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DzإʥȡǤθإФεΡ (Sir Gawain and the Green Knight) 14ѸޥǤۤƱ˽줿ե硼 (Geoffrey Chaucer) Ρإ٥ʪ (The Canterbury Tales) Ȥϡ̤ǰۤʤäƤޤԤϥƥƤΥαѸƬ (alliteration) ˤäƽƤꡤԤϸɸѸؤȯŸƤɥѸǵӱ (rhyme) ˤäƽƤޤ
硼ϤäѤΦͳεӱǻޥȤƤαѸŪ˼ѤƤƬˤϴؿʤä褦Ǥܤβسˤʤ館ƤСֻϥݥåץμ̱ؤΤϤޤפȤäʷϵǤΤȤϡ硼ȤܵǤƬѤƤʤȡޤإ٥ʪ٤ΡֶǤʺפäν (ll. 42--47) ˤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ뤳ȤŪΤޤ (The Riverside Chaucer ˡ
But trusteth wel, I am a Southren man;
I kan nat geeste 'rum, ram, ruf,' by lettre,
Ne, God woot, rym holde I but litel bettre;
And therfore, if yow list --- I wol nat glose ---
I wol yow telle a myrie tale in prose
To knytte up al this feeste and make an ende.
ܸȼΤ褦ˤʤޤ
ǤҤȤ⤴ΤǤνпȤǤǤ "rum""ram""ruf" Ȥ˸դƬDZƧळȤʤɤǤޤޤ⤴¸ΤǤϵӱƧळȤޤǤޤǤ顤 --- ᤹뵤Ϥ餵ʤΤǤ --- ͤ˻ʸdzڤäޤ礦ǤΤڤߤβԤޤ٤Τ٤Ԥ߾夲ޤ礦
硼ϡǤʺפȤоʪˤڤĴ 'rum, ram, ruff' ȯƤޤʸ̤ˤƬӱޤɤޤƬӱΤȸʤƤɤळȤǽ⤷ޤǤ礦ǤϡӾ (144) ɤߤҲ𤷤ƤȻפޤѤǡפȤϻͥ硼ΤȤǤ
Ϥɤ⥢ʪƬޤ깥Ǥʤ餷ɤƬĴȤäƤߤꡤضʺפá٤Ǥϡֻοʹ֤ʤΤǡࡦࡦ (rum, ram, ruf) ʤƬƧ㾧ʤɤϽޤסX ͻˤȤͭ̾줬롥鸫ƤŤۼΡļˤäλʪȸƤ餷ΤǤ롥
Τ褦ʻȾǡʤͤϼƬѤƻΤդ꤬⤷Ǥ
Benson, Larry D., ed. The Riverside Chaucer. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1987.
ե硼ˡӾ 鹰ʴˡإ٥ʪ졡Ʊǡ١ͪۡ2021ǯ
Ӿ 鹰ˡء֥͡ФεΡ١콤ؽǶɡ2009ǯ
ǯ⤢äȤ֤˻ŤƤޤ121ڡˤΤ13:00--14:00 Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פˤܥΥåפϤޤĤΤ褦 khelfʷѸ˥ե˼ŤΥ٥ȤȤʤޤ

ܥΥåΤڹʷܳرءġ2Ƥ껲ä콤ء3ͤǤʲϤĤΤ褦ˡkhelf ĹˤܽθűѸ YouTube ֤ͥޤˤͥĤޤˤ (masanyan) ǤYouTube ְʼδѸظإͥǤⲿ٤б餷Ƥޤ
2ƤΤ hellog heldio ʤɤι̤Ƴ餪Ѥʵפ̤òΤޤޤ˿¿ĤäƤޤΤǡϤε濴˼夲ȻפäƤޤ饤ִФꤲⴿޤޤΤǡ Voicy ץꤪ
ǻäƤ촶ĥ⤢äƤ⤷ȻפޤʿǤԹΤĤʤˤޤƤϡī̾ǼϿͻҤȤۿͽǤΤǡ餫餪İ
ޤǤ heldio ΡܥΥåץΤ餪İޤؤӤϤ٤Ƶ䤫Ϥޤޤ͡Ѥʵ˴ؿ³ƤФȡ

DzإʥȡʤΤǡϢαDz褪ӤθإФεΡ (Sir Gawain and the Green Knight) ˤĤƤϤƤޤDzλƽ̳줿ܹΩ̿ءȡVoicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פˤ̤ԤʤޤޤİǤʤϥ#544. ܹȡإʥȡ٤Ȥθθᤰä̤ޤİ褯DzվޤΤ褤ͽˤʤȻפޤ
ϡ#4890. ѸʡإФεΡ٤ФεΤо줹륷 ([2022-09-16-1]) ȡ#4931. ѸʡإФεΡ٤Ƭ2 ([2022-10-27-1]) ˰³ Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ̾ɤ߾夲ĤľҲ𤷤ޤФεΤڤꥲդä륷Ǥ
DzξҲȤA24£եإʥȡ١פʥ졼̳ưءȤ YouTube ư3ʬ15áˤƤޤư0ʬ50դ꤫顤DzΤΥѸƥȤƳޤϤѸƥȤޤ1 (ll. 279--300) 夲ޤ
ī Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פǤ#545. إФεΡ٤ФεΤڤꥲդä륷Ѹ츶ʸɤ߾夲ޤȤƸʸɤƤޤΤǡҤİ
ʲѸ츶ʸAndrew and Waldron ǡˤܸӾˤǤޤ
'Nay, frayst I no fyȝt, in fayth I þe telle;
Hit arn aboute on þis bench bot berdlez chylder.
If I were hasped in armes on a heȝe stede,
Here is no mon me to mach, for myȝtez so wayke.
Forþy I craue in þis court a Crystemas gomen,
For hit is Ȝol and Nwe Ȝer, and here are ȝep mony.
If any so hardy in þis hous holdez hymseluen,
Be so bolde in his blod, brayn in hys hede,
Þat dar stifly strike a strok for anoþer,
I schal gif hym of my gyft þys giserne ryche,
Þis ax, þat is heué innogh, to hondele as hym lykes,
And I schal bide þe fyrst bur as bare as I sitte.
If any freke be so felle to fonde þat I telle,
Lepe lyȝtly me to and lach þis weppen---
I quit-clayme hit for euer, kepe hit as his auen---
And I schal stonde hym a strok, stif on þis flet,
Ellez þou wyl diȝt me þe dom to dele hym anoþer
Barlay,
And ȝet gif hym respite
A twelmonyth and a day.
Now hyȝe, and let se tite
Dar any herinne oȝt say.'
֤䡤ľ˿ơ襤˾ǤΤǤϤʤΤդʤˤϡҤƤʤҶʤˤ̤褦ʡ路ɤȤˤޤȤ礭ϤǤ٤ʤСǤ路Ωϰͤ⤪ޤ顤路ε˾ΤϥꥹޥͷӤȡޤ礦ɥꥹޥȿǯλǡˤϸΤ褤̡뤫ʡδۤDz椳ϤȻפԤʤ顤㤷ԤꡤŨˤǷǤ魯ԤʤС˫ʤȤƤθƤ뤾ϤȽŤĤǡפ褦˰Τ路˺äƹɤĤǽΰ뤳Ȥˤ褦路θäȤƤߤ褦ȤΤΤäۤʤСӤƤƤ˼ʤСʵפ˾ϤĤʪˤƤξ˺äƶޤĤΰ褦路Ĥ֤ΰä븢ĤȤȤǡ
路֤ˤϡ
ͱͽ֤Ϳ褦
ǯȰΡ
ޤꡤˡ
̾ФۤϤˤϤΤ
Andrew, Malcolm and Ronald Waldron, eds. The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript. 3rd ed. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2002.
Ӿ 鹰ˡء֥͡ФεΡ١콤ؽǶɡ2009ǯ
ܥ֥βǤǤ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ˤơܲǾDzإʥȡȤθǤإФεΡ (Sir Gawain and the Green Knight) θᤰäơܹΩ̿ء̤Ԥʤޤ
٤ڤߤʤ⤿ؤٶˤʤä1֤Ǥī heldio ǥȤۿޤΤǡꤪİȥϡ hellog Ʊ#544. ܹȡإʥȡ٤Ȥθθᤰä̤ޤǤ1֤ĹǤΤǡ֤ΤȤˤɤ
DzվޤͽˤʤȻפޤİ塤DzۤäƤФȡ
Dzإʥȡ٤δϢƤޤΤǡʲ˥ĥäƤޤ
Dz
ܱDzα۵ Transformer
ܱDzߥĥå
A24£եإʥȡ١פʥ졼̳ưء
ֻʿDz֥ʥȡפΥ饹ܤΤ饳Ȥ
٤Фʤ鲬ܹҲ𤷤ޤѸʸءʪ졤ѸޥѸˤȤƤꡤǯϡؤ١ʰʲȡˤνǤޤᥢʪܤŪ˸Ƥޤؤ줿ľνҤ2Ҳ𤷤ޤ
ҡԡˡؤˤƥܤǼƤ쥵֥㡼˷פ١ߤӡ2019ǯ
()Ѹʸظ¿ȤŸ˾ --- ˧ǰʸ١ҡ2020ǯ
Ȥ heldio Ǥⲿ٤̤ƤƤޤ̤ȤϢΤǡʲ碌Ƥİ
heldio #173. Ω̿ءܹȤ̡ݱѸȤϲ (2021/11/20)
heldio #386. ܹȤλ̡ۥӥαѸܤˤĤƸ (2022/06/21)
heldio #478. Ѹʥ顼̵ʲܹδˡ (2022/09/21)
ʥ顼ʸΩ̿عݸʸǤ⸦ưԤʤƤޤ̤Ǥ vernacular ȤʤޤˤĤƴϢ hellog δϢؤΥĥäƤޤ
#4804. vernacular Ȥϲ ([2022-06-22-1])
#4809. OED vernacular θΤ ([2022-06-27-1])
#4812. vernacular Ф1601ǯλطʡ ([2022-06-30-1])
#4814. vernacular ɤȤƱѸˤįʤȤ⤷ ([2022-07-02-1])
ˤ khelfʷѸ˥եˤγưˤؤäƤƤޤĤ⤢꤬Ȥޤ
hellog heldio ǥϢ夲ƤͽǤΤǡդ礤
Dzإʥȡɥ硼ȤʤޤѸ쥢ޥηȤإФεΡ (Sir Gawain and the Green Knightά SGGK) ǤαDzǰƬˡδ֡ hellog Ǥ⡤Voicy heldio Ǥ⡤ءʱˤμȤǤʡˡѸƥ (sggk) ܤƤޤ
SGGK 夬ʻξ夲ˤΥߥǡ10:00--11:00˱Dzإʥȡ٤λƽ̳줿Ω̿ؤܹ Voicy ǤϤޤʤǤˡ#4957. heldio ʲܡĤ̡ˤΤΤ餻1126ڡ˸10:00--11:00֥ʥ顼ʡإʥȡ١ס ([2022-11-22-1]) ǤΤ餻̤Ǥˡ

˲ؤμդȻפޤΤǡVoicy ץꤪǤİǤʤ⿴̵ѤǤϿͻҤϡī heldio ˤۿͽǤˤDzվޤ˽ФΡͽפȤƤİʤΥͥХϤ뤫⤷ޤΤաˡ
ơDzͽȤʤϤ켫ΤͽȤơ14Ⱦ SGGK ֱѸǡ줿ŪطʤˤĤơī쥮顼 heldio ۿޤ#544. 1/3ߥ˥ˤֱѸζλǤޤϤİ
ǤѸȤߤʤ¸ߤǤѸ (1100--1500ǯˤˤϱѸϥɤιȤƤȾǧƤʤ微ˤޤǤǤϡʤ14ȾˤΤ褦ʸ SGGK 줿ΤǤ礦ϡλޤǤˤ褦䤯Ѹ줬פ뤲ĤĤäǤ1066ǯΥΥޥˤեˤۤȤӤβäѸϡ֤ƤäȰҿƤ14Ⱦ˺ƤƬ⤿ƤΤǤѸζλϡ333ǯۤɡĤޤ1ǯ1/3ȤĹˤ錄ޤ
Ĥޤꡤ14ȾϱѸˤȤäƺƤܤ뤳Ȥˤʤä𡹤ʤΤǤ̵̾λͤˤäƺܤƤ SGGK 蘆졤ѸʸؤκǹǤ른ե硼ˤإ٥ʪ٤蘆ޤǤ
ҡʾαѸŪطʤƧޤDzإʥȡվޤФȻפޤ
ϸͰ¤ (1862--1933) ʹơפ⤫٤ȶʤȤǤ5δäعǥ顼Τ˳ؤͤȤƤƤ뤷ʿΤζפǤ⤢ꡤˤϡƻ٤ԤǤ⤢롥ĿŪˤϡĤйֻդȤؤǶȤ⤢ΤǿƤߤͯϸͤƱؤνĹǤ⤢ä
ѸȤδϢǤϡƣˡˡرѸãäѤ졤ܿͤαѸ٤δƬѸãͤ1ͤȤΤƤ롥ϸͤϾҤƻ٤Τ뤬ȤबΤϱѸ Bushido, the Soul of Japan ǤꡤܸΡƻ٤ǤϤʤդɬפ롥Bushido ãդαʸǤ롥
ϸͤϡΤ褦ܱѳػˤ礭פĤƤ뤬 (cf. #4587. ܱѸƻάǯɽס ([2021-11-17-1])ˡϢ̳Ĺ̳ƤǯˤϹݸ˶ؿ褦ˤʤäºݡϡ#962. Esperanto ([2011-12-15-1]) Ǥ줿褦˥ڥƥȤ⤢äBasic English λٻԤǤ⤢äƣ (24--25) Ѥ롥
Ϣ̳ɼĹ̳뤳鿷ϸͤɬ˴褦ˤʤ롥ǯϱѹθؼCKǥIA㡼ѸؽѤ˳ȯִܱѸʥ١ååˡפ˴ؿƤ褦ʡԽ;ϿٸȬˡ
ˡ̾פθưȬޡαñǺѤޤ뤿ΤŪʥƥϡθѸˤʤǤȤοߤȯɽ줿顤बȤƤεǽԤΤ̵ϤʤΨŻ뤷ηϤ˴Ԥ뤳ȼΡѸ춵ФƳڤäͤʤ褿Ȥʪä롥ܤλؤȤޤäͤʤǤ塤Ʊѳؤ˴ΰӤéǤä
ѸãͤǤ뿷ϸͤϡΤ褦ʱѸãͤθڤܤ̻뤳ȤԲǽȸäƤ˰㤤ʤǰۤʤϩ뤳ȤˤڥȤ Basic English ָΤȻפ롥ȤƤŬʤäϰ㤨ɡɸ⿶֤äƤߤۼŪǤ뤳ȤϰפƤϿϸͤʤäȤۤʤ褦˻פ롥
Basic English ˤĤƤϡ#959. Ūʹݿ줬٤ ([2011-12-12-1])#960. Basic English ([2011-12-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ƣ ˡرѸãäѤ졤ܿͤαѸ12ǡ2017ǯ
īīʹŷž (metathesis) ȤƤܸ줫㤬ĤƤΤǵƤߤ褦
ʻ֡ˢ
饿饷
餬ʤ餷ʤ
ĥťߡݡˢťĥ
ζǷͧͤΡ֥եȥס֥ޥפȤžȯˤĤȤäˤƤ
Ѹⲻžˤϻ礫ʤ#60. ž ( metathesis ) ([2009-06-27-1]) #2809. Ѹβžľ٤礦2˸¤ ([2017-01-04-1]) ޤ metathesis ¿εǻҲ𤷤ƤΤȤ /r/ 첻ž㤬Ū¿ΤħŪǤ롥
Ϥޤ /r/ 첻δؤ벻žȤƼ夲Ƥʤäɤ⡤٤ι⤤פʸȤ bright 뤤ˤҲ𤷤褦캬 *bherəg- "to shine; bright, white" ̤ꡤޥĸǤ *berχtaz ηƷƤ롥űѸǤ beorht ηǡޤǤϰӤơ첻 + /r/פνǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ǥ˸űѸǤⲻžФ breoht ʤɤηʸڤ졤Ѹʹߤϡ/r/ + 첻̲Ƥ
žФƤʤꥸʥΡ첻 + /r/פϡĤο̾˲Ū˻ĤäƤ롥Albert (nobly bright), Bertha (the bright one), Bertrand (bright raven), Herbert (army-bright) ʤɡ
ˤ貿ˤ衤ͤμѤξˤʤμդäȤʸ⤵ƤΤȤΤǤ to stand on the shoulders of giants ֵͤθξΩġפɽ롥
ʲϡ1ͤεͤκʤΤߡˤ˾뾮͡פȤΥåǡ̩ˤ "a dwarf on a shoulder of a giant" Ȥ٤դϤɤǡ

ơδѶ OED shoulder, n. ΤȤ˵ƤΤ¤2022ǯ3 OED κݤ˿˲ä줿ۥۥΥȥʤΤǤ롥οȥˤĤơOED ι "Content warning: may contain notes on the OED March 2022 update" Τ褦˥ȤƤ롥
A new phrase entry in shoulder examines the use of to stand on the shoulders of giants to refer to the process of building on the discoveries and achievements of great predecessors, first recorded in the early seventeenth century in a variation on the proverb a dwarf (or child) standing on the shoulders of a giant sees farther than the giant, itself based on a twelfth-century Latin phrase attributed to Bernard of Chartres.
OED ˲ä줿ȥΤΡӺǽ3ĤʸޤǰѤƤ
to stand on the shoulders of giants (and variants): to build on the discoveries, achievements, and understanding of the great scholars and thinkers of the past. Hence to stand on the shoulders of (any person or group): to benefit from the knowledge of one's predecessors.
The phrase standing on the shoulders of giants is strongly associated with Sir Isaac Newton (1642--1727): see quot. 1676. Earlier in proverbial phrase a dwarf (also child, etc.) standing on the shoulders of a giant sees farther than the giant (now rare; in quot. 1608 as a simile).
[Originally after post-classical Latin nanos gigantium humeris insidentes dwarves sitting on the shoulders of giants (12th cent.; attributed by John of Salisbury to Bernard of Chartres).]
1608 J. White Way to True Church 325 Doctors of these later times..insisting in the steps of the ancient Fathers..are like children standing on the shoulders of giants,..they see further then they [sc. the Fathers] themselues.
1628 R. Burton Anat. Melancholy (ed. 3) To Reader 8 Though there were many Giants of old in Physick and Philosophy, yet I say with Didacus Stella, A Dwarfe standing on the shoulders of a Giant, may see farther then a Giant himselfe.
1676 I. Newton Let. to R. Hooke 5 Feb. in Corr. (1959) I. 416 What Des-Cartes did was a good step. You have added much in several ways... If I have seen further it is by standing on ye sholders of Giants.
δѶ硤ޤĴ٤Ƥ˻Τʤ夷ޤ
ʸ嵭2022/11/24(Thu)) hellog ơ1124 Voicy heldio ˤƴϢϤޤѸؽԤμǡ⤷ˤʤäƤȻפޤꤪİ)
1126ڡˤθ10:00--11:00ˡVoicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ɸۿޤΩ̿ؤܹȤ̤ȤǤϤޤ

Ƥϡ1125ʶˤڤȤʤDzإʥȡȡθǤѸޥإФεΡ (Sir Gawain and the Green Knight) ˤĤơθΤȤʤäƤʥ顼ʤѸ쥤˾ƤĤĥǥפ˻̤ͽǤDzľȤȤǤΤǡĤĤ⾯ΥͥХOK!?ȤΥǹԤȻפޤʻޤѤƤʤޤޤ̤ʤΤǤˡˤΤ褦ʥȥԥå̤ϤǤФȻפäƤޤ
ʥ顼ʡإʥȡ٤ˤĤ
Ѹ츶ŵإФεΡ (Sir Gawain and the Green Knight) Ȥλط
ŪÿʱѸȥƥ
ŵξҲɤߤɤ
Dzإʥȡ٤˴ؤơʥͥХա
26ڡˤ˸ơ˲Ф뤴䥳ȤʤɤСҾ嵭 Voicy ۿ̤Ƥޤꤲˤʤ٤бȻפäƤޤ˻äǤʤˤ⡤ī heldio 쥮顼ǼϿͻҤȤưۿ⤷ޤΤǡİ褤йǤ
궵ƤDzإʥȡ٤δϢʲŽդƤޤ
Dz
ܱDzα۵ Transformer
ܱDzߥĥå
A24£եإʥȡ١פʥ졼̳ưء
ֻʿDz֥ʥȡפΥ饹ܤΤ饳Ȥ
heldio ǤϡޤǤⲬ3٤̤ۤƤޤ٤˸ơʲİ褷ͽƤȡ٤ȻפޤºݡäƤϲαĹȤʤͽǤ
heldio #173. Ω̿ءܹȤ̡ݱѸȤϲ (2021/11/20)
heldio #386. ܹȤλ̡ۥӥαѸܤˤĤƸ (2022/06/21)
heldio #478. Ѹʥ顼̵ʲܹδˡ (2022/09/21)
ˡ̤Ǥ濴ŪȤʤϤ vernacular ˤĤƤ⡤ͽƤФˤ⤷ʤȻפޤʲ hellog δϢؤΥĥäƤޤ
#4804. vernacular Ȥϲ ([2022-06-22-1])
#4809. OED vernacular θΤ ([2022-06-27-1])
#4812. vernacular Ф1601ǯλطʡ ([2022-06-30-1])
#4814. vernacular ɤȤƱѸˤįʤȤ⤷ ([2022-07-02-1])
#4885. ֱѸʥ顼̵ʲܹδˡפΤΤ餻920ʲС14:50--15:50 Voicy ˡ ([2022-09-11-1])
ҸϤȴ1126ڡˤİ
#4952. ˤҿ (prestige) Ȥϡ ([2022-11-17-1]) ȡ#4953. ˤ (stigma) Ȥϡ ([2022-11-18-1]) ǡˤҿ (prestige) ƳѲˤʤΤǤꡤѸˤͤǤ⸰Ȥʤ복ǰѸǤ롥
üԡʽġˤϡܤͿƤΰҿꡤռŪ뤤̵ռŪˡθưƤ롥Ĥޤꡤΰҿ˶ŤȤꡤΰҿΥ֤Ȥ뤳ȤǡμҲˤΩ֤ͭˤ褦ȹưƤΤǤ롥η̤ȤƸѲ륱롥Τ褦ˤѲϡüԤռŪ˸ưƤˤ change from above ȸƤФ졤̵ռξˤ change from below ȸƤФ롥ռΡ־夫פѲʤΤֲפѲʤΤȤȤǤ롥
־夫פѲϼҲؤξνĤȷӤĤħָ뤳ȤꡤȿФˡֲפѲϼҲؤβνĤθħָ뤳Ȥ롥ĤޤꡤռΡ־岼פȼҲؤΡ־岼פϢư뤳Ȥ¿Labov ˤäƳ줿ꥸʥ "change from above" "change from below" ϡޤüԤΰռξ夫ȤܤǰѸǤ뤳ȤĴƤ
Trudgill Ѹ켭ŵꡤ줾Ѥ롥
change from above In terminology introduced by William Labov, linguistic changes which take place in a community above the level of conscious awareness, that is, when speakers have some awareness that they are making these changes. Very often, changes from above are made as a result of the influence of prestigious dialects with which the community is in contact, and the consequent stigmatisation of local dialect features. Changes from above therefore typically occur in the first instance in more closely monitored styles, and thus lead to style stratification. It is important to realise, however, that 'above' in this context does not refer to social class or status. It is not necessarily the case that such changes take place 'from above' socially. Change from above as a process is opposed by Labov to change from below.
change from below In terminology introduced by William Labov, linguistic changes which take place in a community below the level of conscious awareness, that is, when speakers are not consciously aware, unlike with changes from above, that such changes are taking place. Changes from below usually begin in one particular social class group, and thus lead to class stratification. While this particular social class group is very often not the highest class group in a society, it should be noted that change from below does not means change 'from below' in any social sense.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
#4876. Ω̱²ʪۤǸդŸϤޤäƤޤ ([2022-09-02-1]) ǤΤ餻ŸHomō loquēns ֤٤ҥȡ~ȤФԻĤʳؤ~ˤĤŸνλŤƤޤΤDzƤ⤷ޤ1123ʿˤޤǤγŤȤʤäƤޤ

褦䤯̱ˬ䤹뵡ޤȤƤȤäƤ褤ȥФ˴ؤŸäꡤäפ괮ǽ뤳ȤǤޤˬ䤷ľδưʤ˴ۤϿƤȡǰΥ٥˹ݤ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פμϿԤʤޤ#536. ̱Ÿ֤٤ҥȡפˬİ
ŸϰǤСθءʳˡפǤ100ǯ֡ؤΰΰȯŪ˳ȤꡤʬȤζܤʬʤʤäƤƤۤɤǤ줯餤غŪʬĹƤȤȤǤθسԤϡɤޤǴޤ褤ΤǺǤޤ
Ʊ褦˺Ρ֤٤ҥȡפδˤäƤ⡤ŸʪνȤⲿɤޤǴޤ褤ΤޤΤʤɡĴطˤޤƤǺߤϢ³äΤǤϤʤȿ仡뼡ǤʤȤĤġطԤؤηɰդȾŸڤޤƤޤ
ŸΡ֤פ䤽¾ιꡤܤαޤäåȤʤʸϤĤѤޤ
ȶˤꤹƤۤȤɿ֤뤳ȤΤʤ֥ȥСפơޤˡؤΤߤʤ餺ʸءطϡϡǾʳءǧο70̾Ķ⳰θԤϤơԻĤߤޤŸΡ֤פ
Ÿϡ䤬繥ʡ֥ȥСפˤĤơΤäƤȻפ褷ޤָפȤȡȤäͥƥϢۤФƤ뤳Ȥ¿褦ǤָθƤפȤȡͤѤʿͤΤɤ餫ȸƤޤΤȤβä³ᤷפ뤳Ȥ褯ޤǤ⡤ȥФϿʹ֤ΤưȷӤĤƤơʹ֤αĤߤƱ⤷ϤʾΤޤޤ¦̤äƤꡤ̵¤̥ϤޤΤäƤơŸǤϡȥԥå顤ɤƤϥץˡȤˤ¤٤ƤߤޤҤȤġ֤⤷פȻפȤߤĤƤФȻפޤƤ줬ȥФǤߤƤäˤʤдפޤŸ¹ѰĹ߷ΧˤŸΥѥ֤ͥȤФˤ褦פ
ƤۤȤϡȤäȤʤǤѰդΤǡ줾줬̣ΤơޤĤƸ˿ƤǤۤȤǤʹʰݤ뤫⤷ޤŸȤƤΤ⤷¿ͤ¦̤˵ŤƤдǤʡعΩ̱²ʪۡͧβ˥塼275桤2022ǯ91ȯԡp. 2Ÿ¹ѰĹ߷ΧΥӥ塼
ŸβϻĤȤʤäƤޤȥФ˴ؿΤϡӤ
2023ǯ34ڡ15:30--18:45ˡī㡼ɶˤ4ΥֱѸˤѸפ4ֺ¡21αѸΤ椯פ֤ޤǽǤ饤ƱŤǡ֤줿ϸ1ָΥưİǤޤΤǡԹ˹礦ˡǤäΤǤϤޤƲΩƤޤΤǡ13ޤǤιֺ¤֤Ƥʤ¿Ƥäޤֺ¤ξܺ٤Ȥߤθڡɤ
ֺ¤ΤΤ4ʤΤǤ1118ʶˤīʹͼ4̤ˤưʲΤ褦˾Ҳ𤵤ޤΤǡhellog Ǥ⤳ΥߥǤ1ơˤޤ

ֺ¤γפϡڡΰѤȤʤޤʲ̤Ǥ
21αѸΤ椯
Υߥ˥ޤޤ21ѸȤƤ˴ԤϤǰۤʤαѸ줬ޤ³ƤޤῴϤȱϤȤ˺ѤѸ뤳ʣʾˤĤơѸˤδäޤޤѸҤ뤤ĤΥǥҲ𤷤ʤ World Englishes ȤϤʤ븽ݤʤΤͻαѸΤ椯ꤤޤ
13ޤǤιֺ¤ȴϢϡhellog heldio Ǥ夲Ƥޤ4˸ͽȤʤޤΤǡʲΥХåʥС⻲ͤޤǤˤɤ
Ρ1Ѹ硡2022ǯ611ˡ
hellog #4775. ֺ¡ֱѸˤѸ --- ѸפΥϤޤޤ ([2022-05-24-1])
heldio #356. Ѹ --- ī뿷ɶǡֱѸˤѸפΥϤޤޤ
heldio #378. īǡѸפ֤ޤ
Ρ2ˤƱѸϳ礷Τ2022ǯ86ˡ
hellog #4813. īֺ¤2ֱѸˤѸ --- ˤƱѸϳ礷ΤפΤ ([2022-07-01-1])
heldio #393. īֺ¤2ֱѸˤѸ --- ˤƱѸϳ礷Τס
Ρ3ƤαѸ2022ǯ101ˡ
hellog #4875. īֺ¤3ֱѸˤѸ --- ƤαѸפΤ ([2022-09-01-1])
heldio #454. īֺ¤3ֱѸˤѸ --- ƤαѸס
ε#4952. ˤҿ (prestige) Ȥϡ ([2022-11-17-1]) ³ơprestige ȿгǰȤʤ stigma ˤĤơɤʤΤǤȤꤢֽפȤƤ뤬֥ƥޡפȸƤǤΤ褤Τ⤷ʤΰҿΤȤǤ롥
prestige βΤ˻ȡѤ A Glossary of Historical Linguistics ǤСʤ stigma ⸫ФȤΩƤƤƧǤȤΤ stigma, stigmatization ȤƸФΩäƤΤ covert prestige, overt prestige, prestige ιܤФ졤˹ԤäƤߤ stigma stigmatization ƤʤȤפˡΰҿǤ뤳Ȥ碌ΤѶŪ˸ڤƤʤΤǤ롥
̤Ĵ٤ A Glossary of Sociolinguistics ˤ stigmatisation θФΩäƤѤ褦
stigmatisation Negative evaluation of linguistic forms. Work carried out in secular linguistics has shown that a linguistic change occurring in one of the lower sociolects in a speech community will often be negatively evaluated, because of its lack of association with higher status groups in the community, and the form resulting from the change will therefore come to be regarded as 'bad' or 'not correct'. Stigmatisation may subsequently lead to change from above, and the development of the form into a marker and possibly, eventually, into a stereotype.
ܤ stigma դ졤줬춦ƱΤ˹Τ褦ˤʤȡ͡ϤλѤռŪ褦ˤʤꡤȤ³Ƥͤ佸Ĥλ뤹褦ˤʤ롥̤λˤʤΤ stigma Ǥꡤstigma դǧΤƤ stigmatisation ȤȤˤʤ롥
Campbell, Lyle and Mauricio J. Mixco, eds. A Glossary of Historical Linguistics. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2007.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ҲؤΥɤǤҿ (prestige) ˤĤƤϡhellog Ǥ⥿ȤꤷƤꡤΤ褦ѤƤǧƤߤ褦ȻפΩäŪˤϡ֥餵ס֥å褵פĶƤΤǰΤߤȻפä补
Ȥ긵μҲطϤѸ콸ʤɤϤȤճȸФΩäƤʤʬäơǽ˰ääΤ Lyle and Mixco ˸ؤѸ콸äʬˤΤ꤬ߤΤǡѤ뤳Ȥˤ褦 (155--56)
prestige In sociolinguistics, the positive value judgment or high status accorded certain languages, certain varieties and certain variables favored over other less prestigious languages, varieties or variables. The prestige accorded linguistic variables is a factor that often leads to linguistic change. The prestige of a language can lead speakers of other languages to take loanwords from it or to adopt the language outright in language shift. Overt prestige is the most common; it is the positive or high value attributed to variables, varieties and languages typically widely recognized as prestigious among the speakers of a language. The prestige varieties and variables are usually those recognized as belonging to the standard language or that are used by highly educated or influential people. Covert prestige refers to the positive evaluation given to non-standard, low-status or 'incorrect' forms of speech by some speakers, a hidden or unacknowledged prestige for non-standard variables that leads speakers to continue using them and sometimes causes such forms to spread to other speakers.
ʤۤɡprestige ȤϡѼ (variety) ˤĤƤȡѹ (variable) ˤĤƤ礬ȤΤϡΤˤѼˤĤƤ prestige ϥޥŪʳǰǤꡤ (language_shift) üѤ˴Ϳ롥ѹˤĤƤ prestige ϥߥŪǤꡤġθѲθưϤȤʤװǤ롥2Ĥϳǰ̤Ƥɬפ
ͤƤߤ prestige Ȥ켫Τե /prɛsˈtiːʒ/ ȯ졤prestigious ʶ롥ºݡե prestige ڤꤿΤǡΥեñ켫Τϥƥ praest(r)īgia(illusion) ͳ褹롥켫ΤαѸǤνФϡ17μԻ T. Blount Glossographia ǡǤθϡְҿפǤϤʤΡֺСפǤ ("deceits, impostures, delusions, cousening tricks") ְҿפȤǺǽѤ줿Τϡä٤1829ǯΤȤǤ롥
prestige ΤȤǤƥñθʪŪˡֶդפۤɤǤꡤǧŪŪʡָǡСפФơǸˡְҿפȤʤä«ŪްŪϤ۵̣ѲȤäƤ褯ηаΤ̣ĹǤ롥
Campbell, Lyle and Mauricio J. Mixco, eds. A Glossary of Historical Linguistics. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2007.
#4917. 2500ǯ˵ڤֳ֡ؽʸˡפο̮ --- ƣˡܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ٤ ([2022-10-13-1]) 䤽¾εǾҲ𤷤ƤƱϡܤˤȯãƤֳؽʸˡפӡֱѸ춵פʥŪŪյˤĤƾܤƤ롥ƱˤȡϡŤϸ奮ꥷʸˡ˥롼ĤˤƥƥѸʸˡȤե륿Фʤ顤ݿܤ˻ޤƽؤμܤѤǡֱѳءפ˹줿塤ֱѸ춵פơֱѸ춵פؤƤƤϢήΤʤ˰֤Ť٤ȼγȯˤʤɾäȤ
֤ --- ŪȤʤäֳؽʸˡספꤹ뽪Ϥ顤嵭ԤμĥɤǤߤ (198--99)
ܽǤϱʸˡȤ뤫顤ֱѳءסֱѸ춵סơֱѸ춵פΩޤǤˤįƤߤ鸫ƤΤϡ̱ȷܸ졦ֹˤ롤ʪؤζϤƱϡӤȼۼƱΤΤ֤ĤꤢΤʤޤ줿¤ϤǤ롥ܤƤ˳ؤӤĤĤ⡤ˤ뿢̱ϲɤۤƤȤܻؤαѸطԤΥӥȤʻ֤Ť줿ΤǤä
Τ줬ؤֳ֡ؽʸˡפϡȤϤȤгʪǤäħŪʸդǤС 'English grammar' Ȥ͢ƤϤΤޤޤΤǼƤ줺ˡֺѤפ졤ǽŪܸ졦ֹΤʤˤȤޤ줿ΤȤ'English grammar' ϡ¤줿ֱʸˡפȤʤä
'English' ȡֹפΤ¸ߤξԤвǤȤư֤Ť줿ֱʸˡפϡñ˥̤ˤΩƤ줿ǤϤʤäϡ'English' ܹ˥쥯Ȥή뤳Ȥɤġֹʹ֤λͷ䡤ֹסʤ뤤ϸ̡ˤؤξʻ⤿餹μʤȤʤäȤȱƤνͭʪǤäʸˡ٤ϱƤܤΩʸŪȯŸ⤿餹ȤƳѤ줿櫓Ǥ롥
ġġά͡ġ
ֱѸ춵פϡѸ쥯ȤˡŪ˼Ƥ뤳ȤɾǤꡤޤʸŪˤӤǤ뤳ȤȴƤʪԡΤǤϤʤ鿷Τ߽ФۤƤˤϡ˻ɷ⤿餹ۼʪɬפǤ롥ܽäפȤˤƤϡ줬ܤȤ̱ȤǤä櫓Ǥ롥
ܤˤȤäơƤμˤʤ "English (grammar)" ľܼΤϰդ˱ʤƱδ롥ȼΡֱʸˡפ˺꤫ƴŪ˼뤳ȤˤȤ櫓д˾Ӥߤ褦ˤơΥݤʤѸܤ뤳Ȥ˷ȤȤΥåˤäơܿͤαѸؤΥϰʤꡤŪˤʬѸ콬ʤϹɾ夼ҤȤɬפä
ФܿͤϱѸ줬ȸ뤷ǧƤ⤢롥ΤȤΰ̣ƹͤƤߤ
ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
#4892. ͽΡإ˥¼ŵ6ǤοߥֱѸQ&AפξҲ ([2022-09-18-1]) ǤΤ餻ޤ8ǯ֤βǤȤʤإ˥¼ŵ6Ǥ118ȯȤʤޤ36ñΤȤǥֱѸQ&AפƤƤƤޤꤤޤ

6ǤޤƬˡ8ǯ֤ۤɤαѸ괬ˡѲΤͤפäȤƤޤ
إ˥¼ŵ5ǤȯԤ줿2014ǯʹߡǥ벽γ硤ͥåȤοƩĹʲҡ˴ؤҲѲʤɤȿǤơѸθáʸˡʸ̤ѲΤ꤬ͤ䤨ʤää̤ǤϾ嵭μҲݤȿǤ뿷ä SDGs, LGBTQ ʤɤάˤѲȤʸˡ̤ˤⲡϡΤ heפοࡤñ theyפƬǤ롥Ѹ1400ǯƬˤ顤Ѹ1600ǯȾˤˤƵä첻ܡ (The Great Vowel Shift) ˤʤ館ƻˡThe Great Pronoun Shift ̾ܡˡפȤƤФ졤̾Ȥߤ뤫⤷ʤۤɤѲǤ롥ʸΡʥԡ٥ˤ˴ؤƤȡޤǤϽȤС(())äȤС((ά)) ȤǰäͥåȤ SNS ֥ʤɤǤϡä褦˽פȤΤήǡΡä褦˽ץ뤬ͥåȰʳνȤФˤ礷ơΤȤƤߤСȤФΥեޥ벽ʤǤ롥
ˤϡǯαѸѲΤ꤬ͤΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥Τ˿̾ܡȤФΥեޥ벽ΤλŦ⡤˼Ҳؤ˸Ω줫륿Ǥ롤ޤΤ褦ʷ餯֤äƤȤϤΤ鷺ǯۤɤδ֤߲ƤȤˤϲƶäؤʤۤɸѲ⥹ԡɤ®Τ
إ˥¼ŵ٤οǤϡ嵭Τ褦ʱѸʤӱѸؽˤ괬ǶѲ˴դߡ礭8Ĥ¦̤ˤƲäȤ (1) Ͽäθľ(2) ѥѤΥθľ(3) ȯɽθľ(4) 졦˴ؤŪʸľ(5) ˡν¤ȥåץǡȡ(6) ֤ĤʤʶˡפȤƤƳ(7) ֱѸQ&AפȡָΤߡפοߡ(8) ̥ǥΰ쿷8Ǥ롥
䤬ɮƤֱѸQ&AפοߤϡǶαѸѲΤͤȤδߤСŵˤŪʥݥȤˤߤ뤫⤷ʤ嵭Τ褦˺ѸϤû֤δ֤ˤĤѲ뤲Ƥꡤ⤳ή³ƤȤͽۤ롥ĤޤꡤѸؽԤϤΤ褦ʸѲȤɬǤ餤ĤƤȤ;ʤΤǤ롥θѲ®١ࡤϤ˵Ťб뤿ˤϡȤƸΩĻαѸƤѲ®١ࡤϤƤȤΩġ
αѸѲϳΤϲαѸƤѲαĹˤ뤳ȤΤǤ롥Ѹˤ˿ƤळȤϡв뤳Ȥ˹ޤˤŪª뤳ȤǽˤƤ
ʥǤϤޤֱѸQ&AפΤ褦ʴ̣äƤйǤ
ˡԽ紴ˡإ˥¼ŵ6ǡ罤۽Ź2023ǯ
ϡδñѸ in English٤12ȯǤϢܡˤѸΥܥʵפ21Ǥϡ֥֡ޥå eפäƲפȤ夲Ƥޤ

ֻ mate mat ϸ <e> 뤫ʤΰ㤤ǤȯϤ줾 /meɪt/, /mæt/ 첻礭ۤʤޤ첻ۤʤΤǤСֻǤ <a> ʬ˺ۤƤ٤Ǥºݤˤ <a> ʬѤ餺ष <e> ̵ͭݥȤȤʤäƤ櫓Ǥ⡤ <e> 켫Τ̵Ȥ㥯֤ΥƥǤ¿αѸؽԤؤӻϤκ˰٤ϤʤȴȤΤʤΤǤϤʤǤ礦
츫ȥ㥯Τ褦Ǥ¿ޤPete/pet, bite/bit, note/not, cute/cut ʤɤ첻ӤƤߤƤˤϲ餫λȤߤꤽǤͤƤߤȡ <e> ̵ͭ塼ȤʤꡤԤ첻βޤȤȤߤˤʤäƤޤˡΤ褦ʡֱפԤʤƤ櫓ǡ magic e θƾΤޤޤ
ϢܵǤϡʤ magic e ȤŪʻȤߤ¸ߤΤˤƤλȤߤˤβޤƤΤפ⤷ޤܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤӼ夲ƤǤϤޤϢܵǤϸ¤ʤץƤޤһ˼äƤߤƤ
Ϣưʲ hellog ȡ
#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1])
#979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1])
#1827. magic <e> Ȥ̵ط <-ve> ([2014-04-28-1])
#1344. final -e ˡ ([2012-12-31-1])
#2377. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (1) ([2015-10-30-1])
#2378. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (2) ([2015-10-31-1])
#3954. 첻Ĺûʬ褦ȤѸο ([2020-02-23-1])
#4883. magic e ȤƾΡ ([2022-09-09-1])
ϡѸؤ˥եؤˤϤߤ꤫Ȼפޤե histoire ϡˡפȡʪפξΰ̣ޤѸǤ history ˡ, story ʪפ2ĤΰۤʤñʬƤʬôϤä̤Ƥޤ
ưפǤȻפޤhistory story θ츻ƱǤե histoire, estoire ͳ褷켫Ȥϥƥ hitoria˥ꥷ hístoríā ̤ޤ캬ȤƤ *weid- "to see" ˤޤ̤ޤ
ޤѸ story ϡ13˥ե estoire ڤꤿΤǤȤȤϡʪספʤɤΰ̣Ѥ졤16鸽Ūʡʪפΰ̣ޤѸǤϡŪ "story" "history" ΰ̣ζ̤ΤǤϤʤä褦Ǥ
츻Ʊ history ȤϡϤե줫14Ⱦ˱ѸäƤޤʤƥűѸǤʸڤƤΤǡ̤β;Ϥ⤢ޤˡΰ̣ϡʪפǤꡤ15ˤʤäƤˡפθʬƤޤ
ޤȤСˤơŪˤϥꥷ hístoríā ̤Ū˾ۤʤ2Ĥñ줬եͳDZѸäƤơˡסʪפξѤƤȤѸˤợȷ֤ʬѸ history story ȤۤʤñỌ̇̄夷ȤȤǤ
ˤϻ¤˴Ťʪ1ǧǤޤ٤Ƥʪ줬ˤȤϸ¤ޤϸǤϾQŪȯۤǤŤˤʪζܤä褦ǤŪˤѤǤΤե histoire ȤȤˤʤꤽǤ
Ρ#4945. ʤ侩ɽ魯ư that shall ([2022-11-10-1]) ӺΡ#4946. 侩ɽ魯ư that ˤ shall Ū ([2022-11-11-1]) ε˰³°³ˡʲˡ˸ߤǤʤ should Ǥʤճ shall ѤƤŪŪäȽƤߤޤ
OED Ĵ٤ȡˡ shall, v. θ11aޤ
11. In clauses expressing the purposed result of some action, or the object of a desire, intention, command, or request. (Often admitting of being replaced by may; in Old English, and occasionally as late as the 17th cent., the present subjunctive was used as in Latin.)
a. in clause of purpose usually introduced by that.
In this use modern idiom prefers should (22a): see quot. 1611 below, and the appended remarks.
c1175 Ormulum (Burchfield transcript) l. 7640, 1 Þiss child iss borenn her to þann Þatt fele shulenn fallenn. & fele sHulenn risenn upp.
c1250 Owl & Night. 445 Bit me þat ich shulle singe vor hire luue one skentinge.
1390 J. Gower Confessio Amantis II. 213 Thei gon under proteccioun, That love and his affeccioun Ne schal noght take hem be the slieve.
c1450 Mirk's Festial 289 I wil..schew ȝow what þis sacrament is, þat ȝe schullon in tyme comyng drede God þe more.
1470--85 T. Malory Morte d'Arthur xiii. xv. 633 What wille ye that I shalle doo sayd Galahad.
1489 (a1380) J. Barbour Bruce (Adv.) i. 156 I sall do swa thow sall be king.
1558 in J. M. Stone Hist. Mary I App. 518 My mynd and will ys, that the said Codicell shall be accepted.
1611 Bible (King James) Luke xviii. 41 What wilt thou that I shall doe vnto thee? View more context for this quotation
a1648 Ld. Herbert Life (1976) 70 Were it not better you shall cast away a few words, than I loose my Life.
1698 in J. O. Payne Rec. Eng. Catholics 1715 (1889) 111 To the intent they shall see my will executed.
1829 T. B. Macaulay Mill on Govt. in Edinb. Rev. Mar. 177 Mr. Mill recommends that all males of mature age..shall have votes.
1847 W. M. Thackeray Vanity Fair (1848) xxiv. 199 We shall have the first of the fight, Sir; and depend on it Boney will take care that it shall be a hard one.
1879 M. Pattison Milton xiii. 167 At the age of nine and twenty, Milton has already determined that this lifework shall be..an epic poem.
Ȥ櫓1829ǯ1847ǯϡ侩ɽ魯ˡ˶ޤ
MED shulen v.(1) θ4a(b)21b(ab)դˤ⡤˥ԥåǤϤʤˤ㤬Ƥޤ
Ūʴ餹ȡ侩ɽ魯ư that ˤ shall ˡΡָפϡˤѸޤǤϤɤȤǤơʪĤܥϥ֥ե륾ιͤƤФȻפޤ
3֤ hellog ΤޤȤȤơī Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פ#530. ܥϥظˤѸǸǧ嵬§ shall ˡˤĤơ夲ޤ⤼Ҥİ
ε#4945. ʤ侩ɽ魯ư that shall ([2022-11-10-1]) ˰³ɸˤĤơŪΩ줫饳Ȥޤ
Ūˤߤȡthat ޤཾ°ˤơ̾Ǥ³ˡʲˡ˸ߤ뤤 should ѤĶǡճˡư shall 륱ϡޤäʤä櫓ǤϤޤ
Visser (III, 1513) Ĵ٤ƤߤȡϢܤߤĤꡤ¿ŪʸƤޤϡ mandative_subjunctive Ȥ³ˡߤˡȡѤȤƤ should λѤ˴ؤȤߤǵƤ櫓ǤVisser ʸˤϤ#2647. Ӥä should ([2016-07-26-1]) ѤȤƤ shall ޤޤƤޤ
űѸ줫Ѹ˻ޤ¿ʸƤޤιͻ˴ͿʸΤߤԥååפưѤޤ
1513---Type 'It (this) is a sori tale, þæt þet ancre hus schal beon i ueied to þeo ilke þreo studen'
There is a rather small number of constructions in which shall is employed in a clause depending on such formulae as 'it is a wonderful thing', 'this is a sorry tale', 'alas!' Usually one finds should used in this case, or, in older English, modally marked forms.
. . . | c1396 Hilton, Scale of Perfection (MS Hrl) 1, 37, 22b, þanne sendiþ he to some men temptacions of lecherie . . . þei schul þinke hit impossible . . . þat þey ne shulle nedinges fallen but if þei han help. . . . | 1528 St. Th. More, Wks. (1557) 126 D10, Than said he ferther that yt was meruayle that the fyre shall make yron to ronne as siluer or led dothe. | 1711 Steele, Spect. no. 100, It is a wonderful thing, that so many, and they not reckoned absurd, shall entertain those with whome they converse by giving them the History of their Pains and Aches. | 1879 Thomas Escott, England III, 39, He has to judge whether it is advisable that repairs in any farm-buildings shall be undertaken this year or shall be postponed until the next (P.).
Ǹ "it is advisable that . . . shall . . . ." ʤɤϻͤˤʤޤ shall ˡϡŪˤߤƤ⤪餯٤ȤƤ㤫äΤǤϤʤȵޤ
ʤߤˡѸ BNCweb ǾĤƤߤȤ"An Islay notebook. Sample containing about 46775 words from a book (domain: world affairs)" ȤܤΤʤ1ijߤĤޤֻϰѼԤˤˡ
802 "This Meeting being informed that Cart Drivers are very inattentive as to their Conduct upon the road with Carts It is now recommended that all Travellers upon the road shall take to the Left in all situations, and that when a Traveller upon the road shall loose a shew of his horse, the Parochial Blacksmith shall be obliged to give preference to the Traveller. "
餯ˡʤΤǤ礦δĶǤ shall λѤϳ̵ǤϤʤʤƤʤäˤȤϳǧޤ
ʪĤܥϥ֥ե륾ιͤƤߤƤ
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פ#464. ޤˤȤ̡ơ̿ᡦɽ魯ư that Ǥ should + ⤷ϸβˤĤơꥹʡʸ˴ؤ뤪⤷Ƥޤ
118ۿYahoo!˥塼ʪĤܥϥ֥ե륾ιꡥȯü嵬§ΡȲɤˤäǧ嵬§20212.01˵Υ쥤Ȥ˴ؤ뵬꤬ꡤܥϥब̳ƻ˷ο줬ε˰ääƤȤƷǤ
ǧ嵬§2021ϡѸǸǧ嵬§ Offical Baseball Rules (2021 edition) ȤʤäƤޤ¿ȼյϤޤ§ȤƤǤȤʤäƤΤ Rule 2.01 б뼡βսǤоȤǰѤޤ
It is recommended that the distance from home base to the backstop, and from the base lines to the nearest fence, stand or other obstruction on foul territory shall be 60 feet or more.
ݤХåȥåפޤǤεΥե륰饦ɤˤեɤޤϥץ쥤˸ˤʤߤޤǤεΥϡեȡʣȥ˰ʾɬפȤ롥
ʸ It is recommended . . . ȤʤäƤޤʸǤϡֿ侩פǤϤʤɬפȤפȤʤäƤޤĤޤꡤʸ⸷ε§ȤʤäƤΤǤϸˤʤΤǤ礦
It is recommended that . . . Τ褦ʹʸǤС̾ that ³ˡʲˡ˸ߤ뤤 should λѤŪǤˤХꥫѸȤƤԤΤۤä̤ǤθʸǤ shall Ȥͽˡư줬ѤƤޤ˺ݤơ shall ζβ˵줿ΤǤ礦̤ȤơɬפȤפƤ뤳Ȥˤʤޤ
εϤƤǤϤʤʸ shall Ȥˡư줬ѤƤΤˤĤƹͤƤߤȻפޤβսΤߤʤ餺 Rule 2.01 Τʸ̮įƤߤޤ礦ŬüޤʤѤޤ
The field shall be laid out according to the instructions below, supplemented by the diagrams in Appendices 1, 2, and 3. The infield shall be a 90-foot square. The outfield shall be the area between two foul lines formed by extending two sides of the square, as in diagram in Appendix 1 (page 158). The distance from home base to the nearest fence, stand or other obstruction on fair territory shall be 250 feet or more. . . .
It is desirable that the line from home base through the pitcher's plate to second base shall run East-Northeast.
It is recommended that the distance from home base to the backstop, and from the base lines to the nearest fence, stand or other obstruction on foul territory shall be 60 feet or more. See Appendix 1.
When location of home base is determined, with a steel tape measure 127 feet, 33?8 inches in desired direction to establish second base. . . . All measurements from home base shall be taken from the point where the first and third base lines intersect.
ΤȤơˡΧ§ʸΤˤդ路 shall ѤʸϢ³Ƥޤε§ɽ魯 shall ˡǤμ shall ʸϢ³ΤʤˡIt is desirable that . . . It is recommended that . . . Ȥۤʤ빽ʸĶ߹ޤƤޤ that Τʤǰ shall ѤƤ櫓ǤϢ³Ƹ shall ʸΤ褦ʤΤȹͤΤǤϤʤǤ礦
ʤߤˡIt is desirable that . . . . бʸϡݤĤФݤ˸ϡ˸äƤ뤳ȤۤȤ롥פȤꡤdesirable äФƤޤǤ recommended ΥȤϰۤʤޤ
ϤꤽǤ̤ΥȤȤܵǤΤ褦 that ˡưԡ˻ѤˤĤƤϡεå
ȶʳǰб륺Х1ñ줬¸ߤʤΤ褦ʳǰˤ¿롥θݤָþηפȤߤʤ lexical gap ȸƤ֤Ȥ롥
㤨 brother 夲Ƥߤ褦#3779. brother ȷ --- 11Ȥʤʤδط ([2019-09-01-1]) #4128. ʤѸǤϡַפפ brother ƱˤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-08-15-1]) dzǧ褦ˡѸ brother ǯξ岼ռѤ뤬ܸǤϡַספΤ褦ǯ˱ƶ̤롥ѸǤǯռַספ복ǰΤΤϽʬ˿ȶʤΤǤꡤelder brother younger sister ɽ뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥ĤޤꡤѸǤ1ñǤɽǤʤǤꡤб복ǰ礱ƤȤ櫓ǤϤޤäʤѸˡַספб1ñ줬äƤ褵ʤΤºݤˤϤʤȤǡlexical gap 1Ȥ롥դˡܸ brother б1ñ줬äƤ褵ʤΤºݤˤϤʤΤǡޤ lexical gap Ȳ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥
Cruse β㤬⤷ΤǰѤƤ
lexical gap This terms is applied to cases where a language might be expected to have a word to express a particular idea, but no such word exists. It is not usual to speak of a lexical gap when a language does not have a word for a concept that is foreign to its culture: we would not say, for instance, that there was a lexical gap in Yanomami (spoken by a tribe in the Amazonian rainforest) if it turned out that there was no word corresponding to modem. A lexical gap has to be internally motivated: typically, it results from a nearly-consistent structural pattern in the language which in exceptional cases is not followed. For instance, in French, most polar antonyms are lexically distinct: long ('long'): court ('short'), lourd ('heavy'): leger ('light'), épais ('thick'): mince ('thin'), rapide ('fast'): lent ('slow'). An example from English is the lack of a word to refer to animal locomotion on land. One might expect a set of incompatibles at a given level of specificity which are felt to 'go together' to be grouped under a hyperonym (like oak, ash, and beech under tree, or rose, lupin, and peony under flower). The terms walk, run, hop, jump, crawl, gallop form such a set, but there is no hyperonym at the same level of generality as fly and swim. These two examples illustrate an important point: just because there is no single word in some language expressing an idea, it does not follow that the idea cannot be expressed.
ѺǸΡֽפפȴϢơ#1337. ְñʸաס ([2012-12-24-1]) ⻲ȡѸܸ lexical gap õƤߤȤ⤷
Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
ѸˤϿ¿ΰΤư (term_of_endearment) ꡤŪˤߤळȤʤ߽Ф³ƤCrystal ǯ50Ρְ͡פθƾΤƤ롥
darling (c. 888)
dear (c. 1230)
sweetheart (c. 1290)
heart (c. 1305)
honey (c. 1375)
dove (c. 1386)
cinnamon (c. 1405)
love (c. 1405)
mulling (c. 1475)
daisy (c. 1485)
mouse (c. 1520)
whiting (c. 1529)
fool (c. 1530)
beautiful (1535)
soul (c. 1538)
bully (1548)
lamb (c. 1556)
pussy (c. 1557)
ding-ding (1564)
lover (1573)
pug (1580)
mopsy (1582)
bun (1587)
wanton (1589)
ladybird (1597)
chuck (1598)
sweetkin (1599)
duck (1600)
joy (1600)
sparrow (c. 1600)
bawcock (c. 1601)
nutting (1606)
tickling (1607)
bagpudding (1608)
dainty (1611)
flitter-mouse (1612)
pretty (1616)
old thing (c. 1625)
duckling (1630)
sweetling (1648)
pet (1767)
sweetie (1778)
cabbage (1840)
prawn (1895)
so-and-so (1897)
pumpkin (1900)
pussums (1912)
treasure (1920)
sugar (1930)
lamb-chop (1962)
Τ褦ʸäˤϡϤꤹ⤢ä˰㤤ʤΰˤϸŤ麬ӡߤХХθȤ줬ޤޤƤ롥©Ĺ˶äФǤ롥ʪưʪΰ̣ΰ褫žѤƤΤ¿褦
ΤˤȤΤϡ̣Ѳ˸ʤ¿̤줽ʥơޤǤ롥Ϣơ#1951. ѸΰΡ ([2014-08-30-1])#2131. ƾθΥݥ饤ȥͥɸ ([2015-02-26-1])#4312. ָƳʡפǧ뤫ݤ ([2021-02-15-1]) ȡ
Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. CUP, 2018.
ɼ̤ɽʤǤ sirloin ʥˡñϡ16˸ťե *surloigne ѤΤǤ롥sur ʾ + loigne ʹˤȤ
Ȥե뤯ʤѸüԤϡloin ϤǤΤäƤȤƤ sur ΤȤʤΤʬʤäǡ뤢ޤꡤͤ sir ξιͿȤʪǤä夲ñ褦Ȥ17ʹ sirloin ֻ̲ƤäطʤˤϤΤ褦ʤǤä夲ä餷ָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ŵǤ롥
OED ˤϡʪΤǤä夲ʸ3ĵƤ롥
1655 T. Fuller Church-hist. Brit. vi. 299 A Sir-loyne of beef was set before Him (so Knighted, saith tradition, by this King Henry [VIII]).
1738 J. Swift Compl. Coll. Genteel Conversat. 121 Miss. But, pray, why is it call'd a Sir-loyn? Ld. Sparkish. Why,..our King James the First,..being invited to Dinner by one of his Nobles, and seeing a large Loyn of Beef at his Table, he drew out his Sword, and..knighted it.
1822 Cook's Oracle 163 Sir-Loin of Beef. This joint is said to owe its name to King Charles the Second, who dining upon a Loin of Beef,..said for its merit it should be knighted, and henceforth called Sir-Loin.
˥ʥȼ̤߰Ϳʲϡإ8ॺ1뤤ϥ㡼륺2ȤȤˤʤäƤ뤬ʸǯȤȡŪ˱Υ줹ƤʤΤ⤷
ī Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פˤ#524. deal part ΥϡʬͿƶͭסäޤ˸츻Ǥܥӥ̣Ǥɤİ
Τʤǥƥ pars "part" ͳ褹ñĤޤ֤ partner ˤĤƤ褦ȻפäƤȤǤǤϿʤäΤ hellog ˤޤ
ǶǤܸǤ֥ѡȥʡפȤ줬褯Ѥޤء͡ƱԡӥͥʤɡͭƤ͡餫λȤ˶Ʊǻ褷ƤͤؤդǤñ partner Ʊ褦˹ѤޤϤϤֲͭƤ͡פǤ
OED θ츻εҤˤȡpartner ľ part ȴطȤϡϢ̤ñ parcener ѷǤϤʤȤΤȤǤ
Etymology: Probably an alteration of PARCENER n. (although this is only attested slightly later), under the influence of PART n.1 Perhaps compare Old French partenier (1266), Dutch regional (West Flanders) partenier.
It is much less likely that the word arose from scribal error (with the letters c and t being confused).
Ѹ parcener ϡֶƱ³͡פ̣ˡΧѸǤθϡֲͭƤ͡פȤեñѤΤǡŪˤϥƥ partītiō(n-) ̤ꡤƥ pars ֤ȤϤޤθ줬Ѹ¦ѷƤǤΤpartner ʤΤǤϤʤȤ츻ǤϩϤäȤ䤳Ǥpart δϢǤ뤳ȤϳΤʤ褦Ǥ
Ūʺʬ (reanalysis) ˤϤĤμब뤬 Fertig (32) ѤĤġ̾첽 -ness ¤ -ess ͳ褹ȤҲ𤹤롥
This [type of reanalysis] occurs frequently when the reanalysis affects the location of a boundary between stem and affix. A well-known example involves the Germanic suffix that became English -ness. The corresponding suffix in proto-Germanic was -assu. This suffix was frequently attached to stems ending in -n, and this n was subsequently reanalyzed as belonging to the suffix rather than the stem. In Old English, we find examples based on past participles, such as forgifeness 'forgiveness', which could still be analyzed as forgifen + ess, but also many instances based on adjectives, such as gōdness 'goodness' or beorhtness 'brightness', which provide unambiguous evidence of the reanalysis and the new productive rule of -ness suffixation . . . . Similar reanalyses give us the common Germanic suffix -ling --- as in English darling, sapling, nestling, etc. --- from attachment of -ing (OED -ing, suffix3 'one belonging to') to stems ending in l, as well as the German suffixes -ner and -ler, attributable to words where -er was attached to stems ending in -n or -l and then extended to give us new words such as Rentner 'pensioner' < Rente 'pension' and Sportler 'sportsman'.
رѸ츻ŵ٤⤦äƤ -ness ϶Ѳʬθ˸ n ޥĸμѲưܼ *-atjan ͳ褹 *-assus ʸθűѸ -essˤ³ΤǤ롥Ĥޤ n ϴΤΰäΤ줬 -ess Ȱβơ-ness ʤ뿷ǤȤ櫓
-nisɥĸ -nisȸ -inassus Τ褦ʿŪ㤬ޥ˳ǧ뤳Ȥ顤κʬϤβϥޥĸʳǵäƤȹͤ롥ޥ֤첻κۤˤĤƤԾܤǤ롥ѸǤߤƤѸǤ -nes(se) -nis(se) ʻ¸ƤѸʹߤԤͥȤʤä
ȶ -ness Ȥ1ĤȤäƤ⡤̣ˤƤΤ
Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
11ꡤʸʸ칶2ǯˤȤäƤǯ٤˸ƤΥͤλȤʤޤߤϸˤϡָפ̾դƤȤꡤ2ǯ֡´ʸɮǽɸȤơơޤŪ˸椹֤ȤʤޤäѤƥʤĥäƼȤζ̣ؿõꡤŤ˻˾ߤǤ館ФȻפޤ
Υߤϼ˱Ѹˡʥեˤ椹를ߤǤιλ˹碌ĥ߾ҲڡƤޤΤǡ餫饼ߤʷϵĤǤߤƤΥɾ9Υ߹ (= khelf-conference-2022) ͻҤʤɤǤޤ
䤫ĥߤħ3Ƥߤޤ
(1) ѸˤӱѸŪˤĤƤߤäȳؤӡ䤤ɵǤǤѸˡűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹ졤˸ءѲҲءֻ˴ؿijޤäƤƤޤǯ٤´´ʸơޤ sotsuron ȤƤ
(2) Υߤ khelfʷѸ˥ե˳ưεǤ⤢ꡤǯ֤̤羮Υ٥Ȥ衤ġ»ܤƤޤݳư¿Τǡ߳ưѶŪ˥ߥåȤȤ֤ͭˤΥߤȤʤäƤޤ٥Ȥ褷걿ĤΤʳ⳰ؤξȯ˴ؿΤˤϡǤ를ߤȻפޤưˤȤƤkhelf ߥåơȥȡ⻲ȤƤ
ޤ Discord С̤ơСѸ˴ϢΥƥĤƤ졤ȯʵԤʤƤޤޤˡѸˡפȤ٤ߥ˥ƥʤ餯ܺ硩ˤǤ
khelf γưӤȤƤΥڡȤˤƤ館ФȻפޤǯ٤ΤޤǤγưȤƤϡʲΤ褦ʤΤޤ
ֱѸ˥ƥ50 (hel_contents_50_2022)
رѸ˿ʹ٤δ衤Խȯ (hel_herald)
֥߹ɡ (khelf-conference-2022)
ֱѸ˴ؤѤʵ䡡ܥΥåפؤλ (senbonknock)
(3) ر´αѸ˸ԤʤɤΡֳؽѤȿڡפȸή뵡¿ߤǤǯ֤ϼΤξˤꥪ饤Ǥθή¿ʤäƤޤͻҤ̤ε䤷ƤȻפäƤޤ
ޤȤȡĥߤϡֱѸ˥ߡס֥٥ȥߡסָήߡפǤ롤ȤȤˤʤޤ
ε#4937. ˡȯûˤȿ²ۤɽ魯 ([2022-11-02-1]) ˰³ˡΤ⤦1ĤνפˡҲ𤹤롥Ū (pragmatic softener) ȤƤƯTaylor (178) Ѥ롥
The other use of the past tense that I want to consider is also restricted to a small number of contexts. This is the use of the past tense as a pragmatic softener. By choosing the past tense, a speaker can as it were cushion the effect an utterance might have on the addressee. Thus (6b) is a more tactful way of intruding on a person's privacy than (6a):
(6) a. Excuse me, I want to ask you something.
b. Excuse me, I wanted to ask you something.
Tact can also be conveyed by the past tense in association with the progressive aspect:
(7) a. Was there anything else you were wanting?
b. I was wondering if you could help me.
The softening function of the past tense has been conventionalized in the meanings of the past tense modals in English. (8b) and (9b) are felt to be less direct than the (a) sentences; (10b) expresses greater uncertainty than (10a), especially with tonic stress on might; (11b) merely gives advice, while (11a) has the force of a command.
(8) a. Can you help me?
b. Could you help me?
(9) a. Will you help me?
b. Would you help me?
(10) a. John may know.
b. John might know.
(11) a. You shall speak to him.
b. You should speak to him.
ǽҤ٤ƤʤΤϡʤʲˡ˲ŪޤȤƵǽΤȤȤַɤƱפȤ褦ˡҲŪʷɰդʪŪΥȤϢưȹͤ롥ΥեλŪ֤ꡤʤֱפɽ魯ʷˤҲŪʷɰդžѤȤΤϡʤŬäȤǤϤʤȻϹͤƤ롥
ʤưβѤȡȿ² (counterfactual) ȤʤΤѸΡֲˡפˤޤḤ̂ϡŤƤ (tense) ȤƤβ䤹ߤߤƻŪԤ˳֤äƤݤҤˡʷˤȤȤȤˡ (mood) δϡʷˤѤ뤳Ȥˤäơ¤ЪΥƤݡȿ²ۤҤ뤳ȤǤ롤Ȥ롥Ū٤εΥʪŪ֤εΥȤƤ櫓
ȤƤβǤϤʤȿ²ۤɽ魯ˤĤơTaylor (177--78) μĥ˼褦
The counterfactual use of the past tense is restricted to a small number of environments---if-conditionals (1), expressions of wishes and desires (2), and suppositions and suggestions (3):
(1) If I had enough time, . . .
(2) a. I wish I knew the answer.
b. It would be nice if I knew the answer.
(3) a. Suppose we went to see him.
b. It's time we went to see him.
The past tense in these sentences denotes counterfactuality at the moment of speaking, and not at some previous point in time. (1) conveys that, at the moment of speaking, the speaker does not have enough time, the sentences in (2) convey that the speaker does not know the answer, while in (3), the proposition encoded in the past tense, if it is to become true at all, will do so after the moment of speaking, that is to say, the past tense refers to a suggested future action. There are also a number of verbs whose past tense forms, under certain circumstances and with the appropriate intonation, can convey the present-time counterfactuality of a state of affairs represented in a past tense subordinate clause . . . :
(4) a. I thought John was married (. . . but he apparently isn't).
b. I had the impression Mary knew (. . . but it seems she doesn't).
These sentences might occur in a situation in which the speaker has just received information which causes him to doubt the (present-time) factuality of the propositions "John is married", "Mary knows". That it is a present, rather than a past state of affairs, that is at issue is shown by the choice of tense in a tag question. Imagine (5) uttered in a situation in which both speaker and addressee are preparing to go to a concert:
(5) But I thought the concert began at 8, does't it?/?didn't it?
The tag doesn't it is preferential in the present tense. In (5), the speaker is questioning the apparent counterfactuality, at the time of speaking, of the proposition "The concert begins at 8".
ȤƤϡѸˤƲˡȯûˤȿ²ۤ̿ɽ魯Ȳ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥
Taylor, John R. Linguistic Categorization. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2003.
Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פǡꥹʡ줿˲#517. Ū줬ˤʤư֤Ѹȯ --- He was given a book.ۿޤҤİ
§ȤƸűѸǤưľŪ줬Ȥʤưʸ¸ߤޤǤȤ³ѸˤʤꡤưδŪֻŪޤǤ⤬ȤʤưʸǽȤʤäƤޤʳפ (125--31) ˡϤۿؤȤʤޤ
Fischer ˤСѸǤϼΤ٤ƤμưʸǽǤ
1 The book was selected by the committee
2 Nicaragua was given the opportunity to protest
3 His plans were laughed at
4 The library was set fire to by accident
Ѹ˸Ǥϡμưʸγ˴ؤ¿ʤƤޤĤιͤΤΡͼư (passivisation) ˴ؤ쵬§ŬϰϤѲƤȤȤ館¿褦Ǥפˡưоݤ֤ȤȤưľŪ줫ŪءֻŪس礷ƤȤǤ
1ĤβǤ⤷ȤƤ⡤ʤʤΤȤŪɬפޤưȤϰۤʤ뤱ɤⲿ餫Ǵط츽ݤˤƤѲ礬äƤȤСȹ碌ƹͻɬפޤդλ Fischer (384) ˸äƤ餤ޤ礦
There are two general paths along which one could look for an explanation of these developments. One can hypothesise that there was a change in the nature of the rule that generates passive constructions . . . Another possibility is that there was a change in the application of the rule due to changes having taken place elsewhere in the system of the language . . . The latter course seems to be the one now more generally followed. Additional factors that may have influenced the spread of passive construction are the gradual loss of the Old English active construction with indefinite man . . . (this construction could most easily be replaced by a passive) and the change in word order . . . .
ѲβȸڤϡʤʤưפǤϤޤΤ˱ѸˤȤʬꡤ椬³ƤΤǤ
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
Fischer, Olga. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 207--408.
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