusative with the infinitive . . . But the non-infinitival constructions (and the exclamatory infinitival patterns), although they too are often considered to have their origins in the Latin absolute constructions, could also stem from another source, viz. Celtic languages. Whereas the Latin models typically lack the overt subordinator, subordinating and-structures closely equivalent to the ones met in Middle English and Early Modern English are a well-attested feature of the neighbouring Celtic languages from their earliest stages on.
伫ȤϥȷϸʤΤǡKremola and Filppula (315--16) ˵Ƥťɸ졤楦륺졤奢ɸ줫ʸŬڤɾǤʤϡˤҤ٤褦ˡǤ⤳ι¤ɱѸ䥹åȥɱѸ̤˸뤳ȤŦƤ롥
ʤFilppula ϡѸ˥ȽδŪƶ (substratum_theory) ǧ褦ȤҤǤ롥#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) ε⻲Ȥ줿
Kremola, Juhani and Markku Filppula. "Subordinating Uses of and in the History of English." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 762--71.
Ѹαʩκ߷ʸ macaronic writing ˤĤƤϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) ˤѤȤƽѸθ츻ŪֻˤĤơ#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1]) εʸΤʤǸڤؤưŤϡʤΤ뤤ϼҲŪøŪʰ̣礤ΤƤ
ʬdzȯ˸椷Ƥ Wright (768--69) ϡѸʸȤ櫓Ĵɥβʸ˸ code-switching ˤϡҲŪøŪưŤäΤǤϤʤƤ
I am led to suggest that macaronic writing should not be taken simply as a reflection of growing ignorance of Latin, nor be explained merely as some kind of partial bilingualism into which users naturally fell because they had been exposed to Latin in their profession. Rather I conclude that macaronic writing formed a deliberate, formal register; with systemic rules for the formation of words and sentences, which underwent temporal change as does any language structure. At this early stage of investigation, I venture to suggest that macaronic writing may be associable with a specific social group (in this case, accountants) whose professional status was defined at least in part by a facility in both languages, and whose emerging position may itself have been marked by the hybrid usage of macaronic writing as a formal register in professional contexts.
ʸˤκߤ code-switching ǤϤʤȤȡξޤȤ˲ʤȾ (semilingualism) ˴ŤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤĤơWright (769fn) ϥԥ椷ʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . pidgins develop due to the inability of the interlocutors to understand each other's language, whereas macaronic writing appears to show the ability of the composer to understand both Latin and English. Pidgins depend upon the spoken form as a primary medium for their development, whereas there is no evidence that material so stylistically sophisticated as macaronic sermons or administrative records were first transmitted as speech.
macaronic writing ϾʸΤۤΤⶵˤ⸫뤬λѰˤƤⲿ餫μҲŪŪưŤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥ʸ˴ؤƤϡѤŪȤDZ캮ߤͭʲ餫ͳäΤ⤷ʤΤⶵǤϻѸˤäơʹνʤ̤ۤʤäƤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤˤ衤code-switching ưŤäȤơ줬Ū˲äΤǤ롥
Wright, Laura. "Macaronic Writing in a London Archive, 1380--1480." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 762--71.
#2261. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (1) ([2015-07-06-1])#2262. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (2) ([2015-07-07-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ[2015-07-07-1]ǤϡFisher Ȥ Gramley ˤŪʿ⼨ʤ顤̱οפñ˳ǧ Fisher Ȥ David Hackett Fischer ˤ Albion's Seed (1989ǯ) ˵äƤ褦ˡ D. H. Fischer ȤؼԤϡꥫѸ˸ԤãǤ Hans Kurath, George Philip Krapp, Allen Walker Read, Albert Marckwardt, Raven McDavid, Cleanth Brooks ˰͵ĤġŪʿפοʤ顤ꥹѸȥꥫѸϢ³ĥƤΤǤ롥
Fischer εҤꤷ Fisher ޤȤʢ֤꤬̾Ƥƺ𤹤Τա˽̱ˤˤĤơʲ˰Ѥ褦 (Fisher 60) ̱Ϥؤΰ̱95%ʾ夬ꥹǤꡤ4Ȥˤ狼ƹԤ줿Ȥ
1. 20,000 Puritans largely from East Anglia to to New England, 1629--41, to escape the tyranny of the crown and the established church that led to the Puritan revolution;
2. 40,000 Cavaliers and their servants largely from the southwestern counties of England to the Chesapeake Bay area and Virginia, 1642--75, to escape the Long Parliament and Puritan rule;
3. 23,000 Quakers from the North Midlands and many like-minded evangelicals from Wales, Germany, Holland, and France, to the Delaware Valley and Pennsylvania, 1675--1725, to escape the Act of Uniformity in England and the Thirty Years War in Europe;
4. 275,000 from the North Border regions of England, Scotland, and Ulster to the backcountry of New England, western Pennsylvania, and the Appalachians, 1717--75, to escape the endemic conflict and poverty of the Border regions, and especially the 1706--7 Act of Union between England and Scotland, which brought about the "pacification" of the border, transforming it from a combative society in need of many warriors to a commercial and industrial society in need of no warriors, with the consequent large-scale displacement of the rural population.
Fischer Ūʥꥫؤν̱ˤεҤפˤä䶯ȤȤϱѸѼϢ³ͤǤ˽פʾǤ롥
ꥹѼ狼饢ꥫѼؤϢ³ݤɬˤʤΤϡnon-prevocalic /r/ Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϡ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) ȡ#453. ꥫѸνˤ r ([2010-07-24-1]) ǹ碌Ƴ#1267. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (2) ([2012-10-15-1]) ʣ˸ڤȤFisher (75--77) ⿵ŤΩ줫餳ФƤ롥Τˡ250ǯۤ non-prevocalic /r/ ξüɥդǻϤޤäȤȤȡꥫؤΰ̱17Ⱦ˻ϤޤäȤȤϡʥʴطǤϤΤǤ⡤˸ŪϢ³˴ؤڡʼĥϿ٤ǤΤΡDZѸ˸ˤϢ³βǽդʧäƤȤϾɬפȤⴶƤ롥
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Fisher, J. H. "British and American, Continuity and Divergence." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. English in North America. Ed. J. Algeo. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 59--85.
ɸˤĤľܡܤˡ#1333. ѸǼư֤ưѤ줿ֻ ([2012-12-20-1])#1350. ư֤ưѤ of ([2013-01-06-1])#1351. ư֤ưѤ줿 through at ([2013-01-07-1]) Ǽ夲ƤѸ줫ѸˤƤλ by of ζˤĤơPeitsara ʸɤΤǡη (398) ѤƤ
I hope to have shown, firstly, that the by-agent prevailed in English in the 15th century, i.e. two centuries earlier than suggested so far. . . . The necessary consequence of the first conclusion is that agentive by can hardly have been rare before 1400.
Secondly, it appears that there has not been a development from a general agentive of into a general agentive by in Middle English, but the two variants have existed side by side (possibly together with some others excluded from this study) fro some time. They were, however, not in free variation in the 15th and 16th centuries but had become specialized, partly according to the type of text and partly according to the semantic fields of the participles in the passive clause. This specialization was more complicated than, and partly different from, that described by some scholars, and it apparently involved foreign influence.
Thirdly, the Middle English period was particularly favourable for the gradual grammaticalization of by in agentive function because of the heavier functional load of the preposition of and the lack of special grammaticalization for by.
ʸ1992ǯΤΤǤꡤ2015ǯθߤ餹ȺǿȤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΥϥƥġȤäƤ褤 Helsinki Corpus Ѥ㸦Ȥơܤ٤ΤǤϤ롥ԸȽŪɾġ˰͵ʤ顤by 15ޤǤ˼ư֤ưɽ魯ֻȤư̲ĤĤäʤƴްդȤƤϸʸˡˤȡ of ƱƱͤˡͭʤʣװˤäƻȤʬޥʡʪȤƵǽƤȤ餫ˤ
Ѥ2κǸʸˤ褦ˡPeitsara ϱѸǤֻƥեθˡ˱ƶǽˤڤǤ롥ƥ de of ˡե par by 줾δͿͤ줽ºݤˤ Peitsara ϤǤͤùĴϤƤʤ̤ʰոҤ٤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤθ椬ԤȤƱͤˡֻưʲʬˤΰ̣ˤ¸Ƥ餷ȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬ˤĤƤ⺣ĴԤ롥
Peitsara, Kirsti. "On the Development of the by-Agent in English." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 379--99.
Ѽ֤ȯΰۤʤϡܸǡ֤ʤޤסѸ "accents" ȸƤФ롥2ĤѼȯӤȡۤʤˤ͡ʼब뤳Ȥ狼롥㤨С#1343. ѸαƺʼȤȯȸáˡ ([2012-12-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡꥹѸȥꥫѸȯ٤Ȥbath class 첻ƴ֤ѰۤȤȤΰۤʤȡstar four ˤƸ <r> ȯ뤫ݤȤۤʤȤϸߤ˰ۼΤΤΤ褦˴롥Ѽ֤ˤ͡ʥפȯκۤꤦȹͤ졤ΰۤʤ˴ؤ붦ŪȤΤͤ뤳ȤǤǤ롥
Trubetzkoy 1931ǯȤᤤʳ "différences dialectales phonologiques, phonétiques et étymologiques" Ȥ3ĤΰۤʤƤƤ롥Wells (73--80) Ϥ Trubetzkoy ʬΩӤ1Ĥäơ4פʤWells ѸǤȡ"systemic differences", "realizational differences", "lexical-incidental differences", "phonotactic (structural) differences" 4ĤǤ롥Ѥ뤬ʲȤȤä褦
(1) realizational differences. 2Ѽ֤ǡͭ벻ǤβŪ¸ۤʤȤ硥goat, nose ʤɤȯˤơRP (Received Pronunciation) Ǥ [əʊ] ΤȤǤ [ʌʊ] ȼ¸줿ꡤåȥǤ [oː] ȼ¸ʤɤΰ㤤롥ҲȤƤϡRP ζκǽ˸ /p, t, k/ [ph, th, kh] ӵȤƼ¸ΤФơåȥǤ [p, t, k] ̵Ǽ¸ʤɤ롥ޤ/l/ RP ǤϴĶˤäƤ dark l ȤʤΤФǤϾ clear l Ǥʤɤΰ㤤⤢롥[r] μ¸Ѱۤ褯ΤƤ롥
(2) phonotactic (structural) differences. 벻Ǥʤäꤹ벻ĶۤʤȤ硥non-prevocalic /r/ μ¸̵ͭŵ1ĤǤ롥GA (General American) ǤϤδĶ /r/ ¸뤬б RP Ǥ̵Ȥʤ (cf. rhotic) Ū¸Ūʥ٥ˤ벻˴ؤۤʤȤ롥
(3) systemic differences. ηϤۤʤäƤ뤬椨ˡġβǤб㤦褦ʾ硥RP Ǥ GA Ǥ /u/ /uː/ ϰۤʤ2ĤβǤǤ뤬åȥǤξԤϤζ̤Ϥʤ /u/ Ȥ1Ĥ礵Ƥ롥첻˴ؤ⤦1ĤСstock stalk Ȥ RP Ǥϲǥ٥Ƕ̤뤬ꥫѸ䥫ʥѸΤʤˤϲǤȤͻ礷ƤΤ⤢ (cf. #484. ǿΥꥫѸ첻ͻȿǤ MWALED ȯɽ ([2010-08-24-1])#2242. ʥѸβŪħ ([2015-06-17-1])) ҲǤСloch θҲˤĤơRP Ǥ [k] ȯ뤬åȥǤ [x] ȯ롥ϡԤѼǤ /k/ Ȥ϶̤벻ǤȤ /x/ ¸ߤ뤫Ǥ롥
(4) lexical-incidental differences. ηϤ䲻Ū¸ˡ켫ΤѰۤʤθǤˤơۤʤ벻ǡФ礬롥Ѽ֤ǰۤʤ뷹Ȥ⤢СüԸĿͤˤäưۤʤȤ⤢롥㤨Сeither 1첻ǤϡѼˤäơ뤤ϸĿͤˤä /iː/ /aɪ/ Ȥȯ롥ѼĿͤϡξ첻ǤηϤȤƤäƤ뤬either ȤФƤΤ줬ŬѤ뤫ȤۤʤäƤΡĤޤꡤ٥롤٥ΰ㤤ǤϤʤå٥ΰ㤤ȤäƤ褤
̤ˡȯεϤˤ֤θȤʤΤϡΥ٥Ǥΰ㤤Ǥ롥㤨Сaccomplish Ȥ2ζ첻 strut 첻Ǥ٤lot 첻Ǥ٤Nazi 2Ҳ /z/ /ʦ/
Wells, J. C. Accents of English. Vol. 1. An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP, 1982.
ȤƤ what ϡ̾̾Ȥ What happened? What do you like? Τ褦Ѥ롥θŪˤϸűѸε̾ hwā ʡгʷ hwæt ̤ꡤгʷˤĤƤŪˡꤨȤ顤ѸǤ⤽ΰ仺ȤŪ what ˡŪ˻¸Ƥ (cf. #51. 5W1Hפʤ̡6Hס ([2009-06-18-1])) ̤ʸˡˤϡ̾綠Τ褦ʴβͿƤʤOED ˤи20˼Τ褦ʵҤ롥
20.
a. In what way? in what respect? how? Obs. or arch.
b. To what extent or degree? how much?
Chiefly with such verbs as avail, care, matter, signify, or with the and comparative, as the better
ˡ what ϡ֤ʤǡס֤ɤ١פȤŪʰ̣ɽ魯Ȥ狼롥OED Ѹ줫ĤȡΤ褦ʤΤ롥
1816 Scott Antiquary I. xv. 315 It just cam open o' free will in my hand---What could I help it?
1842 Tennyson Morte d'Arthur in Poems (new ed.) II. 15 For what are men better than sheep or goats..If, knowing God, they lift not hands of prayer?
1593 Shakespeare Venus & Adonis sig. C, What were thy lips the worse for one poore kis?
1697 Dryden tr. Virgil Georgics iii, in tr. Virgil Wks. 119 Now what avails his well-deserving Toil.
1865 J. Ruskin Sesame & Lilies i. 74 What do we, as a nation, care about books?
űѸ줫ѸˤƤϡwhy ֤ʤפˡ¸ߤOED θ19ˤϡѤȤʤ "19. For what cause or reason? for what end or purpose? why? Obs." Ȥ롥3ĵƤ
c1385 Chaucer Legend Good Women Ariadne. 2218 What shulde I more telle hire compleynynge?
1667 Milton Paradise Lost ii. 329 What sit we then projecting Peace and Warr?
a1677 I. Barrow Serm. Several Occasions (1678) 20 What should I mention Beauty, that fading toy?
ѸǤ "What does it profit him?", "What does it avail to do so?" ʤɤŪгʤκפĤƤ뤬Ǥ profit avail ϡŪˤ¾ưȺƲᤵ˻äƤ
ꥫѸȤ⥤ꥹѸȤۤʤѼȤơʥѸȼθħȤޤäƻŦब롥ʸ֤ eh? Ǥ롥ϡԤ eh? λѤˤäƥʥͤݤȽ̤ǤȤä⤢ۤɡ褯ΤƤħǤ롥¿ΥʥͤϤηǧƤꡤδǤɽŪʥʥˡ (Canadianism) ȤưռƤ롥
Avis ϥꥹꥫʥαѸѼˤ eh? λѤˤȸĴ̡̩ʰ̣Ǥ Canadianism ȤϸʤȷŤƤ롥
. . . it should seem quite obvious that eh? is no Canadianism---for it did not originate in Canada and is not peculiar to the English spoken in Canada. Indeed, eh? appears to be in general use wherever English speakers hang their hats; and in one form or another it has been in general use for centuries. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that eh? has a remarkably high incidence in the conversation of many Canadians these days. Moreover, it seems certain that in Canada eh? has been pressed into service in contexts where it would be unfamiliar elsewhere. Finally, it would appear that eh? has gained such recognition among Canadians that it is used consciously and frequently by newspapermen and others in informal articles and reports . . . and attributed freely in reported conversations with all manner of men, including athletes, professors, and politicians. (Avis 95)
Although eh? is no Canadianism, there can be little doubt that the interjection is well entrenched. . . . [M]any Canadians are aware of its current high frequency (especially in its narrative function), a fact which leads some to claim it as a Canadianism, others to use it intentionally in print, and, it must be added, some to treat it as a pernicious carbuncle. (Avis 103)
Avis η⡤ɤΤȤ Canadianism ɤΤ褦뤫˰¸Ƥȸ虜ʤʥѸޤ줿ĥʥѸǤΤѤȤĤʤСeh? Canadianism ȤϤʤΤˤơʥѸˤä˸ѤȤ¤뤫ʤȤ餹Сeh? Ͻʬ Canadianism ȸƤ֤ȤϤǤϤȤơŪʻ¤Ż뤹ʤСeh? ʥѸκΩäħ1ĤǤ뤳ȤϳΤΤ褦
⤦1ĽפϡʥѸüԤħΤ˰ռƤꡤռŪѤʤ뤤ϵդ˴˷ȤȤĤޤꡤʥѸüԤˤռŪʥƥ쥪פȤ¦̤롥ʥͤ뤳ȤɸΤȤ eh? տŪ˻ѤƤΤǤСϸŪʹ٤ǤƱˡ¿ʬ˼ҲŪʹ٤ȤȤˤʤ롥
ǸˡʥѸˤ eh? Ѥطʤ˴ϢơAvis (102fn--03fn) ζ̣ŦҲ𤷤Ƥ
Eh? is a common contour-carrier among French Canadians (along with eh bien and hein?), as it has been in the French language for centuries. This circumstance may have contributed to the high popularity of the interjection in Canada generally. (Avis 102--03fn)
Avis, Walter Spencer. "So eh? is Canadian, eh?" Canadian Journal of Linguistics 17 (1972): 89--104.
ε#2264. ʥѸˤ non-prevocalic /r/ μҲŪʲ͡ ([2015-07-09-1]) ǻȤ Bailey ΥʥѸ˴ؤ1ϤˤϡˤѼ (variety) ˤƺ졤ˤưƤ졤ˤƼҲŪƶϤĤ˻뤫Ȥ䤤ؤΥҥȤƤ롥ʥѸȥꥫѸȤ2ĤѼ˵ʤ顤Bailey (142) ϰʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥
The history of Canadian settlement is immensely significant in determining the origins of English in Canada. Only by romanticizing history are present-day Canadians able to trace their linguistic ancestry to the "United Empire Loyalists," but they are not alone in creating a history to support national sensibilities. In the United States, for instance, some anglophones like to imagine a direct connection with Plymouth Colony (if they are Yankees) or with the First Families of Virginia (if they admire the antebellum South). But a history that is partly fictional may nonetheless be socially significant, and national myths can bolster notions of linguistic prestige and thus influence the course of language change in progress. Hence accounts of settlement history must combine the facts of migration with the beliefs that combine with them to create present-day norms of language behavior.
Bailey ˤС㤨ХʥѸȤѼϡäüԽĤʬˤȸȤӤĤ뤳Ȥˤä߽ФեǤ롥ΥեϤ䤬Ƽ餬ҿ䵬Ϥ߽Ф켫ȤüԽĤƯѼθѲοϩ˱ƶͿ롥ϡä佡ηˤहΤ褦˻פ롥#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) 褦ˡѼȤϥեˤʤե餳üԽĤˤȤäƶϤʿäȤʤꤦ뤷θѲηϩꤹפװˤʤꤦΤ
˴ؤեä߽ФˤĤƤϡ#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤáס ([2011-01-13-1])#1244. ʤϼ18˵Ĺ ([2012-09-22-1])#1738. ֥ꥫä륨ꥶ٥īαѸפοá ([2014-01-29-1]) ʤɤεȤ줿ޤѼΥեˤĤƤϡ#1373. variety Ȥϲ ([2013-01-29-1])#2116. ֱѸפεۣ ([2015-02-11-1])#2241. Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles ([2015-06-16-1])#2243. ʥѸȤϲ ([2015-06-18-1]) ⻲ȡ
Bailey, Richard W. "The English Language in Canada." English as a World Language. Ed. Richard W. Bailey and Manfred Görlach. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1983. 134--76.
#2242. ʥѸβŪħ ([2015-06-17-1]) εˤơ(5) Retention of [r] ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤SCE Standard Canadian EnglishͤϰŪ rhotic Ǥ롥Ūˤ New England β (Loyalists) ˤäƤ⤿餵줿 non-rhotic ѼαƶäϤrhotic ʥꥹ̱ȤȤľܤ⤿餵줿аޤ⤢ꡤԤͥȤʤäΤ
non-prevocalic /r/ ˴ؤͽ۳ʬۤŸ⤦Ĵ٤ƤߤʥѸ졤Ȥ櫓 New England ѼŪʴطο߽ΥʥѸѼǡ̤Ȥ rhotic ȤʤäƤäΤϡʤʤΤBailey (144) ˤȡ2ĤͳȤ
Two factors doubtless account for the eventual disappearance of New England r-less pronunciations in the Maritimes. One must certainly be the migration that brought other varieties of English to Canada. Since most of the newcomers were from northern England, Scotland, and Ireland (where [r] after vowels was and is a systematic feature of pronunciation), they provided an English that competed with that of the American Loyalists, and apparently these migrants were more influential than those from the south of England, where r-loss was well established in prestige dialects by the early nineteenth century. But a more important reason is to be found in the growing sense of national identity among the new Canadians. Their institutions may have been American in origin, but as keepers of the true Loyalist faith they despised the rebels and were staunch in their defense against attempts by the United States to annex Canada in the War of 1812. In the years that followed, they continued to resist threats of annexation from the south, and though they had not yet formed a nation, they constituted a community. By maintaining Loyalist traditions, they believed that they were preserving Loyalist language. In fact, they reversed the process of change already well established at the time of their exodus northward.
1ĤϡNew England ΰ̱Τۤˤ⡤ľܥ֥ƥ礫äƤ̱ǤȤƤ롥ԤˤϤȤ櫓ɡåȥɡɤνпȼԤ¿θζǤϡ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) Ǹ褦ˡˤ⸽ߤˤ rhotic Ѽ郎ȤƹԤƤ롥
פͳϡNew England 饫ʥذ̱ (Loyalists) 褦ˤʤä "national identity" ˤȤޤ줳ꥫǤꡤNew England ǤäɤȤƥʥƨƤϡषʥʻ礷褦ȴꥫ罰Фȿ餻1812ǯ˱ƴ֤褬ȯƤϡϤޤޤꥫФȿᡤrhotic ȯѤ뤳Ȥˤäơnon-rhotic ȯǤ夵ĤĤä New England ȡҲŪ˵Υ֤ȤΤǤϤʤ ("sociolinguistic distancing")
/r/ ˴ؤѲξܺ٤ˤĤʤΤǡŬڤɾ뤳ȤϤǤʤʤȤѸνѼˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ҲŪʲͤӤӤ䤹ȤŪʻ¤Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϡ#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1])#1050. postvocalic r ΥϿޤˤĤ ([2012-03-12-1])#1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-27-1])#1535. non-prevocalic /r/ μҲŪʲ͡ ([2013-07-10-1]) Ȥ줿
Bailey, Richard W. "The English Language in Canada." English as a World Language. Ed. Richard W. Bailey and Manfred Görlach. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1982. 134--76.
üԿˤĤơƼפʲεǰäƤ
#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1])
#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1])
#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1])
#398. ²Ⱦʬ ([2010-05-30-1])
#1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1])
#1949. ²ȤθüԿ ([2014-08-28-1])
#1375. ͥåȤλѸȥå10 ([2013-01-31-1])
ϡ־ INFOGRAPHIC: A world of languages - and how many speak them ꤹ뵭ȰʲΤ褦ʿޤĤΤǡҲ𤷤Ƥ

ƤüԿ˴ؤפϡEthnologue ˴ŤƤ褦Ǥ롥ǹԤʤƤ7102θΤ5ͰʾüԤʤƤΤ23ΤߤǤꡤ2341ͤСȤ
绨ĤʿޤʤΤǿŤɤޤʤФʤʤˤĤνζʬɽƤʤɡ褯פƤ롥ˤϳؽƤΥ⤢ꡤΤѸϷȴƤΥȥåפ15ͤγؽԤʤȸޤƤ롥
ε#2261. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (1) ([2015-07-06-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ#1301. Gramley αѸ˳Υѥ˥ȡ ([2012-11-18-1]) ȡ#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Gramley αѸ˽ϡϿޤɽ¿ؽ仲ȤǤ롥ꥹ饢ꥫؤνΰ̱ΥѥˤĤƤ⡤"Major sources and goals of immigration" (248) ꤹͭѤʥꥫ쳤ߤϿޤǺܤƤ롥Gramley ϿޤǤϡ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱Υ롼ȤΤۤɥġֽ硤ɥĤΰ̱ήηϩʤɤ⼨Ƥ롥

ΰ̱⥢ꥫѸ˲餫ιƤȹͤ뤬ε ([2015-07-06-1]) ӡ#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) ȤƤ狼Ȥꡤ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱Ȥ櫓פ̤ȤϤޤǤʤ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱ˤĤơפޤŪʸϤ Gramley (246) ˤΤǡѤ褦
The English language which the settlers carried along with them was, of course, that of England. The colonists surely brought various regional forms, but it is generally accepted that the largest number of those who arrived came from southern England. Baugh (1957) concludes --- on the limited evidence of 1281 settlers in New England and 637 in Virginia for whom records exist for the time before 1700 --- that New England was predominantly settled from the southeastern and southern counties of England (about 60%) as was Virginia (over 50%). Fisher's figures indicate that 20,000 Puritans came between 1629 and 1641, the largest part from Essex, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, and East Anglia with fewer than 10% from London, and that 40,000 "Cavaliers" fled especially from London and Bristol during the Civil War and went to the Chesapeake area and Virginia (Fisher 2001: 60). The Middle Colonies of Pennsylvania, new Jersey, and Delaware probably had a much larger proportion from northern England, including 23,000 Quakers and Evangelicals from England, Wales, Germany, Holland, and France. Over 250,000 from northern England, the Scottish Lowlands, and especially Ulster settled in the back country . . . . In each of the areas settled the nature of the language was set by speech patterns established by the first several generations.
ꥫ New England ؤΰ̱ˤϡνпȼԤ¿ͿꥫƤ˱Ϥؤϡ륺åȥɡɤΰ̱¿äȤƳǧǤ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Baugh, A. C. A History of the English Language. 2nd ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.
Fisher, J. H. "British and American, Continuity and Divergence." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. English in North America. Ed. J. Algeo. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 59--85.
ɸϡ#1701. ꥫؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-23-1]) Ǽ夲ϿޤĤIJ⤹롥
ꥫѸˤϡ17˻Ϥޤ륤ꥹ礫νΰ̱ȡθΥꥫǤΰܽˤ礭ؤäƤ롥ꥹͤˤ륢ꥫؤο̱ϡ1607ǯ Jamestown ηߤ˻Ϥޤ뤬ο̱˷ȤäΤϼȤƥпȼԤäǽԤȤθŪ礭 Jamestown ˤ⤿餵졤˥ꥫ˳Ȥ줿
1620ǯ Plymouth ˤɤ夤 "Pilgrim fathers" ˤ⡤ʤ˽пȼԤ¿äϡԤƱͤˡ褽ħȤƿΦϤäΤǤꡤNew England 濴Ȥϰˤħ夵
1680ǯ夫ϥ䥦륺Υ (Quakers) Pennsylvania Pennsylvania ʤɤؤϡ18ȾФ˥åȥɷϥɿ (Scots-Irish) ¿ήθưϤȤʤäޤ19ȾФˤ¿ΥɿͤꡤؤŸ饤ʳϰ褫äƤ̱ϡɸŪȤ륤ꥹȤƿΦˤäƤΤνΥꥫˤ礿Ȥʤ (Midland dialect) μäΤǤ롥
ꥹ礫ΰ̱νпϤǰƬˡ嵭ޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥ɸŪʥȤпȼԤϡɸѼꥫ New England ؤɸŪʥ륺åȥɡɤνȤпȼԤϡɸѼꥫ Pennsylvania ؤȹ绨Ĥ˿ȡʲϿޤ̤Ǥ롥

Τ褦ʥꥫѸ (1607--1790) ˤ̱θ̤ϡ奢ꥫѸ non-prevocalic /r/ ʬۤˤ褯ȿǤƤȸ롥#453. ꥫѸνˤ r ([2010-07-24-1]) Ͽޤ˼̤ꡤ绨ĤˤäƥꥫιϰǤ car, four ʤɤθ /r/ ȯ롤ʤ rhotic Ǥ롥ϡ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) Ǹ褦ˡΥɼϰ non-rhotic Ǥ뤳Ȥб롥ꥫ New England Ǥϡ褽 non-rhotic Ǥ롥ϡɤ濴褽 rhotic Ǥ뤳Ȥ礹롥[2010-07-24-1]ǿ줿Ȥꡤʬۤ϶ȤȤǤϤʤŪϢ³٤
̱ηʬۤˤäƤϡ̱νпϤȷȤƤܤ뤳ȤפǤ롥Ϣơʲε⻲ȡ
#1698. ꥫαѸγȻȤΰŪʥѥ ([2013-12-20-1])
#1699. ꥫȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-21-1])
#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1])
#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1])
#1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1])
ǯevolution, mutation, chance, natural selection, variation, exaptation ʤɡʲʪؤѸڤꤿʲ (linguistic evolution) ˤʤäƤƤ롥ˤֿʲפιͤˤĤƤ͡ʵꡤܥ֥Ǥ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1])#519. εȿʲõ븦ʬ ([2010-09-28-1])#520. ˸ؤϸεȿʲθȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 ([2010-09-29-1]) ۤ evolution γƵǤϢ夲ƤˤֿʲפΤ褯ޤȤΤȤƤϡMcMahon 12 (314--40) McMahon (337) ϡ夳ǤθѲθ椬ͭ˾ȤߤƤ뤬ǼȤޤʤФʤʤϾʤʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥
. . . many questions remain if we are to make full use of our evolutionary terminology in historical linguistics. We do not know which units selection might operate on in language history; are they words, rules, speakers, or languages themselves? We do not know whether linguistic evolution is governed only by general, universal tendencies, or whether these can be overridden by language-specific factors. And we have yet to formulate the conditions under which variation and selection might conspire to produce regularity.
(selection) Ѥñ̤ϲȤܼŪǤ롥ǡǡ졤硤ᡤʸΧ§üԡüԽġ줽Τθꤹ뤢Ȥñ̤Ȥʤꤦ롥ΤȤϡñ̤ܤƸοʲѲҤȤȤ벾˴Ť٤ǤȤȤפ롥
ʤߤˡ McMahon ʸϤϡäƤ SHEL-9/DSNA-20 Conference (The 9th Studies in the History of the English Language Conference) ǡȼθѲŸ Nikolaus Ritt ĴֱˤʬŪ˰ѡȤƤΤǤ⤢롥
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Ѹˤơ춯ŤŪʵ§뤳Ȥ춯ΰ֤ϡѸˤäƤ롥춯ΰ֤ϡűѸˤ Germanic Stress Rule (gsr) ˤäñ˷ꤵƤѸʹߤ˥ƥեѸȤȤˤ⤿餵줿 Romance Stress Rule (rsr) 夹˵ڤӡʣ (cf. #200. Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥϤ ([2009-11-13-1])#718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1])) ΤۤϢɤѤƯꡤ̾ư (diatone) ʤɤοѥޤ줿 (cf. #861. Ѹθ춯ΰ֤˴ؤ3ס ([2011-09-05-1])) Τ褦ˤơ¿ͤʸ˴ŤΡ㳰פѤŪ˶֤ꤹ뵬§ΩƤ뤳Ȥʤä
Ǥ⡤ϵ٤ʤʤ٤㳰ʤݤĤ褦ˤơĤΡ̸ְ§פΩƤߤ³ƤCarr (74--75) ϡ4Ĥΰ̸§Ƥ롥
Principle 1: The End-Based Principle
1ϡơultimate (ex. bóx), penultimate (ex. spíder, depárture), antepenultimate (ex. cínema, América) Τ줫뷹롥ΤȤϡ춯ѥ trochaic Ǥ뤳ȤȤط롥trochee Ȥϡθ˥İʾ³ѥΤȤǤ롥Τ褦 trochee αӤꥺߥ˷֤ΤѸαΧŪħǤ롥
Principle 2: The Rhythmic Principle
ñˤϺ¿4ĤǽΤ (ex. ungéntlemanliness), ñƬ2İʾ뤳ȤϤʤ٤ƬΤ줫βˤ϶ (ex. Jàpanése, not *Japanése)
Principle 3: The Derivational Principle
ˤƤϡΤǼ綯Τä뷹롥㤨 chàracterizátion 1ΤϡΤ cháracterize ʤ켫Τ cháracter ˤˤ1˼綯뤫Ǥ롥
Principle 4: The Stress Clash Avoidance Principle
٤礦2Ĥβξ˶뤳Ȥ뷹롥㤨СPrinciple 3 ˤ *Japànése ȤʤϤΤȤȶ2³ƤޤǤ Principle 4 θ§ꡤϢ³ʤ Jàpanése 뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ȥꤳθ§ˤϾʤ㳰ĤΤǤ롥ޤ§֤Ǿͤ⾯ʤʤ줾θ§ϡ̵§ߤ뤳Ȥˤꡤ٤Ƥɬפΰ̸§ˤꡤѸä¿θ춯뤳Ȥ¤Ǥ롥ʤȤѸθ춯̵ˡǤȤǤȤüɾǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
Carr, Philip. English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction. 2nd ed. Malden MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
Hasn't she grown! Τ褦ʡʸκۤƤ뤬ȯ (illocutionary force) ȤƤϴòʸˤĤƹͤ뵡ꡤѸˤ봶òʸ (exclamatory question) ˤĤĴ٤Ƥߤʲ Quirk et al. (825) εҤޤȤ롥
ŵŪˤϡHasn't she GRÒWN! Wasn't it a marvellous CÒNcert! Τ褦 yes-no ʸηꡤĴΥȥ͡ȯäʥꥫѸǤϾ徺Ĵġˡ̣Ūˤ˶δòĴղõƱͤˡʹФƲȤƱդԤƤ롥
yes-no ʸۤˤǤϤʤ yes-no ʸǤ⡤Ϥ겼ĴȯäơƱͤδòȤǤʥꥫѸǤϾ徺ĴġˡˈAm ˈI HÙNGry!, ˈ Did ˈhe look anNÒYED!, ˈHas ˈshe GRÒWN! ǡǤ롥
ŪˤǤäƤǤäƤ⡤̣ȤƤϹδòˤʤȤΤ⤷Ūʶ̣Ūˤ¤뤫Τ褦1ĤǤ (cf. #950. Be it never so humble, there's no place like home. (3) ([2011-12-03-1])) Has she grown! Hasn't she grown! δ֤ˤϼ㴳ΰ㤤롥Ǥ餫ʹƱդǧΤǤ̿ΤΤȤߤʤƤʹƱդǧƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤǤ롥äơΤȤҤ٤ Am I hungry! ʤɤˤƤϡƱդǧɬפʤˡŪ˹ǤФ롥ǤȹǤ̯ʺۤϡΤ褦ʥѥե졼̤ƤĤळȤǤ
Wasn't it a marvelous CÒNcert! = 'What a marvelous CÒNcert it was!'
Has she GRÒWN! = 'She HÀS grown!'
ǤȹǤȤǡȯä˺ݤüԤ (presupposition) ؤäƤȤȤǤ롥Ūˤⶽ̣츽ݤ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ȯãݸɽȤơѸȥե줬롥̱ϼβϤ˹ä (cf. #1521. ȷ ([2013-06-26-1])) Ǥꡤlingua_franca Ǥ롥ξˤҲŪʤ¿ٹ礤ϸ˰ۤʤ롥Bailey and Görlach (3) νϤˤʲʸϤܤ
The social meanings attached to French and to English in the colonies where they were used differed markedly. Ali A. Mazrui, a Ugandan scholar, has summarized this difference by pointing to the "militant linguistic cosmopolitanism among French-speaking African leaders," a factor that inhibited national liberation movements in countries where French served as the sole common national language. "The English language, by the very fact of being emotionally more neutral than French," he writes, "was less of a hindrance to the emergence of national consciousness in British Africa" (1973, p. 67). This view is confirmed by President Leopold S. Senghor of Senegal, himself a noted poet who writes in French. English, in Senghor's opinion, provides "an instrument which, with its plasticity, its rhythm and its melody, corresponds to the profound, volcanic affectivity of the Black peoples" (1975, p. 97); writers and speakers of English are less inclined to let respect for the language interfere with their desire to use it. One consequence of this difference in attitudes is that French is generally more uniform across the world (See Valdman 1979), while English has developed a series of distinct national standards.
ǤϱѸγŪʤȥեεŪʤ椵Ƥꡤΰ㤤Ūʰ̣ˤƱѸѼ¿ȥեѼΰ줾⤿餷Ƥ뤳ȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ѸˤϼŪʷϤʤ櫓ǤϤʤեˤѼϾʤ餺¸ߤ롥ӤƤСʩμҲŪʿʤѼ¿ɤϡΤ˾嵭ΤȤоŪ
ʩʸˤŪˤ⡤ҲŪˤ椷Ƹ뤳Ȥ¿̱ͼ㤦θθιŪŸλۤʤС쵬ϼФ٤֤äƤ롥κۤϡ줾ιäƤεǤꡤ켫ΤŪ껺Ǥ롥⾯ʤ餺¸ߤΤϳΤΩܤ뤳Ȥˤäơ줾ħ䤫⤭Ħˤʤ롥
ʩμҲŪ˴ؤ뺹ۤˤĤƤϡʲεǰäƤΤǡȤ
#141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1])
#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤá ([2011-01-13-1])
#1821. եȱѸ ([2014-04-22-1])
#2194. ե쵬ϼѸŨ롤̱Ūե ([2015-04-30-1])
Bailey, Richard W. and Manfred Görlach, eds. English as a World Language. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1983.
ɽ魯ư may ȯãˤĤơ#1867. May the Queen live long! θ ([2014-06-07-1]) ǹͻǿ줿褦ˡOED ˤȽ16ƬΤΤVisser (1785--86) ˤСʤ⡤ѸˤϸĤ롥κǽǤϡ may ʸƬƤʤȤդ줿
c1250 Gen. & Ex. 3283, wel hem mai ben ðe god beð hold!
c1425 Chester Whitsun Plays; Antichrist (in: Manly, Spec. I) p. 176, 140, Nowe goo we forthe all at a brayde! from dyssese he may us saue.
1450 Miroure of Oure Ladye (EETS) p. 34, 34, Sonet vox tua in auribus meis, that ys, Thy voyce may sounde in mine eres.
κǽΤ褦ˡ;ŪѤϸλǤʤ"Wo may you be that laughe now!", "Much good may do you with your note, madam!", Ƹ "Much good may it do you!" ʤɤ³
εǤϡɽ魯 may ȯŸطʤˤϡ˾ɽ魯ư³ˡˡȡhope ʤɤư³°ΤʤǤ may λѤΤǤϤʤȻŦ⤦1ĤήȤơVisser (1785, 1795) νҤ٤̤ꡤѸνư mote εˡ롥ϽѸ줫롤Visser ϸűѸ̤ꤦȹͤƤ롥
c1275 Passion Our Lord, in O. E. Misc. 39 Iblessed mote he beo þe comeþ on godes nome
c1380 Pearl 397, Blysse mote þe bytyde!
mote ˡϡMED mōten (v.(2)) 7c(b) ˤ㤬Ƥ뤬ѸǤ̤˸ΤǤ롥줬 may ˼ä줿ȤȤ
ʤ might ˤƱˡѸ긫졤mote ¤ might ⤦1Ĥιθ٤װʤȻפ롥MED mouen (v.(3)) 4(c) ai mighte he liven crist him mighte blessen ʤɤ㤬Ƥ롥
Ѹ may εˡȯãĴäƤϡޤѸʰˤ mote ƱˡȯãɤʤФʤʤ
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
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