hellogѸ˥֥     η     η     ǿ     helhub (The HEL Hub)     ڡ     ɽ    

hellogѸ˥֥ / 2013-01

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

2013-01-31 Thu

#1375. 󥿡ͥåȤλѸȥå10 [elf][statistics][internet][demography][world_languages]

Υ󥿡ͥåȻѤȯŪäƤ롥Miniwatts Marketing Group ˤ Internet World Stats: Usage and Population Statistics Internet World Users by Language: Top 10 Languages Υǡ򻲾Ȥȡ2000--2011ǯΤǤλѼԿ5𤵤Ƥ롥Ǥϡ󥿡ͥåȤλѸʬۤˤĤƤϤɤƱڡꡤ󥿡ͥåȤˤȥå10ͤƷǤ褦2011ǯ531ߤοͤǤ롥

TOP TEN LANGUAGES IN THE INTERNETInternet Users by LanguageInternet Penetration by LanguageGrowth in Internet (2000--2011)Internet Users% of TotalWorld Population for this Language (2011 Estimate)
English565,004,12643.4%301.4%26.8%1,302,275,670
Chinese509,965,01337.2%1,478.7%24.2%1,372,226,042
Spanish164,968,74239.0%807.4%7.8%423,085,806
Japanese99,182,00078.4%110.7%4.7%126,475,664
Portuguese 82,586,60032.5% 990.1%3.9%253,947,594
German75,422,67479.5%174.1%3.6%94,842,656
Arabic65,365,40018.8% 2,501.2%3.3%347,002,991
French59,779,52517.2%398.2%3.0%347,932,305
Russian59,700,00042.8%1,825.8%3.0%139,390,205
Korean39,440,00055.2% 107.1%2.0%71,393,343
TOP 10 LANGUAGES1,615,957,33336.4%421.2%82.2%4,442,056,069
Rest of the Languages350,557,48314.6%588.5%17.8%2,403,553,891
WORLD TOTAL2,099,926,96530.3% 481.7%100.0%6,930,055,154


ȥåפθϡޤѸǤ롥ȥåפäƤȤǤϡ#1084. Ѹν򼨤ܤΰ ([2012-04-15-1]) Ǹ̤ꡤ1980--90ǯξȰۤʤʤΨȤǤϡ餯礭षƤ롥ʤȤ⡤졤ڥ졤ݥȥ졤ӥ졤ʤɤ٤ŪϿꤨƤȤ[2009-10-08-1]ε#164. 󥿡ͥåȤѸ첽פ򻲾ȡˡ󥿡ͥåȻѼԿΤΤǤߤСѸȴ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ3̤ΥڥȤδ֤ˤϤޤ֤꤬롥ߤϡġȥåפλȤ
ʤDZθüԤο͸פ U.S. Census Bureau ˴ŤΤȤǤϱѸüԿ͸137ȤƤ롥ϡüԤΤߤʤ餺2üԤޤ᤿ͤǤ뤳Ȥϵʤ
2ȺDZβ3Ԥߤȡ˾θ줬ʬƤ뤫狼롥Ϣơ#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1]) Υԥߥåɾʬۤ򻲾Ȥ줿
ۤ˱ѸüԿ͸ˤޤĤפϡܥ֥ΰʲεǤ⿨ƤΤǡͤޤǤˡ

#375. ENLESL ο͸Ψ ([2010-05-07-1])
#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1])
#759. 21͸ιϢͽ¬ ([2011-05-26-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2015-07-08-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-30 Wed

#1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ [bilingualism][world_languages]

衼åѤˤϳƹ줿Ѹ줬ꡤ̱ϰͤˤȤѤ餷Ƥ롤ȤϰŪʤΤ⤷ʤΤ˥٥륮ʤɤ¿ѹ⤢뤬͡ꥹѸ졤ե󥹡ե󥹸졤ɥġɥĸ졤ڥ᥹ڥΤ褦ˡȤȸ줬абƤΤ򤵤ƤΤǤϤʤ
ϸǤ롥Ωβǡ1ȡ1פȤۤŪˤʤꡤ⤽;ȤΤʤˤ뤬¤ˤ餫ȿƤ롥衼åѳƹϡΤۤܤ٤ƤιϰƱ褦ˡʶʤ multilingual Ǥ롥ɡʤܡˤΤ褦㳰㳰Ȥ⤤¾ñϤˤ衤Ǥ롥
Ethnologue ʤɤθפλ衼åѤι츫Ф狼Ȥꡤ衼åѳƹǤ϶äۤ¿θ줬ԤʤƤ롥դˡ̾õˤƤ⡤줬¿ΰۤʤǹԤʤƤ뤫狼롥1ȡ1פ¤ȿ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥衼åѤγƹȸб򤳤Ǻ٤󤲤ɬפϤʤפбޤȤƤȻפΤǡTrudgill (121--22) ΰƸ褦ʲɽθФθϡ̾衼åѤιȤȷӤĤפʸθϱ˼Ǥ⾯ȤƹԤʤƤ롥

German   Denmark, Belgium, France, Italy, Slovenia, Serbia, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Hungary, Czechia, Poland
Turkish   Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine
Greek   Italy, Macedonia, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Turkey
Albanian   Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Italy
Hungarian   Austria, Serbia, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Ukraine
Finnish   Sweden, Norway, Russia
Swedish   Finland
French   Italy
Polish   Lithuania, Czechia, Ukraine
Bulgarian   Romania, Greece, Ukraine
Danish   Germany
Dutch   France
Italian   Slovenia, Croatia
Russian   Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine
Ukrainian   Romania, Slovakia, Poland
Slovak   Hungary, Romania, Czechia
Czech   Poland, Romania, Slovakia
Slovene   Austria, Italy
Macedonian   Greece, Albania
Lithuanian   Poland
Rumanian   Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia, Macedonia


ɽǸФ˵󤬤äƤΤϡɤιˤƤ⾯ɤǤǤ롥¦ˡθ줬ԤʤƤ񤬵󤲤Ƥ롥

Sami (Lapp)   Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia
Frisian   Germany, Netherlands
Basque   Spain, France
Catalan   Spain, France
Breton   France
Sorbian   Germany
Kashubian   Poland
Welsh   UK
Gaelic   UK


κǸˤ褦ˡꥹǤѸΤۤ Welsh Scottish Gaelic ʬŪ˹ԤʤƤ뤷ɰΦΰ̱ͳ褹 Punjabi Bengali ʤɤθԤʤƤ롥ΤۤYiddish Romany ʤɤϡ衼åΦ¿ιǾȤѤƤ롥
餯衼åѤǺǤ¿ι1ĤȤƵ󤲤Τϡ롼ޥ˥Ethnologue Romania ιʬȤꡤѸ Romanian ͸9ѤƤΤΡ¾23θ줬ȤƹԤʤƤ (Armenian, Aromanian, Bulgarian, Crimean Tatar, Czech, Eastern Yiddish, Gagauz, German (Standard), Gheg Albanian, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Romani (Balkan), Romani (Carpathian), Romani (Vlax), Romanian Sign Language, Romany, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish, Ukrainian)

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-29 Tue

#1373. variety Ȥϲ [variety][sociolinguistics][terminology]

ҲؤκǽפΥɤ1Ĥ variety Ѽ) 롥variety ˤĤƤϡvariety γƵȤ櫓#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) ǵϼҲؼԤˤ򤤤ĤߤƤߤ褦
Wardhaugh (23) ¹Hudson (22) ˤ "a variety of language" ϡ"a set of linguistic items with similar distribution" Ǥ롥ˡFerguson (30) ϡ"any body of human speech patterns which is sufficiently homogeneous to be analyzed by available techniques of synchronic description and which has a sufficiently large repertory of elements and their arrangements or processes with broad enough semantic scope to function in all formal contexts of communication" 롥Ǥ⡤"similar" "sufficiently homogeneous" ȤɽѤƤ뤳Ȥ狼Ȥꡤܤˤ錄봰Ʊ׵ᤷƤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǴˤ䤫˻̤äƤ "variety" ȸƤФʤꡤˤ٤ variation ѰۡˤޤޤƤ뤳ȤϤषȤƤΤδ餹С¿ѼҲѤܤΤ⡤ʣ줫äƤˤ⤫餺 "a variety" Ǥ뤷⾮ñ̡㤨Ф¼θ䤢²θ "a variety" Ǥ롥
ʼҲ˸ؤǾѤƤ "variety" ȤϡˤǰǤ롥ޤ˴ˤơȤʤäƤ "a variety" ⤽¸ߤΤȤȤ顤ˤʤꤦۤɤǤ⡤Algeo #415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) ȽҤ٤̤ꡤ Wardhaugh (23) ⼡ΰѤΤʤǧ̤ꡤ"variety" ȤѸͭѤϵʤ

[I]f we can identify such a unique set of items or patterns for each group in question, it might be possible to say there are such varieties as Standard English, Cockney, lower-class New York City speech, Oxford English, legalese, cocktail party talk, and so on. One important task, then, in sociolinguistics is to determine if such unique sets of items or patterns actually do exist. As we proceed we will encounter certain difficulties, but it is unlikely that we will easily abandon the concept of 'variety,' no matter how serious these difficulties prove to be.


Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Ferguson, C. A. Language Structure and Language Use. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1972.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-28 Mon

#1372. "correlational sociolinguistics"? [sociolinguistics][variation][language_change][causation][idiolect]

ҲؤǤ͡ĴԤʤƤꡤǤ˸ŵŪȤ̾ĴĤ⤢롥ܥ֥ǤϡΤΤۤξ˲᤮ʤʲ˿Ƥ

#882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1])
#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1])
#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1])
#1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-27-1])

Ĵ⡤ʤüԽĤμҲŪʶ̤ŪѰۤбƤȤȤ餫ˤƤ롥Τ褦ʸ̤ߤȡΤ˼ҲȸȤطƤ뤳ȤϤ狼뤬ʤؤƤΤشط̣ΤȤ꿼䤬롥¿θǤϡޤƧ߹ˤϻʤȤ¿ǡҲؤϡҲȸشطŦƽ "correlational sociolinguistics" ǤȤȽʤƤؤȼҲؤΤ줾ˤꤵƤѥ᡼դ碌˲᤮ҲؤȤʬȼ餫ˤθȤΤϾʤȤȽ
ΤˡȽϼҲؼԤŤߤ٤ȽȻפ롥Wardhaugh (11--12) ʤɤ⤳ˤĤƻ̤䤤ƵƤ뤬ȽؤβȤƤ褯ޤȤޤäƤΤ Trudgill (39--41) Trudgill ϼ5󤲤ơ"correlational sociolinguistics" ȤȽ롥

(1) ŪʾڵפȤüԤ˼ҲŪϰ̤ͿˤꡤΤˤɤΤ褦ʾѤƤ뤫Ƥ롥
(2) оݤȤƤ춦ƱΤμҲ¤ˤĤƲ򶵤Ƥ롥㤨СNorwich ǤϡҲ Middle Class Working Class 礭ʬª뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ򼨺롥
(3) Ŀ͸ (idiolect) ο񤤤ͽۤ뤳ȤϤǤʤҲĤʿŪʿ񤤤ͽۤ뤳ȤǽȤʤ롥
(4) ̤ҲĤδ֤θŪۤϡޤŪϢ³ŪʤΤǤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ȤʤäƤ뺹ۤŪʰ㤤ǤϤʤŪʰ㤤Ǥ뤳Ȥ򼨤
(5) ѲˤˤĤ¿μͿƤ롥

Trudgill ϡҲؤμΩä (5) ˤäƤȹͤƤ᤬롥"correlational sociolinguistics" ʤ "causational sociolinguistics" (?) ʤʬȯŸԤƤ롥

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-10-16-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-27 Sun

#1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ [sociolinguistics][style][rhotic][causation][language_change]

ε#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1]) ǡʸΤκˤ۷֤λߤʸκ̤λҲ𤷤#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1]) ȡ#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1]) Ǽ夲˥塼衼Ԥˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ̵ͭʬۤˤĤƤǤ롥 Labov ˤҲĴ̤ʲάҤ Trudgill (88--89) ͿƤ복פ˴ŤΤǤ뤳ȤǤäƤ
Labov ϡ˥塼衼ԤˤƼҲ񳬵 non-prevocalic /r/ ȯΨȤؤƤȤΩơեɥˤ¾ڤʤ⤤ǤФۤɤβĶǤ /r/ Ψ⤤Ȥ/r/ ҲŪʰҿӤĤƤȤΤˡLabov ϳ̤ʬ (Lower Class, Lower Working Class, Middle Working Class, Upper Working Class, Lower Middle Class, Upper Middle Class) ȹ碌ʸ̤ʬϤߤʸΤζ̤ϡ줿Ʊͤˡ(1) ñꥹȤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 word-list style (WLS)(2) ʸϤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 reading-passage style (RPS)(3) formal speech (FS)(4) casual speech (CS) 4Ǥ롥ʬϷ̤ϡ褽ʲΥդ̤Ȥʤä

Stylistic Variation of Non-Prevocalic /r/ in New York City


Norwich ˤ -in' Ĵ̤ƱͤˡΤȤơʼФäʸΤǤФۤɰҿ /r/ ȯФΨ⤤Ȥ狼롥Ȥˤ Norwich ξȰۤʤ롤ƶ̣1Ĥ롥Lower Middle Class word-list style ˤơͽۤ /r/ Ψǧ뤳ȤǤ롥б Upper Middle Class Ψ礭ۤơ60%ιΨ򼨤ƤΤǤ롥ϤɤΤ褦Ф褤Τ
ͭϤϼ̤Ǥ롥LMC ϡξ徺ָ顤ҿ /r/ ̵ͭҴǤꡤռŪʸΤˤƤϾ̤ UMC /r/ ¿Ф˻ΤǤϤʤ˲䤷ʤȡ˥塼衼ԤαѸ춦ƱΤ /r/ ȯؤȸƤΤϡۤʤ LMC ǤϤʤȤǽФƤ롥ºݡLabov θüȯ뤽θμҲؤθˤСβϳͻٻƤƤ롥ѲθȸưϤˤĤƤ椬餫ˤƤƤȤ褦

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-26 Sat

#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ [sociolinguistics][style][register]

#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1]) ǡNorwich ˤ -ing ȯ˴ؤ Trudgill ˤҲĴ򸫤ǤϡɸŪ -ing ɸŪ -in' Τ줾λ٤̤̤ˤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤ뤫ɽǼTrudgill ϡ -ing ѰۤˤĤơۤˤʸ̤ĴԤʤäƤΤǡ򸫤Ƥ
̤ˡäʤɤάŪʸΤǤɸŪʰ۷Ф졤ñǫɤ߾夲褦׵ᤵ褦ʳʼФäʸΤǤɸŪʰ۷Фǽ⤤ͽۤ롥ǡTrudgill ϡƼҲ񳬵ɽ︳Ԥ顤4ʸΤˤ -in(g) ȯФɸɸΨ٤4ʸΤȤϡǤʼФäΤˡ(1) ñꥹȤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 word-list style (WLS)(2) ʸϤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 reading-passage style (RPS)(3) formal speech (FS)(4) casual speech (CS) Ǥ롥ʲϡTrudgill (87) äɸ -in' γ̤ʸ̤ΨǤ롥ˡդǤɽ路


WLS (%)RPS (%)FS (%)CS (%)
Middle Middle Class00328
Lower Middle Class0101542
Upper Working Class5157487
Middle Working Class23448895
Lower Working Class296698100

Stylistic Variation of (ing) in Norwich

ͽ̤ꡤˤơάŪʸΤǤФۤɡɸ -in' Ψ⤤Ǥ⤤κǤάŪʸΤˤͤȡǤ㤤κǤʼФäʸΤˤͤ줾28%29%Ǥۤ¤ǤΤܤͤ롥줫γ°ĿͤǤäƤ⡤ʸΤ˱ɸɸ򲿤餫γǻȤʬƤΤ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ狼

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-25 Fri

#1369. ե㥯ǡѸάǯɽ [timeline][history][historiography]

ε#1368. Fennell ǡѸάǯɽ ([2013-01-24-1]) ˰³ϥե㥯ǤǯɽƸ롥ܸǤαѸǯɽ⤢Ȼפ˽ä (207--10) ƱѸˤǯɽȤäƤ⡤ԤˤäۤʤΤǤꡤ줾ħ롥ǯɽΤ1Ĥ˵ҤˡǤȤȤǧ롥

55, 54 BC   桼ꥦ뤬Ψƥ֥ƥ˾Φ
43 BC   ˤȿŪʥ֥ƥϤޤ
end of C3   ޥͽ²ˤǽΥ֥ƥ繶
367   åȿ͡ʥɤˡԥȿ̤͡ˡ͡줫ˤ޻۲Υ֥ƥ򹶷
375   ե²ʤƨ褦²ɥʥϤ˿ޥ̱²ưϤޤ롥Ƿ
383   ޷ޤ˾
410   ǸΥ޷Ĥ֥ƥ礫ű
449   ޥ²֥ƥ˿Ϥ
c500   ֥Хɥ˥֡פ襤ǿԥޥͤԤ졤֥ƥˤư
547?   ϥС̤˥󥰥²Ƥ
597   ƥ̥Ȳ夷֥ƥ˽Ǥޥͤ˥ꥹȶ۶Ϥ
634   ɤνƻΤΡ֥ꥢΥꥹȶ˾Ф
655   ޡΥꥹȶΡ֥ꥢȥɤ붵դμˤ괰λ
664   Ρ֥ꥢˤơۥåȥӡĤ롥֥ƥ䥢ɤΥꥹȶ޶줵Ȥʤ
c725   ˤإ١ա٤κ
787   ǡͤοϤޤ
865   ǡͿ2
871--899   եå粦μ
879   եå粦ȡʥबΨ˥ǡͤȤδ֤ǥɥ⥢ζꡥǡϰγ
886   եå粦ɥΡβ󥰥ɤǧ
964   ƻβפϤޤꡤѸɸಽ˱ƶͿ
973   ɥСˤơƥꥹȶεˤ״󤲡ʥǡϰޤ󥰥ɤκǽβȤʤ
991   աȥ奰󤬥ꥹ˿ǡͿ3Ϥޤ
1066   ꥢءƥ󥰥襤Ǿ򤪤ᡤΥޥͤαѹϤޤ롥ե󥹸ȥƥ줬ѸäƸѸȤʤ
1154   إԡХǯ嵭٤ȸƤФܤεϿϤǯǽ뤹롥ʰ̤ˡإ󥰥ǯ嵭٤ȸƤФ롥ܤ7ĤꡤοϤޤäƤ롥
1204   󲦤ե󥹹񲦥եå2Ԥ졤Υޥǥե󥹲μϤ롥ꥹ̱²ޤϤ
1250   ѹ²᤬뤷ե󥹸Ť󤺤ɬפʤʤ
1258   إ꡼3Υޥͤαѹʹ߽ƱѸ۹Ф
1295   ॺեɤκȽǡʸ񤬱Ѹȥե󥹸ξɤޤ
1337--1453   ɴǯ补ˤꡤꥹͤϥե󥹤ΤΤФŨ褦ˤʤ
1344   ˡ񤬽ƱѸǽ񤫤
1348--1350   ¤ΤᡤꥹҲ絬Ϥʽ̱ΰư
1362   񤬽ƱѸdz񤵤롥IJϡ³ˡפꤷ1363ǯ1ʹߤϤ٤Ƥʾټ³ĤϱѸǹԤʤȤ˷
1381   ̱䤬ꡤҲŪưοʹԤ®
c1385   Ѹ줬󥰥γعѤ褦ˤʤ
1413   إ꡼4ѹ񲦤ȤƽƱѸǰĤ
1422   Ѹˤǽζ̼ʸ
1423   εĻϿѸǽ񤫤Ϥ
c1430   ĮƱȹθʸ˱ѸѤϤ
1476   ꥢࡦ㥯ȥ󤬥󥰥ɤꡤȥߥ󥹥˺ǽΰĤ
1499   㥯ȥθѼԥԥ󥽥󤬡Ѹ졦ƥýػҶΤθդˡ٤Ǥʽ񤫤줿Τ1440ǯˡԻؤΰȤʤ
1534   إ꡼8޶Ȥδطѹ񶵲Ω
1564--1616   ꥢࡦԥ
1586   ꥢࡦ֥ʸˡΤξҡ١ƱԤˤ븽¸ʤʸˡδʰǡˤǤ롥ǽαʸˡ
1588   ڥ̵Ũ˾Ѹ줬˹üȤʤ
1604   Сȡɥ꡼إե٥åȽð٤νǡǽαѸΰ켭ŵʱѱѼŵ
1607   ꥫ˱Ѹ줬⤿餵롥Υ˥ˡԤˤäƥॺ󤬷ߤ
1611   ʥॺˤν
1639--1686   ɡʥޥɥ饹륫åܥ٥ˤ˱ѹϤߤ
1642--1660   ̱̿
1664   Ω񤬡ֱѸɤ뤿ΡװѰ
1712   J. եȤˤ륪åեؤμ椬رѸζɡΤơ٤ȤƽǤ졤ǥߡΩ¥
1713   Υե󥹤饤ꥹ˾Ϥ
1755   ߥ奨롦󥽥رѸ켭ŵ٤Ǥ롥19ޤѸɤ뤮ʤŪ¸ߤȤʤ
1759   վ٥å襤ǥե󥹷˾
1761   ɤꥹο̱ϤȤʤ
1769--1777   ץƥ󡦥åʿΤؤιҳӾǡȥꥢ˥塼ɡޥ˥򥤥ꥹΤ
1775--1783   ꥫΩˤꡤꥫ罰
1788   ȥꥢΥ˥塼륺˺ǽήϿ̱Ϥߤ롥ץեꥫˤˤ륪̱ϤꥹͭȤʤ
1805   ȥե륬γˤƥꥹե󥹷˾롥ꥹƸ򾸰̱ϳؤƻ򳫤
1816   ꥹǺǽΰ²ʿʹȯԤ졤Ѹ˱ƶͿޥǥ夬Ϥޤ
1840   ˥塼ɤˤơꥹ̱Ϥߤ롥ꥹΰ²͹٤ʸ̿ȯã¥˱Ѹ줬ڤ
1858   ؿѸ켭ŵ١ʸˡإåեɱѸ켭ŵ٤ȾΤˤԽȤϤޤ
1890--1910   ¿ȯʳؾȯѸΤʤ礭ʱƶͿ
1899--1901   եꥫΥ֡ˤƽԤλ¹̡ꥹƸΩ
1914--1918   1Ѹΰҿޤ롥ե󥹸϶ȤơޤȤƤϰ̤򼺤Ϥʥ륵󤬥ե󥹸ȱѸǽ񤫤
1939--1945   2郎ˡѸڤ򲡤ʤᡤΰҿ


ĥե㥯 رѸ˳⡡1̻ˡ١Ļҡ2006ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2013-02-02-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-24 Thu

#1368. Fennell ǡѸάǯɽ [timeline][history][historiography]

#777. Ѹάǯɽ ([2011-06-13-1]) ǤϡCrystal ǤαѸάǯɽǺܤ Fennell ǤƸ롥Fennell ǤϳƾϤκǽоݤȤʤäƤ˴ؤǯɽܤƤꡤʲϤۤ¤ԽޤǤǡ٤ƤʤFennell ̾ͽۤȤꡤҲŪ¦̤ȿǤƤǯɽǤ롥

8000 BC   Hunter groups move into Lapland
7000 BC   Wheat, barley and pulses cultivated from Anatolia to Pakistan; goats and pigs domesticated
7000 BC   Farming developed on Indian subcontinent; barley main crop
6500 BC   Adoption of farming in Balkan region; beginning of the European Neolithic spread of domestic animals, probably from Anatolia
6200 BC   Farming villages established in the west and central Mediterranean
5200 BC   First farmers of central Europe spread northwest as far as the Netherlands
4500 BC   Cattle used as plough animals in lower Danube region
4500 BC   First megalithic tombs built in western Europe
4400 BC   Domestication of horse on Eurasian Steppes
4200 BC   Earliest copper mines in eastern Europe
4200 BC   Agriculture begins south of the Ganges
3800 BC   Ditched enclosures around settlements in western Europe, forming defended villages
3500 BC   New faming practices: animals increasingly used for traction, wool and milk; simple plough (ard) now used in northern and western Europe
3250 BC   Earliest writing from western Mesopotamia: pictographic clay used for commercial accounts
3200 BC   First wheeled vehicles in Europe (found in Hungary)
3100 BC   Cuneiform script developed in Mesopotamia
3000 BC   Construction of walled citadels in Mediterranean Europe and development of successful metal industry
2900 BC   Appearance of Corded Ware pottery in northern Europe
2500 BC   Bell beakers found in western Europe, often associated with individual burials
2500 BC   Development of urban civilization in the Indian Plain
2500 BC   Earliest syllabic script used in Sumerian literature
2300 BC   Beginning of full European Bronze Age
2000 BC   Fortified settlements in east and central Europe point to increasing social and economic pressures
1900 BC   Cretan hieroglyphic writing
1850 BC   Horses used for the first time to pull light carts in the western Steppes
1650 BC   Linear A script (Crete and the Cyclades)
1650 BC   City-states of central Anatolia unified to form the Hittite kingdom with a strongly fortified capital at Boğazköy
1400 BC   Linear B script (mainland and islands of Greece)
1400 BC   Development of pastoral nomadism on the Steppes: cattle herded from horseback
1300 BC   Westward spread of urnfield cemeteries
1200 BC   Collapse of Hittite empire
1000 BC   Hillforts in Western Europe
1000 BC   Full nomadic economy on the Steppes based on rearing horses, cattle and sheep
850 BC   First settlement at Rome; cluster of huts on Palatine Hill
800 BC   Establishment of culture north and east of Alps --- first stage of Celtic Iron Age (Hallstatt)
800 BC   Rise of Etruscan city-states in central Italy
800 BC   Rise of cities and states in Ganges Valley supported by rice farming
750 BC   First Greek alphabetic inscription
750 BC   Ironworking spreads to Britain
750 BC   Earliest Greek colonies set up from western Mediterranean to the eastern shores of the Black Sea
690 BC   Etruscan script developed from Greek
600 BC   Trade between Celts north west of Alps and Greek colonies of the west Mediterranean; rich wagon burials attest to wealth and power of Celtic elite
600 BC   Latin script
600 BC   Central lowlands of northern Europe first settled
600 BC   First Greek coins
480 BC   2nd stage of European Bronze Age (La Tène)
480 BC   Emergence of classical period of Greek arts and architecture
480 BC   City-states reach height of importance
460 BC   Parchment replaces clay tablets for Aramaic administrative documents
450 BC   Athens, the greatest Greek city-state, reaches the peak of its power
400 BC   Carthage dominates the west Mediterranean
390 BC   Celts sack Rome
334 BC--329 BC   Alexander the Great invades Asia Minor, conquers Egypt and Persia and reaches India; Hellenism established in Asia
331 BC   Alexandria founded
250 BC   Brahmin alphabetic script in India
250 BC   All of peninsular Italy controlled by Rome
206 BC   Rome gains control of Spain
146 BC   Romans destroy the Greek states but Greek culture still important and Greek artists brought to Rome
146 BC   Roman destruction of Carthage
55 BC   Julius Caesar attempts to invade Britain
27 BC   Augustus sole ruler of Roman empire
43--50   Emperor Claudius invades Britain
50   Rome largest city in the world --- population 1 million
117   Roman empire reaches its greatest extent
125   Hadrian's Wall built
285   Administrative separation of eastern and western halves of Roman empire
313   Edict of Milan: toleration of Christianity in Roman empire
330   Constantine founds Constantinople as new eastern capital of the Roman empire
410   Sack of Rome by Visigoths leading to collapse of western Roman empire
410   Romans withdraw from Britain
429   German (Vandal) kingdom in north Africa
449   Angles, Saxons and Jutes invade Britain
597   St Augustine introduces Christianity to the English
787   Scandinavian invasions begin
793   Sacking of Lindisfarne
878   King Alfred defeats the Danes at Eddington
878   Treaty of Wedmore
899   King Alfred dies
1016   Danish King Cnut rules England
1042   Accession of Edward the Confessor to the English throne
1066   Battle of Hastings; Norman Conquest
1095   First Crusade
1170   Assassination of Thomas à Becket
1204   King John loses lands in Normandy
1259--1265   The Barons' War
1337--1453   The Hundred Years War
1340--1400   Geoffrey Chaucer
1346   Battle of Crecy
1346   Battle of Poitiers
1348--1351   The Black Death
1362   Parliament opened in English
1362   The Statute of Pleading (English becomes the official language of legal proceedings)
1381   The Peasants' Revolt
1415   Battle of Agincourt
1476   Caxton introduces the printing press
1489   French no longer used as the language of Parliament
1509   Henry VIII ascends the throne
1534   Act of Supremacy
1536   Small monasteries dissolved
1536   Statute incorporates all of Wales with England
1539   English translation of Bible in every church
1547   Edward VI
1553   Mary Tudor
1554   Mary marries Philip of Spain
1558   Elizabeth I
1559   Act of Supremacy restores laws of Henry VIII
1574   First company of actors; theatre building begins
1577   Sir Francis Drake plunders west coast of South America
1584   Colonists at Roanoke
1600   British East India Company founded
1600   Population of England c.2.5 million
1603   James I
1605   Barbados, West Indies, claimed as English colony
1606   Virginia Company of London sends 120 colonists to Virginia
1607   Jamestown, Virginia, is established by London Co. as the first permanent English settlement in America
1611   King James Bible
1616   Death of Shakespeare
1620   The Pilgrims arrive at Plymouth Rock on the Mayflower
1621   English attempt to colonize Newfoundland and Nova Scotia
1625   Charles I
1627   Charles I grants charter to the Guiana Company
1633   English trading post established in Bengal
1637   English traders established in Canton
1639   English established at Madras
1642--1646   Civil War
1646   English occupy the Bahamas
1648   Second Civil War
1649   Cromwell invades Ireland
1649   Charles I beheaded
1649   Charles II
1649   Commonwealth established
1653   Cromwell becomes Lord Protector
1655   English capture Jamaica
1660   Charles II restored to throne
1663   Charles II grants charter to Royal African Company
1668   British East India Company gains control of Bombay
1670   English settlement in Charles Town, later Charleston, South Carolina
1680--1689   Welsh Quakers settle in large numbers in Pennsylvania
1680--1689   First German immigrants in America
1684   Bermudas become Crown Colony
1689   William and Mary proclaimed king and queen in England and Ireland
1690   Calcutta founded
1690   Population of England c.5 million
1700   Population of England and Scotland 7.5 million
1707   Union of England and Scotland as Great Britain
1707   British land in Acadia, Canada
1710   English South Sea Company founded
1727   George II
1729   North and South Carolina become Crown Colonies
1729   Benjamin and James Franklin publish 'The Pennsylvania Gazette'
1744   Robert Clive arrives at Madras
1756--1763   The French and Indian War in North America
1759   British take Quebec from the French
1760   George III
1762   British capture Martinique, Grenada, Havana and Manila
1765--1947   British Raj in India
1770   James Cook discovers Botany Bay, Australia
1774   Parliament passes the Stamp Act, unifying the colonies against the British
1775   The East India, or Tea, Act prompts the Boston Teat Party
1775--1783   American War of Independence
1776   American Declaration of Independence
1776   The Revolutionary War begins
1778   Cook discovers Hawaii
1783   The Treaty of Paris successfully ends the Revolution
1783   British recognize US independence
1784   Pitt's India Act: East India Company under government control
1786   Penang ceded to Great Britain
1789   George Washington inaugurated as first US President
1790   The first penal colony established in Sydney, Australia
1795, 1806   British forces occupy Cape of Good Hope
1800   British capture Malta
1803   The Louisiana Purchase doubles the size of US territory
1810   British seize Guadeloupe
1811   British occupy Java
1812--1814   War of 1812 between the USA and Britain
1819   Florida purchased by the USA from Spain
1819   British settlement established in Singapore by East India Company
1822   English becomes the official language of the Eastern Cape of South Africa
1822   Liberia founded --- Africa's oldest republic
1824   Erie Canal opens, strengthening east-west trade, but increasing the isolation of the south
1824   British take Rangoon, Burma
1828   The Baltimore and Ohio Railway opens
1832   Britain occupies the Falkland Islands
1837   Queen Victoria
1837   The electric telegraph demonstrated by Samuel Morse
1840   New Zealand becomes an official colony
1840   Penny post introduced in Britain
1842   Hong Kong ceded to Great Britain
1848   Gold discovered in California
1849   Gold Rush
1851   Victoria, Australia, proclaimed separate colony
1852   New constitution for New Zealand
1858   Powers of East India Company transferred to British Crown
1860   Kowloon added to British territories in South-East Asia
1861   Civil War begins with the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter
1861   British Colony founded in Lagos, Nigeria
1863   Emancipation of the slaves is proclaimed, as of 1 January
1865   General Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox
1865   President Lincoln is assassinated, five days later
1867   Alaska is purchased from Russia, becoming the 49th state in 1959
1867   Federal Malay States become a Crown Colony
1869   The first transcontinental railroad is completed
1876   Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone
1877   Edison invents the phonograph
1878   David Hughes invents the microphone
1879   London opens its first telephone exchange
1884   Papua New Guinea becomes British protectorate
1885   Britain established protectorate over Northern Bechuanaland, Niger River Region and southern New Guinea, and occupies Port Hamilton, Korea
1886   First Indian National Congress meets
1887   First Colonial Conference opens in London
1888   Cecil Rhodes granted mining rights by King of Matabele
1890   Rhodes becomes Premier of Cape Colony
1893   Uganda united as British protectorate
1893   USA annexes Hawaii
1895   Marconi invents radiotelegraphy
1895   Auguste and Louis Lumière invent the motion-picture camera
1895   British South Africa Company territory south of the Zambezi River becomes Rhodesia
1898   America receives Guam and sovereignty over the Philippines
1898   New Territories leased by Britain from China for 99 years
1899   First magnetic sound recordings
1899--1902   Boer War
1900   R. A. Fessenden transmits the human voice via radio waves
1900   British capture Bloemfontein, relieve Mafeking, annex Orange Free State and Transvaal and take Pretoria and Johannesburg Commonwealth of Australia created
1901   Marconi transmits radiotelegraph messages from Cornwall to New Zealand
1901   End of Queen Victoria's reign
1903   Ford Motor Company founded
1903   Orville and Wilbur Wright make the first successful manned flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina
1903   British conquer northern Nigeria
1907   New Zealand becomes a dominion within the British Empire
1908   Union of South Africa established
1908   Henry Ford introduces the mass-produced Model T
1914   Panama Canal opened
1914--1918   World War I
1916   USA purchases Danish West Indies (Virgin Islands)
1917   USA purchases Dutch West Indies
1919   League of Nations founded
1920   Gandhi emerges as leader of India
1920   Kenya becomes British colony
1921   British Broadcasting Corporation founded
1921   First Indian Parliament meets
1924   The National Origins Act marks the official end of large-scale immigration to America; from this point on numbers are restricted and quotas are introduced
1924   British Imperial Airways founded
1925   John Logie Baird transmits a picture of a human face via television
1928   John Logie Baird demonstrates first colour television
1929   Teleprinters and teletypewriters first used
1929   First scheduled TV broadcasts in Schernectedy, New York
1929   First talking pictures made
1936   BBC London television service begins
1938   Lajos Biró invents the ball-point pen
1939--1945   World War II
1942   First computer developed in the United States
1942   Magnetic recording tape invented
1944   First telegraph line used between Washington and Baltimore
1945   United Nations founded
1946   Chester Carlson invents Xerography
1946   Philippines become independent from the United States
1947   Transistor invented at Bell Laboratories
1947   India proclaimed independent
1948   Peter Goldmark invents the long-playing record
1951   Colour TV introduced into USA (15 million TV sets in USA)
1952   Accession of Queen Elizabeth II
1957   Common Market established by Treaty of Rome
1957   Malaysian independence
1958   First stereophonic recordings
1962--1975   Uganda, Kenya, Zambia (Northern Rhodesia), Malawi, Malta, Gambia, Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Guyana, Mauritius, Nigeria, Bahamas, Papua New Guinea all become independent of Great Britain
1965   Atlantic cable completed
1968   Intelsar communication satellite launched
1989   South Africa desegregated
1997   Hong Kong rule returns to China


Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-23 Wed

#1367. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (4) [hel_education][prescriptive_grammar]

#24. ʤѸˤؤ֤ ([2009-05-22-1]) #1199. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (2) ([2012-08-08-1]) #1200. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (3) ([2012-08-09-1]) ˰³ݡɤαѸ˳ν Jacek Fisiak ˤ֤ʤѸˤؤɬפΤפҲ𤹤롥 pp. 20--21 򤽤ΤޤްѤơؤͳ4򼨤狼䤹϶ĥǤ롥

Ѹζդˤʤ뤿˳ؤǤѸˤٶ٤ͳ򤤤Ĥ󤲤ȡ
ޤ1ˡߤαѸ򤹤뤿ˤϡѸβˤĤƲؤΤäƤ뤳ȤͭפǤ롥ˤܤ뤳ȤˤäơǸαѸ˼ȤळȤǤ롥αѸǤ§ŪѲȸʤΡȤ man -- menfoot -- feetmouse -- miceox -- oxen ʤɤ˸Ѹ̾ʣĤƤϵ§ŪѲǤäȤ顤§򤹤뤳ȤǤ롥ƱͤˡǤϥ󥰥Τ褦ˤ󤬤餬äƸѸ֤硼λˤϤʤ구§ŪǤꡤŪɬΤǤäˤΤС/f/ β <gh> 뤤 <f> ɽƤ뤳ȤˤĤƤϤʤ餪ȤԵ§ʤȤʤȤʬ롥
2ˡβξ֤Τ뤳ȤϡΤʸغʤʸɤߡվޤ뵡ͿƤ롥ȤкǹǤäƤ⸽̤ƤǤϡ䡤ͥå󥹴ηλʷϵ򴶤Ȥꡤǽ뤳ȤϤǤʤǤ
3ˡѤˤ뵬Ϥ˴ؤ뤢и桹Ƥ롥ѲΤǤꡤʸˡ§ȿƤ֤ϡפΤȤʤ뤫ΤʤˤܤС桹Ϥäȴˤʤ롥߲äʸϤѤƤդϤɤʤΤǤ٤ȤΤǤϤʤȯŸɤΤʬ򤹤ʤСˤʤäȽǤȤȤǤ롥
Ǹˡѹˤʸؤʸؤ֤äơѸˤϳؤФʤƤ褤ȤͳϤɤˤʤˤ򤤤餫ǤΤʤԤϡοͤοʹνפ¦̤1Ĥ礯ԤǤ롥ˤοʹ֤ꤢΤǤ뤫顤ʹ֤򤹤뤿ˤϤβ򤤤餫ǤΤͤФʤʤ (Bloomfield & Newmark 1963: 19)


3ͳȤƵ󤲤ƤθȾεϡä˽פǤ롥ѸΤɤäƤˤ򿶤֤ȡǤ⤢Τ褦ʼͳΤϻ¤ȤäƸƤɤʸѲǤ̵Ƚ˼٤ȤȤˤϤʤʤˤʤäȽפȤΤ񤷤ȤʤΤ줬Ǥ뤫Ŀ͸ĿͤͤƤ椯ɬפΤǤϤʤ#1360. 21¿εƤϱѸХХˤ뤫 ([2013-01-16-1]) Ǹ褦ˡϼˤǤƤȤŦƤ򺣡ϽƤΤ˱Ѹˤ׸뤳Ȥ¿ȡϹͤƤ롥
ʤǸ˰ѤƤνϡBloomfield, M. and Newmark, L. A Linguistic Introduction to the History of English. New York: Knopf, 1963. Ǥ롥

ĥե㥯 رѸ˳⡡1̻ˡ١Ļҡ2006ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-22 Tue

#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ [lexicology][loan_word][french][latin][renaissance][history][register][sociolinguistics][lexical_stratification]

#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1]) DZѸʤˡˤ̱Ū¦ָ̤Х󥹤ΤȤ줿ݤĤˡϡϤŪʴ顤Ѹ̱Ū¦̤Ҳ𤷤褦
ѸϡѸʱѹͥ󥹴ˤƥѸήи (##114,1067,1226)ˤäơѸäˤع¤줿ˤĤƤϡ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) #1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1]) ǸȤǤ롥ä˳ؤߤ줿ȤȤϡλѼԤѰ (register) ˤб볬ؤꤦ뤳Ȥ򼨺롥󡤸äγؤȤλѤ˴ؤҲŪؤΤɬŪʴطȤ櫓ǤϤʤŪ˰ޤƤΤȤơΤ褦ؤ¸ߤ뤳ȤǤʤؤθäϡ֥٥פι⤤üԤѰȷӤĤ졤ؤθäϡ֥٥פ㤤üԤѰȷӤĤ뷹ϤϤäꤷƤ롥
ξˤĤơ (244) ϡֱѸ̱ŪʡפꤹǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ʸˤ˭Ϥ⤦Ĥη̤ϡѸ줬̱ŪʤĤ褦ˤʤäȤȤǤOEˤϲͤθդ̱θդ⤿ѤʤäȻפ롥ήȸää񤫤ñȤȤȤϾʤäǤ롥ξ֤ Norman Conquest ˤäơؤϥե󥹸졤ؤϱѸȤҲŪŸ (social bilingualism) ѤäѸ줬ȡѸ줽켫ΤˡμҲŪˤʤäηĹΤϿʸǤäơPurism 򤽤ȽϤȸ뤳ȤǽǤ롥¡ۤȤͣɽоݤȤؤϡθ˻ޤǥꥹ̱ŪʽưȤӤĤƤ롥


Ѹʤˡˤϡ¦̤Ǥ̱Ṳ̄¦̤Ǥ̱ŪǤ롥ΤȤ¿쾯ʤɤθˤ뤳ȤޤˤĤƸ̱פȤΤϡ#1318. ˤݼŪȤϲ ([2012-12-05-1]) #1304. ꥫѸΡݼס ([2012-11-21-1]) Ǽ夲ݼפƱ褦ˡդɬפǤ롥̱פݼפʹѤޤɽǤꡤ켫ΤΤȤ館ϸĿͤˤäưۤʤǤ⡤ҲŪʴϡ̱ȤΤϤ⤷ơޤ
ʤѸˤ̱ŪĬήȤС#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹 ([2011-01-12-1]) #1059. ϽŻ뤫ְռŻؿܤƤ T/V distinction ([2012-03-21-1]) ꤬פФ롥

졡رѸˡ١罤ۡ1983ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-21 Mon

#1365. űѸˤ뼫IJˤϤޤ줿̵໤ͭ [phonetics][oe][consonant][verners_law]

#17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1]) (2) Ǽ夲űѸǤŵŪ첻Ƕޤ줿̵໤ [f, θ, s] ͭ [v, ð, z] Ȥʤ (ex. hūsian "to house", ofer "over", sūþerne "southern") ̵໤ͭȤݤˤĤơ (377) ˽äơܺ٤򵭽Ҥ
βϡ٤Ȥ6ޤǤˤϳΩȤ롥벻Ķˤϡ(1) VV, (2) V/l, r, m, n/, (3) /l, r, m, n/V 3बä⼫IJˤϤޤ줿ĶǤ롥/f, θ, s/ ˺Ѥ줾θűѸǤ󤲤褦

[f] > [v]: giefan (give) ? geaf ([he] gave), heofon (heaven), ofer (over)
[θ] > [ð]: weorðan (become) ? wearð ([he] became), feþer (feather), ōþer (other), fæðm (fathom), eorðe (earth)
[s] > [z]: rīsan (rise) ? rās ([he] rose), nosu (nose), bōsm (bosom), ōsle (ouzel)


(1) (2) δĶˤĤơV ˶ʤˤϡͭβ˻ߤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥㤨С*triuwiþu > trēowþ (truth) seofoða (seventh) ϡVerner's Law ŬѤȤϰۤʤ뤳Ȥդ
βϸűѸֻˤȿǤʤ(a) δĶ <þ> /d/ Ѥ줿ꡤ(b) ໤ľ <t> ǤϤʤ <d> ³ꡤ(c) þl > dl 뤤 þm > dm Τ褦ʲꤹ뤳Ȥ顤Ȥϵʤ
ʤűѸѸǤϡͭ໤ФƵ뤳Ȥ¿ĺǤϵʤդˡѸǤͭϡ໤ȤƤ [s] > [z] 뤰餤 ʬĺǵäƤ롥̵ˤĤƤ̤ʬۤۤʤ롥űѸѸǤ໤ĺˤȤ˱ƶ뤬ѸǤϤޤ໤˱ƶΤߤǤp. 376ˡ̵ͭβˤϡ̤ĬήȤȤ⤷ʤ

סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-20 Sun

#1364. ʤϸŪݼŪʤΤ [gender_difference][sociolinguistics]

ε#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1]) ǡŪݼŪʿ񤤤򤹤뤳Ȥ򼨤ѸμҲĴ򳵴ѤǤϡʤʤΤTrudgill (73--74) ϡ2ĤβҲ𤷤Ƥ롥

(1) ϡˤ餷 ("masculinity" or "toughness") ơɸ䵬Ϥν餫æ褦Ȥ뷹ΤФơˤϤΤ褦ʷϸʤ˽ϡ˵ŪʲʹѤ˵ΤǤϤʤ
(2) ¿μҲǤϡҲŪɸ䵬Ϥˤ궯ȤԤ롥ŪʴͤƤߤлפȤ줬콬ˤڤǤΤǤϤʤ

餯(1) (2) ξȤҲŪʴǤʾ塤¾μҲŪʴƱͤˡɸ䵬Ϥ롥ơ⤽¾μҲŪʴƱͤˡɸ䵬ϤФ٤٤˽ΤϼǤ롥˽ϼҲŪ˴ԤƤ뿶񤤤ۤʤ뤫餳ˤƤۤʤ뿶񤤤򼨤ΤTrudgill (79--80) ϡʲΤ褦礹롥

Gender differentiation in language . . . arises because . . . language, as a social phenomenon, is closely related to social attitudes. Men and women are socially different in that society lays down different social roles for them and expects different behaviour patterns from them. Language simply reflects this social fact. If the social roles of men and women change, moreover, as they seem to be doing currently in many societies, then it is likely that gender differences in language will change or diminish also . . . .


Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-07-04-1] [2013-06-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-19 Sat

#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ [gender_difference][sociolinguistics][negative][rhotic][sobokunagimon][double_negative]

#1361. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ([2013-01-17-1]) ڤӡ#1362. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ֡ ([2013-01-18-1]) ˰³Trudgill κǤͭ˾Ȥߤ벾Ҳ𤹤롥ѸǹԤʤ줿¿μҲĴˤС٤ƤɸŪѼ򹥤Ȥߤ롥
1ȤơDetroit ǹԤʤ줿¿ (multiple negation) Ĵ󤲤롥̤ˡѸˤ I don't wanna none Τ褦¿ɸŪʸˡȤʡ#549. ¿θѡ ([2010-10-28-1]) #988. Don't drink more pints of beer than you can help. (2) ([2012-01-10-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ̤ǤϡήۤɸŪʸˡ򤹤뤿¿꤬򤱤ͽۤ졤ºݤˤ̤ʤΤƱ쳬٤ȡΤۤ¿꤬򤱤뷹餫˸줿Trudgill (70) ꡤ¿λΨƸ褦


Upper Middle ClassLower Middle ClassUpper Working ClassLower Working Class
Male6.332.440.090.1
Female0.01.435.658.9


ˡTrudgill (71) 󤵤Ƥ롤Detroit ιͤ non-prevocalic /r/ ˴ؤĴߤƤߤ褦#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1]) ˤΤƱͤˡDetroit Ǥ non-prevocalic /r/ ϰҿΤȯȤߤʤƤ롥Ǥ⡤ϤҿΤ롤ɸŪȤ rhotic ȯַ뤳Ȥ狼롥


Upper Middle ClassLower Middle ClassUpper Working ClassLower Working Class
Male66.752.520.025.0
Female90.070.044.231.7


⤦ġNorwich ˤ -ing ȯ˴ؤĴ򸫤ƤǤϡɸŪ -ing ɸŪ -in' Ωǧ뤬ʲɸŪʰ۷֤ΨǤ (Trudgill 71)


Middle Middle ClassLower Middle ClassUpper Working ClassMiddle Working ClassLower Working Class
Male4278191100
Female03688197


ۤˤ⡤ɥѸħŪʡɸŪȤĺ (butter ʤɤ [t] ѤȤơˤΨϡǤŪ㤤ȤȤΤƤ롥
ξˤƤ⡤ƽΤۤɸŪȤܤַǧ롥ε#1362. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ֡ ([2013-01-18-1]) Ǽ夲ƥ (Koasati) λȤ碌ơθưˤϡɸ䵬Ϥ餷褦Ȥ뷹ʤݼѻȤ褦ϤʤʤΤεϡεǡ

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-18 Fri

#1362. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ֡ [gender_difference][sociolinguistics][taboo][sobokunagimon]

ε#1361. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ([2013-01-17-1]) ˰³˽εˤĤơ
Trudgill ϡ˲ŪΩʤ顤 Jespersen 󵯤֥֡פҲ𤹤 (66) Jespersen ϡֿͤ襤˽ФȡͤΤߤȤȤ뤤ĤθȤȤäȤܤ̤ϤˤȤäƤϤθ췲ϥ֡ (taboo) Ǥꡤɽ߽Ф뤳ȤȤʤä줬θä˽εȤ
Ʊͤϡ롼 (Zulu) ڤ롥롼ǤϡʤȤη̾Ƥ֤Ȥϸʤʥ֡ȤƶؤƤꡤ̾˻䡤̾˴ޤޤβ򤷤ʤФʤʤȤ롥㤨С/z/ 򤵤٤Ȥȡֿפɽ魯̾ amanzi Ȥ򤱤졤ѸȤ amandabi ʤɤѤȤ褦ʼΤ褦ʴԤθ춦ƱΤνΤ˰̲Сä˽ޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ
Υ֡⤬˹Ū˽Ȥʤꤦ뤫ȤȡTrudgill ϤˤŪǤ롥Trudgill ϡ1ˡ֡ͳ褹˽ɤΤ褦˸춦ƱΤνˤ˰̲ΤǤ뤷2ˡðʳ˸˽ǡ֡ͳǤϤʤȤΤ㤬¿ȻŦ (67) 㤨СꥫǥΥޥ² (Muskogean) ƥ (Koasati) ˤ˽򼨤ܤ뤬ϽŪ˽֤ǻȤʬƤˤˤ뤳Ȥ֡Ǥ櫓ǤϤʤȤ狼äƤ롥Τ褦ʥǤϡθǤΤߤ׿θݼŪ˸ŷݤäȤƽʬǤΤȤ
θ줬ݼŪʤĵŪˤǤȤͻϡŪˤäợȤΤϡѸ˴ؤ¿μҲؤĴθݼ¾ڤƤ뤫Ū˸˽򤯸ϡǤ⥿֡ǤʤѲФ٤˽ˤΤǤϤʤεǡƤˤĤƹͻ롥

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-17 Thu

#1361. ʤˤ˽Τ --- [gender_difference][sociolinguistics][sobokunagimon]

ˤ˽ˤĤƤϡ#476. That's gorgeous! ([2010-08-16-1]) #913. BNC ˤä˽Ĵ ([2011-10-27-1]) #915. äˤѤ˽ ([2011-10-29-1]) εǼ夲Ȥ롥ܸüԤǤС˽ˤĤƤľŪˤ褯ΤäƤꡤ˭٤˶󤲤ѸǤܸۤŪˤϸʤ˵󤲤ΤʤǡĤ򼨤νįƤ⡤ˤ˽ϡ٤κϤ졤ǧ롥Ǥϡˤ˽Ϥʤ¸ߤΤϡΰŪˤĤơȤ Trudgill 4 "Language and Sex" ˽äƵ
Trudgill ϡ3ĤβҲ𤷤Ƥ롥1ܤϡޤŵŪȤʤäƤɽλ˴ŤǤ롥17衼åѿͤɽξƥ (the Lesser Antilles) ǥֿͤ˽вäȤΥֿͤ˽ǰۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ˶äʲϡTrudgill (65) ˵󤲤ƤƱξڸǤ롥

The men have a great many expressions peculiar to them, which the women understand but never pronounce themselves. On the other hand the women have words and phrases which the men never use or they would be laughed to scorn. Thus it happens that in their conversations it often seems as if the women had another language than the men.


ºݤˤϡۤʤȤΤϸĥǤꡤ˽֤ǰθäۤʤäƤ٤äΤǡƱΰۤʤѼȤȤ館ΤŬڤȤƤ⡤θä˽ϲͳ褹ΤƱڸԤϼΤ褦³롥

The savage natives of Dominica say that the reason for this is that when the Caribs came to occupy the islands these were inhabited by an Arawak tribe which they exterminated completely, with the exception of the women, whom they married in order to populate the country. It is asserted that there is some similarity between the speech of the continental Arawaks and that of the Carib women. (Trudgill 66)


Ĥޤꡤˤ2̱²κ礬θ˽εȤԤΥָ졤ԤΥ說ȤΩ
ΡפοΤۤɤϳΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ𤵤Ƥ褦ʥָˤ˽ϡ¤¾Υꥫǥˤ⸫뤳Ȥ顤ƱɬϤ⤿ʤȤ򤬤롥ޤʤȤ⤬󵯤Ǥ褦¾㤬ΤϤƤ⡤Τ褦ʸϸʤäơϡ⤷ȤƤüʥˤθˤߤ˽ŪΤȤϤʤꤨʤ

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-16 Wed

#1360. 21¿εƤϱѸХХˤ뤫 [elf][variety][sociolinguistics][prescriptive_grammar][netspeak][writing][function_of_language][future_of_english]

ߡαѸȤޤĶˤϡELF (English as a Lingua Franca) ȤƤεǽʤ mutual intelligibility ܻؤῴϤȡüԽĤȼ򥢥ԡ뤹뵡ǽʤ cultural (national, ethnic, etc.) identity ƽѼ郎ʬ줷Ƥ椯ϤȤʣ˺ѤƤ롥塤ȿ2ĤϤɤΤ褦ޤ礤ĤƤ椯ΤȤϡѸ̤ꤦ礭ʥơޤǤ롥ϡرѸˤDz򤭤ۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ104ֱϤȵῴϡ ǤƤ롥
Ѹ줬Ѽʬƻ路Ƥ椯⤷ʤȤʥꥪ󵯤طʤˤϡĤιͻѻ롥㤨СĤƤ lingua franca ƥ줬ɤäѼؤʬȤŪ¤䡤˱ѸνѼ郎³λ̱ĥϤƤȤ󤲤Ϥ®ƤǽΤ⤦1ĤװȤƤϡŪϰռμޤ꤬롥ϰռϵῴϤȤƺѤΤǡ줬ޤäƤȤСŪ˱ϤäΤϼǤ롥ϡ¿ƤҲĬȤӤĤƤ
Schmitt and Marsden (208--11) ϡϤĹƤװȤơ3󤲤Ƥ롥

(1) ɸಽʤ뤿ΰʸ񤭸ʸμβŻҵѤȯŸˤꡤ衤ῴϤȤƺѤƤտ줿ʸϤ⡤®٤Ż뤹Żҥ᡼ʤɤˤά줿ʸϤ¸ߴƤƤ[2011-07-14-1]ε#808. smileys or emoticonsפ򻲾ȡˡηϡŻΤαѸ줫αѸʤɤؤ礷ƤꡤФݡȤαѸʤɤؤǤƤ롥
(2) Ѹ "localizing" ĤơBBC ϤȤɸѸ򹭤ôäƤǶϡष줾ϰ迧ФؤɤڤäƤƤ롥㤨СCNN ϥڥǤ CNNenEnpañol Ω夲Ƥ롥
(3) Ѹ춵餬åȤȤѼ¿ͲϡαѸ춵ΥåȤϡѼɽȤ ENL Ѽ路ʤäǯǤϡ¾ѼѸ춵ΥåȤȤʤꤦưФƤƤ[2009-10-07-1]ε#163. ɤαѸΤäȤ깽!?פ򻲾ȡˡ

(1) (2) ˤĤơϱѸεῴϤФǺѤȴԤ줿ǥ䵻ѳ׿ष¿ĹǺѤ褦ˤʤäƤƤȤΤǤ롥[2009-10-08-1]εǼ夲#164. 󥿡ͥåȤѸ첽פ⡤ƱĬή°
21¿ƤĬϡѸХХˤƤ椯Τ

This diversification may be more acceptable to societies now than before, as there appears to be a general movement away from conformity and toward a greater tolerance of diversity. Whereas in former times there might have been an outcry against incorrect written English, nowadays people seem increasingly comfortable with the idea that different types of English might be suitable for different purposes and media. These trends may exert pressure toward more diversification of English rather than standardisation. (Schmitt and Marsden 210)


Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-15 Tue

#1359. ϰѰۤȼҲѰ [sociolinguistics][variation][variety][rp][elf]

ҲŪʸѰ (linguistic variation) Υѥ᡼ˤ͡ʼΤΤ롥Ѹ˴ؤƤϡ#227. ѸѼΥǥ ([2009-12-10-1]) #228. ѸѼΥǥ (2) ([2009-12-11-1]) ʤɤǤĤΥѥ᡼򸫤ŪˤСѰۤμפʥѥ᡼Ȥơ顤̱²̡ȡʤɤ󤲤롥衤ҲؤǤȤ櫓ˤƤΤϡϰѰۤȳʼҲѰۤ
ϰѰۤȼҲѰۤδطȤǤ뤬פʱѸҲˤƤϰŪ˼Τ褦ʥǥȤɽʥȥåɥ롤p. 37 οޤȤ˺ˡ

Trudgill's Variation Pyramid

οޤϡҲŪ˹⤤ΩˤüԤɤδ֤ˤϰŪʺʤ㤤ΩˤüԤɤδ֤ˤϰŪʺ礭Ȥ򼨤Ƥ롥ꥹˤѸѤƤϤƤȡŪ˰ҿΤ RP (Received Pronunciation) üԤϡꥹΤɤޤäȤƤ⤪褽Ʊ RP äɸȤѼäüԤϡϰˤäƸߤ礭ۤʤäѤ롥ΥǥϡRP Τ褦ȯΤߤʤ餺äʸˡˤͭǤ롥㤨С֤פɽ魯ϡԥߥåɤĺˤɸѸǤ scarecrow ʤԥߥåɤդˤʤɸѸǤϡϰˤä bogle, flay-crow, mawpin, mawkin, bird-scarer, moggy, shay, guy, bogeyman, shuft, rook-scarer ʤɤȸؤ롥ʸˡǤϡɸŪ He's a man who/that likes his beer ФơɸѼǤϰˤäƴط̾ʬwho, that, at, as, what, he, Τ褦˸ؤʥȥåɥ롤p. 38ˡ
ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) δ顤Υǥ Svartvik and Leech ˤ#426. ѸѼΥԥߥåɥǥ ([2010-06-27-1]) Ƥ뤳Ȥդ
դäƤ٤ϡˤϡϰѰۤȼҲѰۤδطषեԥߥåɤȤʤ⤢ȤȤȥåɥ (31--32) ˤСɤΥɥ²°륫ʥˤĤơäʸˡˤĤϰ躹ȥȺδطĴƤߤȡ̥ȡʥ֥եޥˤǤϰˤäѰۤ¿ΤФơ̥ȡ֥եޥˤǤϰޤǸߤ˶Ȥ
ԥߥåɤθϰۤʤ뤬ˤ衤ϰѰۤȼҲѰۤδ֤ˤϡФСشطȤȤϤ

P. ȥåɥ ظȼҲ١ȽŹ1975ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2013-06-09-1] [2013-05-17-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-14 Mon

#1358. ȤФˤȤϲˤ [linguistics][historiography][saussure][language_change]

Ѹˤ칶Ƥ뤬ѸˤȤϲȤ뤳ȤϤޤʤɤǻǡѸˤǤ뤳ȤϼѸˤܸˤ衤ˤȤϲʤΤͤƤߤñǤϤʤƱռϡ (15) ˤ⸽Ƥ롥

ȥФ϶οưǤ뤫顤ȯä줿ִ֤˾ä롥оݤ䡹Ȼ³Ƥˤȹͤʤ顤Τ⤿³뤳ȤʤȥФˤʤɤꤦϤϤʤ⤷ȥФˤȤ顤ȥФξ硤оݤ³ȤϤɤȤ̣뤫褯ͤƤߤɬפ롥


ȥФˤϼΤ³ʤȤСˤʤɤϤϤʤȹͤΤȤѸˤˤܸˤˤ줬̵̣ǶȤФϤʤˤˤȤ狼äƤʤȾʤȤפäƤˡ̷ϤɤΤ
1ĤϡǼΤ³ʤΤȹͤȥФȤϥ塼Τ parole ʸˤؤˤĤΤȤƤθդ langue ʸˤؤΤǤϤʤȤȤparole langue δطϥॹΤ performance ʱѡˤ competence ǽϡˤδطˤ᤯Ť͹碌ƹͤƤ褤ɽȤƤϡcompetence ˤȤ langue ˤȤۤäΤǤϤʤϡlangue ȤѸ줬μҲȤƤ¦̤ĴƤꡤμҲѲѲˤۤʤʤȹͤ뤫
Ʊ̤βսǡεФΤͿƤ (119)

˼ΤʤȤ顤ѲȤФ븽ݤϡΤȤƤθѲ뤳ȤǤϤʤθãΤȤ褹붦ƱΤΥСʤ춦Ʊ (speech community) ͤˡޤǤȰä򤹤褦ˤʤ뤳ȤǤ롥äơ˿ʹԤĤĤܸѲˤܸüԤѶŪ˴ؤäƤ롥


ܸˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ뤬ƱȤϱѸˤĤƤ롥Ȥ2ȤƱѸؽƤ¿ܸüԤlingua franca ȤƤαѸѤݤˤ顤ΰѤϤ٤ƤϤޤ롥Ѹθ춦ƱΤʬŪˤǤ컲äƤ뤽ʬαѸѲ˹׸ƤΤơѲεפѸˤΰȤʤ롥
ȤƤСȤФˤȤϡüԽĤäѤƤ椯̵εפȤȤ館뤳ȤǤֺѡפȴϢơ#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) #1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤ󤸤ѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ⻲ȡ

ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١޴ֽ񱡡2001ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2014-01-16-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-13 Sun

#1357. lexeme ʸǡˤȤϲ [lexeme][terminology][semantics][morphology][word][idiom][word][morpheme]

lexeme ʸǡˤϤΥ֥Ǥ⤿ޤ˽ФƤѸΤ褦Ȥ񤷤#22. ǥȱѸˡ ([2009-05-20-1]) ǤƤϡФȤޤǤϤʤĤαѸؼŵ򻲾ȤơɤΤ褦ʸñ̤Ǥ뤫lexeme ˤϤĤΥץ롥

(1) morpheme ʷǡˤ word ʸˤӤñ̤Ȥơmorpheme ϡ#886. ǤˤޤĤ̻Ū ([2011-09-30-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǤϤʤBloomfield θŵŪˤ "a linguistic form which bears no partial phonetic-semantic resemblance to any other form" (Section 10.2) Ǥ롥word ϡ##910,911,912,921,922 Ǽ夲褦ˡ񤷤̣ͭŪñ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥˤϰ㤤ʤlexeme Ʊͤ˷ñ̤Ǥ롥ηˤϰ̣տ路Ƥ뤬lexeme ϤޤǤηỌ̇̄ͻΤǤ뵭ΤηʬؤǤϡmorpheme, word, lexeme Τΰ㤤ϤɤˤΤ㤨Сunderstand 12Ĥη under- -stand Ȥ롥θΰ̣2ĤηǤΰ̣¤ˤϤʤäƤ餺̣ΤȤ1ĤβȸʤʤǤϡñ̤Ọ̇̄ñ̤Ȥ줤бƤʤȤȤˤʤ롥Ʊͤˡput up with Ȥǥϡ3Ǥ3줫äƤ뤬̣ñ̤ȤƤϤϤ1ĤβǤ롥Ǥ⡤ñ̤Ọ̇̄ñ̤ȤäƤ롥ǡunderstand put up with ʬǤʤ1Ĥΰ̣ĤΤ顤Ūˤб1Ĥñ̤ꤹΤǤϤʤȤͤ롥줬 lexeme Ǥ롥 UNDERSTAND PUT UP WITH ϡ줾1Ĥ lexeme ȤƻȤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤälexeme ʸɽΤˡ
(2) 1ĤθΤߤ°Ȥơwater ˤ̾ư줬롥ĤޤꡤƱǤϤ뤬ۤʤ2Ĥθ°Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥̾ȤƤ water ưȤƤ water ̰뤳ȤǤ褦ˡword Ȥϰۤʤ lexeme Ȥñ̤ΩƤǤ롥ñ water ʣ waters ̾ lexeme ȤƤ WATER μ¸Ǥꡤ waterñ waters watered-ing watering ʤɤư lexeme ȤƤ WATER μ¸Ǥ롥
(3) ¸ۤʤޤȤᤢ뤿ɽȤơgo, goes, went, going, going Ϥ줾֤ۤʤ뤬ˤ lexeme GO Ǥ롥δ lexeme ϡheadword, citation form, lemma ʤɤȸƤؤ뤳ȤǽǤ롥

ľŪˤСˤơФ뤤ɤ߸ФȤϿƤꡤ̣ͿƤȻפ褦ʷñ̤ȤäƤФ褵̩񤷤ؼԡʳɡˤˤä͡󵯤ƤȤǤϡmorpheme, word, lexeme Τ褦ʸñ̤ɽ魯ѸΰǤ롥ʤlexeme Ȥñ̤ռԻ줿ŪʳؽѱѱѼȤơCambridge International Dictionary of English (1995) 󤲤Ƥ

Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-09-05-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-12 Sat

#1356. 20ꥹѸǤ government οΰ [bre][number][agreement][noun][syntax][corpus]

ε#1355. 20ꥹѸǽ̾ñפä ([2013-01-11-1]) Ǽ夲Bauer ν̾οΰפ˴ؤĴˤĤơҲ³롥The Times μΥѥˤ̻ŪĴ̤ơBauer ϷȴƺѤν̾Ǥ government 20δ֤ˡΰפ˴ؤƶ̣ʬۤ򼨤Ȥȯ (Bauer 64--65)
20ˤϡgovernment ʣפ¿ΤΡ褫ŦƤȤꡤȤ館˱ñʣΤѰۤ򼨤ƤȤˤʤȡñʣפΰ㤤ؼоݤΰ㤤б褦ˤʤäʣȤѤȤˤϱѹܤؤñȤѤȤˤ¾ܤؤȤƤȤΤʸˡȤ⡤̣ʻؼоݡˤؤȰܹԤΤ褦ʲˡBauer (64) "Concord with government by meaning from The Times corpus, 1930--65" ΥǡƷǤ褦

YearBritish governmentNon-British government
SingularPluralSingularPlural
1930315123
1935213112
194021442
19452722
1950126260
19552280
196002380
196511341
Total131136518


1965ǯޤǤˤηΩθ塤θˤơ٤ϻؼоݤˤ餺ñפƤ롥government ˴ؤ¤ꡤ notional variation semantic distinction grammatical preference for the singular ȿ񤤤ѲƤȤȤˤʤ롥
䤦٤ϡ嵭20λȤʬηϼʳΥƥȥפǤƱͤ˸ΤȤ government ٤Ǹ뤳Ȥͽۤ줿Ȥ˼θˤüˡȯãȵȤǤ뤫⤷ʤѥ򹭤Ƴǧɬפ

Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-02-25-1] [2021-05-20-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-11 Fri

#1355. 20ꥹѸǽ̾ñפä [bre][number][agreement][noun][syntax][corpus][americanisation]

ưοΰפˤĤƤϡ#930. a large number of people οΰס ([2011-11-13-1]) #1144. Ѹˤ԰פ ([2012-06-14-1]) #1334. Ѹˤ̾ưο԰ס ([2012-12-21-1]) εǰäƤ̤ˡѸˤ government team ʤɤν̾οΰפϡꥫѸǤϤäѤñǰפ뤬ꥹѸǤϤȤ館˱ñǤʣǤפȤ롥ΰ̲ϳͭΰפ˴ؤѰۤ򼨤ꥹѸˤĤƤߤȡ20̤ñפηޤäƤƤΤǤϤʤȤŦ롥Bauer (61--66) The Times μоݤȤѥҲ𤷤褦
Bauer ϡ1900--1985ǯ The Times corpus μ⤫ʤ륳ѥоݤˡ̾줬ñǰפΨ᤿Bauer ϡĴ The Times μȤ˷ĥäʸΤˤĴǤꡤ줬ɬ⥤ꥹѸΤɽƤȤϤʤǤäạ̇̄դͿƤ롥ʲϡBauer (63) ΥդܸƤǿͤɤ߽ФƺΤǤ롥

Singular Concord of Collective Nouns

ľȤƤʤ餻Сǯ0.3178%γǤȤʤäƤ롥ͤꤷʤȤ䥳ѥФʤɤͳˤꤳη̤ɤޤǿǤΤȤʤ뤬Bauer Ϻ٤ͿƤ餺ȽǤǤʤΤǤ롥
Bauer ϤˡѥǺǤ٤ι⤤̾ government üʿ񤤤򤹤뤳Ȥܤθ̾ˤĤơñפγƷ׻ΥդƱΤǡBauer (66) Υդ˴ŤƲΥդƺʤ餹ǯ0.1877%γǤǤ롥

Singular Concord of Collective Nouns Excluding 'government'

η̤¿Dzη̤ˤȤɤޤ餶ʤ褦˻פ뤬ʤȤ⤵ĴʤƤ椯ΥˤϤʤ
ʤBauer 1930ǯˤη֤äȤ¤򺬵ˡꥫѸ줬ƶͿȹͤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤƤ[2011-08-26-1]ε#851. ꥹѸФ륢ꥫѸαƶ2狼פ򻲾ȡˡ
government οΰפ˴ؤ뤪⤷񤤤ˤĤƤϡεǾҲ𤹤롥

Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-10 Thu

#1354. ƻܿ [adverb][adjective][flat_adverb][syntax]

ƻƱ졤 flat_adverb ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ͡˼夲ƤƻεǽϤȤ˾֤ɽ魯ȤǶˤƶᤤطˤꡤФФɤʬहФ褤Τ¤Ȥ⤢롥ʸˡˤʻ (part of speech) 뤤ϸ (word class) ʬबԴǤ뤳ȤξںǤ롥
Ūˤϡ߷ַƻܿפȤʸΤʤǡ6ܿ˭٤ʼȤʸغʤˤȤȤ˻ŦƤ롥߷ (3--5) ñˤޤȤ褦

(1) flat adverb ñˡ̤˥ꥫѸˤϤ뤫¿ˡ礷Ƥȸ졤äաä˶ܤΤʤͤäդħŪȤ롥#982. ꥫѸθѽФ flat adverb ([2012-01-04-1]) 򻲾ȡex. Now the Picton boat began to swing round steady, pointing out to sea.---K. Mansfield, The Voyage.
(2) Ѥηƻ졥ϤꥢꥫѸ¯ä¿α (1) ˵Ϣơ#984. flat adverb ϥƥϤηƻ줬ƻ򳫤 ([2012-01-06-1]) #1172. ѸΥƥñ ([2012-07-12-1]) 򻲾ȡex. His shoes and clothing were wet through and icy cold.---O. Henry, The Last Leaf.
(3) ư졥stand ΩäƤˤȤ֤ˤ get to stand ΩġˤȤưԤ롥ưɽ魯̣ϡԤưΰ̣Ȥ߹ǤʤȤħŪǤ롥ξԤζ̤̯Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ־֡ƻפȡưפȤζ̤̯Ǥ뤳ȤˤĤʤ롥ex. The old man sat motionless.---B. Malamud, The Mourners.
(4) ư졥ȡ֡ĤǤפδطΩĤΤħex. His tongue felt dry and large, as though covered with a fine hairy growth, and it tasted bitter in his mouth.---J. London, Love of Life.
(5) ưѲư졥ѲơĤξ֤ˤʤפΰդǡϤȥδطΩġex. He noticed companion, and became crestfallen all at once.---J. Conrad, Heart of Darkness.
(6) Ʊʸ졥ִʸ˽һȤƷƻ줬źäơưμưƱŪ֡뤤ϤηŪ֤򼨤ס߷, p.5ˡex. Her dark hair waved untidy across her broad forehead.---J. Galsworthy, The Apple Tree.

¿󤲤ǡ߷ (5) ϰʲΤ褦˷֡

ƻȤδ֤κθϤξʻ줬ΤʳˤƱǤäȤˤ롥 -ly Ĥ뤳ȤˤäʬϷŪ˷ƻ줫Ωư -ly Ĥʤޤ޺ޤ¸³Ƥ롥줬 Flat adverb ñˤǤ롥μʬϡ־֡פ򼨤 be link ΤǷƻ˶᤯ޤΤ -ly ӽƤȤͤ롥
ѸǤϡ־֡פ򼨤Ϥܷۤƻȴ뤬־֡פ򼨤Ȥ롥ĤޤξʻˤޤΤˡκݳعʸˡΰæơ־ֻפȤä褦ʽѸꤷɤǤˤ衤ƻ줫줫̤ͤФʤʤȤ꤬ΤǤ롥


褦ʵ#981. ȷƻζ ([2012-01-03-1]) Ǥ夲Τǡ׻ȡޤ linking verb γȤδطˤĤƤϡ#995. The rose smells sweet. The rose smells sweetly. ([2012-01-17-1]) ǾƤ롥
ƱɮԤˤ롤Ϣʸ (Osawa) ⻲ȡ

߷ ַƻܿסΩؿʸʳظǯ17桤1979ǯ3--5ǡ
Osawa, Ginsaku. "A Study of the Distinguishing Adverbs & the Distinguishing Adjectives." Ωʸѡ 49 (1974): 21--49.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-07-25-1] [2016-01-02-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-09 Wed

#1353. 첻Ĺû [pronunciation][phonetics][spelling][vowel][phoneme][frequency][variation]

[2012-02-13-1]ε#1022. ѸγƲǤ١פdzǧǤ褦ˡ/ʊ/ ϱѸû첻ǤΤʤǺǤ٤㤤ΤǤ롥ֻȤƤϡŵŪ <oo> <u> ɽ蘆벻ǤԤ /uː/Ԥ /ʌ/ ȤƼ¸뤳Ȥ¿ΤǡºݤˤϤۤɸʤŪˤϤɤΤ餤Τ
#1191. Pronunciation Search ([2012-07-31-1]) ǡ/ʊ/ + Ҳפǽñ򽦤äƤߤ "^[^AEIOU]*(?<!Y )UH[012]? [^AEIOUHWY]+$" Ƥߤȼ159줬󤬤ä

bloor, book, book's, booked, books, books', boor, boord, boors, bourque, brook, brook's, brooke, brooke's, brookes, brooks, brooks's, bruehl, bull, bull's, bulls, bulls', cook, cook's, cooke, cooked, cooks, could, crook, crooke, crooks, duerr, duerst, flook, fluhr, fooks, foor, foot, foote, foote's, foots, fuhr, fuld, full, full's, fulp, fults, fultz, gloor, good, good's, goode, goods, gook, hood, hoods, hoofed, hoofs, hook, hook's, hooke, hooked, hooks, hooves, joong, jure, kook, kooks, koors, kuehl, kuhrt, look, looked, looks, loong, luehrs, luhr, luhrs, lure, lured, lures, mook, moor, moore, moore's, moored, moores, moors, muhr, nook, nooks, poor, poor's, poore, poors, pull, pulled, pulls, puls, pultz, put, puts, rook, rooke, rooks, routes, ruehl, ruhr, schnooks, schnoor, schoof, schook, schultz, schulz, schulze, schuur, shook, should, shultz, shure, snook, snooks, soot, soots, spoor, spoor's, stood, stroock, stuhr, suire, sure, took, tooke, tookes, tour, tour's, toured, tours, ture, uhr, wolf, wolf's, wolfe, wolfe's, wolff, wolves, wood, wood's, woods, wool, woolf, wools, woong, would, wuertz, wulf, wulff, zook, zuehlke


ǡбĹ첻 /uː/ 첻 /ʌ/ ñϡƱͤξ︡ "^[^AEIOU]*(?<!Y )UW[012]? [^AEIOUHWY]+$" "^[^AEIOU]*(?<!Y )AH[012]? [^AEIOUHWY]+$" ˤС줾596졤966줬ҥåȤꤵ줿ĶˤĴǤϤ뤬Ū /ʊ/ ñ줬ʤȤ狼롥
171Τ<oo> = /ʊ/ δط򼨤Τ95줢롥ֻȯδططʤˤϡ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1]) ӡ#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1]) ǽҤ٤̤ꡤĹ첻û첻ȤѲä
βѲϲΤΤǤϤ뤬;ȤϸǤ⾯θˤƻȯŪ˸롥㤨Сȯɤ򼨤ΰ ([2010-08-28-1]) dzǧǤ¤ꡤroom, bedroom, broom ȯϡĹ첻û첻δ֤ɤ򼨤LPD Preference polls ˤСɤʬۤϰʲ̤ꡥ


BrE /ruːm/BrE /rʊm/AmE /ruːm/AmE /rʊm/
room81%19937
bedroom6337--
broom928--


Ϣơ#1094. <o> ֻ /u/ 첻ɽ魯 ([2012-04-25-1]) ⻲ȡĹ첻 /uː/ ˤĤƤϡ#841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1]) Ϳ롥

Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-08 Tue

#1352. ߥ˥̩٤̻ [sociolinguistics][diachrony][weakly_tied][social_network][language_change][contact]

Bloomfield (46) ϥꥫɽ빽¤ؼԤ̾ Language Ǥϡ˸ؤҲؤ褦ˤĤƤäۤ¿ƶŸƤ롥äΤ1Ĥˡ֥ߥ˥̩١ (the density of communication) ؤθڤ롥#882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1]) 㤬褦ˡּ夤嫤ǷФ줿 ("weakly tied") ҲǤϡ׿Ƴ䤹ʤ䤹ȤʴϢ[2012-07-19-1]ε#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡ספ⻲ȡˡϡǯμҲؤˤƸѲϳؤȤܤƤ복ǰBloomfield ᤤʳǤδŪʥǥäƤȹͤ롥
Bloomfield Τ "the density of communication" ϡʥХˤɽ蘆롥ȤɽġüԤߤ̵ǷӤĤ礤춦ƱΤΥͥåȥƤȤ᡼

Every speaker's language, except for personal factors which we must here ignore, is a composite result of what he has heard other people say. / Imagine a huge chart with a dot for every speaker in the community, and imagine that every time any speaker uttered a sentence, an arrow were drawn into the chart pointing from his dot to the dot representing each one of his hearers. At the end of a given period of time, say seventy years, this chart would show us the density of communication within the community. Some speakers would turn out to have been in close communication: there would be many arrows from one to the other, and there would be many series of arrows connecting them by way of one, two, or three intermediate speakers. At the other extreme there would be widely separated speakers who had never heard each other speak and were connected only by long chains of arrows through many intermediate speakers. If we wanted to explain the likeness and unlikeness between various speakers in the community, or, what comes to the same thing, to predict the degree of likeness for any two given speakers, our first step would be to count and evaluate the arrows and series of arrows connecting the dots. We shall see in a moment that this would be only the first step; the reader of this book, for instance, is more likely to repeat a speech-form which he has heard, say, from a lecturer of great fame, than one which he has heard from a street-sweeper. (46--47)


Ƿ«Ƥ붦ƱΤɤ٤ϸߤ˺٤Ǵˤ䤫˷ӤĤƤꡤΤȤĤʤäƤȤ᡼ϡҲؼԤ "social network" (Aitchison 49) οޤΤΤǤ롥
Ȥ˸ؤΩ줫鸫ƤפʤΤϡBloomfield ΰѤľˡХФƿľʼǤ̻֤פƤȤ¤Ǥ롥

The chart we have imagined is impossible of construction. An insurmountable difficulty, and the most important one, would be the factor of time: starting with persons now alive, we should be compelled to put in a dot for every speaker whose voice had ever reached anyone now living, and then a dot for every speaker whom these speakers had ever heard, and so on, back beyond the days of King Alfred the Great, and beyond earliest history, back indefinitely into the primeval dawn of mankind: our speech depends entirely upon the speech of the past. (47)


üԤϡƱƤ¾üԤȤΤĤʤΤߤˤäƸθƤ櫓ǤϤʤǯüԤˤŪʱƶäиηиκפϼθ˾ʤ餺ȿǤƤƱͤˡ餬ǯüԤ˸ŪƶڤܤƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ϥХФƿľ˲ؤ̤ؤ⿭ӤƤ椭źΤ٤ƤͥåȥΤɤ˰֤Ť뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
֤̻֤ζ̤ˡɬפBloomfield ΥХȤ˾Ȥ餻СξԤδ֤ΤʶʤȤͤ롥ξԤζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1]) #866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) #1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1]) #1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) #1076. 塼뤬֤̻֤ͥ褵3Ĥͳ ([2012-04-07-1]) ۤdiachrony γƵ򻲾ȡ

Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-07 Mon

#1351. ư֤ưѤ줿 through at [preposition][passive]

ε#1350. ư֤ưѤ of ([2013-01-06-1]) #1333. ѸǼư֤ưѤ줿ֻ ([2012-12-20-1]) ǿʤä⤦2ĤФ夲٤ֻ줬äthrough at Ǥ롥
through ˤĤƤϡOED through, prep. and adv. 7b ˡǤѤȤƤǤ뤬ư֤ưȤƤθͿƤ롥 c900 Bede Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum 顤ǽ1598ǯΤΤǡ8㤷󤲤ƤʤޤMED ϡư֤ưˡȤƤϸΩƤƤʤѸǤˡˤĤơ֤󤫾ܤΤ Mustanoja (408) Ǥ롥

Indicating the agent of a passive verb through is not particularly common in OE, and in ME it loses ground steadily: --- þuruh me ne schulde hit never more beon iupped (Ancr. 38); --- in Rome throu an þat hight Neron . . . Naild on þe rod he [Peter] was (Cursor 20909, Cotton MS); --- alle cristen folk been fled fro that contree Thurgh payens (Ch. CT B ML 542; it is impossible to say for certain whether been fled is an active or passive form).


at ˤĤƤϡ (355) ˤСѸǡ֤Ƥޤư¤ư (passive agent) 򤢤魯 Prp ȤƵ뤳ȤסMED Ǥϡ9 "Of means or agency: by means of, through; by (sb.)." Ȥ뤬įƤߤȡư֤ưȤƲǤ뤫ɤɬΤǤϤʤOED ǤϸΩƤƤ餺Mustanoja ˤ⵭Ҥʤat ư֤ưˡäƤɤ路ʤäƤ
ʤ15ˤ of by ζˤĤơ (358) 궽̣ҤդäƤ15ˤʤȤȤ˸Ǥ by of ݤƹԤ褦ˤʤ (Cely/PL/Shillingford/Stonor Ǥ of:by1:14ˡ

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ38ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-08-09-1] [2015-07-14-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-06 Sun

#1350. ư֤ưѤ of [preposition][passive][french_influence_on_grammar]

#1333. ѸǼư֤ưѤ줿ֻ ([2012-12-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ֻΤof ܤof ϡűѸν꤫1600ǯޤǡưֻȤƹȤ줿θ of by ִƤäḽѸΤĤɽˤĤƤˡκפȤɤƤ롥ٹ (277) ˵󤲤Ƥ

Then was Jesus led up of the spirit into the wilderness to be tempted of the devil. --- Matthew, iv. 1.
The poor sinner is forsaken of all. --- Eliot.
. . . while bream, beloved of our ancestors, cannot be recommended highly. --- Clifford Cordley. (in Chambers's Journal, Feb., 1916)
The observed of all observers --- Shakespeare Hamlet, III. i. 162
Thus she drew quite near to Clare, still unobserved of him --- Hardy Tess, XIX


OED of, prep. γսѤ褦

14. Introducing the agent after a passive verb.

The usual word for this is now by (BY prep. 33), which was prevalent by the 15th cent.; of was used alongside by until c1600. Of is subsequently found as a stylistic archaism in biblical, poetic, and literary use, and in certain constructions, e.g. 'on the part of'. In Old English of was less used than from (both of which, however, retain connotations of separation or origin): cf. German von from, of.

The use of of is most frequent after past participles expressing a continued non-physical action (as in admired, loved, hated, ordained of), or a condition resulting from a definite action (as in abandoned, deserted, forgotten, forsaken of, which approach branch II.). It is also occasional with participial adjectives in un-, as unseen of, unowned of. Of often shows an approach to the subjective genitive: cf. 'he was chosen of God to this work' with 'he was the chosen of the electors'. In other senses the agent has passed into the cause, as in afeard, afraid, frightened, terrified of; or the source or origin, as in born of. English of and by correspond somewhat to French de and par.


be afraid of ϡǤϸȤªƤ뤬Ѹ˥ե󥹸줫ä֤Ӥפ̣ư affray ѤŵŪʼɽ̾ĤˤʤޤѤνΤۤ˿Ƥ born(e) of ˤĤƤϡ#966. borne of ([2011-12-19-1]) 򻲾ȡ

ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-05 Sat

#1349. procrastination [morphology][french][latin][derivation][word_formation][diachrony][combining_form][loan_word][romancisation][neo-latin]

procrastination /prə(ʊ)ˌkræstɪˈneɪʃən/ Ȥƥͳ褹Ǥʤ줬롥ٱפ̣ǡѸǤν1548ǯȤʤäƤ롥츻ȤƤϡŵƥ̾ prōcrāstinātiō ѤΤǤ롤ȽҤ٤ƺѤޤȻפкѤޤ뤬ñ procrastination η֤ȯܳŪ褦ȤСѸ줬˥ƥե󥹸ηֵ§䲻§ǤȤˤҤ٤ʤˤϡѸʹߡ򤫤̻Ū˰ޤƤŪŪʷֵ§䲻§ȤƸ경ƤˤǤ롥
Bloomfield ˤСѸüԤϥƥñѤݤˡ"a fairly well-fixed set of habits" (493) ƤȤ

[T]hese habits are composed of (1) the adaptations and phonetic renderings that were conventional in the French use of book-Latin words round the year 1200, (2) adaptations that have become conventional in the English usage of Latin-French forms, and (3) phonetic renderings due to English sound-changes that have occurred since the Norman time.


procrastination ƤϤƤߤ褦ե󥹸Ǥϡƥ̾ϼʤǤϤʤгʤåʤη֡ΤˤϤȤ֤ǼΤǤ롥äơƥ prōcrāstinātiō ϡʷΤޤޥե󥹸ΤǤϤʤprōcrāstinātiōnem ʤɤμгʷ -em 줿֤ǡprocrastination Ȥƥե󥹸롥⤷13դ˥ե󥹸äƤʤСե󥹸Ǥ *[prokrastinaˈsjoːn] ʤɤȤʤäƤȤοꤵ벻 (1) ν˴Ť
ˡѸüԤϡ(2) ν˽äơե󥹸ͳƱѸäƤñȯѸ첽롥嵭οˤ2첻 *[a], 4첻 *[a], ľ *[sjon] 򡤤줾Ѹ [æ], [eɪ], [ʃən] ؤ֤ΤǤ롥νϡѸ줬̤Υե󥹼Ѹʤۤ夲Ƥαʩб§Ǥ롥
Ǹˡ(3) νʤѸˤ붯ưˤ뵬§Ѳ˽äơ1ǽᤫ餽ΰذư
Bloomfield ܿͤ p. 450 ǧƤ褦ˡ(2) (3) ζܤɬΤǤϤʤ嵭ϡѸ졤ե󥹸졤ƥ3Ԥδ֤̻Ū˰ޤƤб§̻ŪƤѲȤαѸˤ붦Ūʷֵ§ʤ뤤ϷֽˤȤƳΩƤȤŪǤ롥Ѹ줬16ȾФˡƥ prōcrāstinātiō ѤȤ뤤ϻȤƼ˼ȤȾ̵ռ (1), (2), (3) νŬѤ졤Ѹβ procrastination 줿ΤǤ롥ˤϡñʤѰʾβѤƤ롥
Ĺ֤Τ˷֤ŤƤвϩĤΤޤˤ®ϩȤʤäơľŪŤ褦ˤʤäȤǤѸäμȤϡˤ diachrony synchrony ȤǤ⼨ͿƤ줽

Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-01-31-1] [2013-02-08-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-04 Fri

#1348. 13ʹߤ v [phonetics][etymology][metanalysis][consonant][v]

[v] ϤȤͭ໤첻Ǽ䤹ȤŪħ롥ͭ໤ȤŪˤϡбμ岽ˤäƤ⤢롥ƥ rīpam "bank, shore", sētam "silk", focum "hearth" θڥǤ riba, seda, fuego "fire" ໤Ƥꡤե󥹸Ǥ rive, soie, feu Τ褦ˤ˼岽뤤ϾüƤ (Bloomfield 374)
[v] ˸ꤹСѸǤ⡤λҲ첻ǤФкƤ롥Ѹ auger, curfew, had, head, kerchief, lady, lark, lord, poor ϡȯ [v] ޤޤƤʤ [v] äƤ[v] κ13ʹߤΤȤƤ롥
(401, 410--11) ˤС[v] κ줿ĶˤϤĤμबǧ롥Ǥ3夲褦1ܤϡa ˸³k, g, l ֤ĶǤ롥㤨Сauger hawk ʤɤǡŪ [v] Ƥ롥ԤϸűѸ nafogār ̤ꡤ nafu "nave" + gār "spear" ιǤ롥Ѹ a g ˶ޤ줿 [v] 졤 a nauger an auger ʬΤǤʰʬϤˤĤƤϡ[2009-05-03-1]ε#4. ǶܤǤѸñȯڤƤ롩פ metanalysis γƵ򻲾ȡˡԤϡűѸ h(e)afoc Ѹˤ [v] 줿ΤǤ롥
d ֤ˤƤǤꡤűѸ hæfde "had", hēafdes "head's", hlǣfdige "lady" ʤɤˤ [v] ü
3ܤϡΤĹ첻θ֤ǡ r(C), l, m, n ֤ˤƤǤꡤűѸ lāferce "lark" 䡤ťե󥹸줫μѸ cuevrechief "kerchief", cuevrefeu "curfew", povre "poor" ʤɤˤ [v] ü
Ϣơlady lord θˤˤĤƤϡ#23. "Good evening, ladies and gentlemen!"ϴְ㤤 ([2009-05-21-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-03 Thu

#1347. a lawyer turned teacher [passive][adjective][perfect]

ɸϡֶդžȤˡΧȡפ뤤ϡˡΧȤžȤաפΰ̣ζǤ롥̤ˡA turned B ǡBžȤAפ뤤ϡAžȤBפȤʤ롥ζ turned Դư turn βʬǡľ̾򽤾Ƥ뤬³ƤΤħǤ롥ư줬ʬȤ̾򽤾ˡϡ#752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡĤ롥֤Ѳɽ魯ưμưϸŤ be ˤ괰λäΤǡa lawyer turned teacher ϡ"a lawyer who is turned teacher" ʸѸȤƤ "a lawyer who has turned teacher"ˤб뤳Ȥˤʤ롥B ̾ϡ̾̵Ѥ롥an activist-turned-leader, an actor-turned-President, an engineer-turned-psychologist, a failed Kentucky lawyer turned smuggler, a lawyer-turned-legislator, a peeler-turned-pol, a writer-turned-governor ʤɥϥեȼ¿

OED turn, v. δϢεҤʸΤĤΤƤߤ褦

39. intr. with compl. To change so as to be, to become.
. . . .
b. with n. compl. (most commonly without article). Freq. as pa. pple. modifying a n.
. . . .
1945 Times 4 Aug. 5/2 Mr. Aneurin Bevan at the Ministry of Health..is conspicuously the poacher turned gamekeeper.
1964 Eng. Studies 45 382 Their Scandinavian conquerors-turned-neighbors.
1973 E. F. Schumacher Small is Beautiful i. iii. 44 The economist-turned-econometrician is unwilling..to face the question.
1982 Times Lit. Suppl. 10 Sept. 968/3 Jerome's father was a Nonconformist preacher, turned architect, turned mine-owner.


#752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1]) Ǥϡưβʬ줬֤̾󤲤 A turned B Τ褦ˡưβʬ줬̾˸֤Ϥۤɤܤˤʤʤ櫓ǤϤʤٹ (92--93) ε󤲤ƤǺܤ褦

A Daniel come to judgement! --- Shakespeare.
Everybody knows the treasure of the sailor arrived in port. --- Sir Walter Besant.
"My dear, you must ask Priscilla," he said in the once firm voice, now become rather broken. --- Eliot.
But Lottie staggered on the lowest verandah step like a bird fallen out of the nest. --- Mansfield.
The gallant old squire, lately gone to his rest. --- Thomas Hughes.
He looked at the little sister returned to him in her full womanly beauty. --- Eliot.
He looked as a man just risen from a long illness. --- William Morris.
The brave that are no more! / All sunk beneath the wave / Fast by their native shore. --- Cowper.
He led me to a place where I found a kind Englishman lived right in the midst of the natives. --- Mrs. Gaskell.
Here is a gentlemen come to see you. --- Bennett.
Ah, you are the young woman come to look after my birds? --- Hardy.


ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-02 Wed

#1346. ղõϤɤΤ餤褯Ȥ뤫 [interrogative][tag_question][ame_bre][corpus][frequency][statistics]

ѸβäǤϡղõ䤬褯Ȥ롥ŪˤɤΤ餤褯ȤΤ⤽Ū˵ʸϤɤΤ餤٤ΤΤʤǡղõϤɤ줯餤γΤΤ褦ʵ顤ޤ٤ Biber et al. LGSWE Ǥ롥
ǽˤĤƤϡp. 211 ˲ͿƤ롥οˤƤĴCONV(ERSATION) Ǥ401ĵ䤬ޤޤƤȤåѥǤϡž̾塤䤬ȿǤƤǽ⤯ºݤˤϿͰʾ٤ǵʸƤϤǤ롥ƥȥפǤС礭򳫤 FICT(ION) ³NEWS ACAD(EMIC) Ǥϵʸ٤ϸ¤ʤ㤤
ˡƥ֥ѥˤơʸΤˤղõϤɤΤ餤p. 212 ˷ǺܤƤ׷̤ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤ᤿Ĥ­100%ȤʤɽǤ롥

(* = 5%; ~ = less than 2.5%)CONVFICTNEWSACAD
independent clausewh-question******************************
yes/no-question************************
alternative question~~~~
declarative question***~~
fragmentswh-question******
other********
tagpositive*~~~
negative*****~~


CONV ˤղõΨ⤤ȤΤ褦ͽ¬줿Ʊ֥ѥεɽΤΤʤ25%ȤȤȯäΤʤǤ⡤ is it? isn't it? ΥפΤۤä¿ޤFICT CONV ˤ褽ऺʬۤ򼨤Τϡեβʬι׸NEWS ACAD ղõΨ㤤ΤϡɽäȤηӤĤ򶯤ΤǤ롥ޤ2ĤΥ֥ѥǤϡΩǤεʸä wh-question Ū¿Τդ
ղõΨ˴ؿäΤϡ¤ϡSchmitt and Marsden (192) ˼Τ褦ʵҤ򸫤Ĥä

Tag questions (i.e., regular questioning expressions tagged onto a sentence) exist in both American and British English, with British speakers perhaps using them more than Americans: "That's not very nice, is it?" Peremptory and aggressive tags tend to be used more in British English than in American English: "Well, I don't know, do I?" (192)


ǰʤ顤Biber et al. Ǥղõ٤αƺΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤӡƤΥѥĴ٤ɬפ

Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-01 Tue

#1345. read -- read -- read γ [verb][conjugation][phonetics][spelling][gvs][homonymic_clash][degemination][sobokunagimon]

ޤƤǤȤޤ̦ǯǤǯ hellog ꤤޤ
ǯǽεϡ󤻤줿μˤĤơread βȯʤ /rɛd/ ʤΤѸˤδɤΤ
ɸѸ read γѤϡֻѤȯǤ /riːd/ -- /rɛd/ -- /rɛd/ Ȥʤ롥ΤˡδԵ§ζˤߤΤ褦˸롥ŪˤߤС§Ūȸڤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤΡȤäԵ§ζˤߤȤʤȯ˴ؤƤ㤬뤷ֻˤĤƤ⤢٤Ϳ롥
ȯֻ̡˹ͤƤޤϡȯ顥ư read θűѸ West-Saxon ˤ rǣdan Ǥꡤ촴ˤĹ첻ޤޤƤAnglian Kentish Ǥϡ첻 ē ɽ蘆⤤֤첻äˤűѸˤĹ첻ޤޤƤȤפǤ롥ơưϥޥĸʳǤ϶ѲVII°ƤűѸޤǤˤϼѲƤꡤWest-Saxon Ǥϲ rǣddeʬ gerǣd(e)d ڤƤ롥ǡ촴 d d ȤʣƤ뤳ȤݥȤǤ롥ȤΤϡѸˤơνŻҲľĹ첻ûȤѲǤ³æŻҲˡơѸǤϡ촴첻β /æ/, /ɛ/, /a/ ʤ첻δ֤ɤƤ줪Ӹ߷θ촴ǤĹ첻Ӳʬθ촴Ǥû첻Ȥʬۤ줿Ĺ첻ϸϤȤʤꡤɸѸ /iː/ ؤϢʤꡤû첻 /ɛ/ ؤϢʤä
첻бֻϤɤΤ褦ȯŸƤѸ˸줿 <ea> ֻϡȸ߷θ촴첻 /ɛː/ бƤȹͤ롥û첻Ȳʬθ촴첻ɽ魯֤ȤƤ <e> դ꤬Ǥդ路äΤ<red> Ǥϡ֡פɽ魯Ʊ֤۵ȾͤƤޤ줬ä餫̲뤳ȤϤʤä "homographic clash" ȤǤƤ֤٤ϡOED "read, v." θ츻ͿƤΤǤ롥

The present-day spelling of the past tense and past participle forms is analogous to the present tense; the spelling red for past tense and past participle is found only in isolated instances in the modern period and was perhaps avoided because it coincided with the standard spelling of RED adj.


"homographic clash" 1ĤβǽȤƤϹθ̤ͤƻ褦㤬Τޤ/ɛ/ = <ea> бΤΤ bread, dead, head, lead (n.), spread, stead, thread ʤɤ˸졤ɬ⵩ǤϤʤ
˽Ҥ٤Ƥ OED εҤ绨ĤˤޤȤ᤿ΤɸѸȯֻδط夯ޤǤˡʤ餫ˤ뤳ȡˤʣǤ롥MED ΰ֤ΰͤС䤳Ǥ
ʤlead (v.) read Ʊͤˤ򤿤ɤäֻȯ̩ܤʴطݤ³ɸѸǤ lead -- led -- led ؤ夤Ƥ롥ޤѸǤ eat spread ⸽߷Ĺ첻û첻ä (Dobson 503) ΤǡλޤǤȯȯã read ʿԤäȤˤʤ롥

Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46

Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow