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[2011-12-21-1]ε#968. ѸˤեѸμŪƻפǿ줿褦ˡƻ̣ξ礭ʬȡɾɽ魯 qualitative adjective (QA) ȴط relational adjective (RA) Ȥ̤롥QA RA ΰ̣֡ˤħΰ㤤ˤⶽ̣äʾ˸줫Ѹ줫ˤȤδطˤʤäƤȤΤϡ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) 䤽¾ع¤εǸڤƤ̤ꡤɾŪŪǡGreco-Latin ϡ˼ѸϵŪҴŪǤΤѸäŵȤƤ뤫ƻϤζ̤Ȥ櫓ɽФ䤹Ǥ褦˻פ롥
˴Ϣ Farsi ʸɤǤߤFarsi ϡQA RA ȤѸ줳ȤäƤʤ"descriptive adjective" Ȥ Class A "evaluative adjective" Ȥ Class B ζʬߤˡξʤΤˤξθȸˡˤ Class C ߤơѸηƻ䤫ʬष䤹Ϥꡤƻ˴Ϣ˼ͿɾClass A, B, C
| Class A | Class B | Class C |
|---|---|---|
| affective | affectionate | academic |
| appositive | apposite | aesthetic |
| behavioural | mannerly | American |
| bibliographic | bookish | artistic |
| cardiac | hearty | British |
| causal | effectual | Christian |
| ceremonial | ceremonious | cinematic |
| commemorative | memorable | civil |
| conceptual | thoughtful | constitutional |
| connective | coherent | conventional |
| consonantal | consonant | critical |
| continental | continent | demonstrative |
| corrective | correct | diplomatic |
| cultural | cultured | dramatic |
| deductive | seductive | emotional |
| dental | toothsome | English |
| devotional | devout | ethical |
| doctrinal | docile | formal |
| durative | durable | French |
| elective | eligible | grammatical |
| entrepreneurial | enterprising | historical |
| evaluative | valid | human |
| experiential | experienced | legal |
| factual | accurate | literary |
| fiduciary | faithful | logical |
| financial | lucrative | Marxian |
| genealogical | genteel | moral |
| generative | degenerate | musical |
| generic | generous | parliamentary |
| governmental | ruly | philosophical |
| gustatory | tasteful | poetic |
| inflexional | flexible | professional |
| interrogative | inquisitive | rational |
| intonational | tuneful | religious |
| juridical | just | royal |
| legislative | legitimate | sanitary |
| manual | handy | scientific |
| mental | sane | social |
| methodological | methodical | spiritual |
| modal | modish | theatrical |
| morphological | shapely | |
| nutritional | nutritious | |
| observational | observant | |
| olfactory | savoury | |
| optical | sightly | |
| ostensive | ostentatious | |
| palatal | palatable | |
| pecuniary | pecunious | |
| pedagogic | pedantic | |
| penitential | penitent | |
| perceptual | perceptive | |
| pictorial | picturesque | |
| residential | homely | |
| retributive | rewarding | |
| semantic | significant | |
| sensory | sensitive | |
| sociological | sociable | |
| stylistic | stylish | |
| supervisory | watchful | |
| syntactic | orderly | |
| tactile | tactful | |
| temporal | timely | |
| theological | godly | |
| urban | urbane | |
| verbal | verbose | |
| verificatory | veracious | |
| visual | conspicuous | |
| vocalic | equivocal | |
| vocative | provocative | |
| volitional | willing |
A word which can occupy the position between an article and a noun and the position after a linking verb and which cannot be transposed with the noun it modifies is an adjective if it contains a typical adjective-forming suffix or takes the comparative and superlative suffixes or adds the suffix -ly to form an adverb.
ǤϡζʬΤ̻Ū implication ϲȤδطϤɤʤäƤ뤫εǹͤ롥
Farsi, A. A. "Classification of Adjectives." Language Learning 18 (1968): 45--60.
##1089,1090,1091 εǡؤ (information theory) θˤĤơä˸; (redundancy) ܤʤҲ𤷤ϡJakobson ˤ "Linguistics and Communication Theory" ꤹʸˤäơؤͿƤҥȤͤƤߤ
Jakobson ϡˡŪʲǤμŪħ (distinctive feature) ȡˤñ̤Ǥ "digit" 뤤 "bit" Ȥο˵Ťʹ¤˸ؤȾܤJakobson ξʬζФؤ줫ؤ٤뤳ȤϲξԤδ֤Ʊ뤷ƤϤʤȤϲȤȤƤ롥ä2δؿ˰ääΤǡҲ𤷤
(1) ϡäѤʪŪʾãθΨηϤλȤ (code) ˴ؿꡤȯԡԡʸ̮̣ϹθʤηϤ code ǤϤ뤬ϸưɬפȤ¦̤1Ĥˤcode Τߤܤ٤٤Ǥ롥code 1¦̤ˤʤȤϡ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) ǸȤǤ롥
There is a similar danger when interpreting human inter-communication in terms of physical information. Attempts to construct a model of language without any relation either to the speaker or to the hearer and thus to hypostasize a code detached from actual communication threaten to make a scholastic fiction from language. (250)
(2) ؤ (1) ռǡμˡѤƸηϤθΨ¬ȤȤΩηϤȤƤŪʸΨȡܤ٤θºݾθΨȤξƤʤФʤʤԤ type Ūlangue Ūʰ̣ǤθΨԤ token Ūparole Ūʰ̣ǤθΨȤФ狼䤹Jakobson ϡǤμŪħǤʤ֥ƥΩǵҤǤǽŪˤ "bit" ˤäƵҤǤȹͤƤꡤˤAȸBʸˡθΨʤɤӤǤȤƤ뤬ݲ줿ηϤȤƤ code θΨΤȤؤƤ롥ǡѤμºݤˤãθΨ¬ȤСܤνи٤̣νŤߤŤȤȤɬפǤ롥ȼºݤΥХפȤȤǤ롥
The amount of grammatical information which is potentially contained in the paradigms of a given language (statistics of the code) must be further confronted with a similar amount in the tokens, in the actual occurrences of the various grammatical forms within a corpus of messages. Any attempt to ignore this duality and to confine linguistic analysis and calculation only to the code or only to the corpus impoverishes the research. The crucial question of relationship between the patterning of the constituents of the verbal code and their relative frequency both in the code and in its use cannot be passed over. (251)
(2) ζθ츦˰ĤƲ᤹ȡ¤ؤȥѥؤϢȤȤ褦ʲˤĤʤäƤΤǤϤʤѥˤä줿ͤȤ˳Ƹܤ˽ŤߤŤԤʤΩνȤƵҤ줿ηϤΥѥȤƴޤƤ롥뤳ȤˤäơMartinet μĥηкθ ([2012-03-24-1], [2012-04-21-1]) ʤɤ⸡ڲǽȤʤΤǤϤʤ
Jakobson, Roman. "Linguistics and Communication Theory." Structure of Language and Its Mathematical Aspects. Providence: American Mathematical Society, 1961. 245--52.
Ѹΰϡquotation marks, inverted commas, quotes, speech marks ʤɤ͡˸ƤФ뤬ŵŪʵǽ1ĤľˡˤȯʬɸǤ롥‘abc’ Τ褦 single quotation marks ȡ“abc” Τ褦 double quotation marks 2ब롥ʥǥץ쥤ˡĤΰη֤ϰۤʤ뤬䥿ԥǤϤ줾 'abc' "abc" ʤɤƱ֤ˤʤ롥
̤ˡꥫǤ double quotations ̤ǤꡤꥹǤ single quotations ̤ǤȤ졤˴ޤǤϤʬۤդˤʤȤ褦ˡƺǧȤ롥ͤηǧ뤬ºݤˤϰˤФĤϤ褦
Ȥ quotation marks λѤαƺˤĤƿ줿ȤʤαƺȤ䤬äƤϤФиߤ˵դΤȤΤǤ1ȷڤפäƤ餤ǡŪ䤦Ȥ˺Ƥꡤͤ줿äǡĴ٤ƤߤŪʻˡεҤϡQuirk et al. (Section III. 21) Fowler's The Chicago Manual of Style ʤɡ¿λͿdzǧǤ뤬ŪȯŸηаޤˤĤƤϿƤΤʤǡMcArthur (838) ꤬ͿƤ줿
QUOTATION MARKS [1880s]. . . . Double marks are traditionally associated with American printing practice (as in the Chicago style) and single marks with British practice (as in the Oxford and Cambridge styles), but there is much variation in practice; double marks are more often found in British texts before the 1950s, and are usual in handwriting. Quotation marks are a relatively recent invention and were not common before the 19c. . . . Single quotation marks are tidier, less obtrusive, and less space-consuming than double marks, and for this reason are increasingly preferred in Britain and elsewhere in printing styles, especially in newspapers.
ޤCrystal (283) ϡquotation marks ˤĤơȯŸηϩάҤƤ롥
Derive from the use of a special sign (the diple) in the margin of manuscripts to draw attention to part of the text (such as a biblical quotation); printers represented the marks by raised and inverted commas, and eventually placed them within the line; came to indicate quotations and passages of direct speech (hence the alternative names); choice of single vs double quotes is variable; latter are more common in handwritten and typed material, and in US printing . . . .
ޤĴ٤Ƥ狼äȤϡquotation marks ϡμܤʤɤμӤѤ줿 "diple" ȸƤФü쵭椫ȯãΤǤꡤɤḽˤ double quotation marks ȤƸǤޤĤĤä褦ϡ䥿ԥǼѤ졤ȤƥꥫȤ夷1950ǯꥤꥹǤϰԹǴάǤȤ⤤ single quotation ޤ褦ˤʤꡤ夷
diple quotation marks ؤȯŸηϩܤΤꤿȤˤμܤɬפ
Ѹ punctuation ʶˡˤˤˤĤƤϡ[2010-11-23-1]ε#575. Ū punctuation ˤ500ǯۤɡפȡ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
[2009-11-30-1]ε#217. ѸüԤƱߥǥפǼ Kachru Ʊߥǥϡ20ȾˤѸѤɽ魯ȤƹƤƱ͡Ƚˤ⤵餵Ƥ㤨С21ˤ1999ǯʸǡModiano (24) ϼΤ褦Ŧʤ顤Kachru ǥۤɬʤ
Ʊߥǥϡꥹ濴Ȥγ¦رѸ줬ȤäƤäȤŪʰ֤äȤǥǤ롥ѸѤϰ˸ꤵƤ櫓Ǥʤ21θߡäȤǥͭǤϤʤ
Τ褦ŪƤޤȡInner Circle ѼüԤǤϤ뤬Inner Circle μϰ˽ǤʤüԤŬڤ˰֤Ť뤳ȤǤʤʤ롥㤨бѸȤƿͤƹʳ˺߽ŻƤʤӻʤΤ顤Υǥϸ¤§ǥȤϤʤ
ƱͤˡInner Circle μϰ˽Ǥ뤬Inner Circle δްդøŪѼäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ͡㤨СꥹѸüԡˤ⤿롥Τ褦üԤ⡤ΥǥǤϤޤ֤Ťʤ
ƱߥǥϡѸ줬ŪʹѡꥹȶŪʹѤȶӤĤƤȤͤٻƤ롥
Modiano μĥС̻ŪˤϱѸ줬ꥹȤϤפȤγƹسȤäƤȤꤷʤŪˤϱѸѤϰ˸ꤵƤ櫓Ǥʤϰ褬ͥ٤ϤʤפȤȤˤʤKachru ǥϡѸˤ¦̤Ĵ뤭餤ꡤѸѤθŬڤɽ魯ǤϤʤȤɾǤ롥
Modiano ƤȤФΤϡŪ˹ѸѼήĪäȤΤǤǽϤŻ뤷ŪʼѼΥǥKachru ƱƱߤοޤModiano "The centripetal circles of international English" ȸƤǤ롥

ѸβͤϹŪ٤ι⤵ˤȤŰŪʥץ饰ޥƥ˴ŤǥǤꡤˤʸξݤפڤɤڤ곫ܼŪȤơEIL (English as an International Language) ɤΤ褦ѼؤΤŪѼȤ¸ߤΤȤä䤬롥
Modiano ʸΤˤϡ6̾ɾȤˤ¨¤ȿǺܤƤ (28--34) 碌ɤޤ롥ǤϻξΥȤƤꡤEIL ˤĤƤŪΤʻŦä㤨СKaye (32) "It is much easier, I think, to say what IE is not than what it is." Ȥơinternational English λؼоݤΤȤ館ɤΤʤŦƤꡤ Modiano "a general term which includes all of the varieties which function well in cross-cultural communication" ȤФơ"But what is meant by 'function well'?" ȵ褷Ƥ롥Crystal WSSE (World Standard Spoken English) ˤ褽ѼؤȻפ뤬줬ʤΤꤹ뤳ȤJenkins (21--22) ˤ Modiano ǥɾ롥
Modiano, Marko. "International English in the Global Village." English Today 15.2 (1999): 22--28.
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2009.
#122. /kn/ ǻϤޤñ ([2009-08-27-1]) εǡǤƬ /kn/ Ū /k/ 岽üƤˡߡֻ <kn> Фȯ /n/ б̤ȤʤäƤ뤳ȤǤޤ /k-n/ Ϣ³ˤϡ/k/ ϼʤäȤ acknowledge ( ac- + knowledge ) θˤ (blend or contamination) ʬ (metanalysis) Ȥ̣ݤؤäƤ롥ϤˤĤƿ줿
Ѹֻ <acknowledge> ȽǤˡθ ac + know + ledge ؤȷʬϤǤ褦ˤߤ롥know 캬ǤꡤƬ ac- -ledge ղäΤ褦κۤƤ롥줬ΤȤưȤƵǽƤȤΤϰճǤ롥ȤΤϡledge (< OE -lāc) ϡknowledge wedlock ([2011-05-12-1]ε#745. 뺧 wedlockפȡˤʤɤ˸̤ꡤ̾ʤˤϲŪбǧƤ餺¾ƤƤˡƬ ac- Τۤϡֻ on ƬѷΤǤ롥űѸˤϡoncnāwan ǧ롨ǧˤȤ줬ꡤacknowledge Ȥΰ̣Ϣ³ϵʤ
ޤȤȡacknowledge ϼΤ褦ʸФΤǤϤʤȿ¬롥ޤűѸ "know" 캬Ȥ oncnāwan Ȥư줬¸ߤ"know" 캬Ȥ̾Ȥơknoulech(e) Ѹᤤʳ12˸줿̾ϡʻžˤꤽΤޤưȤƤѤƤꡤθưȤƤϡճˤϢŤƤΤ⤷ʤoncnāwan ͳ褹 knoulech(e) ȤѸ˺aknowleche Ȥ줬ޤ줿
ޤ줿ꡤ캬Ƭ /k/ ƬذĤ줿褦ʰʬŪֻ <ack-> ѤƤꡤǤƬϡ on- ͳ褹ΤǤϤʤޥŪ a(c)- (ex. accept, acquire) ȤƺƲᤵƤȤ롥̤Ȥơ/k/ Ƭ¦βȤǧ褦ˤʤꡤ1718ˤ know(ledge) ʤɤθǸƬ /k/ üݤˤ⡤acknowledge /k/ ϾüȤ줿ΤǤ롥
츻ŪʴΩƤСacknowledge(ment) ϡѸ캬 know Τʤͣ /k/ ݤäȤȤǤ뤬ʬϤȤŪŪΩƤСݤ줿 /k/ ϡ캬°벻ǤϤʤƬ°벻ȹͤ٤
Ѹֻȯδطˤ11ʤ¿¿б㤬̵ˤ뤬<o> ֻ [u] 첻ɽ魯ϤʤΤȤ䤬Ф줿ξǤ˻פĤϤʤäϻפĤԤĤȤϡͤ٤Ĵ٤٤Ǥ롥ͤ٤ȤΤϡʤߤˡĤꤽޤѸDZ첻 /ʊ/ ϺǤ٤㤤û첻Ǥ[2012-02-13-1]εȡˡǡȤʤñпϾʤȤͽ¬Ωġ
ˡ첻ñפ⤫٤Ƥߤ롥˵äƤΤ push, put, pull ʤɤ <u> ĥ롼פȡbook, foot, look ʤɤ <oo> ĥ롼פǤ롥ԤϸűѸ /ʊ/ = <u> δطѸޤϢʤȷѾƤǤ롥첻ϰŪˤ1600ǯ餤ޤǤ岽ФơѸ³ /ʌ/ Ϥ˿ /l/ /ʃ/ ˶ޤ줿ĶǤϡΤ褦岽Фʤäֿ˸³ĶפҥȤˡɸμб褦㳰ʤȹͤƤߤȡ1ĻפĤȤǤűѸ wulf ͳ褹 wolf 첻ʻˤǤ롥Ԥϡֻǽ (minim) Ϣ³Ķ뤿 <u> <o> ؽȤѸΰŪֻǤޤǤ롥w <uu> ֤Ǥϡwolf <uuulf> ȤƼ¸ƤޤҤɤɤߤˤǡ <uuolf> Ȥʶ路ȤȤǤ (Upward and Davidson 59) <u> <o> Ѥ뽬ˤĤƤϡ[2009-12-06-1]ε#223. woman ȯֻפ[2009-07-27-1]ε#91. ʤ;ñ̾ I ʸǽפǤ夲Ȥޤǽơwoman 1첻ʻˤɸμФ⤦1ĤǤ뤳Ȥ˵Ť
³ơ<oo> ĥ롼פͤƤߤ褦Υ롼פ벻ˤϡ/oː/ 첻ܡ /uː/ û /ʊ/ ȤѲǤ롥βѲɤʤֻΤۤŵŪ <oo> 夫<o> äƤ褦õФ褤Ȥˤʤ뤬űѸ bōsm ͳ褹 bosom 1첻ʻˤp. 111ˡ2첻ˤΤ1첻Ѳ <oo> Υ롼פˤȤˤƤ롥
¾ˤϡto μ岽ȯ1ĤȤ /tʊ/ 롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ǯ٤ϤޤäȤʤΤǡܥ֥ͤơֱѸ˴ؤѤʵפ罸ޤؤμȤΥꥢڡѡ̤ơ뤤ϸĿŪ˼䤷ƤäƤ⤫ޤޤѤʵȤΤϤƤ¿οͤͭƤΤǡϲƤꡤηǼ (hellog Board)ǵϤƤ餦Τ褤ȻפޤμˤޤǤ¤겿餫ηǥեɥХåȹͤƤޤʲϡʸ
ѸؤϡäʸˡǤϤʤषѸˤޤĤǡ¾ʤѤʬǤ⤢ޤ
ǯѸؤǤȡؤӻϤκƤ褦Ѥʵ䤬˺ƤޤȤ¿ΤǤ뤤ϡǽ餫ȤƼƤꡤԻĤǤˤ⤫餺䤹ʤ褦ʻ¿ޤ
Τ褦ѤʵƻפưääƤ椭ޤ˹ͻΤѸؤΤ⤷ǤƤѤʵǤФۤΤ褤䤤ȸޤ
ʲΥꥹȤϡѤʵפΰǤĤεˡϢֹ֥դޤΤǡɤƱƤPDFɤ
1. ˤѸüԤοϤɤΤ餤 (#933)
2. ѸϲǻȤƤΤ (#177, #376)
3. ʤѸȤʤäΤ
4. ʸˡïΤ (#124)
5. ʤܤǤϥꥫѸ줬ꥹѸήʤΤ
6. ѸˤΤ (#458)
7. ʤꥹѸȥꥫѸǤȯˡΰۤʤΤΤ (#244, #312, #357)
8. ѸϥƥȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 (#455)
9. ѸϥɥĸȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 (#455)
10. ʤեˤϱѸȻ褦ñ줬Τ (#845)
11. ʤ give up = surrender Τ褦ɽ¿Τ (#334)
12. ʤ A ֥פǤϤʤ֥פȯΤ (#205)
13. ʤ knight ɤޤʤ <k> <gh> Τ (#122)
14. ʤ busy <u> ֤Τ [ɪ] ȯΤ (#562)
15. ʤ women ϡ֥ߥפȯΤ (#223, #224)
16. ʤ one ˤ <w> ֻʤΤ /w/ ȯΤ (#86, #89)
17. <th> ֻɽ蘆ȯϤ [θ] ˤʤꡤ [ð] ˤʤΤ (#842)
18. ʤʻˤäƥȤΰ֤ؤñ줬Τ (ex. increase, record) (#844, #805)
19. ʤܿͤ /r/ /l/ 䡤/b/ /v/ ȯʤΤ (#72, #74)
20. αѸüԤȯɤΤ
21. ʤư3ñ -s ĤΤ
22. ʤ괧 a an ̤Τ (#831)
23. ʤ sheep ʣ̵ѲʤΤ (#12)
24. ʤ foot ʣ feet ʤΤ (#157)
25. ʤ⤯Τ on foot ñѤΤ
26. ʤ go β went ʤΤ (#43)
27. ʤ will won't ʤΤ (#89)
28. ʤ5W1Hˤơhow <h> ǻϤޤΤ (#51)
29. ʤ first, second, third Τ -th ǤʤΤ (#67)
30. ʤ you ñʣ̤ʤΤ (#167, #529)
31. ʤ be ư̯ʳѤΤ (#798)
32. ʤ1Ĥñ줬ۤʤʻȤѤΤ (cf. love) (#190, #264, #394)
33. ʤӵˤ -er ղäΤ more ѤΤΤ (#403, #456)
34. ʤեʤɤΤ褦̾ʸˡʤΤ (#25, #151)
35. ʤʸȤ˼ư֤Τ
36. ʤʸʸ do ФΤ (#486)
37. ʤά뤳ȤǤʤΤ
38. ʤ SVO ʤɸ礬ޤäƤΤ (#132, #137)
39. ʤŷ֤ɽ it ΩƤΤ
40. ʤǤ̤ΤȤ⸽߷ɽ魯Τ
41. ʤˡǤϲѤΤ (ex. if I were a bird)
42. ʤǫʰ˲ʲˡˤηѤΤ
43. ʤ His jokes made me laugh ȤˤȡI was made to laugh by his jokes Τ褦 to ѤɬפΤ
44. ղõǡamn't I? ǤϤʤaren't I? ȤʤΤϤʤ
45. ʤĻ̾ԲĻ̤̾Τ
46. 줬ֻŪˤʤʤΤϤʤ
47. ʤ1Ĥñ͡ʰ̣Τ (ex. bank, light)
48. ʤѸˤϷɸ줬ʤΤ
49. ʤ1;ñ̾ I ʸǽΤ (#91)
50. ʤʸƬͭ̾ʸǽϤΤ (#583)
51. ʤ studies Ǥ <y> <i> 夨Τ
52. ʤե٥åȤ26ʸʤΤ (#423)
53. Ѹζεϲ (#575, #582)
54. ʤĽǤϤʤǡ麸ǤϤʤ鱦֤Τ
⡤äȤѸؤθơޤǤΡֱѸ˴ؤѤʵסʡѸؤθơޡˤ罸ޤ
Ѹʻž (conversion) 뤤 (zero-derivation) ȤƤϡ̾ưΤ㤬¿β2ٷ֤㤬롥[2011-07-30-1]ε#824. smoke --- 2Ťʻžפǡ smoke ֱעֱۤעֵʱפȤФΤǤϤʤȤҲ𤷤2ˤƶΰưȼβʻžȤߤʤȤˤΤǤСabstráct ݤˡábstract ݡˡábstract ˡߴط˲ä[2011-11-08-1]ε#925. conversion ϶ŪƱǤ뤫פ (3) ȡˡ
ΰưˤʻ줬ؤȤݤϡѸǤϡ̾ưפȤΤƤꡤܥ֥Ǥ diatone γƵˤƤabstract ϡѸȯã conversion diatone Ȥ2Ĥβ¤˳ѤȤȤǤƸΨŪǤ롥䤬 diatone θĴ٤ȤƤϰʲθ줬롥줾ž̤ǧ3Ԥδط smoke abstract ȻƤ롥
discóunt ʹθʤˡdíscount ʳˡdíscount ʳ
éxtract ʪˡéxtract Фˡextráct ȴ褹
combíne ʷ礹ˡcómbine ʥХˡcómbine ʥХǼϤ
concréte ʶŷ뤵ˡcóncrete ʥȡˡcóncrete ʥȤǸǤ
contráct µˤ롨̤ޤˡcóntract ʷˡcóntract ʷ
contról 椹ˡcontról ˡcóntrol ֡
retárd ٤餻ˡretárd ٤ˡrétard η٤ο͡
Τ褦Ͽ¿ʤѤǽΤǤϤʤѸˤήΤʤǡŤŪȤʤäƤˡȤϢơ (169--70) ڤ Hotta (59) ȡ
ط١ҡ1988ǯ
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Noun-Verb Stress Alternation: An Example of Continuing Lexical Diffusion in Present-Day English." Journal of the Faculty of Letters: Language, Literature and Culture 110 (2012): 36--63.
ܥ֥Ǥ١夲Ƥ André Martinet (1908--99) ϡθؤ˱Ѥȼʿ¤ؼԤǤ롥[2012-04-20-1], [2012-04-21-1]εǡ; (redundancy) ˿ƤMartinet ;ȴϢƳΨ (probability) (information) (frequency) (cost) ȤäǰƳδطΤʤ˸ѲθõȤʲϡѸƳΰǤĤǡˡ
Ce qu'il convient de retenir de tout ceci pour comprendre la dynamique linguistique se ramène aux constatations suivantes : il existe un rapport constant et inverse entre la fréquence d'une unité et l'information qu'elle apporte, c'est-à-dire, en un certain sens, son efficacité ; il tend à s'établir un rapport constant et inverse entre la fréquence d'une unité et son coût, c'est-à-dire que représente d'énergie consommée chaque utilisation de cette unité. Un corollaire de ces deux constatations est que toute modification de la fréquence d'une unité entraîne une variation de son efficacité et laisse prévoir une modification de sa forme. Cette dernière pourra ne se produire qu'à longe échéance, car les condition réelles du fonctionnement des langues tendent à freiner les évolutions. (189--90)
ϳؤ뤿ˡΤΤˤĤ٤ȤϡγǧǤ롥ñ̤٤Ȥ줬ľʤʤ̣ǤϤθ̡ˤΤˤϰˤȿδط롨ϡñ̤٤Ȥѡʤʤñ̤Ѥ뤳ȤǾ륨ͥ륮ˤΤΰˤȿδطȤʤ뷹롥2ĤγǧεȤơñ̤٤ѤФθ̤Ѳ뤷η֤Ѳͽۤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥θԤѲϤޤĹ֤ΤǤ롥ȤΤϡѤθ¤ξȯã뷹뤫
Martinet ϡѤβսǡ;⤤ȤȤͽ¬ǽ⤤ȤȤǤꡤϸǤνиΨ뤤٤Ȥ̩ܤ˴ϢȤȤƤ롥̤ˡǤ٤⤱;⤯ͤ㤤 "plus une unité (mot, monème, phonème) est fréquente, moins elle est informative" (188) ơѤȤǤळȤˤäơƶ줿üԤˤȤäơ٤⤱й⤤ۤɡ1ȯɬפȤ륨ͥ륮̤ϾʤۤԹ礬褤¿Υͥ륮פȯ٤֤ⷫΤԷкѤդˡ٤㤤ɽϡȤȯ礭ʥͥ륮ɬפȤƤ⤢ޤ꺤ʤˤ衤ȯ뵡
Τ褦ˡѡפȯˤ륨ͥ륮̤Ȳ᤹硤̩ˤϸġβȯɤΤ餤Ѥפ뤫Τɬפ뤬η¬ˤ٤ƤñȯƱ٤ѤפȲꤹСɽפѤϤβĹ˰¸ϤǤ롥Ѥñ˲ĹƱͤȤСδطǤ롧ָǤϡ٤⤱вûסѲƤϤСָǤϡ٤⤯ʤвûʤפȤʤ
٤ѤȿδطϡиŪˤ褯Ǥ롥褯ȤȯˤƤɽˤƤû̡ά뷹롥ˤäƤϡû̡άεˤηȤơ̵˵Ȥ餢롥ʸˡŪʴɽṳ̂Ǹ경褯졤ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ȥưˤۤʤʤޤ[2012-01-14-1]εǼ夲#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ספ⡤٤ѤδطȤȤ館ʤȤǤ
ΰѤκǸˤ̤ꡤ٤ѤδطѲ褦Ȥݤˤϡֺθɬפ롥٤ƤƤ餽θṳ̂ޤǤˤϡ٤λ֤ɬפޤ٤ѤشطϡޤǴˤ䤫ʤΤǤ뤳ȤˤդƤɬפ롥ΰԤɸ꤬ "Laxité du rapport entre fréquence et coût" ٤Ѥδطδˤ䤫ˤǤ뤳ȤդäƤ
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
ҥȤθħȤơεǡ#766. ([2011-06-02-1]) ȡ#767. ʬ ([2011-06-03-1]) 夲Ƥ⤦1Ĥܤ٤ħȤƤ; (redundancy) ˤĤƤϡŪ˼夲Ȥʤäϡε#1089. ȸ; ([2012-04-20-1]) ơħˤĤ
ˤ̣ã˺Ǿ¤ɬפȤʾεŪǤѤȤ;ޤޤƤȤ롥;ϰ츫̵̤Ψ˻פ뤬εǽҤ٤褦ˡѤȼλ (noise) Ф붯ϤƤ롥ޥϥɥδɻߤϥɥͷӤȸƤ褤̵ѤѤȹͤƤ褤ޤ;ϡ콬ˤ礫ʤ칽¤ޤѾ;ʬˤ̤ΤθǤǤ̣ͽ¬ǽǤꡤºݤ˸콬ԤϤεѤơŪŪʸ̮ҥȤʤ顤̣θĤƤ椯ΤǤ롥
;ȤϤȡϸΤ¦̤˴ؤäƤǤȤȤ狼롥ޤεǿ줿褦ˡȲǤξ̤κ˴Ť;롥ãˤϿĤʬᤵ줿Ǥ̤л뤬μ¸ϲϢ³ΤȤ餶ˤɬפȤܤ¿β椬ݱʤ˴ޤޤƤޤ
ηϤˤߤΩ (opposition) ˴ط;⤢롥Ѹˤơ /n/ ͭɡɡǤʾͭǤ뤳Ȥͽ¬ǽǤꡤ/n/ εҤ̵ͭȤΩꤹɬפϤʤϡ;구§ (redundancy rule) ȸƤФ롥
ˤ;롥Ƭ [s] ľ̵ɬ̵ȤʤΤǡ̵Ǥ뤳ȤƵҤɬפϤʤ[2011-02-18-1]ε#662. sp-, st-, sk- ̵ˤʤͳפȡˡͽ¬ǽǤˤ⤫餺̩˵Ҥ뤳ȤԷкѤǤ롥ѤθǡƬ [s] ϲ餫λʹʤäľ [t] ̵Ȥʹ硤ľ [s] ä˰㤤ʤȽǤ䤦ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤΤ褦ˡ;ϰ֤ȤƵǽ롥
˻;ϡֻ§ˤ⸫롥㤨СѸǤƬʤɤε㳰ơ<q> ʸθˤɬ <u> 롥<u> Ϥܴۤͽ¬ǽǤꡤ̤ϥǤ롥
ˤ;ȤơThese books are . . . . ȤȤ줬ʣǤ뤳Ȥ3줹٤ƤˤäƼƤ롥It rained yesterday. ǤϡǤ뤳Ȥ2ټƤ롥Ѹ˾Ǥʣ (double_plural)ӵ (double_comparative) ([2010-10-28-1], [2012-01-10-1]) ʤɤ⡤;ȤƤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ΤۤŤͤ with might and main, without let or hindrance 䡤äʤɤǥե٥åȤʸݤ C as in Charley ʤɤɽ;ŪǤ뤷Yes ȸʤĤ˿Ȥä paralinguistic ;⤢롥
;ͽ¬ǽ (predictability) شطˤꡤޤͽ¬ǽϹ¤¸ߤȤ롥äơ;ȤȤϡ˹¤ȤȤǤ롥顤;Ȥȡ¤Ȥ빽¤ؤȤӤĤȤˤʤä¤ؤ Martinet μĥηкθǤ⡤;νŦƤ (183--85)
ȸ;δطˤĤƤϡHockett (76--89) ȡ
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
Hockett, Charles F. "Review of The Mathematical Theory of Communication by Claude L. Shannon; Warren Weaver." Language 29.1 (1953): 69--93.
(information theory) ȯãŪʳظؤϤ̤͡ʷǵƤȼꡤɲꡤͽ¬ǽ (predictability) ꡤƲθħ1ĤǤ; (redundancy) ˤĤơؤؤ٤뤳Ȥ¿
ȿƬǾ (cybernetics) δ Shannon and Weaver ˤäƸǤޤäȤ졤ϸػˤˤƤͭյʰ֤Ƥʥåpp. 164--71ˡϹ٤˿ŪǤꡤ̤θؼԤɤǡ̤ؤشԸȤȤϻζȤΤ褦Τ褦ʾˤϡؼԤˤɾΩġꥫθؼ Hockett νƤӥ塼ɤǤߤ
Shannon and Weaver ΤʤΤ顤Υӥ塼⤢٤Ȥʤ餶ʤɾԤ Hockett ιͤؤرѤǽˤĤƤʬǤϡؤȤƤ˹٤ƤȤʤäƤ롥ɾǤȤϸ;ӥȥԡ (entropy) ˤĤƤεϤ褯Ǥ
Hockett ϤؤޤʻǤȤʤ⡤ȯäβŪʾ̤ȲŪʾ̤1:1000ۤɤγꡤ˲Ūñ̤Τߤջ̤Բķñ̤ȤߤʤΤǤС첻;99.9%ˤΤܤȤƤ (85) Ǥȥԡ (entropy) ϡ"1 - redundancy" Τǡ첻Υȥԡ0.1%Ǥ롥ϡΨ̤θͽ¬ǽι⤤ξηϤȤȤǤ
ʪŪãݤˤϡ¿쾯ʤɬ (noise) ޤޤƤޤäơãտޤ줿̤˿Ԥ뤿ˤϡˤƶѤΰɬפȤʤ롥ˤȤäơ;ΰǤ롥Hockett ۩"channel noise is never completely eliminable, and redundancy is the weapon with which it can be combatted" (75) Τ褦˹ͤȡ첻;99.9%ʤ뤤Ϥ˶⤤͡ˤϡ˸줬Ť˻кܤ줿߷פξηϤǤ뤫ɸȤ
The high linguistically relevant redundancy of the speech signal can be interpreted not as a sign of low efficiency, but as an indication of tremendous flexibility of the system to accommodate to the widest imaginable variety of noise conditions. (Hockett 85)
Ω줫顤ä;ȤϤȡϸΤ¦̤˴ؤäƤǤȤȤ狼äƤ롥;ˤĤơεǾܤ뤳Ȥˤ롥
ߥ륫å Ρ ͺ ظؤή١ߤ˼1974ǯ
Hockett, Charles F. "Review of The Mathematical Theory of Communication by Claude L. Shannon; Warren Weaver." Language 29.1 (1953): 69--93.
Shannon, Claude L. and Warren Weaver. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 1949.
2֤ε[2012-04-17-1], [2012-04-18-1]˰³lingua franca Ȥΰ̣ˡˤĤƤꡥϼ˼ͤˤϥѥ˸㤫 lingua franca θԤΰ̣ꤿ
BNCWeb "lingua franca" ñ㸡ȡ34㤬ҥåȤKWICϤįƤߤȡѸ줬ȤʤäƤʸͽۤۤ¿ʤԥѸʤɤޤȱѸΥŪ˹⤤Ȥǧˤ衤ƥ졤ꥷ졤ե졤ҥʤɤν˴ؤʸ褷ƾʤʤϳؽѱѱѼlingua franca ʸˤƱѸӤǤ뤳ȤԤ lingua franca λѤǤϡΤ褦ʱѸؤΥХäˤʤȤѥ㤫餫ޤlingua franca ФơפȤĤ뤳ȤŬڤǤ뤳Ȥ⡤Ǥ
ѥϡΤ褦ŪǹΡְջã̤Ρפ⸫줿
Mr Tsurumaki was successful at 315 million francs, generally translated into lingua franca dollars at $51.4 million.
. . . the user has to resort to good old ASCII, the lingua franca of all computer systems . . . .
Τ褦줫̸ؤžȤ¤˿ʤǤ褦Ǥ롥ΰ̣ŪˤʤȤȤϡ줬äƤ̣ζ̤ȤȤǤ롥μΰ̣ѲӻǤꡤŪˤоݤȤ侩оݤȤʤʤѸȤƤ lingua franca Τ٤ʴߤݤIJͤ褦˻פϡŦlingua franca ΡüԤΥʤǤ롥ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) ˡüԤϴؤäƤʤǡüԤλä̵ͭˤ狼餺ŪѤ붦̸ȤƤαѸˤˤ EIL (English as an International Language) ȤѸ줬Ŭڤ餹٤ƤĶۤѸȤ (English as a) Global Language ȤѸˤʹ褦ˤʤäƤ
̩פʤŪʸ̮ǸߤαѸϰ̤˸ڤˤϡlingua franca global language 纹ʤȤƤ褦˻פ뤬嵭Τ褦ˡξԤζ̤ϤĤƤΤ褤ȹͤ롥üԤԴͿФ lingua franca ȡüԤδͿԴͿĶۤ global language Ωˤϡñʤζ̤Τߤʤ餺طʤˤѸѤΰ㤤ѸΤɤ¦̤֤ΰ㤤ȿǤƤ褦˻פ롥
ε[2012-04-17-1]ơlingua franca ȤѸˤĤƾܤĴ٤Ƥ椯Ȥˤ롥ޤϡؽױѱѼʸįƤߤ褦
OALD8: a shared language of communication used between people whose main languages are different: English has become a lingua franca in many parts of the world.
LDOCE5: a language used between people whose main languages are different: English is the lingua franca in many countries.
LAAD2: a language used between people whose main languages are different: Swahili is the lingua franca of East Africa.
COBUILD English Dictionary: A lingua franca is a language or way of communicating which is used between people who do not speak one another's native language: English is rapidly becoming the lingua franca of Asia.
CALD3: a language which is used for communication between groups of people who speak different languages but which is not used between members of the same group: The international business community sees English as a lingua franca.
MED2: a language that people use to communicate when they have different first languages: German is a useful lingua franca for tourists in the Czech Republic.
MWALED: a language that is used among people who speak various different languages: English is used as a lingua franca among many airline pilots.
äǡ줬ߤ˰ۤʤԤɤδ֤ǥߥ˥ʤȤѤפۤɤΰ̣Ǥ롥ؽԱѱѼˡʸǤϰŪ˱ѸȤΤ¿LAAD2 MED2 Ǥ Swahili German Ǥ롥ѸǰƬ֤ƤޤȡˤäƤ lingua franca ѹݸȤäªƤޤΤ褦˱Ѹʳθ줬ȤƤʸȡθǥХȤ롥ˡ̤αѱѼεҤƤߤ褦
OED2: 2b. lingua franca [It., = 'Frankish tongue']: a mixed language or jargon used in the Levant, consisting largely of Italian words deprived of their inflexions. Also transf. any mixed jargon formed as a medium of intercourse between people speaking different languages.
Web3: 2. any of various hybrid or other languages that are used over a wide area as common or commercial tongues among peoples of diverse speech (as Hindustani, Swahili).
AHD4: 1. A medium of communication between peoples of different languages.
WordNet 2.0: a common language used by speakers of different languages: Koine is a dialect of ancient Greek that was the lingua franca of the empire of Alexander the Great and was widely spoken throughout the eastern Mediterranean area in Roman times.
ǤϡɬѸӤǤϤʤŪ̩ΩġOED θȾǰŪžѤ줿Ȥ "any mixed jargon . . ." ͿƤΤϡԤˡȿǤƤʤŤҤȤ٤Web3 μݤźäơ"any language or (mixed) jargon . . ." դ꤬ŬΤ褦˻פ롥
ơlingua franca ΰ̣⤭ĦˤʤäƤǤפϡlingua franca üԤˤϡȤüԤޤޤƤʤȤȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤѸ줬եȤƸڤʸ̮ǤϡѸüԤΥʤΰ̣ǤϡELF (English as a Lingua Franca) Ȥ ENL (English as a Native Language) ФѸȤʤ롥ơαѸѤ ELF δ鸫ȡlingua franca ϡֱѸüԳפȤꤹӤӤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥䤬ŬڤɾפפȤ϶䤫lingua franca ϡǫɤäƹԤȡΤ褦ʶĥˤĤʤꤦ롥ѸüԳĬήˤĤƤϡ[2009-10-07-1]ε#163. ɤαѸΤäȤ깽!?פ[2010-01-24-1]ε#272. ݸȤƤαѸüԤʬ뿷ǥפȤ줿
Ѹ줬 lingua franca ʥեˤǤȤ ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) Ȥɽˤʹ褦ˤʤäΤϡ[2011-09-11-1]ε#867. Barber ǡѸθѲˤߤ뷹פǿ줿褦ˡ1990ǯȾаʹߤΤȤǤʤ¾elf γƵ lingua franca ޤƵȡˡEIL (English as an International Language) Ȥɽʹ뤳ȤäǶǤϤޤʹʤ"international language" ǤȤ¦̤⡤"lingua franca" ǤȤ¦̤ĴƤơǶǤϤŪ "global language" λѤƤƤ롥
ˤ븽Ѹͤǡlingua franca ȤѸԲķˤŬڤʤرѸˤDzۤѸθǤϡp. 12 lingua franca Τˡֺפ̸ֶפȤȤäƤ롥
lingua franca 17˥ꥢѤѸɽǡϡ֥ե²θפΰդǤ롥θϥꥢ졤ե졤ꥷ졤ڥ졤ӥ줫ʤ뺮ǡĤ泤ϰζ̸ȤƵǽˡ֥եפϸ˰Ū˶̸ؤƾΤȤʤäեϤȤʤԤɤפʤɤμŪŪ˻Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿ߡѸϤǤޤˤΤ褦ŪѤƤΤǤꡤǺǤƶϤΤեȸƤǺ٤ʤ
¾Ǥ֥եס֥եס֥եפʤɤȥʸФ뤳Ȥ¿¼ϸФȡ̸ֶסס֡ʺ̾סֺססֺݸספʤɤΩƤ롥ϡñȤΤǤСסդ꤬ŬڤǤϤʤȹͤƤ뤬 ELF Ƥʸ̮Ǥϡ̸ֶפ뤤ϾˤäƤϡפȤۤƱ˲ᤵƤΤǤϤʤ̸ֶפɬŬڤǤϤʤܸǤϽɽܸζ̸פȤѸ줪ӳǰ夷Ƥ뤳Ȥ䡤lingua franca ˤϡ̸ֶפɬäƤʤޤߤȤȤ顤ǤϤʤޤפϤޤ "global language" "world language" ª٤
ʤlingua franca θ츻Ǥ֥ե²θפˤĤư19ޤ泤ϰäƤ Lingua Franca ʤϥꥢʤɥ衼åѤθäȤƤᡤӥͤʤɤˤȤäƤϥ衼åŪʸˤۤʤʤä餯ˤȤäƤϡ franca Ȥϥޥ̱²ΰɤȤƤΥե²ؤǤϤʤ衼åѽä̱²ؤäΤǤϤʤ
εǤ lingua franca ΰ̣õꡤѸƤ椯
Baugh and Cable ϡŵŪ̾ǤѸˡ5ǡˤ1ϤǡѸιŪȤ "econo-technical superiority" ̩ܤʴط⤤Ƥ롥Ѹ줬ݸȤʤäطʤˤĤƤԤιͤϡҤȤ˸쳰μҲŪװ椨ǤȤƤꡤǤ[2012-04-13-1]ε#1082. ʤѸȤʤä (1)פDz⤷ Crystal βȰפƤ (Baugh and Cable, pp. 3, 11) Baugh and Cable ϡ"econo-technical superiority" ΤߤθݸؤȻ餷ŪװǤ櫓ǤϤʤ٤Ĺˤ錄벼ѤߤˤפǤȤƤ롥DZѸ椵ƤΤ "econo-technical superiority" ĤȤܸǤ롥
If "econo-technical superiority" is what counts, we might wonder about the relative status of English and Japanese. Although spoken by 125 million people in Japan, a country that has risen to economic and technical dominance since World War II, the Japanese language has yet few of the roles in international affairs that are played by English or French. The reasons are rooted in the histories of these languages. Natural languages are not like programming languages such as Fortran or LISP, which have gained or lost international currency over a period of a decade or two. Japan went through a two-century period of isolation from the West (between 1640 and 1854) during which time several European languages were establishing the base of their subsequent expansion. (5)
ݸȤƺդˤϡ٤Ĺˤ錄äνϰ˱ƶϤԻȤݻȯŸƤ椯ɬפȤϡΤˤ̤Ȼפԥ塼Ƹ꤬û֤ǵΤФơʹ֤θƸäȤäꤷΤǤȤŦⶽ̣ʹ֤θϡԥ塼Τ褦ˡŪʥץκȤ1ĤŪòƤ櫓ǤϤʤ¿¿ͤʵǽäƤ뤷[2012-04-02-1]ڤ function_of_language νȡˡüԶƱΤμҲŪˤǻȿǤƤ롥Τ褦ʿʹ֤θϡȤݥߥ˥ȤŪŪΤѤȤƤ⡤û֤Ǥ뤯ȼؤ뤳Ȥ⤷ݴطή줬ߤäȷ㤷ʤꡤƳޤ뤷Ÿ褦ʼҲˤʤСȯŸԥ塼ȤθΤ褦ˡʹ֤θιŪƸ⡤û֤Ǥ뤯ȸؤǽϤ롥QŪˤϡʹ֤θ줬Ū˺դƤ椯ˤϡλ֤ȼƤλ֤ɬפǤ뤳ȤǧƤ褤
Baugh and Cable ξεϡĤǵ䤬롥ܡʸˤ econo-technical superiority ȤȤơȱѸιŪȤӤƤΤˤ⤫餺ܸ줬κޤǤä̤餻Ƥͳ狼ʤѸΤμ줬λ֤ƹŪŸФƤΤФơܸΤ60ǯ֤ʤäȤΤǤСѤߤˤĹȤӤƤȤǤԤ17ˤνιŪΩܸβͶιŪΩӤƤޤäƤ롥
ޤBaugh and Cable ܤ "a two-century period of isolation from the West" ܸιݲˤȤäװäȹͤƤ褦ΤȤδط䤷ȤʤܸιݲƻĤΤȤɬʤ䡤̤ǤϤ̤꤫⤷ʤλˤμƳôäƤΤϳΤνǤꡤȲ餫δطФʤŸԲǽä褦˻פ롥Ÿʸ̤ªΤǤΤȤδطɬܤäˤʤˤʤäƤΤϹŪ٤ǤꡤɬоݤȤƤ櫓ǤϤʤʸαѸǤʤĤƤȤϷ褷Ƹʤˡ쥢Ȥ˸¤Сľλ塤濴Ȥ̾ʤǡܤϤषϰθפμƳȲƤꡤ쥢ǤιݲϻƤΤǤ롥äƤ⡤Τ̾ιȤƤϥ˸¤äΤΡȤϸפ³ڹΰȤ̿ƤǤ⺿ˤΤȤƸꤵ줿̾ǤäȤϡꤷ褦ʤΤȤδط䤬ʤܸιݲƻĤΤ褦ʵϡ濴ŪʸǤ롥
⤦1Baugh and Cable Ϻ1640--1854ǯȤƤ뤬δϡۤʿͤ˶ž졤٤ƤγǰפĹ˽椵줿1641ǯȤΤܻˤǤ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ˤѸν¤פˤĤƤϡelf γƵ䡤Ȥ櫓 statistics elf γƵǼ夲ƤѸϸ߿ʹǤꡤѸ˴ؤ¤פѲκˤ뤿ˡǿξΤª뤳Ȥǯ٤졤ˤäƤϿǯ٤ξȤ˸䤷̤ȤȤˤʤ꤬Ǥ롥ޤ¿θԤ䵡ؤ¤פĴƤΤΡ̤ξ̤˸ɽˤȤɤޤ뤳Ȥ¿뤳Ȥ
ʲΰϡ2006ǯ˽Ǥ줿 Schmitt and Marsden (2--3) ˵ƤѸν¤פνܤԤ⤤褦 "In many cases, the most current information available dates from the 1990s, or even the 1980s." (2) Ǥ롥ޤǻͻΤ褦˰ƤǤϤ롥ʤʸǤϡƹܤŵƤꡤɬפ˱ƻȤ뤳ȤǤ롥
English is the principal language of intercontinental telephone communication.
Perhaps as much as 75 percent of mail around the world is written in English.
About half of the world's newspapers are published in English.
Twenty-eight percent of the books published annually are in English.
The majority of academic journals with international readership are in English.
The majority, and perhaps even more than two-thirds, of international scientists write in English. For example, nearly two-thirds of the publications produced by French scientists were in English in the early 1980s. Likewise, English was the major working language for German academics surveyed in the early 1990s. In 13 out of 20 disciplines, at least 40 percent claimed to work in English, and for psychology, biology, chemistry, and physics, the figures ranged from 81 to 98 percent. One can only suspect that these figures are even higher today.
Ninety percent of Internet hosts were based in English-speaking countries in the mid-1998s.
Close to 80 percent of the world's computer data available on the Internet was stored in English in the 1990s, which is not surprising considering that English-speaking countries took the lead in developing the Internet. However, as other countries rapidly increase their use of the Internet, the use of non-English languages is rising. Still, English sites on the Internet continue to attract a disproportionately high percentage of hits.
Forty percent of the people online on the Internet speak English (228 million people), though this may eventually drop to around 30 percent. The next highest language is Chinese at 9.8 percent (55.5 million people).
The most influential software company, Microsoft, is based in an English-speaking country: the United States.
Most of the largest advertising agencies are based in the United States.
Eighty-five percent of world institutions use English as their language, or as one of their languages; for example, it is the official language of the Olympics and the World Council of Churches.
The official international language for both aviation and maritime use is English.
English is the dominant language of international trade, with about 40 percent of the business deals made in English.
The most influential movies and modern music come from English-speaking countries.
In 1994, 80 percent of all feature films that were shown in cinemas worldwide were in English.
About 85 percent of the global movie market was controlled by the United States in 1995.
The fact that large numbers of people are learning English as a second language is reflected by the large number of people taking the TOEFL® Test (about 689,000 people in 215 countries) and University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES) tests (more than 1 million people in more than 130 countries) every year.
1997ǯ˽Ǥ Graddol 2003ǯ˽Ǥ Crystal ʤϤŤˤμƤ롥Ϣơ#48. Ū˱Ѹ줬Ѥפʬ ([2009-06-15-1]) #716. ѸˤΥȥ2011ǯǡˤȤβ ([2011-04-13-1]) ⻲ȡ
ϸ̤˾åץǡȤǤФ褤Τ˾ѤΤǡǤե륿ǤλŻˤʤäƤޤΤ褦ʹܰϡŤȤǧĤġ˻ȤäƤ椯Τ褤
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ε[2012-04-13-1]˰³Ѹ줬ȤʤäˤĤơϡSchmitt and Marsden ڤ Crystal Ѥʤ顤Ѹ줽ΤΤθŪü椨ǤϤʤޤǤüԽĤμҲŪʱƶϡʷϡкϡϤʤɡˤ椨Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤤
˰ȸμͤΤʤˤϡȿФո⤢롥㤨С#881. ťΥɸǤ͡ ([2011-09-25-1]) ǻȤݥԥ顼ʱѸˤɮ Bragg 롥Bragg ˤ¤ؤοꥹΥޥ奢μͤǡνǤ䡤Ω BBC Radio 4 The Routes of English ˤѸˤڤӤϤ뤬Ū˸ؤ̤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ褦üŪˤСBragg ϡѸ줬줿ˤդ路ŪüͭƤȹͤƤ롥μĥγƽɤ뤳ȤǤ뤬ä p. 277 ˤ Crystal εľܤȿƤս꤬ꡤ狼䤹㤨СǤ Crystal p. 8 ǰѤȽƤ롤1848ǯ˥ɥγؽѻ Athenaeum ˴줿ɾBragg (275) ϲưѤ"He was right in that last phrase." ɾƤΤǤ롥
In its easiness of grammatical construction, in its paucity of inflection, in its almost total disregard of the distinctions of gender excepting those of nature, in the simplicity and precision of its terminations and auxiliary verbs, not less than in the majesty, vigour and copiousness of its expression, our mother-tongue seems well adapted by organization to become the language of the world.
Ǥϡorganization ȤϸηϤΤΤΤȤǤ롥Bragg ϸؤΤϤ̤ƤʤȤϡ줿Ѹؤΰ𤬶ơ褯Хޥȡ̤˸оŪʸԡбѸԤˤʤäƤޤäƤȤ٤äȤ⡤Ԥ⤳ΤȤ¿ʤȤ⼫ǧƤ褦
Although English only exists in the mouths, minds, and pens of its many individual users, I came to feel that English had a character and presence of its own. This is not how professional linguists see it, but just as some historians see "England" with a life of its own at certain times, so the language itself, in my view, can be seen as a living organism. (ix)
ޤǡͤοθˤѸ줬ѸȤƤΥǥƥƥ鷺¸³ͳȤơ"the profoundly self-preserving nature of the language which had so slowly and doggedly alchemised into English" (19) ꡤΥޥͤοθ¸³ˤĤƤ "the result of this obstinacy, in my opinion, made it so powerfully earthed that later, when the Normans came with far more devastating consequences, it could still feed off its deep taproots" (20) ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ϡ19Ӹؤλ Schleicher ʤɤˤä줿ͭȤ礦ͤǤꡤ줬
ʾ塤Bragg ȽȤʤäԤαѸˤ populariser ȤƤǧƤ롥Ԥϸˤ˶Ū꤬ʤȡ "academic text" ǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ [xi]Ϥ⼫ߤʤˡδαѸˤȤɤФ⤷Ѹθ̤μ˭٤Ǥ롥
Bragg, Melvyn. The Adventure of English. New York: Arcade, 2003.
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ɸ䤤ˤĤƤϡرѸˤDzۤѸθ9Ƥ뤬üŪ˸äơֱѸ줬ˤΤ褤ߥǤ褤֤ˤĤƤפǤ롥褷ơѸ줬Ȥ¾θ⤹Ƥ뤫ǤϤʤˤĤƤϡ[2012-04-03-1]ε#1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤפǤ̤ΰѤˤ䶯ʲϡSchmitt and Marsden "How English Became a Global Language" ꤹᤫȴǤ롥
One can ask how English achieved its prominent place. It almost surely was not because English was intrinsically better than any other language. . . . Rather, a language usually rises in prestige and power in response to external factors. Languages are closely and unmistakably tied to the people who speak them, and when those people rise in power and begin spreading their influence, their language becomes involved in the process. . . . It has been said that "language is a dialect with a (sic) army and a navy." . . . Britain's naval and financial power allowed the British to become masters of both the Industrial Revolution and the largest empire the world has ever known. Another English-speaking giant, the United States, succeeded Britain. But it was not only military and industrial strength that bolstered the position of English. During this time, the most influential financial and investment centers (especially after Germany's defeat in 1918) were English speaking: New York and London. Likewise, English has been spread worldwide by popular Western culture, much of it in English---for example, Hollywood movies and pop music. Thus, English rose to prominence on the strength of centuries of unbroken dominance over large parts of the world by its speakers. (9)
ߤˤ뤳εΩäʸԤ Crystal pp. 7--10 ǮĥƤ롥ĹǤϤ뤬ä˽פʬ2ȴ褷褦
Without a strong power-base, of whatever kind, no language can make progress as an international medium of communication. Language has no independent existence, living in some sort of mystical space apart from the people who speak it. Language exists only in the brains and mouths and ears and hands and eyes of its users. When they succeed, on the international stage, their language succeeds. When then fail, their language fails. (7)
A language has traditionally become an international language for one chief reason: the power of its people --- especially their political and military power. The explanation is the same throughout history. Why did Greek become a language of international communication in the Middle East over 2,000 years ago? Not because of the intellects of Plato and Aristotle: the answer lies in the swords and spears wielded by the armies of Alexander the Great. Why did Latin become known throughout Europe? Ask the legions of the Roman Empire. Why did Arabic come to be spoken so widely across northern Africa and the Middle East? Follow the spread of Islam, carried along by the force of the Moorish armies from the eight century. Why did Spanish, Portuguese, and French find their way into the Americas, Africa and the Far East? Study the colonial policies of the Renaissance kings and queens, and the way these policies were ruthlessly implemented by armies and navies all over the known world. The history of a global language can be tranced through the successful expeditions of its soldier/sailor speakers. . . . (9)
2ܤΰѤǡCrystal ϸϤ߽ФΤϤҤȤ˷ϤȤƤ뤬ʸǤǤϡ߽Ф줿ϤݻΤϷкϤ䵻ϤǤȤäƤ롥ˤ衤üǤϤʤüԽĤμҲŪΩ줳ŪǤʤΤȤͤɤ뤮ϤʤϤΰո˻Ǥ롥
ǡǤϤʤȤոФƤ롥ˤĤƤεǡ
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
[2012-03-18-1]ε#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤפƬ[2012-03-22-1]ε#1060. θοȤȡפθȾǿ줿1960ǯ夫ҲؤȤʬȯŸƤθػŪطʤˤĤơȥåɥ1974ǯΤʤǼΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥
ؤϤޤǸȼҲȤδطޤä̵뤷褿ȸäƤޤäƤϤޤ礶äѤ뤫⤷ʤޤޤäƤȸ褦äȤʤǤäˤĤƤϡ¿ξ礽ʤͳ롥ָĿ(idiolect)סĤޤˤĤΥˤĿͤΤȤиθ˸¤뤳Ȥˤäơʣʸݤ椹ݤˤԲķñ㲽Ϥꡤñ㲽ȤˤäơŪˤ⤷ΤǤ롥Ǥ˻Ŧ̤ꡤȤΤϼҲŪʸݤʤΤǤ롥ҲȤ̤ޤä̵뤷Ƹ椷ΤǤϡΤʣʡ̣뤤Ĥ̤ɬŪæ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤷ޤȯŸ뵡碌뤳ȤˤʤȤΤѰۤ䤹ݤǤäơѰϸƱ˼ҲȤ̩ܤ˴طΤȤ¤ν˵ŤȤҲŪʸȯã˻餷װΰĤʤΤǤ롥Ȥϡʤ̤Ǥ⤹٤ƤοͤˤäƱ褦˻ȤññεηϤʤΤǤϤʤƸؤϤʣʸݤ˼ȤϤ뤳ȤǽǤ⤢뤷ͭǤ⤢ȤʳˡäãȤʤΤ(24--25)
Τ褦ˤȯŸƤҲؤΰϰϤϹߤǤ⤽ϰϤϳ礷Ƥ뤬Ҳؤܤ绨ĤʬȡŪʴؿҲŪʴؿŪʴؿ3郎ǧ롥줾졤ءҲءؤˡ並̤ѤƸȤ館ʤȤܻǤ롥ŪʴȤƤϡ̱²ʸˤäơ²̾Τɽ魯ηϤۤʤäꡤʶ̣ʪݡˤۤʤȤäŪ (linguistic relativism) ˤ꤬롥ҲŪʴȤƤϡLabov θ[2010-06-07-1]ε#406. Labov New York City /r/פȡˤ Milroy (and Milroy) θ[2011-09-26-1]ε#882. Belfast νŹפȡˤɽǡҲ׳ؤˡѤԻؤŸƤ롥ŪʴϡŤؤǺѤƤȾ (the wave theory) ɽ (linguistic geography) ܿ (language contact) ̤鿷̿ޤƤ롥
ΤۤΥץξ̤Ωġʤ뤤ϲǤ˽ҲؤȤǤƤ֤٤ΰͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ϡȥåɥ (27) ˤСָܼˤĤƤɤв뤳ȤǤ뤫ȤϤʤƤɤΤ褦ѲΤȤä褦ʶ̣Фơ˸ؼԤ˲Ϳ褦ȤΡפǤ롥ޤȹȡȶȤäŪŪ¦̤оݤȤʬ⤢ꡤϸμҲؤȤǤƤ֤ۤŬڤ⤷ʤ
ػŪˤϡҲؤȯŸؤæѤǤȤ¦̤Ĵ뤬˾äƤߡƾˤऱơŪʡֽҲءפܻؤҲŪʴ줿ؤȤΤŪ˹ۤƤ椯ȤˤʤΤǤϤʤä˸ѰۤѲˤĤƤμϡҲؤȯŸˤä˭ˤʤäˤ˸ؤˤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤҲؤˡޤޤܤ
P. ȥåɥ ظȼҲ١ȽŹ1975ǯ
ɸϡѤʵؤ˴줿䡥 five Фƽ fifth ǤΤϤʤ twelve Фƽ twelfth ǤΤϤʤȤΤƱǤ롥
εΤ褦ˡִܷ A ФơϢ A' Ե§ӤӤƤΤϤʤפȤפϾʤʤդ˸ۤŪ¤Ф¤ǤȤȤФФ롥ΥǸС /v/ Ĵ five ФơϢ줬Ե§ /f/ fifth ȤʤäƤΤϤʤפǤϤʤ /f/ Ľ fifth ФơϢ줬Ե§ /v/ five ȤʤäƤΤϤʤפȹͤ٤Ǥ롥Ūˤ fifth /f/ ϼǤꡤfive /v/ פʤ Ǥ롥
űѸ̤ȡ5פ fīf Ǥꡤ12פ twelf äֻ˼Ƥ̤ꡤ̵ [f] Ǥcf. ɥĸ fünf, zwölfˡűѸǽ -(o)þa äҲ [f] θǤ [t] ȤƼ¸졤űѸǤб fīfta, twelfta ȤƸ줿Ѹʹߤˡ¾νȤ (analogy) ˤ t th ֤졤Ѹ fifth, twelfth ޤ줿
⤦1ä٤ϡűѸǡ5ܤΡפ fīfta Ĺ첻ߤǤû첻Ȥϡ2Ҳ³ĶľĹ첻ûȤѸˤŪʲѲη̤Ǥ롥ƱѲФޤڥĤѸǤϤƤ첻βؤ롥[2009-05-14-1]ε#16. -th ̾ΤȤˤʤäư졦ƻϡפ⻲ȡ
feel -- felt
keep -- kept
sleep -- slept
broad -- breadth
deep -- depth
foul -- filth
weal -- wealth
wide -- width
fifth ˤĤƤϡΤ褦λҲ촴첻̤˴ؤ¿Ѳä촴2ҲȤƤϸűѸӤ̵ /f/ ѾƤƤꡤűѸδ fīf ľϤλ¹ȤäƤ褤
ǤϡܼŪꡥűѸδ fīf θҲͭ /v/ ȤʤäΤϤʤѸǤ⤽ϡ5פΤ褦ñȤ̾ŪѤȡ5ĤΡפΤ褦˷ƻŪѤ礬롥űѸǤϡƻȤƤδϡ¾̾ηƻƱͤˡط̾ʡʤɤʸˡƥ˽äζȤäfīf ϡʤ顤Υƥ˴ؤʣȤƤζȤäŵŪˤ -e ä¾θ⡤ɡѸޤǤˤ -e ؼ̤ˡűѸǤϡ§Ȥͭ˶ޤ줿̵Ʊ (assimilation) ˤͭΤǡfīfe2Ҳ <f> ֤ƤƤ [v] ȯ줿ơ䤬Ƥͭķ̵֤ķ֤֤ܷȤߤʤ褦ˤʤätwelve ˤĤƤƱͤλǤ롥ºݤˤϡζޤξϰ̤ηƻʣǤꡤʤ [v] ĶΤۤͥȤʤꡤܷǧ褦ˤʤäΤϡ̤٤ȤƻĤ롥
ΤʤǤϡޤ five / fifth twelve / twelfth Τߤ嵭βѲξ˹פˡ̤ȤơԵ§פ˸ѤԤȤΩäƤ롥ŪˤԵ§ȸ븽ݤ⡤̻Ūˤϡʤٵ§ŪѲη̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ狼äƤ롥§ŪʲѲԵ§ʽϤͿȤΤ̷⤷Ƥ褦ˤϤФдѻ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤԵ§ʷѲ§ŪʽϤͿ㤨ѡˤȤΤޤˤϤФдѻΤǤ롥
##626,1077,1078 ˰³Rivarol Υեͥꡥε[2012-04-09-1] (3) ǡRivarol ˤȡեΡפȤϡޤηǡȴϢSVOθꤷ礽ΤΤǤ뤳ȤҲ𤷤ޤκ˵ΤǤСषѸΤۤǤȤȤŦϤδ顤Rivarol ɾ
ޤޤȤȤǤС̾졤̾졤ư졤ƻΤθˤƤ⡤ѸեΤۤޤμ¿եȸƤ֤ˤ뤫⤷ʤѸ٤жŪǤȤϤäƤ褤Ϣơ˥եñ줬ѤƤŪ褯ݤƤȤŦˤĤƤϡñ줬˼ѤˤϳƤϤޤ뤳ȤǤꡤե˸¤ääǤϤʤ
ˡSVOθꤷ硤Ȥ櫓1ΰ֤ˤĤƤ⡤ϥեõǤϤʤषѸˤ褯ƤϤޤ쵬§Ǥ롥ºݡ Rivarol ΰʬߤƤ⡤Lodge (24) λŦ褦, "C'est de là que résulte cette admirable clarté" que Ǥϼư줬֤Ƥ롥ƱͤˡĥäʸΤǤϡ"aussi furent-elles merveilleuses pour les oracles" ˸褦ˡư֤Ϥ̤˸ (Lodge 26--27) ϡ"on a beau, par les mouvements les plus variés et toutes les ressources du style, déguiser cet ordre, il faut toujours qu'il existe" ֺǤѲ٤ư䤢ˡμʤѤƤθȤƤ̵̤ǤꡤθϾ¸ߤʤΤǤפȤ Rivarol μĥȤϴȿ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Τ褦 Rivarol ŪȽ뤳ȤϤ䤹ºݤȽϤʤƤ褦ǤöŤƤޤȡäȤ䤽äȤȿǤϤĤʤΤäȤΤǤ롥ԻĤʤΤϡեȤư͡ΤߤοäƤȤȤǤФޤǤΤѸüԤǤƱäƤԤʤʤˤäƤϸؼԤǤäݤޤƤޤäƤȤȤ (Lodge 25--26) Rivarol οäθŪȽϤ䤹Ȥ⡤ʤοä褦ˤʤäΤȤ䤤ˤϡӡȹȤȤҲŪʥץɬפˤʤäƤθȤƤϡΤ褦ޤǤɬפȻפ
Rivarol. Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française. Ed. Hubert Juin. Paris: P. Belfond, 1966.
Lodge, Anthony. "French is a Logical Language." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 23--31.
ε[2012-04-08-1]ʵڤ[2011-01-13-1]ε#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤáסˤ˰³Rivarol ̾¡ʸ Ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas français ʤ餶Υեˤ餺פطʤˤĤƤꡥRivarol ϡ¾ʼ˱Ѹƥˤ¾٤ơեΤɤΤ褦ʸħͥƤȹͤƤΤȯꤽ줾1ļ夲褦
(1) եȯϡե첻¿Ǥ褯Ĥ̥ե餫Ǥ롥̵ e ϡӤκǸοưӤ졤鷺Ĵ¤߽Ф (119)
(2) νƥθϱˤƤꡤ뤳Ȥ˼ѤƤեθϡʤȤֻϤ褯Ƚ̤Ǥ (102) Rivarol ϡä˱Ѹ˼ѤƤʤֻμΧäƤʤեñǰƬƤ롥˭٤äƥθޤȤȤƤäΤФơե϶ޤ˰¸Ƥ餺촴ȤʴطݤäƤ뤫ȤͤΤ褦Ǥ롥ƥ˸褦ʷ㤷ޤκѤϤष»ʤȤϡ (3) ˤطƤ롥
(3) եϡSVOθθˤäƳݤƤ롥SVOθϡľŪɬŪǡפꡤּפˤʤäƤꡤʹ֤Ρ־QפȡפˤäƤȤŪ֤ˡǤϤʤǮͥ褵ʤǤꡤեʳ¿θ줬ΰ˴٤äƤ롥ޤȯãƥʤɤϡ礬ꤷƤʤˡषΰ˴٤䤹
ʸɤǽΤäΤ̾ʸˤ "clair" Ȥϼ¤ΤȤSVOθΤȤˤۤʤʤΤǤ롥(2) ˤ (3) ˤϢޤηǡȸθȤȤǤСˤ⡤ѸΤۤեǤ롥䡤ѸϤ̤Ǥϰ²桤üäƤ[2011-02-12-1]ε#656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language."פȡˡRivarol Ѹη˴̵ΤäȤϻפʤˡȯˤϼʤ
³뤬 Rivarol ̾ʸʸ̮碌ưѤƤʸ̮ΤλѤΤǤ롥
Ce qui distingue notre langue des langues anciennes et modernes, c'est l'ordre de la construction de la phrase. Cet ordre doit toujours être direct et nécessairement clair. Le français nomme d'abord le sujet du discours, ensuite le verbe qui est l'action, et enfin l'objet de cette action : voilà la logique naturelle à tous les hommes; voilà ce qui constitue le sens commun. Or cet ordre, si favorable, si nécessaire au raisonnement, est presque toujours contraire aux sensations, qui nomment le premier l'objet qui frappe le premier. C'est pourquoi tous les peuples, abandonnant l'ordre direct, ont eu recours aux tournures plus ou moins hardies, selon que leurs sensations ou l'harmonie des mots l'exigeaient; et l'inversion a prévalu sur la terre, parce que l'homme est plus impérieusement gouverné par les passions que par la raison.
Le français, par un privilège unique, est seul resté fidèle à l'ordre direct, comme s'il était tout raison, et on a beau, par les mouvements les plus variés et toutes les ressources du style, déguiser cet ordre, il faut toujours qu'il existe; et c'est en vain que les passions nous bouleversent et nous sollicitent de suivre l'ordre des sensations : la syntaxe française est incorruptible. C'est de là que résulte cette admirable clarté, base éternelle de notre langue. Ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas français; ce qui n'est pas clair est encore anglais, italien, grec ou latin. Pour apprendre les langues à inversion, il suffit de connaître les mots et leurs régimes; pour apprendre la langue française, il faut encore retenir l'arrangement des mots. On dirait que c'est d'une géométrie tout élémentaire, de la simple ligne droite, que s'est formée la langue française, et que ce sont les courbes et leurs variétés infinies qui ont présidé aux langues grecque et latine. La nôtre règle et conduit la pensée; celles-là se précipitent et s'égarent avec elle dans le labyrinthe des sensations et suivent tous les caprices de l'harmonie : aussi furent-elles merveilleuses pour les oracles, et la nôtre les eût absolument décriés. (112--13)
Rivarol. Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française. Ed. Hubert Juin. Paris: P. Belfond, 1966.
[2011-01-13-1]ε#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤáפǡRivarol (1753--1801) Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française (1784) ǽҤ٤ͭ̾ Ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas français ʤ餶Υեˤ餺פŪطʤ⤷ϡؤδؿ餤СΥեȥե괬衼åѤξȤꡤѸȤΥ饤Хطꡤ̱²ȤȤҲŪꡤˤޤĤäεήۤꡤ̵ͥͭʤɤȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤʤȤƤΤ⤷äƤʤ
Rivarol ϡߤºݤˤեνɲ©ҤȤޤ줿Ȥ롥ɸեƥѥ˾ʸɮϤΤǥ٥ǥߡηʸ˱礷ΤȤΤ Discours äեüԤäԤɸեδȤΩ夬äȤ̣
Rivarol θʸɤǤߤΤȤĥΤۤȤɤϸŪˤäƻΥǤ롥Rivarol ˤȡˤüԤȤεʬӤĤ (la génie) ꡤˤˤäƷƤΤǤϤ뤬αƶƤ뤫⤷ʤ (89--90) եˤ "la politesse et la grâce" (94) äƤꡤեˤ⤳줬äƤʤѸˤäƤʤˡΤ褦ʸѤϸŪˤϼ줬ȤƤʤäߤǤ⤳μθˤޤĤäϲäƤȤϸ
Rivarol ΥեʤȥեˤξȤλϡ¾Υ衼åѤμӤʤե줬ĥȤˡǤ롥ƥ졤ꥷ졤Ѹ졤ꥢ졤ɥĸ졤ڥʤɤоݤ˻ФƤ뤬ͽۤȤꡤǤ饤Х뤷ƤΤϱѸȥƥǤ롥˰Ѥ̾ʸˤϡߥǤĤʤäȾʬ롥Ce qui n'est pas clair est encore anglais, italien, grec ou latin. ʤ餶ΤȤСѸ졤ꥢ졤ꥷ졤뤤ϥƥǤ (113) ʤߤˡ˥ɥĸ줬ޤޤƤʤΤϡ (99) Τ褦ˡʸα褬٥ǥߡǤ뤳ȤθȻפ뤬⤦1ĤͳϥɥĸƼ夲ɬפǧʤäȤȤǤϤʤRivarol ϥɥĸʤȥڥˤˤĤƤʸκǽǴñ˸ڤƤ뤯餤ǡ⤽եФ饤ХȤϤߤʤƤʤä롥
ǤϡRivarol ϱѸƥӤƥեΤɤΤ褦ͥƤȤߤʤΤƸħ̱ʸءʸΤ˰ĤƵƤս꤬ʤʤ줽ΤΤܤս⤢ꡤκϸäοĺȤ⤤롥Ūˤϡεǡ
Rivarol. Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française. Ed. Hubert Juin. Paris: P. Belfond, 1966.
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ
(synchrony) ̻ (diachrony) ϡؤˤƱʱΥơޤǤ롥Ȥ˱Ѹˤ˸ؤ椹ԤˤȤäơξԤδطɤ뤫ܼŪǤꡤǺߤκǤ⤢롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) #1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1]) #1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
ǺߤȯüϤȤСؤĤȤ 塼 (Ferdinand de Saussure; 1857--1913) 츦ˤƤ϶֤̻֤ͥ褵ʤФʤʤȼĥȤ̤롥ϡθΩäơ塼뤬ʤ֤ͥ褹٤ȹͤΤĮ (55--59) ˽äƹͤƤߤ
塼ϸ̸θ츽ΤȤƤΥ (langage) (langue) ȥѥ (parole) ʬؤθоݤϡ̣ãȤȥФܼ˴ؤ˸¤٤ȼĥΤΤ̻֤ӽȤ櫓ǤϤʤषˤܼŪ˻äƤȤȤǧƤ롥ξڵ1ĤȤơΰ̣ˤϲѤƤΤ뤷ʸˡԵ§ΰ仺ȤưѤƤΤ¿Τ̸ˤǤꡤѸξˤϱѸˤǤ롥̤ξڵȤƤϡϾѲˤ餵Ƥ롥νִ֤ˤѸܸѲ뤲Ƥꡤϰ֤ȤŪǤϤʤˤȤäƻ֤ѲܼŪǤǤ롥֤ˤѲη丶Τ˸ؤǤѲǤ롥
Τ褦˥ΤΤ֤ޤǰǤ뤫顤оݤȤ륽塼ؤ̻֤ӽƤ櫓ǤϤʤ塼μĥϡޤǶ֤ͥ褵褦ȤȤǤꡤ̻֤ϲ֤ƤȤƤʤΤǤ롥Ǥϡʤ֤ͥ褵٤ʤΤ
ͳ1ĤϡüԤΰռˤ̻Ūʻϸ§Ȥ¸ߤʤȤΤǤ롥#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) ǤȿˤϿ줿ŪˤäơüԤϤθβξ֤ʤɤΤ餺˸ưĤǤ롥ọ̇ĤƤϤɤääȤŪμϡ̣ãȤȥФܼṲ̄ˤϡäɬפȤʤüԤˤȤäɬפʤΤϡǤˤμǤꡤβʤ뤤̤ˤϤɤǤ褤üԤǾǼޤäƤμ餫ˤ뤳Ȥؤλ̿ʤΤȤСؤ϶֤Űɬפ롥
2ܤͳϡüԤμȤƤäƤΰ̣餫ˤ褦ȤʤС֤ߤƸạ̈ʬϤɬפ롥ΰ̣ϡ¾δϢΰ̣ȤδطʤåͥåȥΤʤˤ֤ˤäƷޤäƤΤ顤ƸΤΰ̣ʤɤθƥͥåȥ˻ֺƳƤޤȡޤʬϤǤʤ
嵭2Ĥͳϡ̣ãȤȥФܼṲ̄üԤäƤμ뤳Ȥؤλ̿ʤΤȤǰ˴ŤͳǤΤФơ3ܤͳˡͳǤ롥Ҥ̤ꡤˤܼŪ˻äƤΤ顤Ūʲ϶֤ȤƤǤʤ̻֤ȤƤܻؤʤФʤʤ̻ŪβϡŪˤ̵äǤ롥⡤θ֤Τ뤿ˤΤʤڵɬפȤ뤬¸ʸϾ˼̤ȤԽʬǤ롥ޤǸŤʸŤ֤ϡ¾ŪˤԲǽǤ롥äơβˤΤǤС̻֤¦̤ˤäƲݤ³ʤǤСββǽΤ붦ָϤ椵ΤŪбǤϤʤ
ؤˤ붦ͥθ§ϡΤ褦˶֤ؤοǰ̻֤ˡθ³˻٤ƾƤäƤʾ̻֤δӽǤ뤷ޤ֤Ǥβ𤦤ȤΤ˿Ƥ褤ΤȤ롥ºݡ塼ʹߤˤ⡤̻ŪʻθϢʤ³ƤΤǤ롥ξؤơػˤ路å (51) ԤɾƤ롥
ˤϰʬι¤ؼԤפդȤȤʤäΤώʬμΤʤͤϡ1920θؤκǤ⸲ϼλ¤ˤȤݤ뤳Ȥˤʤä19θؤ˼˽֤Ʊθ֤εҤλijŪͤᾮɾ20θؤϤȿФǡˤפդ졤ߤθθϤ椵Ƥ롤ȡȤ19θؤλˤĤƤΤΤ褦ʲȤƤ⡤¤ȯŸν̤ȤС20θؤˤĤƾΤ褦˸ȤϤǤʤȤǤ롥ŪҤ¸߸ĥ襤δ֤ˤظऱƤΤǤꡤθǤϳŪؿΰˤ٤֤ΤǤ롥
Į إ塼ȸء١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2004ǯ
ߥ륫å Ρ ͺ ظؤή١ߤ˼1974ǯ
եεؼ Rolan Barthes (1915--80) ϡ (sign) 2ѤΤ⤿餹Ѥܤconnotation ʴỤ̄ˤ meta language ʥˤȤ츫ȴطΤʤʸκѤȵǽδط䤫˼ò (165) οޤƸ褦

ϡε#1074. Hjelmslev θء ([2012-04-05-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ؤϻϼ Hjelmslev ۤΤȤ롥SA signifiant SE signifié 줾ɽ魯
(1) ˼ connotation ʴỤ̄ˤȤϡdenotation Ụ̄ˤФ복ǰǤꡤŪɽСָΰ̣פǤ롥[2012-03-09-1]ε#1047. nice ΰ̣Ѳפǿ줿You're a nice fellow. ʸ̤ΰ̣ (denotation) ϡ֤ʤϿڤʿͤǤ͡פޤ (connotation) ֤ޤϤʤԿڤۤʤפΰ̣Ȥʤꤦ롥ξ硤֤ʤϿڤʿͤǤ͡פȤ signifiant signifié ηӤĤΤ signifiant ؤȾʤб signifiéΤạ֤̈ޤϤʤԿڤۤʤפȷ礷Ƥ롥connotation ȤϡΤ褦2ʹεѤη̤ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
ˡ (2) ϡ (1) βưΤ褦ˤߤ뤬Τ礭ۤʤ롥 meta language ʥˤι¤Τmeta language Ȥϡ#523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1]) #1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡˤĤƸȤεǽΤȤǤ롥㤨Сconnotation äƲΤȡפȤʸǤ "connotation" ȤѸΰ̣䤦ƤꡤˤĤƤεѤɽƤΤǡ쵡ǽѤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥"connotation" ȤϤ켫Τ /ˌkɑnəˈteɪʃən/ ȤȡִỤ̄פȤ̣1ĤεεΤ signifié ȤʤäợäݤǤб벻 /ˌkɑnəˈteɪʃən/ ȷӤĤ (2) Τɽ蘆2Ūʵι¤롥
connotation meta language Ȥ츫ȴطΤʤʸκѤȵǽ2ʹει¤ȤƴϢŤȤΤϤ⤷Ǥϡ (1) ȿ (2) ⤸äơ (3) äƤߤȡϤɤΤ褦ʸѡǽɽ路ƤȹͤΩ椽켫Τ signifiant Ȥʤ곰 signifié ȷӤĤȤǤϿ (1) connotation ȻƤ뤬ǤϿ˷ӤĤ signifié 켫Τ signifiant signifié ̤ͭεǤ⤢ȤۤʤäƤ롥
줳ͤ餻Ƥߤݻ (paronomasia) Τ褦ʸͷӤΤǤϤʤȻפäݻ줬Ƥ²ΤͤƤߤ褦ɴͰꡤ߸ʿΡΩ̤줤ʤФλդޤĤȤʹкפǤϡֱʤСפȡְȨסԤġפȡ־פݻȤʤäƤ롥ä˸Ԥϡ²Τˤƴ˴줿طǤ롥Ԥġפȡ־פƱäƤ뤫餳ݻȸΤʾ˽פʤΤϡ־פʹԤĹ٤䴶𤬤۵뤷Ԥġפʹоα˴ȤȵδطΩƤ뤳ȤǤ롥
οޤϡhomonymy polysemy ȤؤäƤޤ졤Ū¤ŪʤɤΥɤ۵뤳Ȥ顤εǽȤطˤΤǤϤʤ[2010-10-02-1]ε#523. εǽȸѲפȡˡ
ò 졡20١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ1995ǯ
塼ؤθѼԤȤ륳ڥϡɤµ Louis Hjelmslev (1899--1965) ǤΩƤ glossematics ϡػˤˤäϰ̤롥glossematics ϸؤ뤤ϸ뤬줬塼ؤѤǤȤΤϡ1Ĥˤϡ塼ξɽ (expression) (content) Ȥ (plane) Ωȡʤ뤤Ϸ (form) ȼ¼ (substance) Ȥε (sign) ΩȤ櫓Ż뤷ɤδط꼰褦ɵ椷Ǥ롥ؤˡ礤˼ƤꡤܤؤؤΤΡϵȤäۤŬڤǤ롥ŪʵҤƤꡤŪʸ̸ؤαѤ Hjelmslev ȤĤ˹Ԥʤʤä
ò (85) ˤ Hjelmslev Ƹ褦

¦Ϥ褯Τ줿塼ε (sign) οޤǤ롥Hjelmslev Ǥϡsignifié ϡƤηפsignifiant ϡɽηפ롥⸽¤ΤΤǤϤʤüԤοŪɽݤǤ롥ˡ岼ξ¦ˤ븶 (meaning or purport) Ȥϸ쳰θ¤ΤȤǤꡤ̵ʼ¼Ϣ³ΤǤ롥˸η꤬ŪƤơ̲줿¼Ω롥¦ʾ¦ˤμ¼ȤϻƤǤꡤɽ¦ʲ¦ˤμ¼ȤϲǤ롥Hjelmslev ˤȤäơɽƤΤоŪȤ줿
Hjelmslev ̤ȵ2ΩȤ߹碌˱ơؤ˼Τ褦ʬꤷ

Hjelmslev ܻؤΤϷθؤäΤǡѸǤȤ cenematics plerematics Ż뤷Ȥˤʤ롥塼 Ż뤷ޤñ٥ηˤȤɤޤäƤˡιͻäHjelmslev ʸƥȤȤ礭ñ̤ˤƱ餤դʧ礭ñ̤ΰ̣θɤΥ٥ˤƤ⡤ɽη (signifiant) Ƥη (signifié) ȤȤԲʬ˰äǤ⡤塼ιͤ¤äȤ롥ǤƤ homonymy polysemy ζ̤ˡʤɡ¤Ụ̄ȯŸ礤˹Ӥɾ٤
ؤϡǡäʽѸ¿ػˤˤƼήʤȤϤʤäŪʥץϸͻǿμͿƤʬDzͤƤȤ¤⡤ؤħ⤭ĦˤƤ롥
ؤˤĤƤɤߤ䤹ȤơĮ (107--40) 䥤å (127--34) Ƥ
ò 졡20١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ1995ǯ
Į إ塼ȸء١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2004ǯ
ߥ륫å Ρ ͺ ظؤή١ߤ˼1974ǯ
ε#1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ ([2012-04-03-1]) ǰѤ¼رѸϤɤʸ줫ѸμҲŪ٤˺ƤӵäơֱѸˤ¾쿯άطŪȤäȤʤäװ (136--37) Ƥߤ
(1) ŪȤơ1415顤衼åѿͤܤ˸ҲŪкŪʾ㤨СݤΤΥΥɹϩȯʤɡ
(2) ŪȤơꥹ衼åѤйϤĤʤФʤʤä
(3) ŪȤơѸ줬ҲŪϰ̤«߽ФȤʤä
(4) άͭͼλ̱²Ѥȡͭͼλθѡ٤ؾΥǥ
(5) Ѹˤ¾쿯άάȤơ
1.ά
2.кѿάǰפγ
3.붵դˤ붵ư
4.ʻˡפʤɤˡΧˤѸθѸ첽
5.ɤΡʻˡΩˡΡ˼Ҳƥλ
6.ѸζѸ첽
7.ϸ̱²ˤλ
(6) ά٤븽Ū
1.ԻԲˤꡤԻԤؤοή̱²ݻƤߥ˥ƥβΡ
2.ʥƥӤʤɤΡ˥ޥǥȯã
ˤϱѸ줽ΤΤθŪħϰڴޤޤƤ餺ⷳкѡˡΧ顤ۡ̿ԻԲȤäޥǼҲŪװǤ롥⡤Ѹ줬¾άʤ鼫ϤĹƤŪװǤꡤߤʣ˴طƤ롥
嵭 (5) ̤ηǤޤȤΤΰǤ (17) ϱѸ줬ѹ¾ (Welsh Scottish Gaelic) άƤŵŪʥѥŪˤ¾οάˤĤƤƤϤޤȤƤ롥
1.ȱѸζ̸첽
2.ˡΧλܹԤȥȸλ
3.ȱѸζ̸첽
4.ȲȱѸζ̸첽
¼ϡѸǸǤȤȿФΩʤΤǡΤ褦ʰϱѸȯŸΤȤƥͥƥ֤ˤȤ館ΤΤ褦˱Ǥ롥ѸȯŸθȱƤǤСƤʬˤΤ߾ƤƤ˴ѤȤʬɾɬפ롥ϤȤ䤹ƤϰռŪ˸褦ȤʤȸƤʤΤǤ롥ɼԤȤƤϡȱƤɾɬפ
¼ ɡرѸϤɤʸ줫ѸμҲŪ١Ʋ1989ǯ
ؤʬǾQȤƤμ̤ˤɬƤʤȤ¿롥Τ褦ʾQ1ĤˡΤˤϸ줽ΤΤȤƤͥϤʤȤΤ롥ˤơˤäƤϿʤȤ˸͡δ֤ˤ֤ͥȤƤΤ롥äˡֱѸϸŪˤƤ뤫̸ȤʤäפȤˤϤ褯ʹ롥رѸˤDzۤѸθǤǡä93ǡˤθθɵŦƤ뤬ȤܤǤϡѸФȤʹѤϺ褦
ǰΤ˳ǧƤ㤨бѸˤ¾θȤ٤ơָŪˡͥǤꤦȤȼĥƤΤǤäơּҲŪˡͥǤꤦȤȤꤷƤ櫓ǤϤʤ¤ΤȤˤƱѸ줬ҲŪͥǤ뤳ȤϤɤԤǤꤹ뤳ȤǤʤȤäơѸȤ줽ΤΤȯʸˡạ́ѤʤɤθŪʹ¤㤨ܸ⤹ƤȤȤˤϤʤʤѸ줬ҲŪͥʤΤϡθŪüȤϴطʤüԽĤҲŪ˱ƶϤΤΩΩäƤˤη̤ˤʤ
ΤȤϿκƵ뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥ¼ΰѤ2
ҲṲ̄ͥΩĸܿʤ顤Ѹ줬Ӥơֹݸפ뤤ϡפȤƤϰ̤ΤϡPeter Strevens Τ褦ʳؼԤĥ褦˱Ѹ줬Ū˹ݸȤƤƤ뤫ǤϤʤѸظˤŪʸŪкŪϤܿθΤ뤤̤ͥΩäƤǤ롥(60)
줬ҲŪͥˤʤΤˤϡظˤкѤϤ礭̤Ƥơ줽ΤΤ̸ŪˡͤͥƤ뤫ǤϤʤäȤˡҼҲŪӤͥʸλȤϤФФλ¤˵Ĥʤǡ줽ΤΤͥǤꡤäơʸŪˤͥȤФη̡ʤξǤΤ褦˻פ褦ˤʤ롥ۤʤ줬ʻ¸硤Τɤ餫ץ饯ƥȤäƤθͥͿΤϡСϤӤǤäơΤ褦ʸѤϡŪǤ餢롤Ȥ(82)
¼ϡ[2012-03-29-1]ε#1067. ѸȸܸθüѡפǤ줿̤ꡤѸ˹ǰäƽ줿αѸˤǤꡤˡʤȤܤˡˤϤӤѸдѤ˹⤷Ƥ롥ϥǥŪʹͤϸؤδäΤΡָΤͥϤʤפǤ롥ǡ¼ϡΰѤΤ褦˥Хμ줿⼨Ƥ롥
Ѹ٤ȴ˹⤤ΰ̣ǡѸϡȹ̱²̱²̤Ƥ뤷ѸϡҶ̸Ӥʤϡ²ݸӤʤΤǤ롥ƱˡŪ٥ǤαѸʸƩ̤ƤȤ̣ǤϡʸθǤ롥̱²̱²ӤĤʤʿ¤θפȤ뤬θ줬ƱˡθפȤΤ餫̷Ǥ롥ѸμҲŪǤʾ塤ΰ̤ơѸǽäꡤ뤤ϱѸŪꤹΤⶦ˳Ū٤ȤϤʤפϡѸҲŪкŪˤŪˡХޥŪª뤳ȤǤ롥줬ǤʤޤޤαѸ춵Ѹ줽ΤΤθ桤ѸΤȤʸظʤɤ϶ˤƴʱİ٤Ȥʤǽġΰ̣ˤƤ⡤ѸμҲŪϤªľƤɬפ(175)
ǽҤ٤ƤѸμҲŪȤϡǤСȿά (183) ȹͤƤ褤ʤΡ²ݸפȤϡֹݸפȤɽŪ (nation) ˤʬȤƤꡤȤߤˤǼޤʤ̱²Ȥñ̤ʤȤŬڤǤʤȤơɧѸڤꤿΤȤ
ơ줽켫ΤͥʤȤؤδáؤξQʤɤȸƤǤºݤˤϡμؤ˺դޤǤˤĹƮˤäߤʤƮƤȤäƤ褤̣ǤϡγƮϸؤˤΤΤȸƤ֤ȤǤΤǤ롥
¼ ɡرѸϤɤʸ줫ѸμҲŪ١Ʋ1989ǯ
ε#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) κǸ˿줿褦ˡJakobson ˤȡư6ĤιǤϤ줾εǽ˴ˤ䤫б롥 (69--78) ˽ää
(1) ɽС1ιǤǤäбεǽϡͤ䴶ʤɤɽФǤ롥äϡʤѲؤȲФ (express) ơȯä롥֥áס֥ƥáδϽɽŪǤ롥֤פȶ֤ȤˤⴶɽФƤ뤬ʹФŪƯͤƤΤǡ (2) Ȥʣȹͤ롥
(2) ¾ư2ιǤǤʹбΤϡʹؤƯȤǽǤ롥ʹȿϡȤФˤ⤷ʤưˤ⤷ʤȽ̤Ǥʤ̯ʿѲ⤷ʤȿιưȤȤ館Сäȯϡʹʤ餫ιư¥Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥̿ᡤĩȯưΥԡʤɤϡ¾ưεǽ̩ܤ˴ؤ롥
(3) ̡3ιǤǤʪݤб롥äϡ̤ƳƤ뤳ȤᡤҡҡڡϿ롥̤ϡ̾κǤ뵡ǽȤߤʤƤꡤȤפʤ
(4) Ūǽ4ιǤǤ뤳ȤФΤΤܤǽǤ롥εǽŵŪʾȤƻͤ褦ˤϡ̤ɽФ֤ʤɤ⤢롥 (73--74) θդڤС֤ʤ٤ƻ¾ηʸءˤϰ̤λʸȰۤʤȤϡꥺࡤΧȿ֤ȤääμˡǡȤФȤǺΤ˸¤ޤǰФϤʤˤסǤϤʤ̾θѤξǤ䤿ĴҤϤº֤̤䤷繥Ǥ롥ŪǽȤϡǤϤʤɤΤ褦˸Ż뤹롤μʼ¸εǽȤȤǤ
(5) á5ιǤǤܿ˴ؤΤ (phatic) εǽǤ롥ưιǤȤƤܿȤϡäʹջ̤ˤơĹפ碌Ƥ֤Ǥ롥äȤϡĹ碌εǽˤۤʤʤƼμҸϡãƤפʤΤǤϤʤ魯٤ΤΤĹ碌Τ˽פʤΤǤ롥Ф̵äȤߤʤ롤̡٤ꡤüĤ⡤ƱΤΰδĹ碌ƯäƤ롥Ĺ碌βäϡषƤǤۤõǽò졤ŪˤȤäƤԹ礬褤small talk ˡŷΤʤ꤬Ф䤹ΤϤΤ
(6) 졥6ιǤǤηϤ˴ϢΤϡˤĤƸȤεǽǤ롥(3) ̤γ뤳ȤǤΤФơεǽϸ줽ΤΤ뤳ȤǤ롥֤ñΰ̣ϲס֤̾Υ襦äƤɤס֤ʸμŦʤס֤οͤθոˤʤפʤɡΤ˸Ѥ뵡ϤȤΤۤ¿
ʾ夬褯ΤƤ6ǽǸεǽԤƤȤ櫓ǤϤʤˤϡäʹؤθԶɽ䡤֤Ƥ뵢°Ω졤ްդɽ˭٤äƤ롥μҲŪŪɽΤĵǽϡ(1), (3), (5) εǽȤ߹碌ΤȤͤ뤬ΩǽȤ̹ΩƤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤ
ʤεǽ Jakobson ʬ8ǽȤ⤢롥[2010-10-02-1]ε#523. εǽȸѲפȡ
סضܤȤƤθء١ȽŹ1996ǯ
ץ顼 (The Prague School) µ Roman Jakobson (1896--1982) ϡߥ˥ιؼԤǤ롥Jakobson ϡưԲķʹǤȤ6ĤǧᡤδطʲΤ褦ˤȤ館ڡp. 68 οޤȤ˺ˡ

(1) ä (addresser) ޤǤʤȯԤʤиưϻϤޤʤ
(2) ʹ (addressee) äФʹ¸ߤưˤϷ礫ʤǤǤ롥ʹ꤬¸ߤʤư⤢뤳Ȥˤդ㤨С̾Ȥˤʹ꤬ʤξ硤äȯ뤳ȤФä꼫ȤʹȤˤʤȤǤϡäʹפȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥ʹȤƤ䤬¤ʤǤ褦ʡ̵ռΥܥäȤȤȤΤ⤢褦˻פ롥Τ褦ʵʵϡʹ¸ߤȤ˾Ȥ餻С̩ˤäƸưǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ
(3) ʪ (context) ȤФɽ褦Ȥ븽¤ΥΤ䥳ȤǡȤФγ¦ˤ¸ߡ
(4) Ȥ (message) (3) λʪݤбɽ줬ʤиưȸƤ٤ʤ
(5) ܿ (contact) äʹջ̤˺ݤơʪŪӿŪ˥åξ֤ˤȤ㤨СˤưˤơäʹϲȤǤʪŪʲʹۤɤ˵Υᤤäʤɤε郎ѤǤˤˤʤФʤʤ뤤ϡߤ˰ջ̤ޤ뿴ŪʽǤƤʰ¾Ư̵뤷ʤξԤä礦ΤȤ꤬롤ߤ˵Ƥưռɬפ롥ξ˾Ȥ餹ȡƤξҤαμ麸μؤȴƤ椯ˤϡܿפʤȤˤʤꡤ̩ˤϸưäƤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
(6) η (code) äʹΤ˶̤ΥɤʤСʤջ̤ʤΤạ̇̄ͭʸưȤϤʤʤüŪˤСߤ̤ʤDzäƤƤ⡤ջ̤Ͽޤʤ
ʾ6ǤϤ⸶§ȤƸưԲķʹǤפʤΤϡ줾줬εǽбƤ뤳ȤˤĤƤεǡ
סضܤȤƤθء١ȽŹ1996ǯ
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