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ε#4355. friend ֻȯ ([2021-03-30-1]) ǡ<friend> /frɛnd/ Ե§ˤĤŪܤäƻȤŵƤޤ Jespersen (4.312) 顥
The short [e] now found in friend OE frēond must be due to the analogy of friendship, friendly, in which /e/ is the usual shortening; in friend we have early /iˑ/ (< /eˑ/) in B 1633, while D 1640, J 1764, W 1775, 1791 etc.. have short /e/, and G 1621 and others a short /i/ due to a shortening subsequent on the transition of /eˑ/ > /iˑ/. Cf. fiend OE fēond, which kept its vowel because no derived words were found to influence it.
ϢơJespersen (3.241) give, live ʤɤ⤫ĤƤĹ첻äƤȤ˿Ƥ롥
Upward and Davidson (178) ꡥ
In late Old English, short vowels were lengthened before consonant sequences such as /mb/, /nd/, /ld/ and /rd/. This lengthening was lost again in many cases by the end of the Middle English period. With the action of the GVS, one sees modern reflexes of the remaining long vowels in words such as climb, bind, mild, yield, old, etc. However, in some words there was a subsequent shortening of the vowel, leading to pairs of words similar or identical in spelling in Modern English but with different pronunciations: wind (verb, with /aɪ/) but wind (noun, with /ɪ/), fiend and friend, etc.
ˡDobson (Vol. 2, 9) ⻲Ȥ
Shortening of OE ē to ĕ occurs in a number of words beside forms that preserve the long vowel. The shortening is normal in bless and brethren, but for both of these Hart shows [i:] < ME ę̄. The comparative liefer (OE lēofra) has ĕ four times beside ę̄ once in Bullokar. In friend the shortening is probably due to derivatives (friendly, friendship) in which the vowel occurs before a group of three consonants in words which (in the case of friendly in oblique forms) were trisyllabic and had a secondary stress; but it might also tend to occur in oblique cases of the simplex in which the n and d were separated by the syllable-division. ME ĕ is recorded by Levins and eleven later sources (including Robinson, Hodges, and Cooper); but ę̄ is retained by Salesbury, Cheke, Laneham, Bullokar, Wharton (followed by J. Smith), and Price (followed by Lye and The Protestant Tutor). Fiend is not recorded with ME ĕ.
Dobson (Vol. 2, 11) ⤦1ġ
Friend has ĭ in the Welsh Hymn, Mulcaster, Gil, Wallis, Lloyd, Poole, Coles, Lye (beside ę̄), WSC (beside ĕ), Price's 'homophone' list (though elsewhere he records [i:]), the rhymes of Poole and Coles, and perhaps in Ray . . . . Fiends has ĭ in the Welsh Hymn and the 'homophone' lists of Hodges ('near alike'), Price, Coles (Eng.-Lat. Dict.), and WSC (the pairing is with fins); it has [i:] in Wallis. Bullokar rhymes field on ĭ (cf., probably, Chaucer's hild 'held' and fil 'fell' < earlier hę̄ld, fę̄ll).
friend ȯֻ˴ؤѤʵΤ褦ˤߤ뤫⤷ʤŪѲѰۤεϸ¤ʤ̤Ǥ롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957. 2 vols.
ܸʤ⡤ֻȯбȤ餹ȡȤƤĤʤԵ§Ǥ롥<friend> Ȥֻ /frɛnd/ ȯȤʤΤϡ̤ǤǤʤۤ <ie> /ɛ/ ȤʤΤϡꥹѸˤ lieutenant /lɛfˈtɛnənt/ 餤 (cf. #4176. ʤ lieutenant ȯ /f/ ФΤ ([2020-10-02-1])ˡ
ˤΤܤäƤߤ褦űѸ frēond ̣ͧˤˤƤϡ첻ֻ̤ /eːo/ äеǤ fēond Ũ> PDE fiend /fiːnd/ˤƱͤǡĹ2첻 /eːo/ ƤǤϡξƱαθȯãⶦ̤ȤʤϤäθ frēond fēond ϰۤʤƻڤɤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
frēond ߤƤߤ褦Ĺ2첻 /ēo/ ѸˤƳ경Ĺ첻 /eː/ ȤʤäĹ첻ϡ frēondscipe (> PDE friendship) ʤɤˤ3û (Trisyllabic Shortening = trish) Ф /e/ Ȥʤäȯ (analogy) δפȤʤꡤΤ friend ΤΤ첻û /e/ Ȥʤä餷줬û첻 /frɛnd/ εǤ롥
Ĺ첻 /eː/ ˤȯޤǻĤä褦ǡ줬첻 (gvs) Ф /iː/ ȤʤäޤûСǤ /i/ ⸽줿Ĥޤ friend 첻ϡѸʹ /eː/, /e/, /iː/, /i/ 4ĤѰۤƤȤȤǤ롥
ǡе fēond (cf. PDE fiend /fiːnd/) ܤƤߤ褦 friend ȥ롼ĤϤۤƱŪʲѲɤäĹ2첻 /eːo/ Ĺ2첻경 /eː/ Ȥʤꡤ줬첻ܤǾ夲Ф /iː/ ȤʤꡤѸȯ /fiːnd/ ˻롥
ȯηаޤϰʾ̤friend, fiend ֻ <ie> ˤĤƤϴñǤϤʤܤϡ#4082. chief, piece, believe ʤɤˤߤ <ie> /i:/ ([2020-06-30-1]) ɤǤ嵭 /iː/ ʳֻ <ie> ȷӤĤ줿ΤޤǻĤäƤȹͤФ褤
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ε#4353. ˡ ([2021-03-28-1]) ˰³ˡ (personification) ˤĤơ⤦Ĵ٤ƤߤƤ뤬ˡθŪʰϤϤ꾯ʤ褦ޤǽؤؤΰˤȤɤޤäƤ롥ϡ罤۱Ѹػŵ (844) ꡤ1ħȤƤεˡβѤ롥ŪŵŪ㤬ƤΤǡѤ
ˡ
ˡ (personification) Ѥ줿ˡǤ롥ޤǤʤʹ֤ǤʤΤʹ֡ʻ˿ˤˤȤɽΤǤ롥
a) ݤäο̾ɽ
Zephyr ˡPhoebus ۡˡCynthia ʷˡDiana ʷˡApollo ۡˡNeptune ʳˡBoreas ˡHesper ʾˡʤɡ
b) ̾εͲ
Ȥ 'ambitious people' Ȥ 'Ambition' ˤ褦ɽΤǡζŪɽǤ롥
Gladness danc'd along the sky---Thompson, Epithalanium ʴӤ϶٤ʤʤǹԤä / Let not Ambition mock their useful toils---Gray, Elegy Written in a Country Church-Yard ͭפϫ餻ʤ / O stretch thy reign, fair Peace---Pope, Windsor Forest ʤ路ʿ¤衤ڤˡ
c) ̾ޤϰ̤λʪεͲ
That Thame's glory to the stars shall rise!---Pope, Windsor Forest ʥƥॺαɸޤϤ / Thy forest, Windsor!---Pope, ibid. ο / And weary waves, withdraw[n]ing from the Fight, die lull'd and panting on the silent Shore 줿Ȥ襤भơʪ̴ߤξǤʤ졤ʤ餽οȤˡ
ϲ ͭӾ ɧ ˮɧԡˡ罤۱Ѹػŵ١罤۽Ź1983ǯ
ˡ (personification) ϡʸŪŪʵˡȤΤƤ뤬ѸȤϰѸȤƤѤۤɤˤ褯Τ줿Ѹ졦ǰǤ⤢롥ǧΤƤ뤬椨ˡؽŪ˰ȤȤʤʤ꤫⤷ʤ
Ȥ櫓Ū˰Ȥ硤ɤΤ褦ʥץǽʤΤˤĤܳŪ˹ͤȤʤΤǡޤóݤȤơαѸؼŵäƤߤǽϡرѸ켭ŵ٤顥
personification Ρ͡ʵͲˡˡFair science frowned not on his humble birth.---T. Gray, Elegy ܤȤϤʤäˤΤ褦ˡݳǰ̵ʪ˿ʹ֤ƱͤͿ뽤εȤΰǡʸؤˤƤϸűѻäˤѤϤᡤƻࡤջˤߤ롥Ǥ⤽ˡϻ졤åǤɽνפȤƤ롥ʤ<ͭ>ͭ>ʤ̾§ȤѷŬѤˤꡤˡŪ˵ҡ뤳ȤǽǤ롥
ˡؿѸؼŵ٤ꡥ
personification ̽͡ʵͲˡ
̵ʪݳǰʪꡤʤɿʹͭĤΤȤɽ뽤Ͳ prosopropeia ȤƤФ졤 (METAPHOR) ΰǻǸŤѤ줿Leech (1969) 'an angry sky' 'graves yawned' Τ褦ˡ̵ʪʪ°ͿΤ the animistic metaphor, 'this friendly river' 'laughing valeys' Τ褦ˡʹְʳΤΤ˿ʹͭͿΤ the humanizing [anthropomorphic] metaphor ̾ŤƤ롥I. A. Richards (1929) ŦƤ褦ˡʹְʳʪ̵ʪФͤϡʹߤδͤȶ̤ΤǡäθǤϤäѤʹ֤ˤĤѤƻ졦ư졦̾ʹְʳΤΤŬѤΤϤƼȸ褦
Ͳζջˤޤ̤뤳ȤǤ뤬Ĥ Milton "all things smil'd, With fragrance and with joy my heart oreflowd"---Paradise Lost 8: 265--66 Τ褦ˡνˡѤŵλȡThomas Parnell, Richard Savage, Edward Young ʤɡ18λͤθ礭ÿȤʤꡤޤޤŪʤӤӤ褦ˤʤä䤬ƥޥɤƬ'the very language of men' θ줿餷뤳Ȥɸ֤ Wordsworth ϡŪʵͲ 'a mechanical device of style' Ȥͤ (Preface to Lyrical Ballads, 1798).
Τ褦ˡͲϻθŪˡǤäơʸˤɽľ (SIMILE) ηȤΤդĤǤ뤬ŪʻʸǤϸŪѤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨СThomas Hardy Egdon Heath ̤Ƥ뼡Υѥ饰դǤϡѻԤ¸ߤż appeared, seemed, could be imagined ʳưϡιͲФƤ: The place became full of watchful intentness now; for when other things sank brooding to sleep the heath appeared slowly to awake and listen. Every night its Titanic form seemed to await something; but it had waited thus, unmoved, during so many centuries, through the crises of so many things, that it could only be imagined to await one last crisis---the final overthrow.---The Return of the Native. Bk. I, Ch. I.
Ѹˤ뵼ˡϡ嵭̤ꡤ褽ŪʸػŪʴˤƤΤǤꡤỤ̄Ūʥץϵä褦˻פ롥⤽ԤΥץȤƤϡɤΤ褦ʤΤΤõäƤߤɬפꤽϢơ#2191. ȥåΤޤȤ ([2015-04-27-1]) Ρֵˡפȡ
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ켭ŵ١ҡ2002ǯ
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
餹ɻ John Skelton (1460?--1529) ϡʸػ˾塤뤬Ե§ûԤѤ "Skeltonics" ΤʤʸŪɾ褦ˤʤäΤ20ˤʤäƤΤȡˡ˰夻ʪʤ⡤Henry VIII βդȤʤǤϰ̤ʤ1Ĥ Colyn Cloute (1522) 롥μϼ Thomas Wolsey ڸɤꥺब̣褤ѸǽȤŪꥺƥȤȤƤⶽ̣
Bergs and Brinton (303) Ѹ˴ؤϥɥ֥åΤʤΡָͷӡ (language play) 1ȤơSkelton ΥƥȤƤ롥
His hed is so fat
He wotteth neuer what
Nor wherof he speketh
He cryeth and he creketh
He pryethh and he peketh
He chydes and he chatters
He prates and he patters
He clytters and he clatters
He medles and he smatters
He gloses and he flatters
Or yf he speake playne
Than he lacketh brayn (1545 Skelton, Colyn Cloute A2v)
ŪȤƤϡӱ (rhyme) ϤΤȡƬ (alliteration) ΩĤΥޥȥ (onomatopoeia) ͳ褹ȹͤư¿ѤƤ롥3ñθȤƽ -eth ȿ -s ¸ƤΤ⡤αѸѲѰۤǰƬˤȶ̣Ȥ櫓ĴҤäƤդǸŪ -s ϢȯΤ⡤̣襤Ǥʾ˸ͷӤǤꡤͷӤǤʾǤФΤȤɤळȤǤ롥
Bergs, Alexander and Laurel J. Brinton, eds. The History of English: Early Modern English. Berlin/Boston: Gruyter, 2017.
챺 (6) ȥꥢΥܥꥸ˼ҲθŪʽˤˤĤơեμҲؼ Durkheim ʲΤ褦˼Ƥ롥
ڥǥ륱ε
(i) ʤΡפؤ٤ϡ٤ơֵ (rites)פˤɽ롥ηȤ뤳ȤǡͤӤȤΤդޤμҲỤ̄ƱΤǶͭ뤳ȤǤ롥
(ii) εǽϡʤΤ뤳ȤΤʤ褦ˡʤΤ¯ʤΤʬΥΥ뤳ȤǤ롥ξ硤ϴŪˡ?ʤפȤǵꤵΤǡ־öŪʩ rites négatif ̥ޥޡ)פȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥
(iii) ʤΤʤȤΤȤǡüʾ郎ʤСʤΤ̤礦Ȥ롥ξ硤ϡ?Ƥ褤פȤǵꤵΤǡѶŪʩ rites positif ̥ޥޡ))פȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥
٤⡤ΰ̣Ǥεȸ뤳ȤǤ롥ˤʤΤȤϸĿͤΥץ饤Х (negative face) ΤȤǤȲ᤹С١ᵷϻٻ롥1ˡ٤Ʊ͡ĿͤλŪʹ٤ˤȤɤޤΤǤϤʤƱΤǶͭ٤ΤǤ롥2ˡ٤ˤƤϡĿ͡äʹˤΥץ饤ХȤʤ褦ջȤ˽ʬդʧΤ̤Ǥ (cf. negative politeness) 3ˡĿͤΥץ饤Хʬ˼ƤȤΤȤǡĿ̤ͤ礤ŤμʤѰդƤѤ뤳ȤƤ (cf. positive politeness)
٤ "face-work" ȤȤ館 Goffman (cf. #1564. face ([2013-08-08-1])) ⡤ Durkheim εΩӤƤˡݥ饤ȥͥ Brown and Levinson (cf. #4346. եꥹѤθ ([2021-03-21-1])) ⡤Durkheim Goffmann ξԤƶƤ
١ᵷˤСǤʤɤʤΤϡˤƤϸĿͤ "face" ȤȤˤʤ롥ƼҲŪʸѤȤ롥
챺 ͡إݥ饤ȥͥ١ҡ2008ǯ
Durkheim, É. Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse: le système totémique en Australie. Félix Alcan.
Goffman, Erving. "On Face-Work: An Analysis of Ritual Elements in Social Interaction." Psychiatry 18 (1955): 213--31.
å ofפȸƤФˡ乽ʸˤĤơ#1775. rob A of B ([2014-03-07-1]) εDZѸˤδ龯ͤƤߤʤʤǡѸŪˤ⤭줤ˤϲ褷Ƥʤ褦Ǥ롥
Blake (134) (case) ̣ (semantic_role) δ餳äƤߤĤΤǡѤ
(39) a. The vandals stripped the branches off the tree agent patient source b. The vandals stripped the tree of its branches agent source patient
The roles appropriate for (39a) are noncontroversial. The vandals are clearly the agent, the branches patient and the tree source. Of the two sentences (39a) would appear to be unmarked, since it exhibits a normal association of role and relation: patient with direct object and source with a noncore or peripheral relation. The ascription of roles in (39b) is more problematic. Under a common interpretation of constructions like this the tree in (39b) would still be the source and the branches the patient. But note the different in meaning. (39a) presents the situation from the point of view of the effect of the activity on the branches, whereas (39b) emphasises the fate of the tree. In fact, the phrase of its branches can be omitted from (39b). This makes it problematic for those who claim that every clause has a patient. The problem could be avoided by claiming that the tree in (39b) has been reinterpreted as a patient, but that creates the further problem of finding a different role for the branches.
åιʸˤĤƳʤŪΤ褽䤿ľŪռ̤ȤʤäƤꡤɤΤȤ̤ʤΤǤ롥Ǹ˿Ƥ褦ˡ(39b) ˤ the tree ΰ̣ patient ȤΤǤСof its branches ΰ̣ϲˤʤΤơΰ̣ô碌ֻ of ΰ̣ˡϤʤΤǤꡤ of θ¾μɤΤ褦Τȹͤ٤ʤΤ
1ĵˤʤΤϡξʸѤƤֻ줬Ʊ off of Ǥ뤳ȤʤԤ from ǤˡξƱ쵯ˤĤƤϡ#55. through θ츻 ([2009-06-22-1])#4095. 2Ÿʬ ([2020-07-13-1]) ȡ
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
1ǯۤˡѸ˴ؤѤʵƤäȤ롥Τʤ1Ĥˡɸμݤε䤬äʤʤθʸϡ֤ʤʬ -ing ˤϲʬΤ褦Ե§ư줬¸ߤʤΤסˡĤǶᤳεˤĤƹͤϤƤߤΤޤääѤǤϤʤǤ뤳Ȥ˵Ť⤷ȻפܲưʡˤƵƤǤ롥
εβ⤷ȤС1ˡʵϻפĤ⤷ʤä顥ѸؽԤϳưγѤǺޤƤϤγˤϡʬư̾ƱͤˤϤʤ -ing ǰӤƤ롥ϴ¤ǤϤ뤬äȴɤƤʤΤȤϢλͲϩʤΤȻפ-ing ˤֻˤĤƤϼ㴳Ե§ϤΤ̵뤷Ƥ褤٤Ǥcf. #3069. Ϣ9֤ʤ try tried Ȥʤꡤdie dying ȤʤΤס ([2017-09-21-1])ˡ
Τ褦餷ȯȴäĩ路ϤΤϤ褤¤䡥ɤˤФʤǡʤε䤬ΤŪ˹ͤƤߤ2ۤɥȤ
(1) Ф줿Ѥʵ䡥֤ʤ A Ե§ʤΤ B ϵ§ŪʤΤפȤȤʤäƤ뤬褯ͤƤߤȡϡѤʡ䤫ȴФषʤ٤䤤ǤϤʤѸؼԤȯ褦ʵϡƤ֤ʤ B ϵ§ŪʤΤ A Ե§ʤΤפȤʤΤǤ롥ΥǤС֤ʤʬ -ing ǵ§ŪʤΤ˲ʬˤԵ§ʤΤ¿ΤפȤȯΤ̤ۤǤϤʤԤεǤСʬ -ing §ŪǤ뤳ȤäפʬԵ§ʤΤ¿ͳФ褤餯ΤۤˤϤפȤʤʤȤƷ褷ưפϤʤˡ
(2) ȤȸʬȲʬ2Ԥ椷Ȥȯ뵿Ǥ롥ΤξԤȤ̾ˡʬ (participle) ޤߡоݤˤʤ䤹櫓оݤ2˸ꤻ깭 non-finite verb forms Ȥȡ⤦볦ƤΤǤϤʤŪˤСʬȲʬ˲äơư̾θƤߤΤϤɤʬư̾ϷϾ˰פƤΤǡºݾϿ˹θ˲ä٤ȤȤˤʤ롥ȤΤϸѸȤƤϸˤۤʤ餺줬Ȥ٤¸ߤʤΤǡԵ§ⲿʤʤ be ư̤ˤۤ褵ǤˡȤȡ4ढ non-finite verb forms Τʤǡ3ޤǤ§Ūǡ1ΤߡĤޤʬΤߤԵ§ȤȤˤʤ롥Ūˤߤ¤ꡤ嵭 (1) ǼȤȹ碌ơ֤ʤʬΤߤԵ§ʤΤפ䤤ľۤʤȤΤˤͭפΤ褦˹ͤ롥
ȤȤǡȯڤ̣˴äơܤޤƤȤ뤬ʤȤͻˤäƤϸۤȯȤΤ褤ȻפäƤ롥ˤƤǡ伫Ȥ⤢륢ǥϻäƤ뤬ޤäʤΤǡäȵĴƤȻפäƤ롥ܥ֥ɼԤγˤ1ĤȤȤǤ
ͤޤǤˡʬ˴ؤεȤơʲƤ
#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])
#2421. ʬư̾ζƯŪȯã ([2015-12-13-1])
#2422. Ѹˤư̾졤ʬ졤θβŪƱ ([2015-12-14-1])
#4345. űѸޤǤθʬȯã ([2021-03-20-1])
#4344. -in' -ing ξάǤϤʤ ([2021-03-19-1]
ؤǤϡֿͤƤ֡פȤ٤ϡءҲء̾ؤʤ͡ʴܤƤܥ֥δؿΰǤѸˤʬǤ⡤̾ (anthroponym)ƾ (address_term)2;̾ t/v_distinction ʤɡֿͤƤ֡פȤ˴ؤͻ¿ʤƤȶŪʹ٤Ǥ뤫顤ï⤬̣פȤäƤ褤
⤽ֿͤƤ֡פȤϤɤȤʤΤ챺 (78--79) ꡤ٤Ѥ롥
ƻˤʤ뤬ȿͤƤ֡ɤȤκŪʰ̣ǧƤʸŪ˸СͤƤ֤ȤˡȿɤȤǤꡤŪʥ֡¦̤ġΤᡤ¿θʸˤơƤ֤Ȥζػߡ뤤Ϥ˵ŪƾΤȯãܸ⤳Υ֡αƶŪƾΤϡȤС͡ʡᤷ١ˡס֤ʤʡˡסָʡʪΡɤξˡס֡¡ʡʪ̾ˡסŲʡᳬʤβˡǤ뤳ȤǤ롥夲ʬޤΡȿ͡ɤƤƤ֤ϡƤ֤ȤǼʬ꤬ƤޤΤ뤿ˡȤʤ٤ƤФʤ褦ˤƸƤ֡ɤȤưŤˤʤäƤֲŪƾΤǤ롥
ȤȤ˿Ƥطˤˤϡ֡ŪưŤȿžषΡȿ͡ɤ˸Ƥӡ̤Ƨ߹Ǥ椯褦ʸƾΤȤʤ롥ϡΰƧ߹Ǥʹִط»ʤʤΤ餤2ͤδ֤ˤϳ֤ƤʤȤޤߤΡŪƾΤǤ롥ͭ̾ʤȤθƤӼΤƤ䲼̾ǸƤ֤ȡˤˤƾΡ¤줿ͤΤʤΤˤƾΤŵ̾ˤƾΤ⤽ηġ
ͤƤ֤ΤϰΥ֡ (taboo) ǤȤȡϤФˤ٤֡ǤꡤΤθƾΤ¿쾯ʤ쥪ץˤƤȤȤפǤ롥ͤƤǤϤʤƤФʤȤ̷Τʤǡ䤿Ϥ̷ˤǾ¤ޤ褦Ȥʤ顤٤ԤʤäƤΤǤ롥
챺 ͡إݥ饤ȥͥ١ҡ2008ǯ
ε#4338. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ9ɴǯȹ¡פΤ ([2021-03-13-1]) ǤΤ餻褦ˡ320ڡˤ15:30?18:45ˡī㡼ɶˤֱѸˤȸ츻9ɴǯȹ¡֤ޤ˰١ä³Ƥ륷Ǥ褤⽪˶Ťޤ
⸷ʲҤξΤʤǻäƤˤϴפޤǮʼ䥳Ȥ⤿Τ꤬Ȥޤ
ϡ¤ץơޤ1ĤȤȤ⤢ꡤäơ֡ԡϥʲҤȱѸפȤ꤫Ϥޤθ塤14--152Ȥ⤤ɴǯ (hundred_years_war) ȹ (black_death) 夲αѸ˾ΰյޤΤ褦˾ϡΤ˸λ䤿ˤʰݤͿޤλޤǤ˾ƤˤĬή岡¥ʺޤˤɬ綠ΤΤܼŪǷṲ̄櫓ǤϤʤȵޤߤΥʲҤ礭ʼҲѲƤȸޤΤȤϡ¸Ĭή¥ʤƤȤˤ˾ΰյΤ⤷ޤ
ιֺ¤Ѥ饤ɤ˸Ƥޤʲ˥饤ɤγƥڡؤΥĥäƤޤ
1. Ѹˤȸ츻9 ɴǯȹ¡
2. 9ɴǯȹ
3. ܼ
4. 1. ԡϥʲҤȱѸ
5. OED ý
6. 2. Ѹϰ̤㲼1066?1500ǯ
7. Ѹ (#131)
8. 3. ɴǯ (Hundred Years War)
9. ɴǯάǯɽ
10. ɴǯȱѸ
11. 4. (Black Death)
12. ¤μҲʸءŪƶ (1)
13. ¤ȼҲʸءŪƶ (2)
14. Ѹˤ붵λϤޤ (#1206)
15. ¤αѸѸˤ˱ɤƤ
16. ¤ϱѸ֤ˤʤ
17. ޤȤ
18. ʸ
Υ102021ǯ529ڡˤ15:30?18:45ͽꤷƤޤĸ줫Ϥޤäֺ¤⡤褤ޤϡҳȳǰѡפǤˤĤơƤӳȵǤФȻפޤֺ¤ξܺ٤ɤ
䤿ռƤ뤫ݤˤ餺٤ϤܾۤŪʥեβǽʥեꥹˤޤǤ롥եꥹ¤ʤˤϻ¾奼ȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ塤٤κϤ˥եꥹ¸ߤƤȹͤƤ褤
Brown and Levinson (76--78) ϡեꥹ礭ȤεΥ (D)ϴط (P) (R) 3װˤäƷޤȤ꼰챺 (30--31) Ѥ뤳ȤǡҲ𤷤褦
ڥեꥹѤθ
Wx = D (S, H) + P (H, S) + Rx
Wx (weightiness): x Фեꥹ
D (distance): ä (speaker) ʹ (hearer) μҲŪΥ
P (power): ʹ (hearer) ä (speaker) Ф
Rx (rating [ranking] of imposition): ʸˤ x
Ĥޤꡤ x Υեꥹ (Wx) ϡ襳οʹִطˤäʹΡּҲŪΥ (D)סƤοʹִطˤʹäФ (P)סơx Ȥ٤ʸǤɤ٤٤ˤʤȸʤƤ뤫Ρ (R)סȤǤĻŪƯƷޤäƤȥ֥饦Ϲͤ
άȤƤϡȤƤ褯ǤǤ롥٤ȤСñʲûǤ褤ΤǤŬڤʽŤդɬפʤΤǤϤʤȤäȽϤꤦ롥3ĤǤեꥹθѤŪ˸ȤΤϡľˤQˤ⤫ʤ
3ĤǤǤ Rx ˡʸˤפȤ꤬ղäƤΤ̣ĹǤ롥챺 (31) ɾ˼褦
κǸϡʸŪʤߤǤⶽ̣ȤСιԤ˹ԤͤФơιʪäƤƤ褦ꤹ롤Ȥ٤ͤ褦ޤܤξ硤Ϥޤ굤¤ΤǤϤʤ⤷ޤ줿Ȥ빽Ѥ路ͤ¿ȤȤȤѤǤϻ𤬰ۤʤ롥ळȤʤȤͤ¿ۤʤΤǤʤϤʤƤ⤫ޤʤȹͤͤ⾯ʤʤޤ줿¦⡤ʬͤˤƤ뤳ȤξڤȤƸؤ˻פʤ٤ǤʤΤȤ
ºݤ˷Ǥ뤫ɤϤȤ⤫֥饦ȤߤϡʤȤǰŪˤϤۤȤ館Ƥ롥֥饦ФȽΤʤˤϡʸθƤʤȤΤ롥褦ˡʸɤװѥȤȤ߹ޤƤꡤȽľˤʤ̸ά͡
ʤۤɡȤƤñοƤǤ롥Ϣơ#2126. FTA FTA ά ([2015-02-21-1]) ⻲ȡ
Brown, Penelope and Stephen Levinson. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: CUP, 1987.
챺 ͡إݥ饤ȥͥ١ҡ2008ǯ
ε#4344. -in' -ing ξάǤϤʤ ([2021-03-19-1]) Ǹʬ夲Ǵñˤ֤äޤǸűѸȯã˿줿٤ä Lass (163) ˰͵ơĸ줫饲ޥĸФƸűѸ˻ޤǤηֲȯãҲ𤷤褦
The present participle is morphologically the same in both strong and weak verbs in OE: present stem (if different from the preterite) + -ende (ber-ende, luf-i-ende. etc.). All Gmc dialects have related forms: Go -and-s, OIc -andi, OHG -anti. The source is an IE o-stem verbal adjective, of the type seen in Gr phér-o-nt- 'bearing', with a following accented */-í/, probably an original feminine ending. This provides the environment for Verner's Law, hence the sequence */-o-nt-í/ > */-ɑ-nθ-í/ > */-ɑ-nð-í/, with accent shift and later hardening */-ɑ-nd-í/, then IU to /-æ-nd-i/, and finally /-e-nd-e/ with lowering. The /-i/ remains in the earliest OE forms, with are -ændi, -endi.
͡ʲѲ (sound_change) ФƸűѸ -ende ˤɤĤȤʬ롥ʬϡΤ褦˲ȤƤܤޤ뤷ѲƤ褦Τؤղäλ䵡ǽ˴ؤƤСषꤷƤ褦ˤߤ롥ΰȡƱ줬˹ߤ뤳ȤϢưƤ褦˻פ롥
ޤѲˤƤ⡤Τܤޤ뤷ϤΤΡʤ٤ -nd- ȤҲϢݻƤȤܤͤ롥ϤȤȶ */-í/ ³ˡŪפȤ䤹äǤϤʤˤǤ롥ޤθΤ촴β˱ƶͿ뤳ȤʤäˤդƱʬǤ⡤ʬȤϤʤ𤬰ۤʤΤ
űѸʹߤѸ˻ޤǡ -nd- λҲϢϸ§Ȥݻ줿䤬Ƹʬ -ing ִ褦ˤʤäο -ing ȤơȤȤ /ɪŋɡ/ Τ褦˻ҲϢäƤȤ϶̣/ŋɡ/ λҲϢ⡤Ѹʹߤ /ŋ/ ؤȽñ㲽ƤǤϰĸβˤߤ줿ҲϢϡϢȤ߹碌褦ǤɸŪˤݻƤʤcf. #1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1])#3482. ƬλҲϢñ㲽Ƥˡ ([2018-11-08-1])ˡ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
γڤβλޤѸλɤǤȡʬ -ing -in' 뤳Ȥ롥Ū¯Ūȯɽݤˤ⡤Ф -in' ˽вݥȥե (apostrophe) ѤƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤľŪˤХեޥȯ -ing g æξάΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤΤȤ館2ĤǸǤ롥
1ˡȯæάⵯäƤʤǤ롥-ing ȯ /-ɪŋ/ ǡ-in' ȯ /-ɪn/ Ǥ롥ǸλҲ٤Ƥߤ餫ʤ褦ˡԤͭɡ /ŋ/ ǡԤͭɡ /n/ Ǥ롥ξԤæάδطǤϤʤ夢뤤ִδطǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Ԥɽݤ˥ݥȥեѤΤ㤤ΤȤʤ櫓ˤˡʤ𤬤롥ͭɡ /ŋ/ 1ǤʤŵŪ <ng> 2ʸ֤ͭɡ /n/ ñ <n> 1ʸ֤Τξֻ٤С-ing <g> æά -in' 褦ˤߤ롥פȯǤϸΰΡæפ䤹ȤľƯ-in' άȤƲᤵ䤹ΤɽϳΤæάäƤ褦ˤߤ뤬ȯϤΤ褦ʤȤϵäƤʤ
2ˡŪˤäƤ -in' -ing Ȥϡ餯ʬΰ۷֤Ǥ -inde θޤäΩȹͤۤǤ롥äȤ⡤դβŪϹäƤꡤñ˷ŤʤȤϵƤ
ʬ -ing ˤϼ¤ʣǤ롥űѸ줫Ѹ̤ơʬŪ -inde, -ende, -ande ʤɤη֤ȤäƤΰ۷֤ʬۤϡ#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) ǼȤꡤ褽ʬϢưƤѸˡ̾ư̾ؤȯãƤ -ing -inde ʤɤθʬȤӤĤ褦ˤʤäcf. #2421. ʬư̾ζƯŪȯã ([2015-12-13-1])ˡˡ -en ⲻƤ˻äκƱ֤ʣcf. #2422. Ѹˤư̾졤ʬ졤θβŪƱ ([2015-12-14-1])ˡ
ˤ衤-in' -inde ξάǤפȤŪ˵Ƥ뤫⤷ʤ-in' -ing ξάǤפȤϸˤ
Ϣơ#1764. -ing -in' μҲŪͤεž ([2014-02-24-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Ѹˤ佼ˡ (suppletion) ˤĤƤϡ͡ʵǰäƤgo -- went, good -- better -- best, am -- was -- be, I -- my -- me ʤɡѲˤƸ촴ΰۤʤߤ륱Ǥ롥
̾佼ˡȤо嵭Τ褦ñθΤ˴ؤƤΤƤĤαѸؼŵäƤߤȡΰܼ (affix) ˴ؤƤ㤬Ƥ
㤨Сox -- oxen ȤԵ§ʣפˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦§ŪʣǤ -es Ȥդ *oxes ȤʤϤǤ롥ȤºݤˤϤΰŪǵ§Ū -es ϺѤ줺ۤʤ뵯ȷ -en ѤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤñܼʣܼʤ̾ο˴ؤ뵬§ŪʷѲ -ø -- -(e)s Ȥȡ̾ ox ˤĤбѲ -ø -- -en Ȥʤꡤ§ŪʷѲæƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Τ褦ʥؤơܼ佼ˡȤߤ뤳ȤǽȤ櫓child -- children, datum -- data ʤɤԵ§ʣƱͤ˹ͤ롥
Ѹ͡¸ߤԵ§פˤĤơθΤԵ§ǤȤŪʤۤɡܼˤ佼ˡȤȤ館븫⤢ȤȤ˵Ť줿
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ켭ŵ١ҡ2002ǯ
ж ϺԡˡظѸؼŵ١Ʋ1973ǯ
ε#4341. Shakespeare ˤߤ4α ([2021-03-17-1]) ³θ̤ƹƤ4α (the four humours) ˤĤơʸؤˤȤСޤ Chaucer ̾뤬Chaucer ʸؤˤƤ4αϸǤ롥ɤˤΥѥߤ뤳ȤǤ롥
4αդΤޤǺǤ;Ọ̇̄ݻƤΤϹ (melancholy) Ѹ melancholy Ȥñθ츻ϡꥷ melas/melan- (black) + kholē (bile) ̤ꡤʸֹ̤פȤʤ롥αդȡʹ֤ϤդߡͫݵפˤʤȤ줿
Chaucer ˤ melancholy κǤ1ĤȤơThe Canterbury Tales Knight's Tale ꡤ¤˴٤ä Arcite ͫݵפȤƤ륷ߤƤߤ褦 (I(A), 1361--76)
His slep, his mete, his drynke, is hym biraft,
That lene he wex and drye as is a shaft;
His eyen holwe and grisly to biholde,
His hewe falow and pale as asshen colde,
And solitarie he was and evere allone,
And waillynge al the nyght, makynge his mone;
And if he herde song or instrument,
Thanne wolde he wepe, he myghte nat be stent.
So feble eek were his spiritz, and so lowe,
And chaunged so, that no man koude knowe
His speche nor his voys, though men it herde.
And in his geere for al the world he ferede
Nat oonly lik the loveris maladye
Of Hereos, but rather lyk manye,
Engendred of humour malencolik
Biforen, in his celle fantastic.
Ǹ夫2ܤ humour malencolic βսǤ롥¤˴٤ä Arcite ϡȤƶͤΤ褦ˤʤäƤȤʵΤγȿ̤Τˡhumour äƤǤ롥ʾ塤Rogers (186--89) Chaucer ɴʻŵ "Four Humours" ιȤ
Rogers, Shannon L. All Things Chaucer: Ann Encyclopedia of Chaucer's World. 2 vols. Westport, Connecticut and London: Greenwood, 2007.
塦衼åѤΰءؤˤƤϡȤ֤α (humours) ˴Ť븶ƤȤ櫓奮ꥷλҥåݥƥ䥬ΥŦƤ4α (the four cardinal humours) פ̤Ȥ줿 (blood)Ǵ (phlegm)ʲ (choleryellow bile) (melancholy, black bile) 4Ǥ롥ΥХ褤ȷȤʤ뤬꤬ȡŪαդμ˱ͭ֡ʬФȤCrystal and Crystal (230)
In early account of human physiology, a person's physical and mental disposition was thought to be governed by a combination of fluids, or humours, within the body. Four humours were recognized: blood, phlegm, choler (also called yellow bile), and melancholy (also called black bile or black choler). The notion transferred readily into a range of seances to do with temperament, mood, inclination, and manner of action . . . , regarded as permanent or alterable features of behaviour.
ͥʹߤˤϲ˶ؤ⤷4αϽѤƤäShakespeare λˤϤޤԤαƶǻĤäƤShakespeare ΰ Crystal and Crystal (230) ĤġоʪΤʤ4αζŪȿǤߤƤߤ褦
| Humour | Typical disposition | Seen in character | Example |
| blood | optimistic, passionate, amorous, courageous | Hotspur (as described by his wife) | In military rules, humours of blood, / He was the mark and glass, copy and book, / That fashioned others (2H4 ll.iii.30) |
| phlegm | dull, indifferent, indolent, apathetic, idle | Falstaff and his companions (as described by Prince Hal) | I know you all, and will awhile uphold / The unyoked humour of your idleness, (1H4 l.ii.194) |
| choler | angry, irascible, bad-tempered | Cassius (as described by Brutus) | Go show your slaves how choleric you are ... Must I stand and crouch / Under your testy humour? (JC IV.iii.43) |
| melancholy | sad, gloomy, sullen, depressed | Jaques (as described by Rosalind) | They say you are a melancholy fellow. [Jaques] I am so: I do love it better than laughing (AY IV.i.3) |
ȤƤϽƤηиȤʤΤǤѸؤŪʤäϢܡˤѸΥܥʵפǯ٤˸ƥȤޤNHK饸329˳֤뿷ֺ¡δñѸ in EnglishפΥƥȤΤʤǡѸΥܥʵߥƥΩƤǰפƤޤɮԤȤƿϢܤμɮäƺǤ⿴ȻפäƤ뤳Ȥϡ⤷ʬ䤹⤹뤳ȤǤ
4ΥƥϤǤ314ȯƤޤϢܤνϡ1ʤ3ñ s ĤΡפǤ

Ѹ˴ؤѤʵˤĤƤϡޤǤʲΤ褦˰ۤʤΤˤ˸ˤƤޤ
ܥ֥Ѹ˴ؤѤʵ佸
ܥ֥ hellog 饸ǥƥ
رѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡ١ʸҡ2016ǯ
رѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ١ؽ2011ǯ
罤ۡرѸ춵٤Ϣܡ2019ǯ4椫2020ǯ3ޤǤ12ֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ
ҤΥ饤Ϣܡ2017ǯ11212ָѸѸˤλͤ
CNN English Express2019ǯ2εˤΤǼѸΡؤ뤢絿١ (pp. 41--49)
罤ۡرѸ춵2018ǯ9εѤʵ뤿αѸˤΥĥܡ (pp. 12--13)
3ñ -s ȤϲѸ춵˴ͿѸŪסؤ줫αѸ춵顽Ѹ˸Ȥá (Can Knowing the History of English Help in the Teaching of English?). Studies in the History of English Language 5. ջҡԡˡν2016ǯ105--31ǡ
ºݡ3ñ -s ⡤嵭Τ2٤3٤ˤȤɤޤ餺֤夲ƤǤǤϡꤽΤΤοߤϤޤʤ⤷ޤϡ٤ˤĤƤɼԤˤȤäƤ⡤ʤۤɤȻפäƤ館褦ʿθޤ褦ؤޤɤΥ٥ɼԤˤȤäƤ⡤⤷ɤƤ˻ž夬äƤΤǤϤʤȻפޤ
λߤΤΤȷŪ˰ۤʤϡϤоݤȤƤȤ¤ǤޤǤפƤĤǤϤޤꤷƤɼԤϤƤʾαѸؽԤѸ춵طԤǤȤϱѸؤľܤ˰ռϢܤʤΤǤΰ̣ǡοϢܤϡɮԤˤȤäƤʵȻפäƤޤ
Ѹˤ˴ؿäƤ館褦ԽԤȤⶨĤʤ٤ߺդҤޤޤõΥ饹ȤդƤ餤äĤ䤹ФƤ뤫Ȼפޤ
ѸؽԤѸ춵γƥȤˤȤäƤߤƤꤤޤ
ʤƥˤǺܤƤޤNHKƥȤꡤѸ˴ؤ뵿䤳Ϣܤǰäߤơޤ罸ƤޤNHKƥȤΥ֥Ȥɤ
٤ФʤꤿAmerican Dialect Society ˤ2020ǯ Word of the Year Ҳ𤷤褦Ƥ Covid Ǥ롥
1ǯäˤ¸ߤ餷ʤäñ줬ǺǤ褯Ȥ1ĤȤʤäΥ륹 Covid-19 WHO ̿̾Τ2020ǯ2Τȡθ夹 Covid ṳ̂졤ñΤѤǤʤCovid crisis, Covid relief, Covid vaccine Τ褦ʣʬȤƤѤ褦ˤʤäܺ٤Υڡɤ˾ܤϡΥץ쥹 (PDF) ⻲ȡ
Υץ쥹ꡤޤƨ¾ΥΥߥ͡ȸȤȤ˵Ƥߤ褦Covid ߤΤΤŪ¿
Covid: shorthand for Covid-19, the name given to the disease caused by infection from novel coronavirus; also used more broadly to refer to the pandemic and its impacts
2020: used to sum up chaotic and despondent feelings inspired by the years events
antiracism: the practice of actively working to prevent or combat racism
Before Times: the time before the beginning of the pandemic (followed by Now Times or After Times)
BIPOC: acronym for Black, Indigenous and People of Color or Black and Indigenous People of Color
doomscrolling: obsessively scanning social media and websites for bad news
pandemic: epidemic over a wide area affecting a large proportion of the population
social distancing: keeping away from others as much as possible to prevent the spread of coronavirus
unprecedented: never having happened, existed, or experienced before
American Dialect Society ˤ1990ǯʹߤμʤȥΥߥ͡ȸˤΥꥹȤ
轵320ڡˤ15:30?18:45ˡī㡼ɶˤֱѸˤȸ츻9ɴǯȹ¡ꤷƤäޤؿΤߤݤϰʲ̤Ǥ
14Υɤϡʩɴǯ (1337--1453ǯ) ȯȡ³¤̢1348ǯȡˤʤɿκ˸ޤμҲŪʻϡΥޥ夷ƤեˤۤžѸ¥Ȥʤޤ褤ѸϥɤιȤϰ̤ؤ֤餭ˤƤȤˤʤޤɸŪΤıѸ˾ΰյͤƤߤȻפޤ
Ȥ櫓¤ѸͿѥȤȤܤޤܲʥ륹ˤкѡҲ礭ʱƶƤޤѸϤȤޤαƶˤꡤƤ;ʤƤޤ¤ȸδؤϰ̤˻פƤ⤺äȿΤǤ650ǯۤ˥衼åѤä¤ϡˤƱѸȤˤ˾ͿΤˤĤơ˸ƤƤȻפޤƱˡܲοʥ륹ȱѸ˴ؤͽǤ
ܥ֥Ǥɴǯ (hundred_years_war) (black_death) ˤĤäƤޤΤǡƵ
ε#4336. Richardson μĹû ([2021-03-11-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡRichardson ϤäʸѤȸ츻Ҥ Horne Tooke ʤʪäƤ롥Tooke ϡŪʸ츻Ѥˤ Richardson Τߤʤ餺 Webster ѤƳ19ȾΥꥹǤ롥
John Horne Tooke (1736--1812) ϡ1758ǯ˥֥åؤ´ȸ塤ˡΧȻ˾ǤϤäδ˾ˤ˽1773ǯȡꥫΩ˺ݤƿ̱¦ΩŪưϤΥե̿ˤƱŪΩꡤȤȤƸʤɤͫܤˤäƤ롥
Τ褦ưŸ֡ůؤؤδؿŪҤԤʤäƤ1778ǯˤ³ that ˴ؤ A Letter to John Dunning, Esq. ФƤ롥ơ2Τ Epea Pteroenta or, the Diversions of Purley (1786, 1805) Ǥ롥1000Ǥ˵ڤָůؤȸ츻˴ؤ줬ȤʤäƤϴȤäƤ٤츻ܤʤΤǤ롥
Dixon ˤ뤳δ͡βʸѤ褦 (150)
He [Tooke] maintained that originally language consisted just of nouns and verbs with everything else (adjectives, prepositions, pronouns, articles, and so on) being abbreviations of underlying noun and verb sequences. He also believed that each word had a definite meaning which had remained constant from its origin. What makes the modern reader squirm most is the way in which Horne Took applied these principles, absolutely off the top of his head. For example, conjunction through was believed to be related to noun door, and conjunction if was said to have come from the imperative form of verb give. If did have the form gif in Old English and verb give was giefan, but these are not cognate, the similarity of form being coincidental.)
Sometimes there was vague similarity of form, other times not. 'I believe that up means the same as top or head, and is originally derived from a noun of the latter signification'. 'From means merely beginning, and nothing else', so that in 'Lamp hangs from cieling (sic)'), it is the case that 'Cieling (is) the place of beginning to hang.'
There are dozens more of such mental meanderings, lacking any basis in fact. From actually goes back to preposition *per in PIE and up to PIE preposition *upo. It is true that some prepositions have developed from lexical words, but none in the way Horne Tooke imagined. Through relates to the PIE verb *tere- 'to cross over, pass through, overcome'. . . . Door is a development from *dhwer, which meant 'door, doorway' in PIE.
Horne Tooke's book was simply a raft of wild ideas. There may have been other books of this nature, but the scarcely believable fact is that The Diversions of Purley was accepted by the British public as an example of brilliant insight. Philosopher James Mill found Horne Tooke's work 'profound and satisfactory', 'to be ranked with the very highest discoveries which illustrate the names of speculative men'. The account of conjunctions 'instantly appeared to the learned so perfectly satisfactory as to entitle the author to some of the highest honours of literature'.
ؤȤ William Jones ˤӸ (comparative_linguistics) ü郎ĤĤäΤΡꥹؤܳŪƳϤʤƤ餺Tooke ¯䤹ʳŪʸ츻Ϲɾʤůؼ James Mill 仿ۤɡˡ䡤ष Tooke νˤꡤꥹؤӸؤƳ٤줿Ȥ餤뤫⤷ʤʺڡڸp. 353ˡ
1840ǯޤǤˤϡꥹ Tooke ѤȴФƤTooke νϡ"gratuitous", "incorrect", "fallacious", "frivolous" ʤɤηƻɾȤʤäƤΤǤ (Dixon 151)
ãڸ ԡرѸؿ̾ŵ١ҡ1995ǯ
Dixon, R. M. W. The Unmasking of English Dictionaries. Cambridge: CUP, 2018.
#3155. Charles Richardson A New Dictionary of the English Language (1836--37) ([2017-12-16-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡRichardson (1775--1865) αѸ켭ϡJohnson, Webster, OED ȤˤήΤʤפƤꡤǤϤޤܤߤ뤳Ȥʤ19ȾФˤƤϽפ̤Ƥ
ĹȤƤϡѸ켭˾ܳŪˡˡפռäȤȤ롥ʸˤΥݡȤ Johnson ˻Ϥޤ뤬Johnson ȤŵˤʸϲŰʸΤΤǤꡤѸˤޤ̤뤳ȤϤʤäRichardson Ѹ졤ΡŪ§פʿΤǤ롥⡤ѿ Johnson ڤ˾äƤ롥̤Ȥơʸǰʤ2000ǤĶȤʤϤäꤤäƻȤŤ餤Ȥʤä (Dixon 146)
⤦1ĹŦȡμԻ찭¸μबȤƤRichardson ϥꥸʥܻؤȤǤ롥Τ륪ꥸʥμԻΤϡˤ Johnsonˤ OED пԤƤޤۤɤξɤǤꡤˤ Richardson Ƶɾʤ
ûȤƤϡεǤ줿Ȥꡤ"a word has one meaning, and one only" Ȥüʸ˸츻Ҥˤ˴٤äƤޤäȤθ Horne Tooke (1736--1812) ȤϤŪȡ츻ԤˤΤǡοʪϺǤϴȤ٤2ΤαѸ츻˴ؤ The Diversions of Purley (1786, 1805) ΤƤ롥Richardson μȽ Webster ⡤ Tooke 櫤ˤϤޤä1ͤǤꡤλ塤츻̤ Tooke αƶϤӤäƤȤʬ롥
ˤ Richardson ϡѸ켭ˤˤƼפʼԻȤΤϤޤdz19ȾФνץä
ãڸ ԡرѸؿ̾ŵ١ҡ1995ǯ
Dixon, R. M. W. The Unmasking of English Dictionaries. Cambridge: CUP, 2018.
ʻ (parts of speech) ΤʤǤ⡤̾ (noun) ϺǤŪʤΤ1ĤǤ롥Ȥꤢ֥Τ̾פȤäƤФ褽ǤʡʻΤ褦˻פ롥ºݤˤϤñǤʤΤ٤ȴˤƤȤꤢϤˤϤʤ
̾ʬहˡΩˤäƤCrystal (208) ͤˤȡȤựŪȤŪʴʲΤ褦ʬव롥
Proper
Concrete
Nouns Count
Abstract
Common
Concrete
Noncount
(Mass) Abstract
Ѹθạ̈Ȥơնʸˡ (euphemism) ϳˤ˿͵ΤơޤǤ롥ΰȤ taboo, swearing, slang ΥơޤȤؤꡤҲشθäȤƹ̣ΤΤ褦
⤽ euphemism Ȥϲޤ Cruse Ѹ켭ŵͿ褦 (57--58)
euphemism An expression that refers to something that people hesitate to mention lest it cause offence, but which lessens the offensiveness by referring indirectly in some way. The most common topics for which we use euphemisms are sexual activity and sex organs, and bodily functions such as defecation and urination, but euphemisms can also be found in reference to death, aspects of religion and money. The main strategies of indirectness are metonymy, generalisation, metaphor and phonological deformation.
Sex:
intercoursego to bed with (metonymy), do it (generalisation)
penisHis member was clearly visible (generalisation)
Bodily function:
defecatego to the toilet (metonymy), use the toilet (generalisation)
Death:
diepass away (metaphor), He's no longer with us (generalisation)
Religion:
Godgosh, golly (phonological deformation)
Jesusgee whiz (phonological deformation)
Hellheck (phonological deformation)
μ˴ؿä顤ޤܥ֥#469. euphemism κ ([2010-08-09-1])#470. toilet ˭٤նɽ ([2010-08-10-1])#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1]) ϤȤ (euphemism) ε줫 taboo εˤܤ̤Ƥ餤
θ塤ʲγγʬȤ褤
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975. pp. 198--203.
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. pp. 43--49.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006. pp. 80--81.
ҥ٥ȤƤϡBussmann (157) McArthur (387) λʸꥹȤꡤʲǤ롥
Allan, K. and K. Burridge. Euphemism and Dysphemism: Language Used as a Shield and Weapon. New York: OUP, 1991.
Ayto, J. Euphemisms: Over 3,000 Ways to Avoid Being Rude or Giving Offence. London: 1993.
Enright, D. J., ed. Fair of Speech: The Uses of Euphemism. Oxford: OUP, 1985.
Holder, R. W. A Dictionary of American and British Euphemisms: The Language of Evasion, Hypocrisy, Prudery and Deceit. Rev. ed. London: 1989. Bath: Bath UP, 1985.
Lawrence, J. Unmentionable and Other Euphemisms. London: 1973.
Rawson, Hugh. A Dictionary of Euphemisms & Other Doubletalk. New York: Crown, 1981.
ŪʸĴˤäƤϡ OEDƼ켭ŵ (thesaurus)Room θΰ̣Ѳμŵʤɤ˳ѤƤ餤
Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.
Ѹ켭ˤƤήˤĤơ#609. 켭17 ([2010-12-27-1]) ȡ#610. æ켭18 ([2010-12-28-1]) dz⤷18ˤʤäƤ褦䤯ǤϤʤ̸ϿŪʱѸ켭ȤȤä
John Kersey A New English Dictionary (1702) Ի³ Nathaniel Bailey An Universal Etymological English Dictionary (1721) Dictionarium Britannicum: Or a more Compleat Universal Etymological English Dictionary than any Extant (1730) ǤǸ Samuel Johnson A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) äȤή
ˤܤŪʸ¿ϿȤǤϡKersey θФ28,000졤Bailey Dictionary 40,000Ǥ뤫顤Τ2ͤæ켭ϩɤäȤäƤ褤
ȤJohnson ϰŪʼԻȤǰ츫2ͤήǤ褦ˤߤΤΡäϩȤäƤ롥Ͽ39,000 Bailey 侯ʤ餤ǡϿäǤ롥ºݡJohnson ʪǰɽ魯ǼϿޤ褯ΤƤ褦Ѥ䶯ǽμԻԤȤ̾ĤƤ뤬ΰѸϾ˥ϥʸϵҤäΤǤ롥餫˾ήռ
Dixon (96) ϡŦơJohnson ϩ̣Ǥ켭ȱԤƶäƤ롥
Johnson's choice of words, and the senses exemplified, reflected his preoccupation with high-class literary style, rather than with general use of the language. His selectivity was, in a rather different sense, continuing the philosophy of the 'hard words' lexicographers.
ˤĤƤλطʤθɬפ롥Ϣơ#2650. 17μǹߤ18ȾФβߤء ([2016-07-29-1]) ⻲ȡ
Dixon, R. M. W. The Unmasking of English Dictionaries. Cambridge: CUP, 2018.
Vιܡڹߡפ̣ notch 괧˴ؤʬ (metanalysis) η̤η֤ǤȤɤ9 Words Formed by Mistakes: When false division gives us real words εˤȡnotch ʬϤȤ㤤ˤä1ĤȤƾҲ𤵤Ƥʤ¾Ȥ apron, ingot, nickname, umpire, orange, aught, newt, adder Ƥˡ
εǤϡ (an) ickname (a) nickname ȤƸäʬϤ졤 nickname Ȥ촴Ф줿ΤƱͤˡťե줫Ѥ줿 oche ˤĤƤ⡤(an) oche (a) noche Ф줿ΤȤƤ롥
ʤۤɤȻפ OED notch, n. dzǧƤߤεȤϾͻҤۤʤ롥Τ˸ťե䥢Υޥ oche ʤ֤Ϥä褦Ǥ14Ƭ˥Υޥˤ noche ʤ۷֤ǧƤȤΤѸǤ notch νФ1555ǯǤꡤѸˤ괧δؤʬϤȤϡΥޥˤƤǤ n Ƭźä줿֤ΤޤޱѸ˼Ѥ줿ȤۤľǤϤʤȤΤ OED Υɤ롥츻ˤϼΤ褦ˤ롥
Apparently < Anglo-Norman noche (early 14th cent.), variant of Anglo-Norman and Middle French osche notch, hole in an object (1170 in Old French), oche incised mark used to keep a record (13th cent.; French hoche nick, small notch; further etymology uncertain and disputed: see below), with attraction of n from the indefinite article in French (compare NOMBRIL n.).
ˤȡn θƬźäϳΤ괧δؤʬϤη̤ǤϤ뤬ѸǤΰʬϤǤϤʤեǤΰʬϤȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹ an/a Ȥ۷֥ڥΤΥޥˤȤʹȤʤäΤǾƬҤͤä Anglo-Norman Dictionary NOTCH1 äƤߤȡβ⤬ä
The nasal at the beginning of the word is believed to be the result of a lexicalized contraction of the n from the indefinite article: une oche became une noche. This nasalized form is not found in Continental French and, according to the OED, only appears in English from the second half of the sixteenth century (as notche).
ɤѸ an/a ȸ̩ʰ̣ʿŪʰʬϤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ褦괧 n ĹƸ³θ촴Ƭ˻ۤ줿ɽۤŬڤ⤷ʤ⡤β⼫Τ OED ȤƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤ1ĤβȤƤȤ館ƤΤ褤⤷ʤ
ͤޤǤˡOED ΰѤˤ̤ꡤnombril Ȥ n ⡤ѸǤϤʤեˤ괧δؤʬϤη̤ȤƤ롥
Samuel Johnson μ A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) ˤϡ̾άȤơ߸Ƥ n. ǤϤʤ n.s. ѤƤ롥̾ stone ιܤƬߤƤߤ褦

Ф³ơåΤ n. ʃ. 롥ξʸ <s> Ϥ long <s> ȸƤФΤǡߤΤΤȰۤʤΤաlong <s> ˤĤƤϡ#584. long <s> graphemics ([2010-12-02-1])#2997. 1800ǯ˰ä long <s> ([2017-07-11-1])#3869. 衼åѽ줬Ѹνդ˵ڤܤƶ ([2019-11-30-1])#3875. Ǥ19ޤǤĤäƤ long <s> ([2019-12-06-1]) ʤɤȡ
n.s. ϡŪ̾ؤ noun substantive ξάǤ롥ߤδФϤषĹ̾Τ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤƥʸˡѸ츯餹ƥʸˡǤϡʤˤޤࡤʤ̾ȷƻҤä "noun" ȤߤʤƤˤʤä̾ȷƻʪȤ븫ޤ졤Ԥ "noun substantive"Ԥ "noun adjective" ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤäޤ "noun" ޤޤƤǤϡѤǤȤ⤤롥Dixon (97) ϢѤ褦
Early Latin grammars used the term 'noun' for all words which inflect for case. At a later stage, this class was divided into two: 'noun substantive' (for words referring to substance) and 'noun adjective' (for those relating to quality). Johnson had shortened the latter to just 'adjective' but retained 'noun substantive', hence his abbreviation n.s.
Ѥˤ⤢̤ꡤƻΤۤ n.a. ǤϤʤ adj. ȤƤΤǡӤƤʤȤФ̤ƻ stone ιܤߤƤߤ褦

ʤߤˡˤư to stone θФ⸫뤬ʻά v.a. ϡverb active ɽ魯Ǥ¾ư (transitive verb) ƤǤΤǤ롥ư (intransitive verb) ϡv.n. (= verb neuter) ä
ʸˡѸŪˤĤƤϡ#1257. ʤгʡפ "accusative case" ʤΤ ([2012-10-05-1])#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1])#1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ ([2013-06-25-1])#3307. ʸˡѸȤƤ participle ʬס ([2018-05-17-1])#3983. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (1) ([2020-03-23-1])#3984. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (2) ([2020-03-24-1])#3985. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (3) ([2020-03-25-1])#4317. ʤֳʡפ "case" ʤΤ ([2021-02-20-1]) ʤɤȡ
Dixon, R. M. W. The Unmasking of English Dictionaries. Cambridge: CUP, 2018.
33ˡǽդΥ߹ɡʥ饤ˤŤޤǯȤȤǡΥߴطԤμɮ´ʸ7ܡˤȽʸ2ܡˤȤݤǡ1ͤˤĤ20ʬȯɽ10ʬμȤֳǡīͼޤǤߤäٶ뵡Ȥʤޤ
ʲ#4297. 2021ǯ٤Ф줿´ʸܡ ([2021-01-31-1]) ΥꥹȤ¿Ťʤޤĥߡʷʸʸظʱʸ칶αѸʬˤˤƸ椵Ƥơޤδ¿Υ˥塼ǤȻפޤ
Ѹˤθ褫ƱѸˤϡʤ뤤ϳؤ֤ˤϡˤɤΤ褦ˡ褤ΤѸˤȱѸ춵õߤϡŤƿǤ롥ǯ⡤ѸˤؤְյϲȤռȴϢơܤǤǤ⡤ƤӤβ꤬ܤ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥
伫ȤѸ˸ԤǤƱ˱Ѹ춵Ǥ⤢ꡤإߤˤϱѸ춵ܻؤȤȤ⤢ꡤˤϾ˴ؿƤʬˤĤƤޤȤޤäͤɤळȤΤǤ롤ǯǤ줿ʸҤ4ۤɾҲ𤷤
(1) ջҡԡˡؤ줫αѸ춵顽Ѹ˸Ȥá (Can Knowing the History of English Help in the Teaching of English?). Studies in the History of English Language 5. ν2016ǯ
(2) Heyes, Mary and Allison Burkette, eds. Approaches to Teaching the History of the English Language: Pedagogy in Practice. Oxford: OUP, 2017.
(3) Ҹ סü ҡԡˡرѸ춵դΤαѸˡ١ҡ2018ǯ
(4) ýѸ˶ͤ롽ʤɤΤ褦˱ѸˤΤסAsterisk 282020ǯ66--180.
ޤ (1) ˤĤơѸ˸δˤƤƤƤꡤ#2566. 3ñ -s Ȥϲס ([2016-05-06-1]) ܼʤɤǤΤǤȤ
(2) ϡܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤ȤƴϢ뵭ƤѸǤ͡ʱѸ˶ȼҲ𤵤Ƥ롥ܤȤϤޤäۤʤȯۤαѸ˶ȤơϤǿ
(3) ϡѸˤʬΰdzԤˤǡȥ뤬ɽ路Ƥ̤ơѸˤμζŪʳѻ㤬Ҳ𤵤Ƥ롥
(4) ϡľȥ褷 Asterisk ýǡƤƤɮԤ˸䶵иԤޤޤƤŪƤȤʤäƤ롥ͤΥ饤ʥåפʲ˼Ƥ
ѸμȤɬפʱѸˤδμ ʹƣ ͵Ƿ
٥롦ĤȤƤαѸ ʿ ůʡ
ʤȤƤαѸ ʹ ʹ
ѸˤȤȼ³ء ʲ ͵
ؤDZѸؤ֤Ȥ ʹ⻳ ҡ
ݼҲˤѸ˶ɬ ҡ
Ѹ˽ŤѸ˶ ʻ߷
ععˤѸ˶ ƾ Ϻ
Ƥ줿Ѹ Ĺ ʿ
ΤͤơʸˡΤĤ䤹Τ 滳
Ѹ˶ˤоȸˤλ δ
ۤκ ʰ¸ ϡ
Asterisk ýϡ2019ǯ922˳줿Ѹ˸ݥ֤줫αѸ˶ͤ롽Ѹˤȥӥ˽餻ʤˡסʥǥ͡ľȥˤ̤ʬŪ˼ΤȤʤäƤ롥伫ȤƱݥǡֱѸ˶ˤоȸˤλפꤹȯɽԤʤäƤΤǡͤޤǤˤλΥϥɥȤƤ
ʾʸͤˡֱѸˤθ褫Ѹ춵פˤĤƹͤƤ館йǤ롥ޤϢơֱѸˤ롦ؤְյפˤĤơε⻲ȡ
#4021. ʤѸˤؤ֤ --- Ū ([2020-04-30-1])
#3641. ѸˤΤ (1) --- Ѹˤ϶Ūʳΰ ([2019-04-16-1])
#3642. ѸˤΤ (2) --- Ѹˤ϶Ūʳΰ ([2019-04-17-1])
#24. ʤѸˤؤ֤ ([2009-05-22-1])
#1199. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (2) ([2012-08-08-1])
#1200. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (3) ([2012-08-09-1])
#1367. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (4) ([2013-01-23-1])
#2984. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (5) ([2017-06-28-1])
#4019. ұѸ˳ؽΤ hellog γѤ ([2020-04-28-1])
#2470. 2015ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2016-01-31-1])
#3566. 2018ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2019-01-31-1])
#3922. 2019ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2020-01-22-1])
#4045. Ѹ˴ؤѤʵ1385クޤ ([2020-05-24-1])
#4073. ϹαѸˤۥƥαѸˤء ([2020-06-21-1])
ջҡԡˡؤ줫αѸ춵顽Ѹ˸Ȥá (Can Knowing the History of English Help in the Teaching of English?). Studies in the History of English Language 5. ν2016ǯ
Heyes, Mary and Allison Burkette, eds. Approaches to Teaching the History of the English Language: Pedagogy in Practice. Oxford: OUP, 2017.
Ҹ סü ҡԡˡرѸ춵դΤαѸˡ١ҡ2018ǯ
ýѸ˶ͤ롽ʤɤΤ褦˱ѸˤΤסAsterisk 282020ǯ66--180.
δ졡ֱѸ˶ˤоȸˤλסʥϥɥȡˡѸ˸ݥ֤줫αѸ˶ͤ롽Ѹˤȥӥ˽餻ʤˡסض쥭ѥ2019ǯ922
Ϣεǡ16Ⱦ˻˾αѱѼ߽Ф˻äŪطʤˤĤƹͤƤ (cf. #4324. ǽαѱѼ Coote The English Schoole-maister? ([2021-02-27-1])#4325. ǽαѱѼؤȤĤʤ Coote ΰյ ([2021-02-28-1])#4326. ǽαѱѼΥ饤 Coote -- Cawdrey -- Bullokar ([2021-03-01-1])#4327. ѼѱѼؤή ([2021-03-02-1])
ޤƤήʿŪˡ⤦1ĿƤ٤פʷ褬äϡȤۤηŪʤΤǤϤʤΤդ줿ʬѸ콸Ȥ٤¸ߤǤ롥ˤϡñꥹȤӤ٤ΤΤޤޤ롥äȤΤ顤εϤΤΤޤǡ16ˤ70ʾѸ콸ǤƤȤäDixon (45--46) 顤ĤվƤߤ褦
Ϥµȥ˴ؤ The Boke of Husbandry 38Υꥹ (1523)
µˡѸޤ426Υꥹ (1543)
ŵ129Ȳޤ The first Syxe Bokes of the Mooste christian Poet Marcellus Palingenius, Called the Zodiake of Life (1561)
˴Ϣ95ޤ A Postill [gloss] or Exposition of the Gospels (1569)
ؤ49ޤ The Elements of Geometrie (1570)
νŤñ̤ä10ۤɤΥꥹ (1583)
Τ褦ʬѸ콸Ǥ褦ˤʤȡʬʤŪʸý⤢ȤȯۤͯФƤ롥ɬʤΤ#441. Richard Mulcaster ([2010-07-12-1]) Ǥꡤळ The First Part of the Elementarie (1582) Ǥ8000ۤɤθý "Generall Table" ʪäΤǤ롥
ϢεǡѸ˾κǽαѱѼȤμդˤĤ Dixon ˵ʤͻƤ (cf. #4324. ǽαѱѼ Coote The English Schoole-maister? ([2021-02-27-1])#4325. ǽαѱѼؤȤĤʤ Coote ΰյ ([2021-02-28-1])#4326. ǽαѱѼΥ饤 Coote -- Cawdrey -- Bullokar ([2021-03-01-1])) ѱѼϴ饤Ȥ Mulcaster -- Coote -- Cawdrey -- Bullokar Ȥɤ뤳ȤǤȼƤMulcaster ˤˤդʧɬפ롥Mulcaster Ȱʸ⡤ŪˤϢ³ΤƤ뤫
άŪ˽Ҥ٤СΤ Mulcaster bilingual ѼλǤꡤʸ monolingual ʱѱѼλǤΤǡ츫 Mulcaster ˼Ū褦˸뤫⤷ʤԤ monolingual ʱѱѼȤϾΤƤΤΡ֤ȤƤϡ켭פǤꡤФϥƥ줫μѸ줬Ū¿äȤοǤ롥Ĥޤꡤƥη֤ΤΤǤϤʤȤ⾯Ѹ첽٤Ρ֤ʤäƥƥñפФΩƤƤ櫓ǤꡤCoote -- Cawdrey -- Bullokar 饤 monolingual ϡ֤ȤƤ "1.5-lingual" ȤǤ⤤٤ΤäΤĤޤꡤMulcaster ʸαѱѼή⡤ѼηϢʤȤȤǤ롥
Dixon (42) ˽15--16Ѽηñ˼褯ΤƤΤϡ1430ǯդʬŪʼǤĤäƤ Hortus Vocabulorum Ǥ롥1500ǯ˽Ǥ졤27,000Υƥñ줬̣̤˷ǺܤƤ롥弭ˤĤƤϡ1440ǯμǤΤƤ Promptorium Parvalorum sive Clericum 1499ǯ˽Ǥ졤ʸ1528ǯޤDz뤳ȤȤʤä
16Ⱦ¸ߴѼϡThe Dictionary of Sir Thomas Elyot knight (1538) Ǥʥȥ뤬ѸǤ뤳աˡԤ Hortus Vocabulorum αƶۤȤɼƤ餺ष Ambrogio Calepino 弭١ˤƤ (Dixon 43) ȾФ1565ǯ Bishop Thomas Cooper ˤѼ Thesaurus Linguae Romanae & Britannicae ǤӤȾ1587ǯ Thomas Thomas ˤǤ줿Ѽ Dictionarium Linguae Latinae et Anglicanae ˤϰ̤åƤȤˤʤäơ Thomas Thomas ѼMulcaster Coote -- Cawdrey -- Bullokar 饤αѱѼ --- ʤѸ˾αѱѼ --- θäȤ¤ŦƤ (Dixon 48)
Ϣơ#3544. Ѹ켭ˤάǯɽ ([2019-01-09-1])#603. ǽαѱѼ A Table Alphabeticall (1) ([2010-12-21-1])#604. ǽαѱѼ A Table Alphabeticall (2) ([2010-12-22-1]) ȡ
Dixon, R. M. W. The Unmasking of English Dictionaries. Cambridge: CUP, 2018.
Ѹ˾αѱѼäơ#4324. ǽαѱѼ Coote The English Schoole-maister? ([2021-02-27-1]) ȡ#4325. ǽαѱѼؤȤĤʤ Coote ΰյ ([2021-02-28-1]) εǵƤԤεǡֱѸ켭ϴȤ Mulcaster -- Coote -- Cawdrey Υ饤ǧƤȤˤϰʤפȽҤ٤ԻΤ褦͡ʱƶطΤȤʬǤϡ֥饤פ1ĤޤʤȤɤޤ⤷ʤ
ѱѼϰ̤ Robert Cawdrey A Table Alphabeticall (1604) Ȥ뤬Dixon (47) ˤФϴְ㤤ǡEdmund Coote The English Schoole-maister (1596) ǤȤθߤȡJohn Bullokar An English Expositor (1616) 2ͤθѤȤ֤ŤCoote -- Cawdrey -- Bullokar Ȥʥ饤˸ФȤǤ롥Dixon (47) ʷǤ롥
1596. Edmund Coote [a shool-teacher]. The English Schoole-maister, teaching all his scholers, of what age soeuer, the most easie, short and perfect order of distinct reading and true writing our English tongue. Includes texts, catechism, psalms and, on pages 74--93, a vocabulary of about 1,680 items with definitions (mostly of a single word) provided for about 90 per cent of them.
1604. Robert Cawdrey [a clergyman and school-teacher]. A Table Alphabeticall, conteyning and teaching the true writing, and vnderstanding of hard vsual English wordes, borrowed from the Hebrew, Greeke, Latine, or French, etc. ... Consists just of a vocabulary of about 2,540 items, all with definitions.
1616. John Bullokar [a physician]. An English Expositor: teaching the interpretation of the hardest words used in our language. With sundry explications, descriptions, and discourses ... Consists just of a vocabulary of about 4,250 items, all with definitions.
ʳŪ˼ϿƤȤȤʬ뤬ߤαƶط⤷Dixon (47) ξΰѤ³1ˤȡCawdrey Coote θФ87%ԡƤꡤȾʬۤɤƱΤȤơBullokar ϤɤȤС٤ Cawdrey ˤ˰͵ƤȤ
κǽαѱѼԻԤФɾˤ֤äƤߤȡޤ⤷1865ǯ Henry B. Wheatley Ȥ˲ȤϡBullokar ѱѼȤƤ롥2ͤ¸ߤ˵ŤƤʤä餷ޤ1933ǯ Mitford M. Matthews "Robert Cawdrey was the first to supply his countrymen with an English dictionary." (qtd. in Dixon (47--48)) ȽҤ٤Ƥꡤ줬αѸ켭ˤʬȤƻ夲졤ߤ˻롥Τ˱Ѹ켭ˤܤΥȥϤȡThe English Dictionary from Cawdrey to Johnson (1946) The English Dictionary before Cawdrey (1985) The First English Dictionary, 1604 (2007) ʤɤܤˤĤ
Dixon, R. M. W. The Unmasking of English Dictionaries. Cambridge: CUP, 2018.
Wheatley, Henry B. "Chronological Notes on the Dictionaries of the English Language." Transactions of the Philological Society for 1865. 218--93.
Matthews, Mitford M. A Survey of English Dictionaries. London: OUP, 1933.
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