01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ΥͥåȻѤȯŪäƤ롥Miniwatts Marketing Group ˤ Internet World Stats: Usage and Population Statistics Internet World Users by Language: Top 10 Languages ΥǡȤȡ2000--2011ǯΤǤλѼԿ5𤵤Ƥ롥ǤϡͥåȤλѸʬۤˤĤƤϤɤƱڡꡤͥåȤˤȥå10ͤƷǤ褦2011ǯ531ߤοͤǤ롥
| TOP TEN LANGUAGES IN THE INTERNET | Internet Users by Language | Internet Penetration by Language | Growth in Internet (2000--2011) | Internet Users% of Total | World Population for this Language (2011 Estimate) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| English | 565,004,126 | 43.4% | 301.4% | 26.8% | 1,302,275,670 |
| Chinese | 509,965,013 | 37.2% | 1,478.7% | 24.2% | 1,372,226,042 |
| Spanish | 164,968,742 | 39.0% | 807.4% | 7.8% | 423,085,806 |
| Japanese | 99,182,000 | 78.4% | 110.7% | 4.7% | 126,475,664 |
| Portuguese | 82,586,600 | 32.5% | 990.1% | 3.9% | 253,947,594 |
| German | 75,422,674 | 79.5% | 174.1% | 3.6% | 94,842,656 |
| Arabic | 65,365,400 | 18.8% | 2,501.2% | 3.3% | 347,002,991 |
| French | 59,779,525 | 17.2% | 398.2% | 3.0% | 347,932,305 |
| Russian | 59,700,000 | 42.8% | 1,825.8% | 3.0% | 139,390,205 |
| Korean | 39,440,000 | 55.2% | 107.1% | 2.0% | 71,393,343 |
| TOP 10 LANGUAGES | 1,615,957,333 | 36.4% | 421.2% | 82.2% | 4,442,056,069 |
| Rest of the Languages | 350,557,483 | 14.6% | 588.5% | 17.8% | 2,403,553,891 |
| WORLD TOTAL | 2,099,926,965 | 30.3% | 481.7% | 100.0% | 6,930,055,154 |
衼åѤˤϳƹ줿Ѹ줬ꡤ̱ϰͤˤȤѤ餷Ƥ롤ȤϰŪʤΤ⤷ʤΤ˥٥륮ʤɤ¿ѹ⤢뤬͡ꥹѸ졤եե졤ɥġɥĸ졤ڥڥΤ褦ˡȤȸ줬абƤΤƤΤǤϤʤ
ϸǤ롥Ωβǡ1ȡ1פȤۤŪˤʤꡤ⤽;ȤΤʤˤ뤬¤ˤ餫ȿƤ롥衼åѳƹϡΤۤܤ٤ƤιϰƱ褦ˡʶʤ multilingual Ǥ롥ɡʤܡˤΤ褦㳰㳰Ȥ⤤¾ñϤˤ衤Ǥ롥
Ethnologue ʤɤθפλ衼åѤι츫Ф狼Ȥꡤ衼åѳƹǤ϶äۤ¿θ줬ԤʤƤ롥դˡ̾õˤƤ⡤줬¿ΰۤʤǹԤʤƤ뤫狼롥1ȡ1פ¤ȿ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥衼åѤγƹȸбǺ٤ɬפϤʤפбޤȤƤȻפΤǡTrudgill (121--22) ΰƸ褦ʲɽθФθϡ̾衼åѤιȤȷӤĤפʸθϱ˼Ǥ⾯ȤƹԤʤƤ롥
| German | Denmark, Belgium, France, Italy, Slovenia, Serbia, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Hungary, Czechia, Poland | |
| Turkish | Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine | |
| Greek | Italy, Macedonia, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Turkey | |
| Albanian | Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Italy | |
| Hungarian | Austria, Serbia, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Ukraine | |
| Finnish | Sweden, Norway, Russia | |
| Swedish | Finland | |
| French | Italy | |
| Polish | Lithuania, Czechia, Ukraine | |
| Bulgarian | Romania, Greece, Ukraine | |
| Danish | Germany | |
| Dutch | France | |
| Italian | Slovenia, Croatia | |
| Russian | Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine | |
| Ukrainian | Romania, Slovakia, Poland | |
| Slovak | Hungary, Romania, Czechia | |
| Czech | Poland, Romania, Slovakia | |
| Slovene | Austria, Italy | |
| Macedonian | Greece, Albania | |
| Lithuanian | Poland | |
| Rumanian | Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia, Macedonia |
| Sami (Lapp) | Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia | |
| Frisian | Germany, Netherlands | |
| Basque | Spain, France | |
| Catalan | Spain, France | |
| Breton | France | |
| Sorbian | Germany | |
| Kashubian | Poland | |
| Welsh | UK | |
| Gaelic | UK |
ҲؤκǽפΥɤ1Ĥ variety Ѽ) 롥variety ˤĤƤϡvariety γƵȤ櫓#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) ǵϼҲؼԤˤĤߤƤߤ褦
Wardhaugh (23) ¹Hudson (22) ˤ "a variety of language" ϡ"a set of linguistic items with similar distribution" Ǥ롥ˡFerguson (30) ϡ"any body of human speech patterns which is sufficiently homogeneous to be analyzed by available techniques of synchronic description and which has a sufficiently large repertory of elements and their arrangements or processes with broad enough semantic scope to function in all formal contexts of communication" 롥Ǥ⡤"similar" "sufficiently homogeneous" ȤɽѤƤ뤳Ȥ狼Ȥꡤܤˤ錄봰ƱᤷƤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǴˤ䤫˻̤äƤ "variety" ȸƤФʤꡤˤ٤ variation ѰۡˤޤޤƤ뤳ȤϤषȤƤΤδ餹С¿ѼҲѤܤΤ⡤ʣ줫äƤˤ⤫餺 "a variety" Ǥ뤷⾮ñ̡㤨Ф¼θ䤢²θ "a variety" Ǥ롥
ʼҲ˸ؤǾѤƤ "variety" ȤϡˤǰǤ롥ޤ˴ˤơȤʤäƤ "a variety" ⤽¸ߤΤȤȤ顤ˤʤꤦۤɤǤ⡤Algeo #415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) ȽҤ٤̤ꡤ Wardhaugh (23) ⼡ΰѤΤʤǧ̤ꡤ"variety" ȤѸͭѤϵʤ
[I]f we can identify such a unique set of items or patterns for each group in question, it might be possible to say there are such varieties as Standard English, Cockney, lower-class New York City speech, Oxford English, legalese, cocktail party talk, and so on. One important task, then, in sociolinguistics is to determine if such unique sets of items or patterns actually do exist. As we proceed we will encounter certain difficulties, but it is unlikely that we will easily abandon the concept of 'variety,' no matter how serious these difficulties prove to be.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Ferguson, C. A. Language Structure and Language Use. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1972.
ҲؤǤ͡ĴԤʤƤꡤǤ˸ŵŪȤ̾ĴĤ⤢롥ܥ֥ǤϡΤΤۤξ˲ʤʲ˿Ƥ
#882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1])
#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1])
#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1])
#1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-27-1])
Ĵ⡤ʤüԽĤμҲŪʶ̤ŪѰۤбƤȤȤ餫ˤƤ롥Τ褦ʸ̤ߤȡΤ˼ҲȸȤطƤ뤳ȤϤ狼뤬ʤؤƤΤشط̣ΤȤ꿼䤬롥¿θǤϡޤƧ߹ˤϻʤȤ¿ǡҲؤϡҲȸشطŦƽ "correlational sociolinguistics" ǤȤȽʤƤؤȼҲؤΤ줾ˤꤵƤѥդ碌˲ҲؤȤʬȼ餫ˤθȤΤϾʤȤȽ
ΤˡȽϼҲؼԤŤߤ٤ȽȻפ롥Wardhaugh (11--12) ʤɤ⤳ˤĤƻ̤䤤ƵƤ뤬ȽؤβȤƤ褯ޤȤޤäƤΤ Trudgill (39--41) Trudgill ϼ5ơ"correlational sociolinguistics" ȤȽ롥
(1) ŪʾڵפȤüԤ˼ҲŪϰ̤ͿˤꡤΤˤɤΤ褦ʾѤƤ뤫Ƥ롥
(2) оݤȤƤ춦ƱΤμҲ¤ˤĤƲƤ롥㤨СNorwich ǤϡҲ Middle Class Working Class 礭ʬª뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ롥
(3) Ŀ (idiolect) οͽۤ뤳ȤϤǤʤҲĤʿŪʿͽۤ뤳ȤǽȤʤ롥
(4) ̤ҲĤδ֤θŪۤϡޤŪϢ³ŪʤΤǤ뤳ȤȤʤäƤ뺹ۤŪʰ㤤ǤϤʤŪʰ㤤Ǥ뤳Ȥ
(5) ѲˤˤĤ¿μͿƤ롥
Trudgill ϡҲؤμΩä (5) ˤäƤȹͤƤ롥"correlational sociolinguistics" ʤ "causational sociolinguistics" (?) ʤʬȯŸԤƤ롥
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ε#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1]) ǡʸΤκˤ۷֤λߤʸκ̤λҲ𤷤#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1]) ȡ#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1]) Ǽ夲˥塼衼Ԥˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ̵ͭʬۤˤĤƤǤ롥 Labov ˤҲĴ̤ʲάҤ Trudgill (88--89) ͿƤ복פ˴ŤΤǤ뤳ȤǤäƤ
Labov ϡ˥塼衼ԤˤƼҲ non-prevocalic /r/ ȯΨȤؤƤȤΩơեɥˤ¾ڤʤ⤤ǤФۤɤβĶǤ /r/ Ψ⤤Ȥ/r/ ҲŪʰҿӤĤƤȤΤˡLabov ϳ̤ʬ (Lower Class, Lower Working Class, Middle Working Class, Upper Working Class, Lower Middle Class, Upper Middle Class) ȹ碌ʸ̤ʬϤߤʸΤζ̤ϡ줿Ʊͤˡ(1) ñꥹȤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 word-list style (WLS)(2) ʸϤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 reading-passage style (RPS)(3) formal speech (FS)(4) casual speech (CS) 4Ǥ롥ʬϷ̤ϡ褽ʲΥդ̤Ȥʤä

Norwich ˤ -in' Ĵ̤ƱͤˡΤȤơʼФäʸΤǤФۤɰҿ /r/ ȯФΨ⤤Ȥ狼롥Ȥˤ Norwich ξȰۤʤ롤ƶ̣1Ĥ롥Lower Middle Class word-list style ˤơͽۤ /r/ Ψǧ뤳ȤǤ롥б Upper Middle Class Ψ礭ۤơ60%ιΨƤΤǤ롥ϤɤΤ褦Ф褤Τ
ͭϤϼ̤Ǥ롥LMC ϡξ徺ָ顤ҿ /r/ ̵ͭҴǤꡤռŪʸΤˤƤϾ̤ UMC /r/ ¿Ф˻ΤǤϤʤ˲䤷ʤȡ˥塼衼ԤαѸ춦ƱΤ /r/ ȯؤȸƤΤϡۤʤ LMC ǤϤʤȤǽФƤ롥ºݡLabov θüȯ뤽θμҲؤθˤСβϳͻٻƤƤ롥ѲθȸưϤˤĤƤ椬餫ˤƤƤȤ褦
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1]) ǡNorwich ˤ -ing ȯ˴ؤ Trudgill ˤҲĴǤϡɸŪ -ing ɸŪ -in' Τ줾λ٤̤̤ˤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤ뤫ɽǼTrudgill ϡ -ing ѰۤˤĤơۤˤʸ̤ĴԤʤäƤΤǡƤ
̤ˡäʤɤάŪʸΤǤɸŪʰ۷Ф졤ñǫɤ߾夲褦ᤵ褦ʳʼФäʸΤǤɸŪʰ۷Фǽ⤤ͽۤ롥ǡTrudgill ϡƼҲɽ︳Ԥ顤4ʸΤˤ -in(g) ȯФɸɸΨ٤4ʸΤȤϡǤʼФäΤˡ(1) ñꥹȤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 word-list style (WLS)(2) ʸϤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 reading-passage style (RPS)(3) formal speech (FS)(4) casual speech (CS) Ǥ롥ʲϡTrudgill (87) äɸ -in' γ̤ʸ̤ΨǤ롥ˡդǤɽ路
| WLS (%) | RPS (%) | FS (%) | CS (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Middle Middle Class | 0 | 0 | 3 | 28 |
| Lower Middle Class | 0 | 10 | 15 | 42 |
| Upper Working Class | 5 | 15 | 74 | 87 |
| Middle Working Class | 23 | 44 | 88 | 95 |
| Lower Working Class | 29 | 66 | 98 | 100 |

ε#1368. Fennell ǡѸάǯɽ ([2013-01-24-1]) ˰³ϥե㥯ǤǯɽƸ롥ܸǤαѸǯɽ⤢Ȼפ˽ä (207--10) ƱѸˤǯɽȤäƤ⡤ԤˤäۤʤΤǤꡤ줾ħ롥ǯɽΤ1Ĥ˵ҤˡǤȤȤǧ롥
| 55, 54 BC | 桼ꥦ뤬Ψƥ֥ƥ˾Φ | |
| 43 BC | ˤȿŪʥ֥ƥϤޤ | |
| end of C3 | ޥͽ²ˤǽΥ֥ƥ繶 | |
| 367 | åȿ͡ʥɤˡԥȿ̤͡ˡ͡줫ˤ۲Υ֥ƥ | |
| 375 | ե²ʤƨ褦²ɥʥϤ˿ޥ̱²ưϤޤ롥Ƿ | |
| 383 | ޤ˾ | |
| 410 | ǸΥĤ֥ƥ礫ű | |
| 449 | ޥ²֥ƥ˿Ϥ | |
| c500 | ֥Хɥ˥֡פ襤ǿԥޥͤԤ졤֥ƥˤư | |
| 547? | ϥС̤˥²Ƥ | |
| 597 | ƥ̥Ȳ夷֥ƥ˽Ǥޥͤ˥ꥹȶ۶Ϥ | |
| 634 | ɤνƻΤΡ֥ꥢΥꥹȶ˾Ф | |
| 655 | ޡΥꥹȶΡ֥ꥢȥɤ붵դμˤ괰λ | |
| 664 | Ρ֥ꥢˤơۥåȥӡĤ롥֥ƥ䥢ɤΥꥹȶ줵Ȥʤ | |
| c725 | ˤإ١ա٤κ | |
| 787 | ǡͤοϤޤ | |
| 865 | ǡͿ2 | |
| 871--899 | եå粦μ | |
| 879 | եå粦ȡʥबΨ˥ǡͤȤδ֤ǥɥ⥢ζꡥǡϰγ | |
| 886 | եå粦ɥΡβɤǧ | |
| 964 | ƻβפϤޤꡤѸɸಽ˱ƶͿ | |
| 973 | ɥСˤơƥꥹȶεˤ״ʥǡϰޤɤκǽβȤʤ | |
| 991 | աȥ奰ꥹ˿ǡͿ3Ϥޤ | |
| 1066 | ꥢءƥ襤ǾᡤΥޥͤαѹϤޤ롥եȥƥ줬ѸäƸѸȤʤ | |
| 1154 | إԡХǯ嵭٤ȸƤФܤεϿϤǯǽ뤹롥ʰ̤ˡإǯ嵭٤ȸƤФ롥ܤ7ĤꡤοϤޤäƤ롥 | |
| 1204 | եեå2Ԥ졤ΥޥǥեμϤ롥ꥹ̱²ޤϤ | |
| 1250 | ѹ²뤷եŤɬפʤʤ | |
| 1258 | إ3Υޥͤαѹʹ߽ƱѸ۹Ф | |
| 1295 | ॺեɤκȽǡʸѸȥեξɤޤ | |
| 1337--1453 | ɴǯ补ˤꡤꥹͤϥեΤΤФŨ褦ˤʤ | |
| 1344 | ˡƱѸǽ | |
| 1348--1350 | ¤ΤᡤꥹҲ絬Ϥʽ̱ΰư | |
| 1362 | ƱѸdz롥IJϡ³ˡפꤷ1363ǯ1ʹߤϤ٤Ƥʾټ³ĤϱѸǹԤʤȤ˷ | |
| 1381 | ̱䤬ꡤҲŪưοʹԤ® | |
| c1385 | Ѹ줬γعѤ褦ˤʤ | |
| 1413 | إ4ѹȤƽƱѸǰĤ | |
| 1422 | Ѹˤǽζ̼ʸ | |
| 1423 | εĻϿѸǽϤ | |
| c1430 | ĮƱȹθʸ˱ѸѤϤ | |
| 1476 | ꥢࡦ㥯ȥɤꡤȥߥ˺ǽΰĤ | |
| 1499 | 㥯ȥθѼԥԥѸ졦ƥýػҶΤθդˡ٤Ǥʽ줿Τ1440ǯˡԻؤΰȤʤ | |
| 1534 | إ8ȤδطѹΩ | |
| 1564--1616 | ꥢࡦԥ | |
| 1586 | ꥢࡦ֥ʸˡΤξҡ١ƱԤˤ븽¸ʤʸˡδʰǡˤǤ롥ǽαʸˡ | |
| 1588 | ڥ̵Ũ˾Ѹ줬˹üȤʤ | |
| 1604 | Сȡɥإե٥åȽð٤νǡǽαѸΰ켭ŵʱѱѼŵ | |
| 1607 | ꥫ˱Ѹ줬⤿餵롥Υ˥ˡԤˤäƥॺߤ | |
| 1611 | ʥॺˤν | |
| 1639--1686 | ɡʥޥɥ饹륫åܥ٥ˤ˱ѹϤߤ | |
| 1642--1660 | ̱̿ | |
| 1664 | ΩֱѸɤ뤿ΡװѰ | |
| 1712 | J. եȤˤ륪åեؤμ椬رѸζɡΤơ٤ȤƽǤ졤ǥߡΩ¥ | |
| 1713 | Υե饤ꥹ˾Ϥ | |
| 1755 | ߥ奨롦رѸ켭ŵ٤Ǥ롥19ޤѸɤ뤮ʤŪ¸ߤȤʤ | |
| 1759 | վ٥å襤ǥե˾ | |
| 1761 | ɤꥹο̱ϤȤʤ | |
| 1769--1777 | ץƥåʿΤؤιҳӾǡȥꥢ˥塼ɡޥ˥ꥹΤ | |
| 1775--1783 | ꥫΩˤꡤꥫ罰 | |
| 1788 | ȥꥢΥ˥塼륺˺ǽήϿ̱Ϥߤ롥ץեꥫˤˤ륪̱ϤꥹͭȤʤ | |
| 1805 | ȥե륬γˤƥꥹե˾롥ꥹƸ̱ϳؤƻ | |
| 1816 | ꥹǺǽΰ²ʿʹȯԤ졤Ѹ˱ƶͿޥǥ夬Ϥޤ | |
| 1840 | ˥塼ɤˤơꥹ̱Ϥߤ롥ꥹΰ²٤ʸ̿ȯã¥˱Ѹ줬ڤ | |
| 1858 | ؿѸ켭ŵ١ʸˡإåեɱѸ켭ŵ٤ȾΤˤԽȤϤޤ | |
| 1890--1910 | ¿ȯʳؾȯѸΤʤ礭ʱƶͿ | |
| 1899--1901 | եꥫΥ֡ˤƽԤλ¹̡ꥹƸΩ | |
| 1914--1918 | 1Ѹΰҿޤ롥ե϶ȤơޤȤƤϰ̤Ϥʥ륵եȱѸǽ | |
| 1939--1945 | 2郎ˡѸڤʤᡤΰҿ |
#777. Ѹάǯɽ ([2011-06-13-1]) ǤϡCrystal ǤαѸάǯɽǺܤ Fennell ǤƸ롥Fennell ǤϳƾϤκǽоݤȤʤäƤ˴ؤǯɽܤƤꡤʲϤۤ¤ԽޤǤǡ٤ƤʤFennell ̾ͽۤȤꡤҲŪ¦̤ȿǤƤǯɽǤ롥
| 8000 BC | Hunter groups move into Lapland | |
| 7000 BC | Wheat, barley and pulses cultivated from Anatolia to Pakistan; goats and pigs domesticated | |
| 7000 BC | Farming developed on Indian subcontinent; barley main crop | |
| 6500 BC | Adoption of farming in Balkan region; beginning of the European Neolithic spread of domestic animals, probably from Anatolia | |
| 6200 BC | Farming villages established in the west and central Mediterranean | |
| 5200 BC | First farmers of central Europe spread northwest as far as the Netherlands | |
| 4500 BC | Cattle used as plough animals in lower Danube region | |
| 4500 BC | First megalithic tombs built in western Europe | |
| 4400 BC | Domestication of horse on Eurasian Steppes | |
| 4200 BC | Earliest copper mines in eastern Europe | |
| 4200 BC | Agriculture begins south of the Ganges | |
| 3800 BC | Ditched enclosures around settlements in western Europe, forming defended villages | |
| 3500 BC | New faming practices: animals increasingly used for traction, wool and milk; simple plough (ard) now used in northern and western Europe | |
| 3250 BC | Earliest writing from western Mesopotamia: pictographic clay used for commercial accounts | |
| 3200 BC | First wheeled vehicles in Europe (found in Hungary) | |
| 3100 BC | Cuneiform script developed in Mesopotamia | |
| 3000 BC | Construction of walled citadels in Mediterranean Europe and development of successful metal industry | |
| 2900 BC | Appearance of Corded Ware pottery in northern Europe | |
| 2500 BC | Bell beakers found in western Europe, often associated with individual burials | |
| 2500 BC | Development of urban civilization in the Indian Plain | |
| 2500 BC | Earliest syllabic script used in Sumerian literature | |
| 2300 BC | Beginning of full European Bronze Age | |
| 2000 BC | Fortified settlements in east and central Europe point to increasing social and economic pressures | |
| 1900 BC | Cretan hieroglyphic writing | |
| 1850 BC | Horses used for the first time to pull light carts in the western Steppes | |
| 1650 BC | Linear A script (Crete and the Cyclades) | |
| 1650 BC | City-states of central Anatolia unified to form the Hittite kingdom with a strongly fortified capital at Boğazköy | |
| 1400 BC | Linear B script (mainland and islands of Greece) | |
| 1400 BC | Development of pastoral nomadism on the Steppes: cattle herded from horseback | |
| 1300 BC | Westward spread of urnfield cemeteries | |
| 1200 BC | Collapse of Hittite empire | |
| 1000 BC | Hillforts in Western Europe | |
| 1000 BC | Full nomadic economy on the Steppes based on rearing horses, cattle and sheep | |
| 850 BC | First settlement at Rome; cluster of huts on Palatine Hill | |
| 800 BC | Establishment of culture north and east of Alps --- first stage of Celtic Iron Age (Hallstatt) | |
| 800 BC | Rise of Etruscan city-states in central Italy | |
| 800 BC | Rise of cities and states in Ganges Valley supported by rice farming | |
| 750 BC | First Greek alphabetic inscription | |
| 750 BC | Ironworking spreads to Britain | |
| 750 BC | Earliest Greek colonies set up from western Mediterranean to the eastern shores of the Black Sea | |
| 690 BC | Etruscan script developed from Greek | |
| 600 BC | Trade between Celts north west of Alps and Greek colonies of the west Mediterranean; rich wagon burials attest to wealth and power of Celtic elite | |
| 600 BC | Latin script | |
| 600 BC | Central lowlands of northern Europe first settled | |
| 600 BC | First Greek coins | |
| 480 BC | 2nd stage of European Bronze Age (La Tène) | |
| 480 BC | Emergence of classical period of Greek arts and architecture | |
| 480 BC | City-states reach height of importance | |
| 460 BC | Parchment replaces clay tablets for Aramaic administrative documents | |
| 450 BC | Athens, the greatest Greek city-state, reaches the peak of its power | |
| 400 BC | Carthage dominates the west Mediterranean | |
| 390 BC | Celts sack Rome | |
| 334 BC--329 BC | Alexander the Great invades Asia Minor, conquers Egypt and Persia and reaches India; Hellenism established in Asia | |
| 331 BC | Alexandria founded | |
| 250 BC | Brahmin alphabetic script in India | |
| 250 BC | All of peninsular Italy controlled by Rome | |
| 206 BC | Rome gains control of Spain | |
| 146 BC | Romans destroy the Greek states but Greek culture still important and Greek artists brought to Rome | |
| 146 BC | Roman destruction of Carthage | |
| 55 BC | Julius Caesar attempts to invade Britain | |
| 27 BC | Augustus sole ruler of Roman empire | |
| 43--50 | Emperor Claudius invades Britain | |
| 50 | Rome largest city in the world --- population 1 million | |
| 117 | Roman empire reaches its greatest extent | |
| 125 | Hadrian's Wall built | |
| 285 | Administrative separation of eastern and western halves of Roman empire | |
| 313 | Edict of Milan: toleration of Christianity in Roman empire | |
| 330 | Constantine founds Constantinople as new eastern capital of the Roman empire | |
| 410 | Sack of Rome by Visigoths leading to collapse of western Roman empire | |
| 410 | Romans withdraw from Britain | |
| 429 | German (Vandal) kingdom in north Africa | |
| 449 | Angles, Saxons and Jutes invade Britain | |
| 597 | St Augustine introduces Christianity to the English | |
| 787 | Scandinavian invasions begin | |
| 793 | Sacking of Lindisfarne | |
| 878 | King Alfred defeats the Danes at Eddington | |
| 878 | Treaty of Wedmore | |
| 899 | King Alfred dies | |
| 1016 | Danish King Cnut rules England | |
| 1042 | Accession of Edward the Confessor to the English throne | |
| 1066 | Battle of Hastings; Norman Conquest | |
| 1095 | First Crusade | |
| 1170 | Assassination of Thomas à Becket | |
| 1204 | King John loses lands in Normandy | |
| 1259--1265 | The Barons' War | |
| 1337--1453 | The Hundred Years War | |
| 1340--1400 | Geoffrey Chaucer | |
| 1346 | Battle of Crecy | |
| 1346 | Battle of Poitiers | |
| 1348--1351 | The Black Death | |
| 1362 | Parliament opened in English | |
| 1362 | The Statute of Pleading (English becomes the official language of legal proceedings) | |
| 1381 | The Peasants' Revolt | |
| 1415 | Battle of Agincourt | |
| 1476 | Caxton introduces the printing press | |
| 1489 | French no longer used as the language of Parliament | |
| 1509 | Henry VIII ascends the throne | |
| 1534 | Act of Supremacy | |
| 1536 | Small monasteries dissolved | |
| 1536 | Statute incorporates all of Wales with England | |
| 1539 | English translation of Bible in every church | |
| 1547 | Edward VI | |
| 1553 | Mary Tudor | |
| 1554 | Mary marries Philip of Spain | |
| 1558 | Elizabeth I | |
| 1559 | Act of Supremacy restores laws of Henry VIII | |
| 1574 | First company of actors; theatre building begins | |
| 1577 | Sir Francis Drake plunders west coast of South America | |
| 1584 | Colonists at Roanoke | |
| 1600 | British East India Company founded | |
| 1600 | Population of England c.2.5 million | |
| 1603 | James I | |
| 1605 | Barbados, West Indies, claimed as English colony | |
| 1606 | Virginia Company of London sends 120 colonists to Virginia | |
| 1607 | Jamestown, Virginia, is established by London Co. as the first permanent English settlement in America | |
| 1611 | King James Bible | |
| 1616 | Death of Shakespeare | |
| 1620 | The Pilgrims arrive at Plymouth Rock on the Mayflower | |
| 1621 | English attempt to colonize Newfoundland and Nova Scotia | |
| 1625 | Charles I | |
| 1627 | Charles I grants charter to the Guiana Company | |
| 1633 | English trading post established in Bengal | |
| 1637 | English traders established in Canton | |
| 1639 | English established at Madras | |
| 1642--1646 | Civil War | |
| 1646 | English occupy the Bahamas | |
| 1648 | Second Civil War | |
| 1649 | Cromwell invades Ireland | |
| 1649 | Charles I beheaded | |
| 1649 | Charles II | |
| 1649 | Commonwealth established | |
| 1653 | Cromwell becomes Lord Protector | |
| 1655 | English capture Jamaica | |
| 1660 | Charles II restored to throne | |
| 1663 | Charles II grants charter to Royal African Company | |
| 1668 | British East India Company gains control of Bombay | |
| 1670 | English settlement in Charles Town, later Charleston, South Carolina | |
| 1680--1689 | Welsh Quakers settle in large numbers in Pennsylvania | |
| 1680--1689 | First German immigrants in America | |
| 1684 | Bermudas become Crown Colony | |
| 1689 | William and Mary proclaimed king and queen in England and Ireland | |
| 1690 | Calcutta founded | |
| 1690 | Population of England c.5 million | |
| 1700 | Population of England and Scotland 7.5 million | |
| 1707 | Union of England and Scotland as Great Britain | |
| 1707 | British land in Acadia, Canada | |
| 1710 | English South Sea Company founded | |
| 1727 | George II | |
| 1729 | North and South Carolina become Crown Colonies | |
| 1729 | Benjamin and James Franklin publish 'The Pennsylvania Gazette' | |
| 1744 | Robert Clive arrives at Madras | |
| 1756--1763 | The French and Indian War in North America | |
| 1759 | British take Quebec from the French | |
| 1760 | George III | |
| 1762 | British capture Martinique, Grenada, Havana and Manila | |
| 1765--1947 | British Raj in India | |
| 1770 | James Cook discovers Botany Bay, Australia | |
| 1774 | Parliament passes the Stamp Act, unifying the colonies against the British | |
| 1775 | The East India, or Tea, Act prompts the Boston Teat Party | |
| 1775--1783 | American War of Independence | |
| 1776 | American Declaration of Independence | |
| 1776 | The Revolutionary War begins | |
| 1778 | Cook discovers Hawaii | |
| 1783 | The Treaty of Paris successfully ends the Revolution | |
| 1783 | British recognize US independence | |
| 1784 | Pitt's India Act: East India Company under government control | |
| 1786 | Penang ceded to Great Britain | |
| 1789 | George Washington inaugurated as first US President | |
| 1790 | The first penal colony established in Sydney, Australia | |
| 1795, 1806 | British forces occupy Cape of Good Hope | |
| 1800 | British capture Malta | |
| 1803 | The Louisiana Purchase doubles the size of US territory | |
| 1810 | British seize Guadeloupe | |
| 1811 | British occupy Java | |
| 1812--1814 | War of 1812 between the USA and Britain | |
| 1819 | Florida purchased by the USA from Spain | |
| 1819 | British settlement established in Singapore by East India Company | |
| 1822 | English becomes the official language of the Eastern Cape of South Africa | |
| 1822 | Liberia founded --- Africa's oldest republic | |
| 1824 | Erie Canal opens, strengthening east-west trade, but increasing the isolation of the south | |
| 1824 | British take Rangoon, Burma | |
| 1828 | The Baltimore and Ohio Railway opens | |
| 1832 | Britain occupies the Falkland Islands | |
| 1837 | Queen Victoria | |
| 1837 | The electric telegraph demonstrated by Samuel Morse | |
| 1840 | New Zealand becomes an official colony | |
| 1840 | Penny post introduced in Britain | |
| 1842 | Hong Kong ceded to Great Britain | |
| 1848 | Gold discovered in California | |
| 1849 | Gold Rush | |
| 1851 | Victoria, Australia, proclaimed separate colony | |
| 1852 | New constitution for New Zealand | |
| 1858 | Powers of East India Company transferred to British Crown | |
| 1860 | Kowloon added to British territories in South-East Asia | |
| 1861 | Civil War begins with the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter | |
| 1861 | British Colony founded in Lagos, Nigeria | |
| 1863 | Emancipation of the slaves is proclaimed, as of 1 January | |
| 1865 | General Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox | |
| 1865 | President Lincoln is assassinated, five days later | |
| 1867 | Alaska is purchased from Russia, becoming the 49th state in 1959 | |
| 1867 | Federal Malay States become a Crown Colony | |
| 1869 | The first transcontinental railroad is completed | |
| 1876 | Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone | |
| 1877 | Edison invents the phonograph | |
| 1878 | David Hughes invents the microphone | |
| 1879 | London opens its first telephone exchange | |
| 1884 | Papua New Guinea becomes British protectorate | |
| 1885 | Britain established protectorate over Northern Bechuanaland, Niger River Region and southern New Guinea, and occupies Port Hamilton, Korea | |
| 1886 | First Indian National Congress meets | |
| 1887 | First Colonial Conference opens in London | |
| 1888 | Cecil Rhodes granted mining rights by King of Matabele | |
| 1890 | Rhodes becomes Premier of Cape Colony | |
| 1893 | Uganda united as British protectorate | |
| 1893 | USA annexes Hawaii | |
| 1895 | Marconi invents radiotelegraphy | |
| 1895 | Auguste and Louis Lumière invent the motion-picture camera | |
| 1895 | British South Africa Company territory south of the Zambezi River becomes Rhodesia | |
| 1898 | America receives Guam and sovereignty over the Philippines | |
| 1898 | New Territories leased by Britain from China for 99 years | |
| 1899 | First magnetic sound recordings | |
| 1899--1902 | Boer War | |
| 1900 | R. A. Fessenden transmits the human voice via radio waves | |
| 1900 | British capture Bloemfontein, relieve Mafeking, annex Orange Free State and Transvaal and take Pretoria and Johannesburg Commonwealth of Australia created | |
| 1901 | Marconi transmits radiotelegraph messages from Cornwall to New Zealand | |
| 1901 | End of Queen Victoria's reign | |
| 1903 | Ford Motor Company founded | |
| 1903 | Orville and Wilbur Wright make the first successful manned flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina | |
| 1903 | British conquer northern Nigeria | |
| 1907 | New Zealand becomes a dominion within the British Empire | |
| 1908 | Union of South Africa established | |
| 1908 | Henry Ford introduces the mass-produced Model T | |
| 1914 | Panama Canal opened | |
| 1914--1918 | World War I | |
| 1916 | USA purchases Danish West Indies (Virgin Islands) | |
| 1917 | USA purchases Dutch West Indies | |
| 1919 | League of Nations founded | |
| 1920 | Gandhi emerges as leader of India | |
| 1920 | Kenya becomes British colony | |
| 1921 | British Broadcasting Corporation founded | |
| 1921 | First Indian Parliament meets | |
| 1924 | The National Origins Act marks the official end of large-scale immigration to America; from this point on numbers are restricted and quotas are introduced | |
| 1924 | British Imperial Airways founded | |
| 1925 | John Logie Baird transmits a picture of a human face via television | |
| 1928 | John Logie Baird demonstrates first colour television | |
| 1929 | Teleprinters and teletypewriters first used | |
| 1929 | First scheduled TV broadcasts in Schernectedy, New York | |
| 1929 | First talking pictures made | |
| 1936 | BBC London television service begins | |
| 1938 | Lajos Biró invents the ball-point pen | |
| 1939--1945 | World War II | |
| 1942 | First computer developed in the United States | |
| 1942 | Magnetic recording tape invented | |
| 1944 | First telegraph line used between Washington and Baltimore | |
| 1945 | United Nations founded | |
| 1946 | Chester Carlson invents Xerography | |
| 1946 | Philippines become independent from the United States | |
| 1947 | Transistor invented at Bell Laboratories | |
| 1947 | India proclaimed independent | |
| 1948 | Peter Goldmark invents the long-playing record | |
| 1951 | Colour TV introduced into USA (15 million TV sets in USA) | |
| 1952 | Accession of Queen Elizabeth II | |
| 1957 | Common Market established by Treaty of Rome | |
| 1957 | Malaysian independence | |
| 1958 | First stereophonic recordings | |
| 1962--1975 | Uganda, Kenya, Zambia (Northern Rhodesia), Malawi, Malta, Gambia, Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Guyana, Mauritius, Nigeria, Bahamas, Papua New Guinea all become independent of Great Britain | |
| 1965 | Atlantic cable completed | |
| 1968 | Intelsar communication satellite launched | |
| 1989 | South Africa desegregated | |
| 1997 | Hong Kong rule returns to China |
#24. ʤѸˤؤ֤ ([2009-05-22-1]) #1199. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (2) ([2012-08-08-1]) #1200. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (3) ([2012-08-09-1]) ˰³ݡɤαѸ˳ν Jacek Fisiak ˤ֤ʤѸˤؤɬפΤפҲ𤹤롥 pp. 20--21 ΤޤްѤơؤͳ4狼䤹϶ĥǤ롥
Ѹζդˤʤ뤿˳ؤǤѸˤٶ٤ͳĤȡ
ޤ1ˡߤαѸ뤿ˤϡѸβˤĤƲؤΤäƤ뤳ȤͭפǤ롥ˤܤ뤳ȤˤäơǸαѸ˼ȤळȤǤ롥αѸǤ§ŪѲȸʤΡȤ man -- menfoot -- feetmouse -- miceox -- oxen ʤɤ˸Ѹ̾ʣĤƤϵ§ŪѲǤäȤ顤§뤳ȤǤ롥ƱͤˡǤϥΤ褦ˤ餬äƸѸ֤硼λˤϤʤ구§ŪǤꡤŪɬΤǤäˤΤС/f/ β <gh> 뤤 <f> ɽƤ뤳ȤˤĤƤϤʤ餪ȤԵ§ʤȤʤȤʬ롥
2ˡβξ֤Τ뤳ȤϡΤʸغʤʸɤߡվޤ뵡ͿƤ롥ȤкǹǤäƤ⸽̤ƤǤϡ䡤ͥåηλʷϵȤꡤǽ뤳ȤϤǤʤǤ
3ˡѤˤ뵬Ϥ˴ؤ뤢и桹Ƥ롥ѲΤǤꡤʸˡ§ȿƤ֤ϡפΤȤʤ뤫ΤʤˤܤС桹Ϥäȴˤʤ롥߲äʸϤѤƤդϤɤʤΤǤ٤ȤΤǤϤʤȯŸɤΤʬʤСˤʤäȽǤȤȤǤ롥
Ǹˡѹˤʸؤʸؤ֤äơѸˤϳؤФʤƤ褤ȤͳϤɤˤʤˤ餫ǤΤʤԤϡοͤοʹνפ¦̤1Ĥ礯ԤǤ롥ˤοʹ֤ꤢΤǤ뤫顤ʹ֤뤿ˤϤβ餫ǤΤͤФʤʤ (Bloomfield & Newmark 1963: 19)
3ͳȤƵƤθȾεϡä˽פǤ롥ѸΤɤäƤˤ֤ȡǤ⤢Τ褦ʼͳΤϻ¤ȤäƸƤɤʸѲǤ̵Ƚ˼٤ȤȤˤϤʤʤˤʤäȽפȤΤȤʤΤ줬Ǥ뤫ĿĿͤͤƤ椯ɬפΤǤϤʤ#1360. 21¿εƤϱѸХХˤ뤫 ([2013-01-16-1]) Ǹ褦ˡϼˤǤƤȤŦƤϽƤΤ˱Ѹˤ뤳Ȥ¿ȡϹͤƤ롥
ʤǸ˰ѤƤνϡBloomfield, M. and Newmark, L. A Linguistic Introduction to the History of English. New York: Knopf, 1963. Ǥ롥
ĥե㥯 رѸ˳⡡1̻ˡ١Ļҡ2006ǯ
#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1]) DZѸʤˡˤ̱Ū¦ָ̤ХΤȤ줿ݤĤˡϡϤŪʴ顤Ѹ̱Ū¦̤Ҳ𤷤褦
ѸϡѸʱѹͥˤƥѸήи (##114,1067,1226)ˤäơѸäˤع¤줿ˤĤƤϡ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) #1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1]) ǸȤǤ롥ä˳ؤߤ줿ȤȤϡλѼԤѰ (register) ˤб볬ؤꤦ뤳Ȥ롥äγؤȤλѤ˴ؤҲŪؤΤɬŪʴطȤ櫓ǤϤʤŪ˰ޤƤΤȤơΤ褦ؤ¸ߤ뤳ȤǤʤؤθäϡ֥٥פι⤤üԤѰȷӤĤ졤ؤθäϡ֥٥פ㤤üԤѰȷӤĤ뷹ϤϤäꤷƤ롥
ξˤĤơ (244) ϡֱѸ̱ŪʡפꤹǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ʸˤ˭Ϥ⤦Ĥη̤ϡѸ줬̱ŪʤĤ褦ˤʤäȤȤǤOEˤϲͤθդ̱θդ⤿ѤʤäȻפ롥ήȸääñȤȤȤϾʤäǤ롥ξ֤ Norman Conquest ˤäơؤϥե졤ؤϱѸȤҲŪŸ (social bilingualism) ѤäѸ줬ȡѸ줽켫ΤˡμҲŪˤʤäηĹΤϿʸǤäơPurism ȽϤȸ뤳ȤǽǤ롥¡ۤȤͣɽоݤȤؤϡθ˻ޤǥꥹ̱ŪʽưȤӤĤƤ롥
Ѹʤˡˤϡ¦̤Ǥ̱Ṳ̄¦̤Ǥ̱ŪǤ롥ΤȤ¿쾯ʤɤθˤ뤳ȤޤˤĤƸ̱פȤΤϡ#1318. ˤݼŪȤϲ ([2012-12-05-1]) #1304. ꥫѸΡݼס ([2012-11-21-1]) Ǽ夲ݼפƱ褦ˡդɬפǤ롥̱פݼפʹѤޤɽǤꡤ켫ΤΤȤ館ϸĿͤˤäưۤʤǤ⡤ҲŪʴϡ̱ȤΤϤ⤷ơޤ
ʤѸˤ̱ŪĬήȤС#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹 ([2011-01-12-1]) #1059. ϽŻ뤫ְռŻؿܤƤ T/V distinction ([2012-03-21-1]) ꤬פФ롥
졡رѸˡ١罤ۡ1983ǯ
#17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1]) (2) Ǽ夲űѸǤŵŪ첻Ƕޤ줿̵ [f, θ, s] ͭ [v, ð, z] Ȥʤ (ex. hūsian "to house", ofer "over", sūþerne "southern") ̵ͭȤݤˤĤơ (377) ˽äơܺ٤Ҥ
βϡ٤Ȥ6ޤǤˤϳΩȤ롥벻Ķˤϡ(1) VV, (2) V/l, r, m, n/, (3) /l, r, m, n/V 3बä⼫IJˤϤޤ줿ĶǤ롥/f, θ, s/ ˺Ѥ줾θűѸǤ褦
[f] > [v]: giefan (give) ? geaf ([he] gave), heofon (heaven), ofer (over)
[θ] > [ð]: weorðan (become) ? wearð ([he] became), feþer (feather), ōþer (other), fæðm (fathom), eorðe (earth)
[s] > [z]: rīsan (rise) ? rās ([he] rose), nosu (nose), bōsm (bosom), ōsle (ouzel)
(1) (2) δĶˤĤơV ˶ʤˤϡͭβ˻ߤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥㤨С*triuwiþu > trēowþ (truth) seofoða (seventh) ϡVerner's Law ŬѤȤϰۤʤ뤳Ȥդ
βϸűѸֻˤȿǤʤ(a) δĶ <þ> /d/ Ѥ줿ꡤ(b) ľ <t> ǤϤʤ <d> ³ꡤ(c) þl > dl 뤤 þm > dm Τ褦ʲꤹ뤳Ȥ顤Ȥϵʤ
ʤűѸѸǤϡͭФƵ뤳Ȥ¿ĺǤϵʤդˡѸǤͭϡȤƤ [s] > [z] 뤰餤 ʬĺǵäƤ롥̵ˤĤƤ̤ʬۤۤʤ롥űѸѸǤĺˤȤ˱ƶ뤬ѸǤϤޤ˱ƶΤߤǤp. 376ˡ̵ͭβˤϡ̤ĬήȤȤ⤷ʤ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ε#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1]) ǡŪݼŪʿ뤳ȤѸμҲĴѤǤϡʤʤΤTrudgill (73--74) ϡ2ĤβҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
(1) ϡˤ餷 ("masculinity" or "toughness") ơɸ䵬Ϥν餫æ褦Ȥ뷹ΤФơˤϤΤ褦ʷϸʤ˽ϡ˵ŪʲʹѤ˵ΤǤϤʤ
(2) ¿μҲǤϡҲŪɸ䵬Ϥˤ궯ȤԤ롥ŪʴͤƤߤлפȤ줬콬ˤڤǤΤǤϤʤ
餯(1) (2) ξȤҲŪʴǤʾ塤¾μҲŪʴƱͤˡɸ䵬Ϥ롥ơ⤽¾μҲŪʴƱͤˡɸ䵬ϤФ٤٤˽ΤϼǤ롥˽ϼҲŪ˴ԤƤ뿶ۤʤ뤫餳ˤƤۤʤ뿶ΤTrudgill (79--80) ϡʲΤ褦礹롥
Gender differentiation in language . . . arises because . . . language, as a social phenomenon, is closely related to social attitudes. Men and women are socially different in that society lays down different social roles for them and expects different behaviour patterns from them. Language simply reflects this social fact. If the social roles of men and women change, moreover, as they seem to be doing currently in many societies, then it is likely that gender differences in language will change or diminish also . . . .
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
#1361. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ([2013-01-17-1]) ڤӡ#1362. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ֡ ([2013-01-18-1]) ˰³Trudgill κǤͭ˾Ȥߤ벾Ҳ𤹤롥ѸǹԤʤ줿¿μҲĴˤС٤ƤɸŪѼȤߤ롥
1ȤơDetroit ǹԤʤ줿¿ (multiple negation) Ĵ롥̤ˡѸˤ I don't wanna none Τ褦¿ɸŪʸˡȤʡ#549. ¿θѡ ([2010-10-28-1]) #988. Don't drink more pints of beer than you can help. (2) ([2012-01-10-1]) ȡˡ̤ǤϡήۤɸŪʸˡ뤿¿꤬ͽۤ졤ºݤˤ̤ʤΤƱ쳬٤ȡΤۤ¿꤬뷹餫˸줿Trudgill (70) ꡤ¿λΨƸ褦
| Upper Middle Class | Lower Middle Class | Upper Working Class | Lower Working Class | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Male | 6.3 | 32.4 | 40.0 | 90.1 |
| Female | 0.0 | 1.4 | 35.6 | 58.9 |
| Upper Middle Class | Lower Middle Class | Upper Working Class | Lower Working Class | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Male | 66.7 | 52.5 | 20.0 | 25.0 |
| Female | 90.0 | 70.0 | 44.2 | 31.7 |
| Middle Middle Class | Lower Middle Class | Upper Working Class | Middle Working Class | Lower Working Class | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Male | 4 | 27 | 81 | 91 | 100 |
| Female | 0 | 3 | 68 | 81 | 97 |
ε#1361. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ([2013-01-17-1]) ˰³˽εˤĤơ
Trudgill ϡ˲ŪΩʤ顤 Jespersen ֥֡פҲ𤹤 (66) Jespersen ϡֿͤ襤˽ФȡͤΤߤȤȤ뤤ĤθȤȤäȤܤ̤ϤˤȤäƤϤθ췲ϥ֡ (taboo) Ǥꡤɽ߽Ф뤳ȤȤʤä줬θä˽εȤ
Ʊͤϡ롼 (Zulu) ڤ롥롼ǤϡʤȤη̾Ƥ֤Ȥϸʤʥ֡ȤƶؤƤꡤ̾˻䡤̾˴ޤޤβʤФʤʤȤ롥㤨С/z/ ٤Ȥȡֿפɽ魯̾ amanzi Ȥ졤ѸȤ amandabi ʤɤѤȤ褦ʼΤ褦ʴԤθ춦ƱΤνΤ˰̲Сä˽ޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ
Υ֡⤬˹Ū˽Ȥʤꤦ뤫ȤȡTrudgill ϤˤŪǤ롥Trudgill ϡ1ˡ֡ͳ褹˽ɤΤ褦˸춦ƱΤνˤ˰̲ΤǤ뤷2ˡðʳ˸˽ǡ֡ͳǤϤʤȤΤ㤬¿ȻŦ (67) 㤨СꥫǥΥޥ² (Muskogean) ƥ (Koasati) ˤ˽ܤ뤬ϽŪ˽֤ǻȤʬƤˤˤ뤳Ȥ֡Ǥ櫓ǤϤʤȤ狼äƤ롥Τ褦ʥǤϡθǤΤߤθݼŪ˸ŷݤäȤƽʬǤΤȤ
θ줬ݼŪʤĵŪˤǤȤͻϡŪˤäợȤΤϡѸ˴ؤ¿μҲؤĴθݼ¾ڤƤ뤫Ū˸˽ϡǤ⥿֡ǤʤѲФ٤˽ˤΤǤϤʤεǡƤˤĤƹͻ롥
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ˤ˽ˤĤƤϡ#476. That's gorgeous! ([2010-08-16-1]) #913. BNC ˤä˽Ĵ ([2011-10-27-1]) #915. äˤѤ˽ ([2011-10-29-1]) εǼ夲Ȥ롥ܸüԤǤС˽ˤĤƤľŪˤ褯ΤäƤꡤ˭٤˶ѸǤܸۤŪˤϸʤ˵ΤʤǡĤνįƤ⡤ˤ˽ϡ٤κϤ졤ǧ롥Ǥϡˤ˽Ϥʤ¸ߤΤϡΰŪˤĤơȤ Trudgill 4 "Language and Sex" ˽äƵ
Trudgill ϡ3ĤβҲ𤷤Ƥ롥1ܤϡޤŵŪȤʤäƤɽλ˴ŤǤ롥17衼åѿͤɽξƥ (the Lesser Antilles) ǥֿͤ˽вäȤΥֿͤ˽ǰۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ˶äʲϡTrudgill (65) ˵ƤƱξڸǤ롥
The men have a great many expressions peculiar to them, which the women understand but never pronounce themselves. On the other hand the women have words and phrases which the men never use or they would be laughed to scorn. Thus it happens that in their conversations it often seems as if the women had another language than the men.
ºݤˤϡۤʤȤΤϸĥǤꡤ˽֤ǰθäۤʤäƤ٤äΤǡƱΰۤʤѼȤȤ館ΤŬڤȤƤ⡤θä˽ϲͳ褹ΤƱڸԤϼΤ褦³롥
The savage natives of Dominica say that the reason for this is that when the Caribs came to occupy the islands these were inhabited by an Arawak tribe which they exterminated completely, with the exception of the women, whom they married in order to populate the country. It is asserted that there is some similarity between the speech of the continental Arawaks and that of the Carib women. (Trudgill 66)
Ĥޤꡤˤ2̱²κ礬θ˽εȤԤΥָ졤ԤΥ說ȤΩ
ΡפοΤۤɤϳΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ𤵤Ƥ褦ʥָˤ˽ϡ¤¾Υꥫǥˤ⸫뤳Ȥ顤ƱɬϤ⤿ʤȤ롥ޤʤȤ⤬Ǥ褦¾㤬ΤϤƤ⡤Τ褦ʸϸʤäơϡ⤷ȤƤüʥˤθˤߤ˽ŪΤȤϤʤꤨʤ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ߡαѸȤޤĶˤϡELF (English as a Lingua Franca) ȤƤεǽʤ mutual intelligibility ܻؤῴϤȡüԽĤȼԡ뤹뵡ǽʤ cultural (national, ethnic, etc.) identity ƽѼ郎ʬ줷Ƥ椯ϤȤʣ˺ѤƤ롥塤ȿ2ĤϤɤΤ褦ޤ礤ĤƤ椯ΤȤϡѸ̤ꤦ礭ʥơޤǤ롥ϡرѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ104ֱϤȵῴϡ ǤƤ롥
Ѹ줬Ѽʬƻ路Ƥ椯⤷ʤȤʥꥪطʤˤϡĤιͻѻ롥㤨СĤƤ lingua franca ƥ줬ɤäѼؤʬȤŪ¤䡤˱ѸνѼ郎³λ̱ĥϤƤȤϤ®ƤǽΤ⤦1ĤװȤƤϡŪϰռμޤ꤬롥ϰռϵῴϤȤƺѤΤǡ줬ޤäƤȤСŪ˱ϤäΤϼǤ롥ϡ¿ƤҲĬȤӤĤƤ
Schmitt and Marsden (208--11) ϡϤĹƤװȤơ3Ƥ롥
(1) ɸಽʤ뤿ΰʸʸμβŻҵѤȯŸˤꡤ衤ῴϤȤƺѤƤտ줿ʸϤ⡤®٤Ż뤹Żҥʤɤˤά줿ʸϤ¸ߴƤƤ[2011-07-14-1]ε#808. smileys or emoticonsפȡˡηϡŻΤαѸ줫αѸʤɤؤ礷ƤꡤФݡȤαѸʤɤؤǤƤ롥
(2) Ѹ "localizing" ĤơBBC ϤȤɸѸôäƤǶϡष줾ϰ迧ФؤɤڤäƤƤ롥㤨СCNN ϥڥǤ CNNenEnpañol Ω夲Ƥ롥
(3) Ѹ춵餬åȤȤѼ¿ͲϡαѸ춵ΥåȤϡѼɽȤ ENL Ѽ路ʤäǯǤϡ¾ѼѸ춵ΥåȤȤʤꤦưФƤƤ[2009-10-07-1]ε#163. ɤαѸΤäȤ깽!?פȡˡ
(1) (2) ˤĤơϱѸεῴϤФǺѤȴԤ줿ǥ䵻ѳष¿ĹǺѤ褦ˤʤäƤƤȤΤǤ롥[2009-10-08-1]εǼ夲#164. ͥåȤѸ첽פ⡤ƱĬή°
21¿ƤĬϡѸХХˤƤ椯Τ
This diversification may be more acceptable to societies now than before, as there appears to be a general movement away from conformity and toward a greater tolerance of diversity. Whereas in former times there might have been an outcry against incorrect written English, nowadays people seem increasingly comfortable with the idea that different types of English might be suitable for different purposes and media. These trends may exert pressure toward more diversification of English rather than standardisation. (Schmitt and Marsden 210)
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
ҲŪʸѰ (linguistic variation) Υѥˤ͡ʼΤΤ롥Ѹ˴ؤƤϡ#227. ѸѼΥǥ ([2009-12-10-1]) #228. ѸѼΥǥ (2) ([2009-12-11-1]) ʤɤǤĤΥѥŪˤСѰۤμפʥѥȤơ顤̱²̡ȡʤɤ롥衤ҲؤǤȤ櫓ˤƤΤϡϰѰۤȳʼҲѰۤ
ϰѰۤȼҲѰۤδطȤǤ뤬פʱѸҲˤƤϰŪ˼Τ褦ʥǥȤɽʥȥåɥ롤p. 37 οޤȤ˺ˡ

οޤϡҲŪ˹⤤ΩˤüԤɤδ֤ˤϰŪʺʤ㤤ΩˤüԤɤδ֤ˤϰŪʺ礭ȤƤ롥ꥹˤѸѤƤϤƤȡŪ˰ҿΤ RP (Received Pronunciation) üԤϡꥹΤɤޤäȤƤ⤪褽Ʊ RP äɸȤѼäüԤϡϰˤäƸߤ礭ۤʤäѤ롥ΥǥϡRP Τ褦ȯΤߤʤ餺äʸˡˤͭǤ롥㤨С֤פɽ魯ϡԥߥåɤĺˤɸѸǤ scarecrow ʤԥߥåɤդˤʤɸѸǤϡϰˤä bogle, flay-crow, mawpin, mawkin, bird-scarer, moggy, shay, guy, bogeyman, shuft, rook-scarer ʤɤȸؤ롥ʸˡǤϡɸŪ He's a man who/that likes his beer ФơɸѼǤϰˤäƴط̾ʬwho, that, at, as, what, he, Τ褦˸ؤʥȥåɥ롤p. 38ˡ
ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) δ顤Υǥ Svartvik and Leech ˤ#426. ѸѼΥԥߥåɥǥ ([2010-06-27-1]) Ƥ뤳Ȥդ
դäƤ٤ϡˤϡϰѰۤȼҲѰۤδطषեԥߥåɤȤʤ⤢ȤȤȥåɥ (31--32) ˤСɤΥɥ²°륫ʥˤĤơäʸˡˤĤϰ躹ȥȺδطĴƤߤȡ̥ȡʥ֥եޥˤǤϰˤäѰۤ¿ΤФơ̥ȡ֥եޥˤǤϰޤǸߤ˶Ȥ
ԥߥåɤθϰۤʤ뤬ˤ衤ϰѰۤȼҲѰۤδ֤ˤϡФСشطȤȤϤ
P. ȥåɥ ظȼҲ١ȽŹ1975ǯ
Ѹˤ칶Ƥ뤬ѸˤȤϲȤ뤳ȤϤޤʤɤǻǡѸˤǤ뤳ȤϼѸˤܸˤ衤ˤȤϲʤΤͤƤߤñǤϤʤƱռϡ (15) ˤ⸽Ƥ롥
ȥФ϶οưǤ뤫顤ȯä줿ִ֤˾ä롥оݤ䡹Ȼ³Ƥˤȹͤʤ顤Τ⤿³뤳ȤʤȥФˤʤɤꤦϤϤʤ⤷ȥФˤȤ顤ȥФξ硤оݤ³ȤϤɤȤ̣뤫褯ͤƤߤɬפ롥
ȥФˤϼΤ³ʤȤСˤʤɤϤϤʤȹͤΤȤѸˤˤܸˤˤ줬̵̣ǶȤФϤʤˤˤȤ狼äƤʤȾʤȤפäƤˡ̷ϤɤΤ
1ĤϡǼΤ³ʤΤȹͤȥФȤϥ塼Τ parole ʸˤؤˤĤΤȤƤθդ langue ʸˤؤΤǤϤʤȤȤparole langue δطϥॹΤ performance ʱѡˤ competence ǽϡˤδطˤŤ碌ƹͤƤ褤ɽȤƤϡcompetence ˤȤ langue ˤȤۤäΤǤϤʤϡlangue ȤѸ줬μҲȤƤ¦̤ĴƤꡤμҲѲѲˤۤʤʤȹͤ뤫
Ʊ̤βսǡεФΤͿƤ (119)
˼ΤʤȤ顤ѲȤФ븽ݤϡΤȤƤθѲ뤳ȤǤϤʤθãΤȤ褹붦ƱΤΥСʤ춦Ʊ (speech community) ͤˡޤǤȰä褦ˤʤ뤳ȤǤ롥äơ˿ʹԤĤĤܸѲˤܸüԤѶŪ˴ؤäƤ롥
ܸˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ뤬ƱȤϱѸˤĤƤ롥Ȥ2ȤƱѸؽƤ¿ܸüԤlingua franca ȤƤαѸѤݤˤ顤ΰѤϤ٤ƤϤޤ롥Ѹθ춦ƱΤʬŪˤǤ컲äƤ뤽ʬαѸѲ˹ƤΤơѲεפѸˤΰȤʤ롥
ȤƤСȤФˤȤϡüԽĤäѤƤ椯̵εפȤȤ館뤳ȤǤֺѡפȴϢơ#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) #1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ⻲ȡ
ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١ֽ2001ǯ
lexeme ʸǡˤϤΥ֥Ǥ⤿ޤ˽ФƤѸΤ褦Ȥ#22. ǥȱѸˡ ([2009-05-20-1]) ǤƤϡФȤޤǤϤʤĤαѸؼŵȤơɤΤ褦ʸñ̤Ǥ뤫lexeme ˤϤĤΥץ롥
(1) morpheme ʷǡˤ word ʸˤӤñ̤Ȥơmorpheme ϡ#886. ǤˤޤĤ̻Ū ([2011-09-30-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǤϤʤBloomfield θŵŪˤ "a linguistic form which bears no partial phonetic-semantic resemblance to any other form" (Section 10.2) Ǥ롥word ϡ##910,911,912,921,922 Ǽ夲褦ˡ̣ͭŪñ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥˤϰ㤤ʤlexeme Ʊͤ˷ñ̤Ǥ롥ηˤϰ̣տ路Ƥ뤬lexeme ϤޤǤηỌ̇̄ͻΤǤ뵭ΤηʬؤǤϡmorpheme, word, lexeme Τΰ㤤ϤɤˤΤ㤨Сunderstand 12Ĥη under- -stand Ȥ롥θΰ̣2ĤηǤΰ̣¤ˤϤʤäƤ餺̣ΤȤ1ĤβȸʤʤǤϡñ̤Ọ̇̄ñ̤Ȥ줤бƤʤȤȤˤʤ롥Ʊͤˡput up with Ȥǥϡ3Ǥ3줫äƤ뤬̣ñ̤ȤƤϤϤ1ĤβǤ롥Ǥ⡤ñ̤Ọ̇̄ñ̤ȤäƤ롥ǡunderstand put up with ʬǤʤ1Ĥΰ̣ĤΤ顤Ūˤб1Ĥñ̤ꤹΤǤϤʤȤͤ롥줬 lexeme Ǥ롥 UNDERSTAND PUT UP WITH ϡ줾1Ĥ lexeme ȤƻȤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤälexeme ʸɽΤˡ
(2) 1ĤθΤߤ°Ȥơwater ˤ̾ư줬롥ĤޤꡤƱǤϤ뤬ۤʤ2Ĥθ°Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥̾ȤƤ water ưȤƤ water ̰뤳ȤǤ褦ˡword Ȥϰۤʤ lexeme Ȥñ̤ΩƤǤ롥ñ water ʣ waters ̾ lexeme ȤƤ WATER μ¸Ǥꡤ waterñ waters watered-ing watering ʤɤư lexeme ȤƤ WATER μ¸Ǥ롥
(3) ¸ۤʤޤȤᤢ뤿ɽȤơgo, goes, went, going, going Ϥ줾֤ۤʤ뤬ˤ lexeme GO Ǥ롥δ lexeme ϡheadword, citation form, lemma ʤɤȸƤؤ뤳ȤǽǤ롥
ľŪˤСˤơФ뤤ɤ߸ФȤϿƤꡤ̣ͿƤȻפ褦ʷñ̤ȤäƤФ褵̩ؼԡʳɡˤˤä͡ƤȤǤϡmorpheme, word, lexeme Τ褦ʸñ̤ɽ魯ѸΰǤ롥ʤlexeme Ȥñ̤ռԻ줿ŪʳؽѱѱѼȤơCambridge International Dictionary of English (1995) Ƥ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.
ε#1355. 20ꥹѸǽ̾ñפä ([2013-01-11-1]) Ǽ夲Bauer ν̾οΰפ˴ؤĴˤĤơҲ³롥The Times μΥѥˤ̻ŪĴ̤ơBauer ϷȴƺѤν̾Ǥ government 20δ֤ˡΰפ˴ؤƶ̣ʬۤȤȯ (Bauer 64--65)
20ˤϡgovernment ʣפ¿ΤΡ褫ŦƤȤꡤȤ館˱ñʣΤѰۤƤȤˤʤȡñʣפΰ㤤ؼоݤΰ㤤б褦ˤʤäʣȤѤȤˤϱѹܤؤñȤѤȤˤ¾ܤؤȤƤȤΤʸˡȤ⡤̣ʻؼоݡˤؤȰܹԤΤ褦ʲˡBauer (64) "Concord with government by meaning from The Times corpus, 1930--65" ΥǡƷǤ褦
| Year | British government | Non-British government | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| 1930 | 3 | 15 | 12 | 3 |
| 1935 | 2 | 13 | 1 | 12 |
| 1940 | 2 | 14 | 4 | 2 |
| 1945 | 2 | 7 | 2 | 2 |
| 1950 | 1 | 26 | 26 | 0 |
| 1955 | 2 | 2 | 8 | 0 |
| 1960 | 0 | 23 | 8 | 0 |
| 1965 | 1 | 13 | 4 | 1 |
| Total | 13 | 113 | 65 | 18 |
ưοΰפˤĤƤϡ#930. a large number of people οΰס ([2011-11-13-1]) #1144. Ѹˤפ ([2012-06-14-1]) #1334. Ѹˤ̾ưοס ([2012-12-21-1]) εǰäƤ̤ˡѸˤ government team ʤɤν̾οΰפϡꥫѸǤϤäѤñǰפ뤬ꥹѸǤϤȤ館˱ñǤʣǤפȤ롥ΰ̲ϳͭΰפ˴ؤѰۤꥹѸˤĤƤߤȡ20̤ñפηޤäƤƤΤǤϤʤȤŦ롥Bauer (61--66) The Times μоݤȤѥҲ𤷤褦
Bauer ϡ1900--1985ǯ The Times corpus μ⤫ʤ륳ѥоݤˡ̾줬ñǰפΨBauer ϡĴ The Times μȤ˷ĥäʸΤˤĴǤꡤ줬ɬ⥤ꥹѸΤɽƤȤϤʤǤäạ̇̄դͿƤ롥ʲϡBauer (63) ΥդܸƤǿͤɤ߽ФƺΤǤ롥

ľȤƤʤ餻Сǯ0.3178%γǤȤʤäƤ롥ͤꤷʤȤ䥳ѥФʤɤͳˤꤳη̤ɤޤǿǤΤȤʤ뤬Bauer Ϻ٤ͿƤ餺ȽǤǤʤΤǤ롥
Bauer ϤˡѥǺǤ٤ι⤤̾ government üʿ뤳Ȥܤθ̾ˤĤơñפγƷΥդƱΤǡBauer (66) Υդ˴ŤƲΥդƺʤ餹ǯ0.1877%γǤǤ롥

η̤¿Dzη̤ˤȤɤޤ餶ʤ褦˻פ뤬ʤȤ⤵ĴʤƤ椯ΥˤϤʤ
ʤBauer 1930ǯˤη֤äȤ¤ˡꥫѸ줬ƶͿȹͤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤƤ[2011-08-26-1]ε#851. ꥹѸФ륢ꥫѸαƶ2狼פȡˡ
government οΰפ˴ؤ뤪⤷ˤĤƤϡεǾҲ𤹤롥
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
ƻƱ졤 flat_adverb ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ͡˼夲ƤƻεǽϤȤ˾֤ɽ魯ȤǶˤƶᤤطˤꡤФФɤʬहФ褤Τ¤Ȥ⤢롥ʸˡˤʻ (part of speech) 뤤ϸ (word class) ʬबԴǤ뤳ȤξںǤ롥
Ūˤϡ߷ַƻܿפȤʸΤʤǡ6ܿ˭٤ʼȤʸغʤˤȤȤ˻ŦƤ롥߷ (3--5) ñˤޤȤ褦
(1) flat adverb ñˡ̤˥ꥫѸˤϤ뤫¿ˡ礷Ƥȸ졤äաä˶ܤΤʤͤäդħŪȤ롥#982. ꥫѸθѽФ flat adverb ([2012-01-04-1]) ȡex. Now the Picton boat began to swing round steady, pointing out to sea.---K. Mansfield, The Voyage.
(2) Ѥηƻ졥ϤꥢꥫѸ¯ä¿α (1) ˵Ϣơ#984. flat adverb ϥƥϤηƻ줬ƻ ([2012-01-06-1]) #1172. ѸΥƥñ ([2012-07-12-1]) ȡex. His shoes and clothing were wet through and icy cold.---O. Henry, The Last Leaf.
(3) ư졥stand ΩäƤˤȤ֤ˤ get to stand ΩġˤȤưԤ롥ưɽ魯̣ϡԤưΰ̣Ȥ߹ǤʤȤħŪǤ롥ξԤζ̤̯Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ־֡ƻפȡưפȤζ̤̯Ǥ뤳ȤˤĤʤ롥ex. The old man sat motionless.---B. Malamud, The Mourners.
(4) ư졥ȡ֡ĤǤפδطΩĤΤħex. His tongue felt dry and large, as though covered with a fine hairy growth, and it tasted bitter in his mouth.---J. London, Love of Life.
(5) ưѲư졥ѲơĤξ֤ˤʤפΰդǡϤȥδطΩġex. He noticed companion, and became crestfallen all at once.---J. Conrad, Heart of Darkness.
(6) Ʊʸ졥ִʸ˽һȤƷƻ줬źäơưμưƱŪ֡뤤ϤηŪ֤ס߷, p.5ˡex. Her dark hair waved untidy across her broad forehead.---J. Galsworthy, The Apple Tree.
¿ǡ߷ (5) ϰʲΤ褦˷֡
ƻȤδ֤κθϤξʻ줬ΤʳˤƱǤäȤˤ롥 -ly Ĥ뤳ȤˤäʬϷŪ˷ƻ줫Ωư -ly Ĥʤޤޤ¸³Ƥ롥줬 Flat adverb ñˤǤ롥μʬϡ־֡פ be link ΤǷƻ˶ޤΤ -ly ӽƤȤͤ롥
ѸǤϡ־֡פϤܷۤƻȴ뤬־֡פȤ롥ĤޤξʻˤޤΤˡκݳعʸˡΰæơ־ֻפȤä褦ʽѸꤷɤǤˤ衤ƻ줫줫̤ͤФʤʤȤ꤬ΤǤ롥
褦ʵ#981. ȷƻζ ([2012-01-03-1]) Ǥ夲Τǡȡޤ linking verb γȤδطˤĤƤϡ#995. The rose smells sweet. The rose smells sweetly. ([2012-01-17-1]) ǾƤ롥
ƱɮԤˤ롤Ϣʸ (Osawa) ⻲ȡ
߷ ַƻܿסΩؿʸʳظǯ17桤1979ǯ3--5ǡ
Osawa, Ginsaku. "A Study of the Distinguishing Adverbs & the Distinguishing Adjectives." Ωʸѡ 49 (1974): 21--49.
[2012-02-13-1]ε#1022. ѸγƲǤ١פdzǧǤ褦ˡ/ʊ/ ϱѸû첻ǤΤʤǺǤ٤㤤ΤǤ롥ֻȤƤϡŵŪ <oo> <u> ɽ蘆벻ǤԤ /uː/Ԥ /ʌ/ ȤƼ¸뤳Ȥ¿ΤǡºݤˤϤۤɸʤŪˤϤɤΤ餤Τ
#1191. Pronunciation Search ([2012-07-31-1]) ǡ/ʊ/ + ҲפǽñäƤߤ "^[^AEIOU]*(?<!Y )UH[012]? [^AEIOUHWY]+$" Ƥߤȼ159줬ä
bloor, book, book's, booked, books, books', boor, boord, boors, bourque, brook, brook's, brooke, brooke's, brookes, brooks, brooks's, bruehl, bull, bull's, bulls, bulls', cook, cook's, cooke, cooked, cooks, could, crook, crooke, crooks, duerr, duerst, flook, fluhr, fooks, foor, foot, foote, foote's, foots, fuhr, fuld, full, full's, fulp, fults, fultz, gloor, good, good's, goode, goods, gook, hood, hoods, hoofed, hoofs, hook, hook's, hooke, hooked, hooks, hooves, joong, jure, kook, kooks, koors, kuehl, kuhrt, look, looked, looks, loong, luehrs, luhr, luhrs, lure, lured, lures, mook, moor, moore, moore's, moored, moores, moors, muhr, nook, nooks, poor, poor's, poore, poors, pull, pulled, pulls, puls, pultz, put, puts, rook, rooke, rooks, routes, ruehl, ruhr, schnooks, schnoor, schoof, schook, schultz, schulz, schulze, schuur, shook, should, shultz, shure, snook, snooks, soot, soots, spoor, spoor's, stood, stroock, stuhr, suire, sure, took, tooke, tookes, tour, tour's, toured, tours, ture, uhr, wolf, wolf's, wolfe, wolfe's, wolff, wolves, wood, wood's, woods, wool, woolf, wools, woong, would, wuertz, wulf, wulff, zook, zuehlke
ǡбĹ첻 /uː/ 첻 /ʌ/ ñϡƱͤξ︡ "^[^AEIOU]*(?<!Y )UW[012]? [^AEIOUHWY]+$" "^[^AEIOU]*(?<!Y )AH[012]? [^AEIOUHWY]+$" ˤС줾596졤966줬ҥåȤꤵ줿ĶˤĴǤϤ뤬Ū /ʊ/ ñ줬ʤȤ狼롥
171Τ<oo> = /ʊ/ δطΤ95줢롥ֻȯδططʤˤϡ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1]) ӡ#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1]) ǽҤ٤̤ꡤĹ첻û첻ȤѲä
βѲϲΤΤǤϤ뤬;ȤϸǤ⾯θˤƻȯŪ˸롥㤨Сȯɤΰ ([2010-08-28-1]) dzǧǤ¤ꡤroom, bedroom, broom ȯϡĹ첻û첻δ֤ɤLPD Preference polls ˤСɤʬۤϰʲ̤ꡥ
| BrE /ruːm/ | BrE /rʊm/ | AmE /ruːm/ | AmE /rʊm/ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| room | 81% | 19 | 93 | 7 |
| bedroom | 63 | 37 | - | - |
| broom | 92 | 8 | - | - |
Bloomfield (46) ϥꥫɽ빽¤ؼԤ̾ Language Ǥϡ˸ؤҲؤ褦ˤĤƤäۤ¿ƶŸƤ롥äΤ1Ĥˡ֥ߥ˥̩١ (the density of communication) ؤθڤ롥#882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1]) 㤬褦ˡּ夤嫤ǷФ줿 ("weakly tied") ҲǤϡƳ䤹ʤ䤹ȤʴϢ[2012-07-19-1]ε#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡ספ⻲ȡˡϡǯμҲؤˤƸѲϳؤȤܤƤ복ǰBloomfield ᤤʳǤδŪʥǥäƤȹͤ롥
Bloomfield Τ "the density of communication" ϡʥХˤɽ蘆롥ȤɽġüԤߤ̵ǷӤĤ礤춦ƱΤΥͥåȥƤȤ
Every speaker's language, except for personal factors which we must here ignore, is a composite result of what he has heard other people say. / Imagine a huge chart with a dot for every speaker in the community, and imagine that every time any speaker uttered a sentence, an arrow were drawn into the chart pointing from his dot to the dot representing each one of his hearers. At the end of a given period of time, say seventy years, this chart would show us the density of communication within the community. Some speakers would turn out to have been in close communication: there would be many arrows from one to the other, and there would be many series of arrows connecting them by way of one, two, or three intermediate speakers. At the other extreme there would be widely separated speakers who had never heard each other speak and were connected only by long chains of arrows through many intermediate speakers. If we wanted to explain the likeness and unlikeness between various speakers in the community, or, what comes to the same thing, to predict the degree of likeness for any two given speakers, our first step would be to count and evaluate the arrows and series of arrows connecting the dots. We shall see in a moment that this would be only the first step; the reader of this book, for instance, is more likely to repeat a speech-form which he has heard, say, from a lecturer of great fame, than one which he has heard from a street-sweeper. (46--47)
Ƿ«Ƥ붦ƱΤɤ٤ϸߤ˺٤Ǵˤ䤫˷ӤĤƤꡤΤȤĤʤäƤȤϡҲؼԤ "social network" (Aitchison 49) οޤΤΤǤ롥
Ȥ˸ؤΩ줫鸫ƤפʤΤϡBloomfield ΰѤľˡХФƿľʼǤ̻֤פƤȤ¤Ǥ롥
The chart we have imagined is impossible of construction. An insurmountable difficulty, and the most important one, would be the factor of time: starting with persons now alive, we should be compelled to put in a dot for every speaker whose voice had ever reached anyone now living, and then a dot for every speaker whom these speakers had ever heard, and so on, back beyond the days of King Alfred the Great, and beyond earliest history, back indefinitely into the primeval dawn of mankind: our speech depends entirely upon the speech of the past. (47)
üԤϡƱƤ¾üԤȤΤĤʤΤߤˤäƸθƤ櫓ǤϤʤǯüԤˤŪʱƶäиηиκפϼθ˾ʤ餺ȿǤƤƱͤˡ餬ǯüԤ˸ŪƶڤܤƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ϥХФƿľ˲ؤ̤ؤӤƤ椭źΤ٤ƤͥåȥΤɤ˰֤Ť뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
֤̻֤ζ̤ˡɬפBloomfield ΥХȤ˾Ȥ餻СξԤδ֤ΤʶʤȤͤ롥ξԤζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1]) #866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) #1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1]) #1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) #1076. 塼뤬֤̻֤ͥ褵3Ĥͳ ([2012-04-07-1]) ۤdiachrony γƵȡ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
ε#1350. ư֤ưѤ of ([2013-01-06-1]) #1333. ѸǼư֤ưѤ줿ֻ ([2012-12-20-1]) ǿʤä⤦2ĤФ夲٤ֻ줬äthrough at Ǥ롥
through ˤĤƤϡOED through, prep. and adv. 7b ˡǤѤȤƤǤ뤬ư֤ưȤƤθͿƤ롥 c900 Bede Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum 顤ǽ1598ǯΤΤǡ8㤷ƤʤޤMED ϡư֤ưˡȤƤϸΩƤƤʤѸǤˡˤĤơ֤ܤΤ Mustanoja (408) Ǥ롥
Indicating the agent of a passive verb through is not particularly common in OE, and in ME it loses ground steadily: --- þuruh me ne schulde hit never more beon iupped (Ancr. 38); --- in Rome throu an þat hight Neron . . . Naild on þe rod he [Peter] was (Cursor 20909, Cotton MS); --- alle cristen folk been fled fro that contree Thurgh payens (Ch. CT B ML 542; it is impossible to say for certain whether been fled is an active or passive form).
at ˤĤƤϡ (355) ˤСѸǡ֤Ƥޤư¤ư (passive agent) 魯 Prp ȤƵ뤳ȤסMED Ǥϡ9 "Of means or agency: by means of, through; by (sb.)." Ȥ뤬įƤߤȡư֤ưȤƲǤ뤫ɤɬΤǤϤʤOED ǤϸΩƤƤ餺Mustanoja ˤҤʤat ư֤ưˡäƤɤ路ʤäƤ
ʤ15ˤ of by ζˤĤơ (358) 궽̣ҤդäƤ15ˤʤȤȤ˸Ǥ by of ݤƹԤ褦ˤʤ (Cely/PL/Shillingford/Stonor Ǥ of:by1:14ˡ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ38ǡ
#1333. ѸǼư֤ưѤ줿ֻ ([2012-12-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ֻΤof ܤof ϡűѸν꤫1600ǯޤǡưֻȤƹȤ줿θ of by ִƤäḽѸΤĤɽˤĤƤˡκפȤɤƤ롥ٹ (277) ˵Ƥ
Then was Jesus led up of the spirit into the wilderness to be tempted of the devil. --- Matthew, iv. 1.
The poor sinner is forsaken of all. --- Eliot.
. . . while bream, beloved of our ancestors, cannot be recommended highly. --- Clifford Cordley. (in Chambers's Journal, Feb., 1916)
The observed of all observers --- Shakespeare Hamlet, III. i. 162
Thus she drew quite near to Clare, still unobserved of him --- Hardy Tess, XIX
OED of, prep. γսѤ褦
14. Introducing the agent after a passive verb.
The usual word for this is now by (BY prep. 33), which was prevalent by the 15th cent.; of was used alongside by until c1600. Of is subsequently found as a stylistic archaism in biblical, poetic, and literary use, and in certain constructions, e.g. 'on the part of'. In Old English of was less used than from (both of which, however, retain connotations of separation or origin): cf. German von from, of.
The use of of is most frequent after past participles expressing a continued non-physical action (as in admired, loved, hated, ordained of), or a condition resulting from a definite action (as in abandoned, deserted, forgotten, forsaken of, which approach branch II.). It is also occasional with participial adjectives in un-, as unseen of, unowned of. Of often shows an approach to the subjective genitive: cf. 'he was chosen of God to this work' with 'he was the chosen of the electors'. In other senses the agent has passed into the cause, as in afeard, afraid, frightened, terrified of; or the source or origin, as in born of. English of and by correspond somewhat to French de and par.
be afraid of ϡǤϸȤªƤ뤬Ѹ˥ե줫ä֤Ӥפ̣ư affray ѤŵŪʼɽ̾ĤˤʤޤѤνΤۤ˿Ƥ born(e) of ˤĤƤϡ#966. borne of ([2011-12-19-1]) ȡ
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
procrastination /prə(ʊ)ˌkræstɪˈneɪʃən/ Ȥƥͳ褹Ǥʤ줬롥ٱפ̣ǡѸǤν1548ǯȤʤäƤ롥츻ȤƤϡŵƥ̾ prōcrāstinātiō ѤΤǤ롤ȽҤ٤ƺѤޤȻפкѤޤ뤬ñ procrastination η֤ȯܳŪ褦ȤСѸ줬˥ƥեηֵ§䲻§ǤȤˤҤ٤ʤˤϡѸʹߡ̻Ū˰ޤƤŪŪʷֵ§䲻§ȤƸ경ƤˤǤ롥
Bloomfield ˤСѸüԤϥƥñѤݤˡ"a fairly well-fixed set of habits" (493) ƤȤ
[T]hese habits are composed of (1) the adaptations and phonetic renderings that were conventional in the French use of book-Latin words round the year 1200, (2) adaptations that have become conventional in the English usage of Latin-French forms, and (3) phonetic renderings due to English sound-changes that have occurred since the Norman time.
procrastination ƤϤƤߤ褦եǤϡƥ̾ϼʤǤϤʤгʤåʤη֡ΤˤϤȤ֤ǼΤǤ롥äơƥ prōcrāstinātiō ϡʷΤޤޥեΤǤϤʤprōcrāstinātiōnem ʤɤμгʷ -em 줿֤ǡprocrastination Ȥƥե롥⤷13դ˥եäƤʤСեǤ *[prokrastinaˈsjoːn] ʤɤȤʤäƤȤοꤵ벻 (1) ν˴Ť
ˡѸüԤϡ(2) ν˽äơեͳƱѸäƤñȯѸ첽롥嵭οˤ2첻 *[a], 4첻 *[a], ľ *[sjon] 줾Ѹ [æ], [eɪ], [ʃən] ؤ֤ΤǤ롥νϡѸ줬̤ΥեѸʤۤ夲Ƥαʩб§Ǥ롥
Ǹˡ(3) νʤѸˤ붯ưˤ뵬§Ѳ˽äơ1ǽᤫ餽ΰذư
Bloomfield ܿͤ p. 450 ǧƤ褦ˡ(2) (3) ζܤɬΤǤϤʤ嵭ϡѸ졤ե졤ƥ3Ԥδ֤̻Ū˰ޤƤб§̻ŪƤѲȤαѸˤ붦Ūʷֵ§ʤ뤤ϷֽˤȤƳΩƤȤŪǤ롥Ѹ줬16ȾФˡƥ prōcrāstinātiō ѤȤ뤤ϻȤƼ˼ȤȾ̵ռ (1), (2), (3) νŬѤ졤Ѹβ procrastination 줿ΤǤ롥ˤϡñʤѰʾβѤƤ롥
Ĺ֤Τ˷֤ŤƤвϩĤΤޤˤ®ϩȤʤäơľŪŤ褦ˤʤäȤǤѸäμȤϡˤ diachrony synchrony ȤǤ⼨ͿƤ줽
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
[v] ϤȤͭ첻Ǽ䤹ȤŪħ롥ͭȤŪˤϡбμ岽ˤäƤ⤢롥ƥ rīpam "bank, shore", sētam "silk", focum "hearth" θڥǤ riba, seda, fuego "fire" ƤꡤեǤ rive, soie, feu Τ褦ˤ˼岽뤤ϾüƤ (Bloomfield 374)
[v] ˸ꤹСѸǤ⡤λҲ첻ǤФкƤ롥Ѹ auger, curfew, had, head, kerchief, lady, lark, lord, poor ϡȯ [v] ޤޤƤʤ [v] äƤ[v] κ13ʹߤΤȤƤ롥
(401, 410--11) ˤС[v] κ줿ĶˤϤĤμबǧ롥Ǥ3夲褦1ܤϡa ˸³k, g, l ֤ĶǤ롥㤨Сauger hawk ʤɤǡŪ [v] Ƥ롥ԤϸűѸ nafogār ̤ꡤ nafu "nave" + gār "spear" ιǤ롥Ѹ a g ˶ޤ줿 [v] 졤 a nauger an auger ʬΤǤʰʬϤˤĤƤϡ[2009-05-03-1]ε#4. ǶܤǤѸñȯڤƤ롩פ metanalysis γƵȡˡԤϡűѸ h(e)afoc Ѹˤ [v] 줿ΤǤ롥
2ܤ d ֤ˤƤǤꡤűѸ hæfde "had", hēafdes "head's", hlǣfdige "lady" ʤɤˤ [v] ü
3ܤϡΤĹ첻θ֤ǡ r(C), l, m, n ֤ˤƤǤꡤűѸ lāferce "lark" 䡤ťե줫μѸ cuevrechief "kerchief", cuevrefeu "curfew", povre "poor" ʤɤˤ [v] ü
Ϣơlady lord θˤˤĤƤϡ#23. "Good evening, ladies and gentlemen!"ϴְ㤤 ([2009-05-21-1]) ȡ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ɸϡֶդžȤˡΧȡפ뤤ϡˡΧȤžȤաפΰ̣ζǤ롥̤ˡA turned B ǡBžȤAפ뤤ϡAžȤBפȤʤ롥ζ turned Դư turn βʬǡľ̾Ƥ뤬³ƤΤħǤ롥ư줬ʬȤ̾ˡϡ#752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡĤ롥֤Ѳɽ魯ưμưϸŤ be ˤ괰λäΤǡa lawyer turned teacher ϡ"a lawyer who is turned teacher" ʸѸȤƤ "a lawyer who has turned teacher"ˤб뤳Ȥˤʤ롥B ̾ϡ̵̾Ѥ롥an activist-turned-leader, an actor-turned-President, an engineer-turned-psychologist, a failed Kentucky lawyer turned smuggler, a lawyer-turned-legislator, a peeler-turned-pol, a writer-turned-governor ʤɥϥեȼ¿
OED turn, v. δϢεҤʸΤĤΤƤߤ褦
39. intr. with compl. To change so as to be, to become.
. . . .
b. with n. compl. (most commonly without article). Freq. as pa. pple. modifying a n.
. . . .
1945 Times 4 Aug. 5/2 Mr. Aneurin Bevan at the Ministry of Health..is conspicuously the poacher turned gamekeeper.
1964 Eng. Studies 45 382 Their Scandinavian conquerors-turned-neighbors.
1973 E. F. Schumacher Small is Beautiful i. iii. 44 The economist-turned-econometrician is unwilling..to face the question.
1982 Times Lit. Suppl. 10 Sept. 968/3 Jerome's father was a Nonconformist preacher, turned architect, turned mine-owner.
#752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1]) Ǥϡưβʬ줬֤̾ A turned B Τ褦ˡưβʬ줬̾˸֤Ϥۤɤܤˤʤʤ櫓ǤϤʤٹ (92--93) εƤǺܤ褦
A Daniel come to judgement! --- Shakespeare.
Everybody knows the treasure of the sailor arrived in port. --- Sir Walter Besant.
"My dear, you must ask Priscilla," he said in the once firm voice, now become rather broken. --- Eliot.
But Lottie staggered on the lowest verandah step like a bird fallen out of the nest. --- Mansfield.
The gallant old squire, lately gone to his rest. --- Thomas Hughes.
He looked at the little sister returned to him in her full womanly beauty. --- Eliot.
He looked as a man just risen from a long illness. --- William Morris.
The brave that are no more! / All sunk beneath the wave / Fast by their native shore. --- Cowper.
He led me to a place where I found a kind Englishman lived right in the midst of the natives. --- Mrs. Gaskell.
Here is a gentlemen come to see you. --- Bennett.
Ah, you are the young woman come to look after my birds? --- Hardy.
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
ѸβäǤϡղõ䤬褯Ȥ롥ŪˤɤΤ餤褯ȤΤ⤽Ū˵ʸϤɤΤ餤٤ΤΤʤǡղõϤɤ줯餤γΤΤ褦ʵ顤ޤ٤ Biber et al. LGSWE Ǥ롥
ǽˤĤƤϡp. 211 ˲ͿƤ롥οˤƤĴCONV(ERSATION) Ǥ401ĵ䤬ޤޤƤȤåѥǤϡž̾塤䤬ȿǤƤǽ⤯ºݤˤϿͰʾ٤ǵʸƤϤǤ롥ƥȥפǤС礭 FICT(ION) ³NEWS ACAD(EMIC) Ǥϵʸ٤ϸ¤ʤ㤤
ˡƥ֥ѥˤơʸΤˤղõϤɤΤ餤p. 212 ˷ǺܤƤ̤ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤĤ100%ȤʤɽǤ롥
| (* = 5%; ~ = less than 2.5%) | CONV | FICT | NEWS | ACAD | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| independent clause | wh-question | **** | ******* | ********* | ********** |
| yes/no-question | ***** | ***** | ******* | ******* | |
| alternative question | ~ | ~ | ~ | ~ | |
| declarative question | ** | * | ~ | ~ | |
| fragments | wh-question | * | ** | ** | * |
| other | *** | *** | * | * | |
| tag | positive | * | ~ | ~ | ~ |
| negative | **** | * | ~ | ~ | |
Tag questions (i.e., regular questioning expressions tagged onto a sentence) exist in both American and British English, with British speakers perhaps using them more than Americans: "That's not very nice, is it?" Peremptory and aggressive tags tend to be used more in British English than in American English: "Well, I don't know, do I?" (192)
ǰʤ顤Biber et al. Ǥղõ٤αƺΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤӡƤΥѥĴ٤ɬפ
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
ޤƤǤȤޤ̦ǯǤǯ hellog ꤤޤ
ǯǽεϡ줿μˤĤơread βȯʤ /rɛd/ ʤΤѸˤδɤΤ
ɸѸ read γѤϡֻѤȯǤ /riːd/ -- /rɛd/ -- /rɛd/ Ȥʤ롥ΤˡδԵ§ζˤߤΤ褦˸롥ŪˤߤС§Ūȸڤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤΡȤäԵ§ζˤߤȤʤȯ˴ؤƤ㤬뤷ֻˤĤƤ⤢٤Ϳ롥
ȯֻ̡˹ͤƤޤϡȯ顥ư read θűѸ West-Saxon ˤ rǣdan Ǥꡤ촴ˤĹ첻ޤޤƤAnglian Kentish Ǥϡ첻 ē ɽ蘆⤤֤첻äˤűѸˤĹ첻ޤޤƤȤפǤ롥ơưϥޥĸʳǤ϶ѲVII°ƤűѸޤǤˤϼѲƤꡤWest-Saxon Ǥϲ rǣddeʬ gerǣd(e)d ڤƤ롥ǡ촴 d d ȤʣƤ뤳ȤݥȤǤ롥ȤΤϡѸˤơνŻҲľĹ첻ûȤѲǤ³æŻҲˡơѸǤϡ촴첻β /æ/, /ɛ/, /a/ ʤ첻δ֤ɤƤ줪Ӹ߷θ촴ǤĹ첻Ӳʬθ촴Ǥû첻Ȥʬۤ줿Ĺ첻ϸ첻ϤȤʤꡤɸѸ /iː/ ؤϢʤꡤû첻 /ɛ/ ؤϢʤä
첻бֻϤɤΤ褦ȯŸƤѸ˸줿 <ea> ֻϡȸ߷θ촴첻 /ɛː/ бƤȹͤ롥û첻Ȳʬθ촴첻ɽ魯֤ȤƤ <e> դ꤬Ǥդ路äΤ<red> Ǥϡ֡פɽ魯Ʊ֤۵ȾͤƤޤ줬ä餫̲뤳ȤϤʤä "homographic clash" ȤǤƤ֤٤ϡOED "read, v." θ츻ͿƤΤǤ롥
The present-day spelling of the past tense and past participle forms is analogous to the present tense; the spelling red for past tense and past participle is found only in isolated instances in the modern period and was perhaps avoided because it coincided with the standard spelling of RED adj.
"homographic clash" 1ĤβǽȤƤϹθ̤ͤƻ褦㤬Τޤ/ɛ/ = <ea> бΤΤ bread, dead, head, lead (n.), spread, stead, thread ʤɤ˸졤ɬǤϤʤ
˽Ҥ٤Ƥ OED εҤ绨ĤˤޤȤΤɸѸȯֻδط夯ޤǤˡʤ餫ˤ뤳ȡˤʣǤ롥MED ΰ֤ΰͤС䤳Ǥ
ʤlead (v.) read Ʊͤˤɤäֻȯ̩ܤʴطݤ³ɸѸǤ lead -- led -- led ؤ夤Ƥ롥ޤѸǤ eat spread ⸽߷Ĺ첻û첻ä (Dobson 503) ΤǡλޤǤȯȯã read ʿԤäȤˤʤ롥
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
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