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2011-10-31 Mon

#917. bouncebackability α̿ "non-lexicalizability" (2) [morphology][suffix][neologism][oed][mental_lexicon]

ε[2011-10-30-1]Ǥϡbouncebackability ϡ׻ (nonce word) ήԸȤưŪ˽иΤΡѸθ§ (word formation rule) 񿨤뤬椨ˡ (mental lexicon) 夹ǽϤʤȤ롤Hohenhaus "non-lexicalizability" 򸫤ϡ˴ؤ򤷤
bouncebackability ήԸΰФ᤯षƤ餷ȤϡHohenhaus ε󤲤ڵˤ΢դ뤬ϸ§񿨤뤬椨ǤˤϾڵ˳ήԸοӻǤꡤͭ¿֤ȤȤ˸Ȥäͳˤ뤳Ȥ¿¿ήԸƱͤˡbouncebackability ƱͤΤǤϤʤ§񿨤뤫ȤͳؤäƤǽǤʤΤΡѶŪ˻ٻ뺬ϤʤΤǤϤʤ
2ˡ "non-lexicalizability" ꤹȤƤ⡤ϵ§ǤϤʤɽ魯ΤȤª٤Ƭ -able ¾ưղäפȤ§ϳΤ˸ʤbouncebackability Τ褦ʵ㳰ޤȤʤäƵ§δ¡뤤ϵ§ΰ̲ (rule generalisation) ȤȤϤ롥-able ưղä줿 get-at-able, come-at-able ʤơ bouncebackability) ̾ղä줿 clubbable, saleable ϡ¾ưղäȤε§̲Ƥפ򼨤ΤǤ롥-able ȯãΤʳǡưղä褦ˤʤäȤƤԻ׵ĤϤʤơbouncebackability ϤθƤǽλߤ1Ĥȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ
3ˡε񤤤Ǥϳǧ˺ƤOED Online dzǧȤ줬ϿƤHohenhaus (22) ⼫Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡOED ˸ФȤƷǤǽΤͽۤǤȤǤ롥OED Ͽ뤳ȤȵäϿ뤳ȤƱǤϤʤΤǡԤˤ Hohenhaus ε줿櫓ǤϤʤOED ˤꡤ˴Ϳ뤫⤷ʤ¤2ĽФƤ1ܤϡν㤬2004ǯǤϤʤ礭̤ä1972ǯäȤȤǤϡbounce-back-ability ɽ졤ȤƤǤϤʤʣȤƤɤߤ롥θ塤1991ǯ2005ǯ㤬³2ܤˤϡ츻Ҥ "to bounce back at BOUNCE v. Additions + -ABILITY suffix" ȤꡤǤ Hohenhaus Ȥ [[[bounce back] -able] -ity] ȤȤƤʬϤϡ[[bounce back][ability]] ȤʣȤƤʬϤˤŤƤ롥
Τ褦ˡHohenhaus "non-lexicalizability" ϡbouncebackability Ȥ1δѻȽǤ뤳ȤϤǤʤѼԤϡ§˽सƤʤλѤ˰´򴶤ä夵뤳Ȥ¤Ȥ⤽ΤΤϡľ˹礦褦˻פ졤̣Ūʵ§ȤƤǤϤʤޤǷ򼨤ªΤǤСɵ椹ͤ벾⤫⤷ʤ

Hohenhaus, Peter. "Bouncebackability: A Web-as-Corpus-Based Case Study of a New Formation, Its Interpretation, Generalization/Spread and Subsequent Decline." SKASE Journal of Theoretical Linguistics 3 (2006): 17--27.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-11-23-1] [2011-11-19-1]

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2011-10-30 Sun

#916. bouncebackability α̿ "non-lexicalizability" (1) [morphology][suffix][neologism][mental_lexicon]

bouncebackability /ˌbaʊnsbækəˈbɪləti/ ʤ뿷줬롥OALD Ǥ7ǤˤϴޤޤƤʤä8ǤˤʤäϿ줿Ǥ롥bounce back ʤΩľ롤ˤȤư줬ȤʤäƤɽǡΤ褦㤬Ƥ롥

(BrE) [uncountable] (informal)
(especially in sport) the ability to be successful again after playing or performing badly for a time
The team have shown great bouncebackability.
This will be a test of their famous bouncebackability.


θˤĤ Hohenhaus (18--19) ˤȡФϰʲ̤Ǥ롥

. . . the word was first used in November 2004 by Iain Dowie, then manager of the English football club Crystal Palace, who said in an interview after a match in which his team had managed to equalize against Arsenal that "Crystal Palace have shown great bouncebackability against their opponents to really be back in this game."


Hohenhaus θˤĤƤΤϡθ꤬뤫̾ -able ղäΤ¾ưǤ (ex. breakable, enjoyable, washable) bounce back ȤưϼưǤ뤫顤bouncebackability ϷŪʲ̵§ȤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ǡθ [[[bounce back] -able] -ity] ʬϤǤϤʤ [[bounce back][ability]] ʬϤ٤ʣʤΤǤϤʤȤͤ⤢뤬/ˌbaʊnsbækəˈbɪləti/ ζΰ֤ȽǤ¤ꡤȲ᤹ΤŬڤǤ롥
Hohenhaus ƤΤϡbouncebackability § (word formation rule) δϤʤǤˤ⤫餺¸ߤƤ롤Ȥ̷ˤĤƤǤϤʤǤϤʤθϤ뤷ºݤ¸ߤƤȤʤ⡤§˽सƤʤȤ¤bouncebackability θò [mental lexicon] Ͽˤ˸ƤΤǤϤʤȤ⡤"non-lexicalizability" β˴ؿ󤻤ƤΤǤ롥

. . . some new formations may systematically be excluded from becoming permanent lexical entries (while they may still be perfectly normal as possible NFs [=nonce formations]! . . . . only well-formed formations should be lexicalizable. (Hohenhaus 18)


§˽सƤʤϡŪʻѤΰФä夹뤳ȤʤѤƤ椯̿ǤȤǤ롥Hohenhaus Ϥٻ٤bouncebackability иήԸȤƤƤϤ䤵졤ǥʤɤˤ岽ޤ "artificial institutionalization" (21) λߤʤ졤ºݤ˰̣ΰ̲Фθ®˻٤ǤȤ¤򡤼 Web-as-corpus ѤƼȤơΤ褦᤯äƤ롥

. . . in the end, the morphological "oddness" of the formation bouncebackability appears to have hampered its success too much for it to become truly lexicalized, i.e. part of the permanent lexicon of English. Semantically, and from a point of view of meaning predictability, it was a fairly straightforward case seemingly corroborating predictions about spread and broadening meaning. But not even concerted "artificial" efforts through campaigns and petitions were sufficient to overcome the stumbling block of an odd morphological shape. (Hohenhaus 23)


ϤβˤĤơոҤ٤

Hohenhaus, Peter. "Bouncebackability: A Web-as-Corpus-Based Case Study of a New Formation, Its Interpretation, Generalization/Spread and Subsequent Decline." SKASE Journal of Theoretical Linguistics 3 (2006): 17--27.

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2011-10-29 Sat

#915. äˤѤ˽ [gender_difference][sociolinguistics]

[2011-10-27-1]ε#913. BNC ˤä˽Ĵפ˴ϢơHirschman ˤɸ򰷤äʬϤθŵŪҲ𤷤
θθȤʤääĴʬϤϡ1973ǯ Linguistic Society of America ǯ̥åˤƸƬȯɽ줿θ塤ȯɽƤȾйȤʤäƤHirschman θƱθȤɾ褦ˤʤꡤиŤƤˤ긦Ԥδ֤ͭ̾ˤʤäƤä Hirschman θ˸ڤ褦ˤʤäΤΡθƤܤ̤ԤϤۤȤɤʤȤθȤʤäƤΤǤHirschman ȤϤθ女ԥ塼ؤʬؤȿʤߡҲؤʬΥ줿ˡθ椬ƱʬǸŵŪʸȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ˵ŤˤȤˡȤȸʬθ Deborah Tannen Hirschman Ϣ˻äơǽȯɽ20ǯʾκзФơŵŪ椬ʸȤ Language in Society ˰줿ΤǤ롥
ơHirschman θ˽2͡4ͤγˤä˴ŤΤǤ롥ۤʤȤ߹碌11ä򤽤줾10ʬϿžΤŪʬϤܤ饳ԥ塼ؼԤǤä Hirschman ⡤δĶǤϤ٤ƼȤʬϤʤäȤ򴶤ˡ4ͤΤߤоݤȤ10ʬۤɤäεϿǤ뤫顤륳ѥ̤ԽʬǤꡤФ줿ʬϷ̤ⲾŪʤΤȤʤ餶ʤHirschman Τ줿ĴμˡϸƱĴΤܤȤʤꡤ󵯤줿⹭ܤӤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
Hirschman μʬϷ̤ޤȤмΤ褦ˤʤ롥

ɤäǤϡäͿ줿֤95%ºݤä䤵줿ɤäǤ76%䤵ʤäޤλääǤϡλäʤɤΡä¿λ֤ä䤵줿
um, uh, ah, like, well, you know, I mean ʤɤ "filler" ϡΤۤä¿ѤǤ⡤˽ä٤ƽɤäǤ filler ٤㤫ä
we, you, I ¿Ѥshe/he, they, someone, person/people 򾯤ʤѤϡϸĿŪʷи䴶ꡤʪŪ˸ȤŪʰݤȹפ롥
yeah, ok, right, all right ʤɤιŪƱɤäˡ¿äŪͤϡǤ褯äǹͤ򼨤Ǥ褯äͤ򼨤ʤˤ˽ȿǤƤǽ롥
mm hmm ȤϤۤܽ˸ꤷѤ줿
äμǤϽɤäˤڤ¿줿
εƱĴäŸ뷹뤤˼򤷤äŸ뷹줿ϵ򤹤뷹줿

ʾϡΤȤ "the role of the female as facilitator of the conversation" (438) 򼨺褦˻פ뤬Hirschman ϤޤŤ˻¤򼨤ͤùɤ߹ߤϤƤʤդιᤵ̾ȤʤʤΤ⤷ʤ

Hirschman, Lynette. "Female-Male Differences in Conversational Interaction." Language in Society 23 (1994): 427--42.

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2011-10-28 Fri

#914. BNC ˤä庹Ĵ [bnc][corpus][statistics][lltest][interjection]

ε#913. BNC ˤä˽Ĵ ([2011-10-27-1]) Ǽꤢ Rayson et al. ǤϡüԤ̤ǤʤǯˤäѰۤĴƤ롥ǯ𺹤ȤäƤ⡤35̤ʾ夫Ǿ岼ʬ绨Ĥʬ̤ϤĤζ̣ͿƤ롥ʲϡχ2 ξ19̤ޤǤΰǤ (142--43)

RankUnder 35Over 35
Wordχ2Wordχ2
1mum1409.3yes2365.0
2fucking1184.6well1059.8
3my762.4mm895.2
4mummy755.2er773.8
5like745.2they682.2
6na as in wanna and gonna712.8said538.3
7goes606.6says443.1
8shit410.1were385.8
9dad403.7the352.2
10daddy380.1of314.6
11me371.9and224.7
12what357.3to211.2
13fuck330.1mean155.0
14wan as in wanna320.6he144.0
15really277.0but139.0
16okay257.0perhaps136.0
17cos254.4that131.3
18just251.8see122.1
19why240.0had118.3


ͽ̤ۤꡤ㤤ħŪʥɤϤ¿ޤǤ롥ɽθޤƤyeah, okay, ah, ow, hi, hey, ha, no, ooh, wow, hello ʤɤδ졤fucking, shit, fuck, crap, arse, bollocks ʤɤΥ֡줬Ωġ㤤ΥɤȤơ츫ͽۤ󤬤롥㤨Сplease, sorry, pardon, excuse ʤɤǫ줬㤤ħŪȤ
ۤˤϡ㤤ħŪʷƻ줬Ĥ (ex. weird, massive, horrible, sick, funny, disgusting, brilliant, really, alright, basically) ɾɽ魯ƻ졦줬¿ήԤȤߤʤȤǤ췲ǯ𺹤 "apparent time" κȹͤСˤ "real time" Ѳ뤳ȤˤʤΤǡθ췲̻Ū٤äõΤ⤪⤷

Rayson, Paul, Geoffrey Leech, and Mary Hodges. "Social Differentiation in the Use of English Vocabulary: Some Analyses of the Conversational Component of the British National Corpus." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 2 (1997): 133--52.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-04-14-1] [2011-11-02-1]

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2011-10-27 Thu

#913. BNC ˤä˽Ĵ [bnc][corpus][statistics][lltest][interjection][gender_difference]

ɸ򰷤ä Rayson et al. ʸɤBNC ǡ͸Ūʴʬव줿äդϿ֥ѥ4,552,555ˤоݤȤơä˽ǯ𺹡ҲŪϰ̤ˤ뺹餫ˤ褦ȤǤ롥װΤʤǡŪѰۤŪ˺Ǥ⶯줿Τˤ뺹äȤȤʤΤǡܵǤϤη̤Ҳ𤷤
ޤʲ˵󤲤ͤβˤμɬפʤΤǡ˿ƤBNC ˼Ͽ줿äդϻִԤ2֤μʲä Walkman ˿᤭Ǥäǡ񤭵ΤǤꡤλִԤ73̾75̾Ǥ롥äо줹ִ԰ʳüԤˤĤƤ⡤Τۤ¿äơ֥ѥؤλΨǤСΤȤƽ⤯ʤ뤳ȤԻ׵ĤǤϤʤ
ƧޤǤ⡤ΤȤƽΤۤ褯äȤȤ򼨺ͤФѤ줿 word token ǤС1.00ȤȽ1.51äͭΨǤϡ1.00ȤȽ1.33ä˽βäǤΤۤ⤤ͭΨ򼨤ȤԸ椬뤬BNC Υ֥ѥǤϽƱΤβä¿äȤȤ嵭η̤طʤˤΤ⤷ʤˤ衤̣ͤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
ˡ٤äˤ˽򸫤Ƥߤ褦˽ٹ礤ι⤤ɤȴФˡϡȤƤ[2010-03-10-1], [2010-09-27-1], [2011-09-24-1]εǾҲ𤷤ΤƱˡǤ롥ѥȽѥ̤줾줫줿ɽͤ碌Ū˽ (χ2) ι⤤¤ؤФ褤ʲϡ25̤ޤǤΰǤ (136--37)

RankCharacteristically maleCharacteristically female
Wordχ2Wordχ2
1fucking1233.1she3109.7
2er945.4her965.4
3the698.0said872.0
4year310.3n't443.9
5aye291.8I357.9
6right276.0and245.3
7hundred251.1to198.6
8fuck239.0cos194.6
9is233.3oh170.2
10of203.6Christmas163.9
11two170.3thought159.7
12three168.2lovely140.3
13a151.6nice134.4
14four145.5mm133.8
15ah143.6had125.9
16no140.8did109.6
17number133.9going109.0
18quid124.2because105.0
19one123.6him99.2
20mate120.8really97.6
21which120.5school96.3
22okay119.9he90.4
23that114.2think88.8
24guy108.6home84.0
25da105.3me83.5


ɬ⤳25̤ޤǤɽǤɤ߼ʤRayson et al. (138--40) ˤаʲܤͤȤ

"four-letter words"졤δħŪǤ (ex. shit, hell, crap; hundred, one, three, two, four; er, yeah, aye, okay, ah, eh, hmm)
;̾졤1;̾졤δϽħŪǤ (ex. she, her, hers; I, me, my, mine; yes, mm, really) ̾λѤˤä˽Ϥʤ
the of λѤ¿˰̾Ѥ̾λѤ¿Ȥ̤λ¤ȴϢ뤫
ͭ̾졤̾졤ưϽ¿λ "report" ηФδط "rapport" ηθ줫
ͭ̾ΤʤǤ⡤̾ϽλѤ¿̾λѤ¿

¾Υѥˤ븡ڤɬפη̤Ȳ˶̣ߤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥
ɤ׽ȴϢơѥؤǥ踡ѤȤƹѤ褦ˤʤäƤ Log-Likelihood ˤĤƤϡ Log-Likelihood Tester, Ver. 1 Log-Likelihood Tester, Ver. 2 򻲾ȡ

Rayson, Paul, Geoffrey Leech, and Mary Hodges. "Social Differentiation in the Use of English Vocabulary: Some Analyses of the Conversational Component of the British National Corpus." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 2 (1997): 133--52.

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2011-10-26 Wed

#912. ʤ񤷤 (3) [morphology][terminology][word_formation][word][dictionary][lexicology][hapax_legomenon][ghost_word]

[2011-10-24-1], [2011-10-25-1]˰³񤷤ָ뵭3ơǤñˡϰϤꤹǤľŪˡϡ򻲾Ȥ뤳ȤȻפ뤫⤷ʤθФϤ٤ơָפΤϤǤꡤ緿򻲾ȤθϿ (lexicon) 뤳ȤǤ롤ȡϰϤꤹݤˡäƤϤʤʤĤͳ롥Lieber (13--15) ˵äơ󤷤褦

(1) ϡԽԤˤäƤˤ˴ŤԤޤƤ롥ԽԤꤹˤäƤϼϿäϰϤ˺ǽꡤºݤˡФͤϼ֤ǰۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ̤Ǥ롥ѸѸǺܤ뤫ɤ¯ŸϤɤϤɤټҲ˿ƩƤмϿĤȤߤʤ뤫ܼϸ˴ޤޤ뤫ʣϤɤޤǼ뤫ηˤơƼԽԤȼˤäƤ롥αѸ켭 OED ǤäƤ⡤ѤʤޤȼԤˤƤɤμ֤ȤŪǤ롥˸Ѥͤ뤳ȤϡʳΤܤ餻ˤβˤʤäƤʤ
(2) ˤϡ٤ʸڤʤ׻졤nonce word, hapax legomenonˤϿƤ礬롥㤨СOED Ǥ umbershoot Ȥ줬ФȤƵ󤲤ƤꡤJames Joyce Ulysses ͣ㤬Ƥ뤬 "a word of obscure meaning" Ȥ롥̤ơºŪʰ̣ˤƸȤߤʤƤ褤Τʸ Joyce Τ̤üԤȯ׻ϤɤʤΤ
(3) 㤤ָ̱츻ʤɤˤꡤְ㤨ƼǦӹǤޤäͩ (ghost word) ʤ줬롥OED ˤϡambassady ʤ hapax legomenon ϿƤ뤬 ambassade ñְ֤㤤뤤ϸǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥տȡºߤʤ⤷ʤȤƤߤʤ꤬롥üǰտŪͩȤơ"mountweazel" ȸƤФΤ롥ϡԻԤ¾μԻԤˤ뼭ˤ뤿ˡտŪ̩ͩǤꡤºߤθǤϤʤΤ褦 mountweazel ¸ߤϡŪʸϿȤѤ뤳ȤδʪäƤ롥
䤽¾θҤϡ"Is xyz a word?" Ȥ䤤ɬͿƤȤϸ¤ʤȤʬ

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

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2011-10-25 Tue

#911. ʤ񤷤 (2) [morphology][terminology][word_formation][word]

ε[2011-10-24-1]˰³񤷤ָ뵭2ơѸˡˤϡȸδ֤˶뽬ΤǡϼΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸ˸¤餺̤ˤĤƸŤ褦ȤΤǤСƸˡν˰¸ŬڤǤˡǤ顤flower pot ~ flower-pot ~ flowerpot ʤɤɤ줬ȤꡤζڤΤǤˡ⤽񤭸դ⤿ʤ¿Τ顤äդˤʤʤФʤʤʸؤˤäդͥˤĤƤϡ[2011-05-15-1]ε#748. ä񤭸פ򻲾ȡˡ
Crystal (240--41) ϡäդǸʬȤơޤǤƤƤΤҲ𤷤Ƥ롥ʲˡäʤ󤷤褦

(1) äդǹͤȡѸˡζΤȯþεٻ (pause) ȯäǤϸȸδ֤ή褦Ϣ³뤳Ȥ¿ʬ뤿δȤƵٻߤˡϸܤۤɤޤ椫ʤʸ򡤰ռŪ˵ٻߤʤäɤ߾夲褦ˤüԤ˻ؼƥȤˤƤϡ͸ζڤǵٻߤ뤬ɬ⤽ǤϤʤ礬롥㤨СThe three little pigs went to the market. ˤơmar/ket ȸ˵ٻߤǽ롥
(2) ŬɲáִȤƥȤˤƤϡ㤨 The big pig once went straight to the market. ʤɤ졤ɲáִ֤˸ȸζڤ꤬Ǥ뤫⤷ʤϡμ礿ħȤƤФиڤԲǽ (uninterruptibility) ˴ؤƥȤabso-blooming-lutely Τ褦㳰Τ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
(3) ꥫ¤ؤˤָȤ "minimal free form" ǤפȤ뤬the of ϼºݤˤΩƸ뤳ȤϤۤȤɤʤ¾θȤȤ˸ȤǤϡ« (bound morpheme) ˶ᤤ
(4) ǤΤߺѤ벻§ꡤε§ŬѤϰϤ⳰ʬ붭ȸζڤȰפǤϤʤζΰ֤˴ؤ뵬§첻Ĵ¤ε§ϸˤΤŬѤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǡѤȤˡºݤˤ㳰¿
(5) ̣ñ̤ζڤ꤬ȸζڤ˰פΤǤϤʤε[2011-10-24-1]ǿ줿Ȥꡤidiom ʣθ줫äƽ1Ĥΰ̣ñ̤б롥̣ñ̤ȸñ̤ɬϢưƤʤڵǤ롥

ï⤬ľŪΤäƤΤϳΤʤʳŪͿȤȤϡ񤷤

Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2007.

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2011-10-24 Mon

#910. ʤ񤷤 (1) [morphology][terminology][word_formation][idiom][word][proverb]

(word) 򤤤뤫Ȥϡؤκ1ĤȤäƤ褤ϡޤΤͿƤʤ (morpheme) ˤĤƤƱǤ롥ϢϡʲεǤ⿨ƤΤǻȤ줿

#886. ǤˤޤĤ̻Ū: [2011-09-30-1]
#700. 졤ǡܼ캬촴ʣ졤: [2011-03-28-1]
#554. cranberry morpheme: [2010-11-02-1]

ơŪʴФǸˤˤϡ2ĤξͿƤиȤƽʬȻפ (Carstairs-McCarthy 5)

(a) ͽ¬Բǽ (unpredictable) ̣ͭ󤵤ɬפ뤳
(b) ʸ뤿ι (building-block) Ǥ뤳

2ĤξƤиȸƤǤ褤Ȥȡ̩ˤϳ줬롥
dioecious ˤȤŪʴФǤϤϤäȤǤ롥ޤThe plant is dioecious.a dioecious plant ʤɤȻȤʸǤǤ뤫顤(b) ξƤ롥ޤۤȤɤɼԤθΰ̣ʪؤѸǡֻͺΤΡפΰ̣ˤΤʤäȻפ뤬ΤȤϰ̣ͽ¬ԲǽǤȤ (a) ξƤ뤳Ȥɽ路Ƥ롥ä󤳤θΤäƤޤСdioeciously dioeciousness Ȥΰ̣ͽ¬ǽ (a) ξ郎ʤʤ櫓dioeciously dioeciousness diocious ƱʤǸȤƤߤʤΤ̾δФȤˤ󤵤ʤȤƤ⡤Ǥ롥
̤Ȥơkeep tabs on ϡ?˵ĤפȤ idiom ꤢ褦ɽϡ̾δФǤ3Ĥθ줫鹽Ƥª졤Ūˤϸ줽ΤΤǤϤʤ礭ñ̤ȤߤʤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤ(b) ξƤʤȤȤʤäƤ뤬idiom ξȤựͽ¬ԲǽǤꡤ(a) ξƤ롥idiom 礭ʸñ̤Ǥʤ顤ΰ̣ͽ¬ԲǽȤ虜 (proverb) ƱͤǤ롥
2Ĥϡɽ (a), (b) ξ ȤƤƽƸȤߤʤΤɤ餫ƤФ褤Τ뤤ϾꤽΤΤ񤬤ΤȤ롥Carstairs-McCarthy ϡ(a) Ƥñ̤ lexical item(b) Ƥñ̤Ūʰ̣Ǥ word ȤѤ̤ɬפĥƤ (12--13)
ʾ塤񤷤ָ뵭1ơ

Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew. An Introduction to English Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2002.

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2011-10-23 Sun

#909. -wise ˤɥĸ -weise αƶ [suffix][word_formation][contact][borrowing][loan_word][ame][german]

[2010-12-11-1]ε#593. ˤߤäŤ -wiseפ³ԡ
Foster (100) ϡ-wise ϡꥫѸǻϤޤꡤطʤˤ American-German ˡαƶäΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

It cannot be denied that such expressions as 'engineeringwise' are very readily coined in modern English and that this habit comes from America where in turn the astonishingly free use of the ending '-wise' owes something to the equally free application in German of the parallel -weise (as in beispeilsweise 'for example', gastweise 'as a guest', and others). . . . It may well be that the old usage had lingered on in the United States to a greater extent than in the English of Britain, but it can scarcely be doubted that its blossoming forth in the twentieth century was due to a more or less unconscious transference of a German habit, whether on the part of scholars or --- more likely --- of immigrants.


Foster ϡ-wise ˸¤餺ꥫѸˤ¿γ׿Ūɽɥĸ줫αƶˤΤǤ󵯤Ƥ롥ϡ路 The Changing English Language ΤӤĥȤۤɤǡʸ̤˼ȡꥫѸγ׿ʤơΥꥹѸؤšˤϡ硤̣ʸˡ˻ޤǥɥĸˡμ̤ǤϤʤȻפƤۤɤǤ롥
ʸ̤˼뤳ȤϤǤʤѤƶƱɬưפǤʤƱΤˤϡѤƶȤξζŪҤʤƤʤФʤ餺¾˼Ҳ¾ܺ٤ʬäƤʤФʤʤȤ¿Foster ⤹٤ƤˤĤƽʬʾڵͿƵƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡɾˤϿŤˤʤʤФʤʤ
ȤϤ (loan translation) ̣ (semantic loan) ޤ᤿ substitution ([2011-10-15-1]) ѶŪɾ褦Ȥ륿פεϡĿŪˤϹǤ롥ҴŪʾڵ󤲤ƤεǤϤʤʾ塤ǰȤäۤ褤Τ⤷ʤ֤αƶˤ importation Τ褦ɽŪ˸ʾθ̤äȤϤȹͤ롥줫αƶˤĤơɾդ٤ᾮɾˤⵤĤʤФʤʤ褦˻פ
ꥫѸˤƳαƶᾮɾƤаޤˤĤƤϡFoster (86--87) Τ褯ޤȤƤ롥顤ȤʤʬȴФ

Writers on the subject of Americanisms have usually made little of the fact that, in the past, millions of Americans have had a foreign language as their mother-tongue, though in fact it is incredible that the language of the country should not have been affected thereby. . . . In other words there has been a natural tendency to see foreign influences as consisting solely in straightforward loan-words from German, Yiddish, Spanish, Italian or whatever the language of the immigrants may have been. / Fortunately there have been some signs in recent years that scholars are becoming rather more aware that foreign borrowing into American speech has been taking place on a larger scale than had been thought.


ѤƱˤϷ夬ĤʤȤ¿Τ󵯤Ť˵ȤץФ뤳ȤϽפ

Foster, Brian. The Changing English Language. London: Macmillan, 1968. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970.

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2011-10-22 Sat

#908. bra, panties, nightie [shortening][euphemism][iconicity]

ǰʤŵϼǰΤΤäư褺äȵˤʤäƤݤ롥եåȳʤʤΤŤʤΤɽ魯ˤϷŪ shortening ФƤꡤؾ (diminutive) ղäƤΤ¿ȤΤǤ롥ɸ˵󤲤 bra (< brassiere), panties (< underpants), nightie (< nightdress) Ϥΰ˲᤮ʤä˽Τ¿褦˻פ롥ɽ魯äŪ˽ΤФäƤȤȤϤꤽǤꡤΤ˰û̷ΤФäƤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤWeb3 -ie 1b ˤ⼡Τ褦ʵҤ롥

--- in names of articles of feminine apparel <nightie> <pantie>


եåȳ϶ưȤǤ롥ȳˤ뾦άȴä줬ΤǤС¾ζȳƱѤϤǤ롥ФơǶɤǤ Foster (143) ʤʤϤΤͿƤƤꡤ

A curious linguistic --- or psychological --- feature is that so many names of women's garments exist in a diminutive form (philologically, that is) ending in -ie, or -ies in the plural. Thus 'nightie', 'cammie' (a spoken form current up to the nineteen-twenties for 'camisole', enshrined in the compound 'cami-knickers'), and the unlovely 'combies', in addition to those incidentally mentioned above. The underlying and unconscious motive is possibly to lend an air of childish artlessness to words which are felt to have some element of taboo attached to them. Smallness in itself is of course supposed to be highly desirable by women in anything concerning their figures . . . .


ƤƤΤϡeuphemism κѤȡʪŪʾ˾ߵȸŪʾ˾ߵȤ iconicity κѤƯƤΤǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥ԤˤĤƤϡ[2010-08-09-1]ε#469. euphemism κפ (7) 򻲾Ȥ줿ԤˤĤƤϡ[2009-08-18-1]εָ̤Ф --- iconicityפ򻲾Ȥ줿
ˤƤ⡤֤襤餷פɵᤷƤ뤳ȤϳΤؾȤ -y ǤϤʤ -ie ֻѤƤ뤳Ȥ⡤Ȥˡ֤襤餷פФƤ褦˻פ롥Ǥϡե󥹸椺 -e ΤĽ餷ƤΤǤϤʤ

Foster, Brian. The Changing English Language. London: Macmillan, 1968. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970.

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2011-10-21 Fri

#907. 첻 the εŪȯ [pronunciation][article][clitic][spelling_pronunciation][lmode]

ε#906. the ΰۤʤȯ ([2011-10-20-1]) ³Ȥơä첻εŪȯ [ði] ˤĤդäε񤤤ƤȤˤޤɤǤ Foster ˡüԤľ˴Ťͤˤʤڤä

When the ensuing word begins with a vowel, as 'the apple'. (This seems to be something which has deliberately to be instilled into schoolchildren, who left to themselves will happily pronounce 'th' apple' in Shakespearean fashion.) . . . An odd belief of many naïve speakers is that 'thee' is somehow more easily understood than 'the', so that it is especially favoured when carefully enunciating a name or address, thus producing 'Thee Pines' or 'Thee Mount', to the bewilderment of at least one listener [the author himself]. (259)


ѸѸޤǤ첻 the Ȥ첻Ȥܼ (proclitic) ȤѤƤȤˤĤƤϺˤϼʲȯãΤ褦˻פ롥ȤŪˤĺ餫꤫ǤϤʤ褽Ѹ顤ȿ褦 [ði] ǧ褦ˤʤäƤ롥ȿ褦ήȤС֤Ƥ̤ȯȤ spelling pronunciation Ĭή˻פ⤫֤֡ߤʤֻ̤˲άȯޤ礦Ǥ<the apple> ȯ [ðæpl] ǤϤʤ [ði ˈæpl] ǤפȤʥꥫΡ˾عζʤΤʤи⤷ζۤˤ줬ȤСߤ첻 the ȯ⡤¿ʸˡܤƱͤˡѸˤ뵬ŪʱѸѤν껺ȤȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤ

Foster, Brian. The Changing English Language. London: Macmillan, 1968. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970.

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2011-10-20 Thu

#906. the ΰۤʤȯ [pronunciation][article][clitic]

ѸεŪȯǤϡthe ˤ3ȯ̤롥Ҳ˸Ȥ [ðə]첻˸Ȥ [ði]ĶȤ̵ط˶ȤƤ [ðiː] Ǥ롥ʤΤ褦ʬۤˤʤäƤΤŪʵǤۤ񤷤ŪĴͤ롥ϡˤϻäƤʤĴ٤줿ϰϤǷаޤ𤷤
Dobson (457) ˤȡthe ˤϽѸ줫ȯ줿褦Ǥ롥κ[ðe] ŪʼäȤƤ [ðiː] ϤۤɰŪǤϤʤäԤĹƺ줿 [ðeː] 䡤Ԥûƺ줿 [ði] ⸽ƤĶˤƷʬۤˤĤƤ Dobson ϸڤƤʤȤƤ [ðe] 첻岽Ƹߤ [ðə] ȹͤ뤬줬ĺΤȤäΤϤ褯ʬʤμ嶯Ω礹ʤǡǽŪ˸ߤʬۤ夤ȤȤʤΤ
첻 [ði] ˤĤƤܤаޤǤ롥Ѹ첻 the 첻æ (elision) 뷹äȤ𤵤Ƥ롥ϡѸˤ̤˸줿 proclitic ʸݤǤ[2011-06-22-1]ε#786. ܸܸפ򻲾ȡˡJespersen (187--88) ꡤϢʬѤ褦

6.13 A final e was soon lost before a word beginning with a vowel . . . . A special case of this is the loss . . . in the, e.g. th' array, th' angel, th' engyn (Ch.), þarrke (Orrm). The elision in the was very frequent in early ModE; it occurs constantly in Hart's phonetically written prose texts (see H.'s Pron. p. 112, 122), and is shown on any page of Elizabethan poetry, where it is more frequently indicated in the original editions than in most modern ones. D 1640 speaks of the elision as used especially by lawyers. It is curious that Milton elided the chiefly before stressed vowels, and Pope chiefly before unstressed ones (Abbott, Concordance to Pope XIV); the reason lies perhaps in the growing tendency to a full pronunciation of the before a vowel in natural prose, though E 1765 recognizes th' Omnipotent as less stiff than 'thyomnipotent' used by some (thy = [ðj]). Now the elided form is sometimes used archaically in poetry, but not in colloquial language, except perhaps vulgarly; the Cockney stories "Thenks awf'ly" have th'air, th'ether (other), th'id (head), etc.


th' Omnipotent 'thyomnipotent' ӤƤȤȤϡ첻Ǥ [ði] ̤ʹƤȤξںȤʤºݤˤϡ첻 [i] ǤϤʤȾ첻 [j] ȯ줿ȤСelision Ʊ̡ʤΤ1ᾯʤȤ̤뤳Ȥˤʤ롥θ̤ϡ[i] ι첻ΤǤꡤ첻 [ðə] ʤդˡ첻 [ði] ޤ줿ͳΤǤϤʤ
ƲνиȯãʬۤˤĤƤϡŪˤʬʤȤ¿˸ߤʬۤ夯˻äȤ򤷤櫓ָߤʬۡפȤϡֵŪʸߤʬۡפˤʤҼǤ椯ΤǤСѸΩ֤뤤Ω֤ϡѸˤѤƤȸ롥LPD3 εҤ򻲾Ȥ줿

The English as a foreign language learner is advised to use ðə before a consonant sound (the boy, the house), ði before a vowel sound (the egg, the hour). Native speakers, however, sometimes ignore this distribution, in particular by using ðə before a vowel (which in turn is usually reinforced by a preceding ʔ), or by using ðiː in any environment, though especially before a hesitation pause. Furthermore, some speakers use stressed ðə as a strong form, rather than the usual ðiː.


Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500-1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.

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2011-10-19 Wed

#905. Ѹ򶦻ŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 (2) [borrowing][loan_word][phonemicisation]

ε#904. Ѹ򶦻ŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1]) ³ԡǼ夲Ƥ Haugen ʸǡFries and Pike ˤ붽̣̾ʸȤƤΤǡꤷɤǤߤѸββȰۤʤäƤ뤳ȤꡤκѸƱ˹׸뤫ݤȤɸȴؤäƤ뤫
ᥭ Oaxaca Υޥƥ²ˤää Mazateco Ǥϡ§ȤƤ٤Ƥ̵ĺɡθͭ롥㤨С /t/ ɡθǤϰ۲ [d] ȤƸ롥Ȥ㳰¸ߤ롥ڥѸ siento ɴˤǤϡ嵭θ§ˤɡθ [t] ȤθϹٸǡظ줬ʤˡ嵭θ§νפȿȤʤ롥ˤꡤ[nd] [nt] Ϥʬۤʤʤʤ뤿ᡤ¤ؤˡ˽С/d/ βǤȤƤϰ̤ǧᤶʤphonemicisation DzˤȤȤˤʤ
üԤȿĴȡsiento Τ褦ʶϤ㳰뤫Ȥäơ/d/ /t/ ȶ̤벻ǤȤưŪǧƤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ڵ϶ʤȤŪ minimal pair ƥȤ餫ˤȤȡüԤΰռȤϰۤʤȤȤ̷ä٤Fries and Pike ϼΤ褦ʷ˻롥

The Mazateco evidence points to the conclusion, then, that two or more phonemic systems may coexist within a single dialect, even though one or more of these systems may be highly fragmentary. (31)


siento ʤɤξͽϡ¸βημ˰֤Ť櫓ǤϤʤ㦤ΩĤ⤦1ĤβηϤ˰֤Ť졤ξηϤüԤǶ¸ƤΤǤϤȤǤ롥ĿͤˤʣβηϤζ¸ϡѸΤ⤿餹ۼʲ뤿˻ФͤǤϤʤ̾ȯäβηϤȤ䤭βηϤϰۤʤ뤷βηϤȤۤʤȤä褦ˡ͡ʼǸ븽ݤȤΤFries and Pike μĥǤ롥
Ǥϡդ˸ȡʬۤܺ٤Ĵ٤뤳ȤˤäơŪʲηϤ礿벻ηϤ̤ǤȤȤǤСԤħŤƤȹͤѸä򶦻ŪƱǤȤȤˤʤΤñ˹ԤʤεǤҤ٤褦ˡ˲ꤷξηϤʬȤȤϤޤdzΨǤꡤʬۤܤĴ٤ȤΤϤǤˤʤsiento ѸǤȤȤ̤ξڵˤʬäƤ뤬椨˲Ȥ󵯤ǤȤ𤬤ΤǤꡤդ󵯡äѤ鶦ŪʴѻȤˡ줬ѸǤ˰㤤ʤƤϤϤ񤷤褦
Fries and Pike ϡʲηȤƤǤϤʤȤƤ롥

In a purely descriptive analysis of the dialect of a monolingual speaker there are no loans discoverable or describable. An element can be proved to be a loan word only when two dialects are compared. The description of a word as a loan is a mixture of approaches: the mixing of purely descriptive analysis with dialect study, comparative work, or historical study. Dialect mixture cannot be studied or legitimately affirmed to exist unless two systems have previously been studied separately. It follows that in a purely descriptive analysis of one particular language as spoken by a bilingual, no loans are discoverable. (31)


̤ˡѸϼ¦θβ˵ۼ䤹뤤ϡϸθβݻȤƤ⡤֤ȤȤ nativise 䤹ϤޤθβΤΤ¦θƳ졤˴Ťƺ줿ο줬Ѹȶ̤ǤʤʤȤ⤢롥
εȹ碌ơȤơɸ䤤Ф No ȸ虜ʤ

Fries, Charles C. and Kenneth L. Pike. "Coexistent Phonemic Systems." Language 25 (1949): 29--50.

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2011-10-18 Tue

#904. Ѹ򶦻ŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 [borrowing][loan_word][diachrony]

[2011-10-14-1]ε#900. פǿ줿̤ꡤ (borrowing) ŪʲǤꡤŪʷ̤ǤϤʤ̤ȤƶŪѤƤΤϡޤǼѸäǤ롥̻ŪʼѤȶŪʼѸäδ֤˰̴ط뤳ȤϸޤǤʤä˶ŪʴξԤΤ˶̤٤Ǥ롥ϡ˴ؤ롥"Can loanwords be identified by a student who knows nothing of the previous stages of a language?"
줬Ѹ줫ݤ̤붦Ūˡ1ĤȤơѸμۼʲ֤󤲤뤫⤷ʤѸϡͼ˴ƱƤʤ¤ꡤͼ򤤤֤󤫼ѤǤꡤۼʤΤȤ⤭ΩäƤǽ뤫δŪǤϤʤƱȰۼδ֤ΤܤȤ񤷤

Now it would be impossible to deny that, as we have shown in a preceding section, many loanwords have introduced features of arrangement which are numerically less common than certain other features and which sometimes stand in other relationships to the rest of the language than the previously existent patterns. But to identify the results of a historical process like borrowing is simply not possible by a purely synchronic study. What we find when we study a structure without reference to its history is not borrowing or loans, but something that might rather be described as 'structural irregularity'. This is not an absolute thing: word counts have shown that patterns vary in frequency from the extremely common to the extremely rare, with no absolute boundary between the two. Patterns of high frequency are certain not to sound 'queer' to native speakers; just how infrequent must a pattern be before it begins to 'feel foreign'? (Haugen 229--30)


Ȥְۼʲ֡פΨŪ˳ФȤǤȤƤ⡤򼨤äˤϼѸΤߤʤ餺Ѹΰޤޤ뤳ȤˤʤѸǤʤ餽˴ޤޤʤΤФƤۼʲ֤򼨤äϡ줳ΨŪ˸äˤ"items of LIMITED LEXICAL DISTRIBUTION" (Haugen 230) "systemic fragments" (Haugen 231) ȸƤФƤޤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
̻ŪʲǤѤη̤ȤƤμѸäüԤζŪʸμä˲ˤˤȿǤƤ뤫 --- Ūĩ򤻤ޤ礭Ǥ롥

Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.

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2011-10-17 Mon

#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ [borrowing][loan_word][icelandic]

ε#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1]) Ǽ夲 "scale of adoptability" ϡܤμѤ䤹ϡ줬ηϤ˹¤ŪȤ߹ޤƤ٤ȿ㤹Ȥݤäǡε䤬Ƥ롥ηϤι¤ϸˤäưۤʤΤ顤ŪѤ¿ȾʤȤΤ뤳ȤˤʤΤ
㤨СѸܸϤФмѤ¿ȸ뤬ϼѤʤȤʥɸ졤ʤɡˤȤӤˤƤʤƤڤˤʤѸѸˤƤθûˤϼѸˤȸƤ褤ۤɤǡѸǤƤΤΡ[2011-09-17-1]ε#873. ѸοˤʣΥХ󥹡פ򻲾ȡˡѸΤѤˤȤȤԲǽǤϤʤ⤷ʤ[2010-07-01-1]ε#430. Ѳ˳װפǼ褦ˡɸϡּѸѤ򤹤붯פäƤȤ졤ѤʤŵȤƼ夲뤳Ȥ¿Τ褦˸ȡ֤ "scale of receptivity" ʤ롤Ѥμ䤹μ٤ߤ뤳ȤΤ褦˻פ롥Haugen (225) ˤСOtakar Vočadlo ȤԤhomogeneous, amalgamate, heterogeneous Ȥ3ʬ scale of receptivity ߤƤꡤμμ٤ŵ򼨤ƤȤ
֤μѤ¿ɤϤˤ衤줬칽¤˰¸ΤɤǤ롥Kiparsky ϡ칽¤¸ιͤꤷƤꡤѤ¿ɤüԤŪҲŪΩ˰¸ΤƤ (Haugen 225) ˤĤơHaugen (225) Ϥդ importation vs. substitution ζ̤ФơKiparsky ˶ᤤΩ줫鼡Τ褦˷Ƥ롥

Most of the differences brought out by Vočadlo are not differences in actual borrowing, but in the relationship between importation and substitution, as here defined. Some languages import the whole morpheme, others substitute their own morphemes; but all borrow if there is any social reason for doing so, such as the existence of a group of bilinguals with linguistic prestige.


Haugen θϤǤϡ㤨мѤ¿ȸѸȾʤȸ륢ɸκϡ¤ΤȤѤ¿ɤΤΤκǤϤʤ2ĤμѤˡ (importation and substitution) ΨκǤǽȤȤˤʤ롥importation Ф substitution ħϡŪŪ˼Ѥ餷ʤȤǤ뤫顤Ѥݤ substitution ˰¸Ψι⤤ϡʬѤξʤȤߤʤ뤳ȤˤʤξˡˤѤä碌Τ򤽤θμѤ̤ȹͤΤǤС̤˸Ƥۤɽ֤Ѥ¿ɤϤʤΤ⤷ʤѤεˤŪΩʤ loan translation ѡ semantic loan ʰ̣ѡˤɽ substitution νǧǤ롥

Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.
Vočadlo, Otakar. "Some Observations on Mixed Languages." Actes du IVe congrès internationale de linguistes. Copenhagen: 1937. 169--76.[sic]

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2011-10-16 Sun

#902. Ѥ䤹 [borrowing][loan_word]

ε#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) ǽҤ٤ȤꡤѤäơHaugen ζĴ importation substitution ζ̤ϴפǤ롥ζ̤ϡѤ䤹ܤˤĤƹͤݤˤ⡤פʻ󶡤Ƥ롥
ľŪˤǤȻפ뤬¾줫ǤѤ䤹ܤȤСäǤꡤä̾Ǥ롥ʸˡܤμѤԲǽǤϤʤȤƤ⡤Ǥ㤬ʤȤȤϡϤľȤܤμѤ䤹٤Ȥɽ魯ȡ"scale of adoptability" ʤΤ롥William Dwight Whitney 1881ǯ scale ˤȡ̾줬ǤѤ䤹¾ʻ졤ܼ³ʸˡܤǤѤˤȤ (Haugen 224) ʴϢơѸο쥽76.7%̾ǤˤĤƤ[2011-09-23-1]ε򡤱Ѹäʻ̳ˤĤƤ[2011-02-22-1], [2011-02-23-1]ε򻲾ȡˡʸˡܤμѤˤˤĤƤϡWhitney ϡܤŪ뤤Ϲ¤ŪǤФʬο鼫ͳǤȤݤΤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥
ʸˡܤǤѤƤϤꡤҤ scale ϵ§ǤϤʤǤ롥 scale ¿θ줫¿μˤäƻٻƤ롥ˤĤơHaugen (224) importation vs. substitution λ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

All linguistic features can be borrowed, but they are distributed along a SCALE OF ADOPTABILITY which somehow is correlated to the structural organization. This is most easily understood in the light of the distinction made earlier between importation and substitution. Importation is a process affecting the individual item needed at a given moment; its effects are partly neutralized by the opposing force of entrenched habits, which substitute themselves for whatever can be replaced in the imported item. Structural features are correspondences which are frequently repeated. Furthermore, they are established in early childhood, whereas the items of vocabulary are gradually added to in later years. This is a matter of the fundamental patterning of language: the more habitual and subconscious a feature of language is, the harder it will be to change.


Ū˲᤹ȼΤ褦ˤʤѤϡܤɬפ˱ơʤ[2009-06-13-1]ε#46. ѤϤʤ뤫פǵ󤲤ͳ褦ʹ̣ǤΡɬספǤ¾줫龷Ǥꡤˡˤϥη֤Ƴ׿Ū importation ȡη֤ǺѤޤݼŪ substitution 롥ηϤˤۤɶޤƤ٤ޤޤǤ̾Τ褦ʼѤˤƤݼŪ substitution ǽˤΤ顤ηϤ˿¤ŪȤ߹ޤƤꡤ٤ʸˡŪʹܤϡѤɬפȤ뵡񤬵ǤФ꤫˼Ѥˤ׿Ū importation Ψ㤤Τ褦˹ͤȡѤˤ substitution ϰ츫 importation ΩʤξԤ­Ƽ100%Ȥ˸ԤȰۤʤꤽΨ0%ˤʤ뤳ȤϤʤȤȤˤʤΰŪʹͤ˽ä importation ѤγˤȤߤʤΤǤϤʤsubstitution ѤγˤȤߤʤȤˤʤСºݤΤȤˤϸܰʾ˼Ѥ¿ΤʤΤ⤷ʤ

Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.

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2011-10-15 Sat

#901. ʬ [borrowing][terminology][loan_word][loan_translation]

ε#900. ([2011-10-14-1]) ˰³ϼѤʬHaugen ƤƤѤʬǤϡimportation substitution ζ̤Ȥ櫓פǤ롥ʬ򳵴ѤˡѸƳƤ

model: Ѹη
loan: Ѥˤ꼫夷
importation: model Ƚʬ򼫸ؼळ
substitution: model б뼫ηѤ뤳

Haugen (214--15) ϼѸ礭3ʬषƤ롥

  (1) LOANWORDS show morphemic importation without substitution. Any morphemic importation can be further classified according to the degree of its phonemic substitution: none, partial, or complete.
  (2) LOANBLENDS show morphemic substitution as well as importation. All substitution involves a certain degree of analysis by the speaker of the model that he is imitating; only such 'hybrids' as involve a discoverable foreign model are included here.
  (3) LOANSHIFTS show morphemic substitution without importation. These include what are usually called 'loan translations' and 'semantic loans'; the term 'shift' is suggested because they appear in the borrowing language only as functional shifts of native morphemes.


­ȡ(1) Ρʶ̣ǤΡ loanword ŵȤơѸ America ܸؤΤޤ޼Ѥ줿֥ꥫפ롥κݤΤϡŪ importation ǤꡤIJŪˤۤܤΤޤ model ѤƤ (imported) Ū importation ǤϤ뤬Ū˴ܸ첽 (substituted) ȹ֥ͤ֡ (love) 롥֥פȤƼѤ줿ΤǤС塤ʬŪܸ첽ɽǤ
(2) loanblend ȤƤϡʣμѤξʤɤǡŪ importation substitution Ʊ˸֥磻 (red wine) Τ褦㤬󤲤롥ФСhybrid ȤƸڤ뤬ȤƤ hybrid ȷ̤ȤƤ hybrid ϡ̤٤ΤǤʺε[2011-10-14-1]κǽ򻲾ȡˡ礬Ƥ֤ñ̤ˤäơblended stem, blended derivative, blended compound ̤롥
(3) loanshift ˤϡloan_translation ѡ calque Ȥ˸ƤФƤΡ semantic loan ʰ̣ѡˤȸƤФƤΤޤޤ롥ԤǤϼθϿ˿ morph Ͽ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬Ԥ˻äƤƱ֤Ǥ¸ߤΤǡ¾줫αƶ򼨤Τϰ̣ΤߤǤȤðۤǤ롥¸ morph Ọ̇̄δϢʾˤϡϿ˰ۤʤ morph ȤΩव뤫⤷ʤ̣ζˤ¸ morph ˽°ˤ loan synonyṃγ֤ˤ̤ morph ȤΩवˤ loan homonym ȸƤФ롥loan translation ʣĶƥǥʤɤϢȤñ̤صڤ֤ȡsyntactic substitution ȸƤ٤뤳Ȥˤʤ (ex. make believe < F fair croire )
Ѥˡ importation substitution Ѥñ̤ morphology phonology ˤä (1), (2), (3) ζʬȡʤ벼̶ʬ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥դΤϡɤμμѤǤ semantics Υ٥Ǥɬ importation Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥ְ̣ѡפʤɤνѸǤ蘆ƤϤʤʤΤϡˤ衤̣ɬѤȤȤǤ롥
Haugen ϡ˺٤̶ʬ¿νѸƳʤ顤Ѥ̤ "analysis" Ƥ椯ѤȤα빥Ǥ롥

Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.

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2011-10-14 Fri

#900. [borrowing][terminology][loan_word]

ܤ (borrowing) ˤĤƤϡμѤ濴͡򰷤äƤѸˤˤƤ⡤μѻˤϹؿ⤿ơޤǤꡤ켫Τ礭ʼѸ˴ؤϡ头Ȥ뤤ϥ줴Ȥ˸󤷤ơỤ̄ŪħŪ˻Ŧꤹ뤳Ȥ¿ѤȤݤˤĤŪ˰äƤ븦ϤޤʤǡѤߤƤ Haugen ʸҲ𤷤
Haugen (210--11) ϡborrowing "Sprachmischung" (= language mixture) 뤤 "hybrid" ȸƤФȤ϶̤٤⤯Sprachmischung ϥƥ륷2κʪ褦ʲ뤬ºݤˤ2ѼԤǤäƤƱ2Ĥθ줫鼫ͳ˸ǤФȤȤϤʤξԤδ֤Ǥޤ뤷ؤ뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤äƤΤϤɤ餫Ǥ롥äơSprachmischung borrowing Ʊ뤹뤳ȤϤǤʤƱˡ켫Τ̤ˤϴѻʤ츽ݤǤ롥ޤ"hybrid language" Ȥϡ "pure language" ¸ߤ뤫Τ褦ްդ뤬"pure language" ʤΤ¸ߤʤ
Τ褦ˡSprachmischung hybrid Ȥζ̤ΤˤǡHaugen (212) borrowing 򼡤Τ褦˵ҤŤ

(1) We shall assume it as axiomatic that EVERY SPEAKER ATTEMPTS TO REPRODUCE PREVIOUSLY LEARNED LINGUISTIC PATTERNS in an effort to cope with new linguistic situations. (2) AMONG THE NEW PATTERNS WHICH HE MAY LEARN ARE THOSE OF A LANGUAGE DIFFERENT FROM HIS OWN, and these too he may attempt to reproduce. (3) If he reproduces the new linguistic patterns, NOT IN THE CONTEXT OF THE LANGUAGE IN WHICH HE LEARNED THEM, but in the context of another, he may be said to have 'borrowed' them from one language into another. The heart of our definition of borrowing is then THE ATTEMPTED REPRODUCTION IN ONE LANGUAGE OF PATTERNS PREVIOUSLY FOUND IN ANOTHER. . . The term reproduction does not imply that a mechanical imitation has taken place; on the contrary, the nature of the reproduction may differ very widely from the original . . . .


ѤεˤƤ⤦1ĽפϡѤϲǤ̤ǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥㤨СѸϼѤȤŪη̤ȤƶŪ˴ѻܤǤ롥줬Ѥ졤μѸ˴ŤƿʸԤʤ졤2Ū˿줬줿硤ο϶ŪˤϤѸΤ褦˸뤬ѤβФ櫓ǤϤʤȤդѤǤȤˤĤƤϡHaugen (213) äդ򴭵Ƥ롥

Borrowing as here defined is strictly a process and not a state, yet most of the terms used in discussing it are ordinarily descriptive of its results rather than of the process itself. . . . We are here concerned with the fact that the classifications of borrowed patterns implied in such terms as 'loanword', 'hybrid', 'loan translation', or 'semantic loan' are not organically related to the borrowing process itself. They are merely tags which various writers have applied to the observed results of borrowing.


Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.

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2011-10-13 Thu

#899. Web3 permissiveness [lexicography][webster][dictionary][variation][diatone]

2֤ε ([2011-10-11-1], [2011-10-12-1]) ǡƹαѸ켭 Web3 ħ򸫤Ƥɾɽ碌СαѸ켭˾塤Ǥ descriptive ǡǤ permissive ʼäȤȤˤʤ
ȯҤ˴ؤƤϡεǵ̤Ѽܤɸ಻ʻ30Ķ⤢ˡͥȯɬפǤꡤǤ⤢Ȥݤ롥ºݤˡǶᡤΤΥȰ֤ʣμˤäĴ٤ȤȤԤʤäƤΤWeb3 variation ˭٤ϷȴƤWeb3 ŪȯΤȤŪ˸ƤʤȤڤ˴
Ū˽Ҥ٤ȡܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤äƤΡ̾ưײˤĤ (see diatone) 1δ֤ζѲ򼭽ˤäɤȤξѼ򰷤äꥫѸ줫ϰʲ4ĤμǶεҤӤ

Web1913 = Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. Ed. Noah Porter. Online version published on 9 January 1997 at http://machaut.uchicago.edu/websters . Merriam, 1913.
PDAE = Kenyon, John Samuel and Thomas Albert Knott, eds. A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam, 1951.
Web3 = Gove, Philip Babcock, ed. Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam, 1961. (In this survey I used the CD-ROM version [2000] based on the 1961 unabridged edition.)
AHD4 = The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 4th ed. \ Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006.

ʲϡ̾ư岽η򼨺14ˤĤơ񤴤Ȥ˶εҤޤȤ᤿ΤǤ롥"o" "oxytone"ʸβ˶ˡ"p" "paroxytone" β˶ˤ򼨤Web3 Ǥϡ"p, o" "o, p" ¿ɤ˶򤪤ƤĤȸФǤ롥ĴλȤƤϡȤ櫓ŪȯŻ뤹Ȥˤä櫓ǤϤʤΤľʤȤޤ permissive ʵҤ򼨤Ȳ˺٤ȡäǤ롥ɡʸ (forthcoming) ǤϼεϼȵҼˤĤưҤ٤ˤϤʤä

WORDPOSWeb1913PDAEWeb3AHD4
declinenounooo, po
declineverboooo
dismountnoun--oop
dismountverboooo
disputenounooo, po
disputeverboooo
employnounooo, po
employverboooo
entailnounooo, po
entailverboooo
rebuffnounooo, po
rebuffverboooo
replaynoun--op, op
replayverb--ooo
reportnounooo, po
reportverboooo
retortnounoooo, p
retortverboooo
retouchnounoop, oo, p
retouchverboooo
revisenounooop, o
reviseverboooo
romancenounoo, po, po, p
romanceverbooo, po
surmisenounoo, po, po
surmiseverboooo
trajectnounopp--
trajectverboooo

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2011-10-12 Wed

#898. OED2 Web3 оɽ [lexicography][webster][dictionary][oed]

ε#897. Web3 νǤ50ǯ ([2011-10-11-1]) ǡꥫαѸ켭κǹǤ Web3 ɾȽˤĤƸڤꥹˤαѸ켭 OED2 ӤȤɤΤ褦ħħΰƱˤƤȻפäΤǡ߷ (44--45) ˷ǺܤƤоɽʲ˷Ǻܤ롥Τ褦˰ȡ㤤褯Ƥ롥

 OED2Web3
ǯʴ1928112+1ˡNew Suppl. 1986, 4ˡ198922019091, 19342, 19613
ǿ22,0002,662ǡ2002ǯǤǤ2,806ǡ
Ƿ3022.5cm32.524.0cm
Ͽ464ʤ縫Ф35462002ǯǤǤ476ˡWeb2: 55?66
24020
ԽŪ (prescriptive) λŪؤαƶϡǯθ󡨽ǯȤŪҴŪҼι¤ؤαƶϡʰǯθ󡨽ǯ
Ф1150ǯʸθ줹٤ƼϿȾΤ1755ǯʸθϿʤŸ졦Ѹ2ޤ)Web2: 1500ǯʹߡ Chaucer ޤˡʳصѸŻISV٥ˡưΩ
ƻʸɡʶϡ˼800̾400?500̾1001928ǯǡˡ100̾1986ǯǡʤ
ѡʸغʽŻ(240)Shakes. 33,303Bible 5,725Milton 12,485̣餫ˤΤΩʸ
ˡ٥ (register)ܺٻؼŤ˾öŪcolloq, informal, illit., erron. ʤɤѤˡޤԱѡաԹաԥʥդʤɤФƤȤˡơդѤʤ
ԽϤ뤬ܺ٤ʾͿʷ鵭
ȯɸѲʹݲɸʸˤɽѼܤɸ಻ʻ30Ķ⤢ˡͥȯɬ
Ѳΰ֤򼨤Ѥθɸʻ
ܺ٤ʰ̣ʬset (v.) 20ǡ154ʬɴʻŵŪä (cf. hotel) set (v.) 1̤
޲ʤ3Web2 Ǥ12ˡ޲ޤ
̾̾ʤgazetteer 36顨biographical 13


߷ ˧ͺԡˡؼѸ졦١ұѸʸꡡ8ҡ2006ǯ

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2011-10-11 Tue

#897. Web3 νǤ50ǯ [lexicography][webster][dictionary]

Web3 ȤΤ롤ɤⰭŪʥꥫθؤμϡǯǽ50ǯޤ50ǯζڤˡ20αѸ켭񳦤򴬤ŪʼˤĤơʥӥ塼 New York Times ˴Ƥ줿Geoffrey Numberg ˤ뤽εϡ When a Dictionary Could Outrage ǥ饤ˤƱɤǤ롥
Web3 ᤰϡϼŪ (prescriptive) ʼȤɾι⤫äǤ١ҼŪ (descriptive) ʼؤѤꤷžäƤθʸäŪ˥ꥫǤϼ˵ϤĬäWeb3 Խ Gove ϡεŪ¤ؤĬή˾뤳ȤΤˡWeb3 εҤˤϹ¤ؤηΤʤ̩ʼˡȿǤƤꡤؼԤɾϸߤ˻ޤǹ⤤ꥫˤˤƽƤΡ֤ȤФμפȤɾʹ롥ꥫѸħ븢ҤȵϤΤ뼭οǤ˾Ǥΰ̤ξԤˤȤäƤϡGove ο֤΢ڤ԰٤ȱǤäꥫѸüԤ¿Ƥϡдְ㤤ʤˡ򤹤롤ѽȤƤμäWeb3 ѤѤ⺮碌Τ褦ʡɸŪʸˡˤޤ˴Ƥʡޤ˵ŪʼȤƸ줿ΤǤ롥
ξΩΤǷ㤷깭줿ǤΩɾȽ⤫äȤβмȤˤʤäǤǯ1962ǯˤ62Ԥɾȯɽ줿Ȥ顤ȿ礭Τ롥ФмԺȤΥåƥŽ졤Web3 ˤȤäƤ϶λλϤޤȤʤäȵϤȤǺ߿硹Ū󵯤ȼΤꥫˤ Webster ΰҿʪäƤ褦˻פ롥
Web3 ŪյˤĤơNumberg ϼ2ä礷Ƥ롥

It introduced the words "prescriptivist" and "descriptivist" into the cultural conversation, and fixed the battle lines for the ritualized squabble over standards that persists across media old and new.


[T]he furor over Webster's Third also marked the end of an era. It's a safe bet that no new dictionary will ever incite a similar uproar, whatever it contains. . . . [N]ow all is legitimated under the rubric of pop culture.


Web3 ˤäơҼꥫαѸ켭񳦤Τߤʤ餺ꥫŤˤΤϤ뤳ȤˤʤäѸ켭˸ꤷƤ⡤ϼव줿櫓ǤϤʤȤƼεŪҤ礭Ȥ¤ѤäƤʤҤȵ --- ˤư񤷤θʸ󵯤50ǯܲ Web4 ԻϤޤäƤȤǤ롥
饤ǡ2009ǯ Ain't That the Truth: Webster's Third: The Most Controversial Dictionary in the English Language ʤӥ塼⸫ĤΤǡȤ줿

Gove, Philip Babcock, ed. Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam, 1961.
߷ ˧ͺԡˡؼѸ졦١ұѸʸꡡ8ҡ2006ǯ43--45ǡ

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2011-10-10 Mon

#896. Kodak ͳ [etymology][root_creation][conversion][unidirectionality]

[2011-10-02-1]ε#888. ˤĤư͡פǿ줿 Kodak ˤĤơꥫμ̿᡼åҤʡʼ˥եˤˤĤ줿ɸǡåҤ϶ȼ George Eastman (1854--1932) ¤Ȥ롥캬ŵȤƵ󤲤뤳Ȥ¿
ɸȤƤνФ OED ˤ1888ǯǡ̾Ȥơ֥åʤǻƤ줿˼̿פθǤ1895ǯСˡ1891ǯˤ᤯ʻž (conversion) ФơưȤƤΡ֥åǻƤפиƤ롥 Kodaker, Kodakist, Kodakry Ω³˸졤Υåο͵꤬ŤФ롥ǿͤǤñ˻ƤǤΤǡΤȤʸ "You press the button, we do the rest" 褯ɽ蘆Ƥ롥ꥫѸǤϡ֥å󥹡פΰ̣ Kodak moment ʤ¸ߤ롥
Kodak ȤȯˤĤƤϾܤаޤ񤭻ĤƤ롥¹Ȥʤ뤬Mencken ˵äƤ Strang (24) Ѥ롥

To the history of kodak may be added the following extract from a letter from its inventor, George Eastman (1854--1932) to John M. Manly Dec. 15, 1906: 'It was a purely arbitrary combination of letters, not derived in whole or in part from any existing word, arrived at after considerable search for a word that would answer all requirements for a trade-mark name. The principal of these were that it must be short, incapable of being mis-spelled so as to destroy its identity, must have a vigorous and distinctive personality, and must meet the requirements of the various foreign trade-mark laws, the English being the one most difficult to satisfy owing to the very narrow interpretation that was being given to their law at that time.' I take this from George Eastman, by Carl W. Ackerman; New York, 1930, p. 76n. Ackerman himself says: 'Eastman was determined that this product should have a name that could not be mis-spelled or mispronounced, or infringed or copied by anyone. He wanted a strong word that could be registered as a trade-mark, something that every one would remember and associate only with the product which he proposed to manufacture. K attracted him. It was the first letter of his mother's family name. It was "firm and unyielding." It was unlike any other letter and easily pronounced, Two k's appealed to him more than one, and by a process of association and elimination he originated kodak and gave a new name to a new commercial product. The trade-mark was registered in the United States Sept. 4, 1888.'


Eastman ȤȤơåҤHPˤ⼡Τ褦ʵҤ򸫤Ĥ뤳ȤǤ

I devised the name myself. The letter 'K' had been a favorite with me -- it seems a strong, incisive sort of letter. It became a question of trying out a great number of combinations of letters that made words starting and ending with 'K.' The word 'Kodak' is the result.


(phonotactics) ȲͿݤŰŪ˹ͤȴǤεʸ캬Ȥ
Strang (24--25) ˤȡ㤫ϡּ̿פ֥եפȤ̾ȤƤ Kodak λѤ뤬ɸ鴰̾첽ȹͤ hoover ݽˤʤɤȤϰۤʤꡤ̾첽ٹ礤㤤ΤǤϤʤȤɸȤƻϤޤä塤֤ʤ̾첽ƤӾɸȤƤΤ߻Ȥ뤳ȤˤʤäȤޤꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥̣ˡѲɬǤϤʤȤ򼨺ȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ

Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.

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2011-10-09 Sun

#895. Miss ϲξά [word_formation][spelling_pronunciation][clipping][title][address_term][shortening][sobokunagimon]

ȿȽ̾Ѥ Miss ȤɾΤ롥ǯǤ Ms.Ms Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤƤʹϢǤ1973ǯѡˡĤƤ֤㤯ʤäƤ롥ʷɾΤˤĤƤϡ[2009-10-16-1]ε#172. ƤӤȤƤ Mr, *Mrs, Missפ򻲾ȡ
Mrs Mr ˤϼƼ Mrs. Mr. ȥԥꥪɤĤ뤬Miss ˤĤƤϱƤȤ˥ԥꥪɤԲĤǤ롥ͳϡMiss άǤϤʤȤƤ뤬ȤǤʤäȤάǤ롥 etymon mistress Ǥꡤ̣Ȥˤθ Mrs etymon Ǥ⤢롥mistress ȤƱ줬̤Ƿֻ֤ʬMrs Miss ߽ФΤǤ롥
17Ⱦmistress 񵭾ûФ <Mrs> ֤褦ˤʤäθ֤̾ǤȤʤʤä˼嶯֤褦ˤʤꡤȯȤƤ19ƬޤǤ /ˈmɪsɪs/ 뤤 /ˈmɪsɪz/ ؤṳ̂줿ơߤֻȯбꤷ
Ȥ̤ηϩǡ17ޤǤˡȯڤ /mɪs/ ߽Ф줿褦λֻ <Mis> 뤤 <Mis.> ȯ򼨺Ƥ褦˻פ뤬ºݤˤϤνֻϽ񵭾ûˤʤäǽ⤢롥Ĥޤꡤष񵭾û <Mis> <Miss> ˹碌뤫Τ褦 /mɪs/ ȯޤ줿ȹͤʤʤξ硤spelling pronunciation Ȥˤʤ롥
Heller and Macris (206) ϸԤβǽŦƤ롥εǼ夲 AWOL κǽ2ʳˤƤϤޤȹͤƤ褦mistress <Miss> /mɪs/ ѲȤˤʤ롥񵭾ûûͶȤ
Τˤ衤<Miss> <s> ֤ƤȤʤ롥/mɪs/ ȯŬ礹褦˽ŻҲΤ뤤 Heller and Macris (206) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤ<Mis(tres)s> ⤷ <Mi(stre)ss> "acrouronym" ([2011-10-07-1]) ʤΤ뤤ϤξԤߺѤη̤ʤΤ
⤦1ĻĤ줿ϡ˼夲 Miss ˥ԥꥪɤĤʤΤϤʤȤMiss ϡ嵭Τ褦ˤĤιͤϤΤΡMr. Mrs. ȤϰۤʤꡤȯֻŪ˰פΤȤˤäơMiss άǤȤǧ줿ΤǤϤʤäȤ1ñǤȤǧԥꥪɤĤʤȤ񵭾ħȿǤƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ƚ񵭤ν۴ŪѤϡ뤳ȤΤǤʤѲΰװʤΤ⤷ʤ

Heller, L. G. and James Macris. "A Typology of Shortening Devices." American Speech 43 (1968): 201--08.

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2011-10-08 Sat

#894. shortening ʬ (2) [word_formation][graphemics][punctuation][spelling_pronunciation][shortening]

ε#893. shortening ʬ (1) ([2011-10-07-1]) ˰³ƤꡥHeller and Macris ϡûȽ񵭾ûߴطˤĤƤ롥㤨Сabsent without official leave AWOL /ˈeɪwɑl/ ؤûˤϡ񵭤δ鼡4ʳǧ롥

1. 񵭾û A.W.O.L; ȯ absent without official leave Τޤޡ
2. ûʥե٥åɤߤ /ˈeɪ ˈdʌbljuː ˈoʊ ˈɛl/
3. 񵭾ûʥԥꥪɤAWOL ء
4. ûʸȤ /ˈeɪwɑl/

Ƚ񵭤ϤΤ褦˽۴Ū˺ѤûʤǹԤΤȹͤ롥4ʳβɬĴ˿ܤȤϸ¤ʤߤûȿǤʤäꡤǻߤޤȤȤ⤢롥Heller and Macris ϡshortening βȽ񵭤˴ؤ뤳θʤ顤Ҳ𤷤෿˲äơ⤦1̼෿󼨤Ƥ (208) û񵭾ˤɤΤ褦ȿǤƤ뤫ʤȤǤ롥

A. No mark: he is (for /hiz/)
B. Abbreviation points (for orthographical shortenings only): C.O.D. (when still read cash on delivery)
C. Apostrophes (usually the orthographical marks reflecting the earlier phonological shortenings): o'clock

Ⱥεdz⤷Ƥ褦ʾܺ٤̩ shortening ʬϡȤ⤹ʬΤʬȼ㤨붲줬뤬ŪʷʬϤΤߤʤ餺̻ŪʱѸθˤȤäƤפǤ롥ŦƤ

(1) ŪʬϡʬϤΤʴͿѻ򸦤ޤƤƱ˸ȤɤǤġ
(2) Ūʴ§СŪѰ̻ۤŪѲΥפˤäưۤʤäƤΤ̤ηΤΤ뤳ȤǤ롥
(3) Ѹʤɤθ̸˸ꤷƤ⡤ˤäơshortening μ̤̻ŪˤɤѲƤΤ餫ˤ뤳ȤǤ롥ѲϲѲѲȤɤΤ褦ϢưƤΤ뤤ϢưƤʤΤȤˤ뤳ȤǤ롥

Heller, L. G. and James Macris. "A Typology of Shortening Devices." American Speech 43 (1968): 201--08.

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2011-10-07 Fri

#893. shortening ʬ (1) [word_formation][terminology][acronym][blend][shortening]

[2011-10-01-1]ε#887. acronym ʬפ˰³̳ǰǤ shortening ʬҲ𤷤Heller and Macris ϡʤʽѸ췲Ƴơshortening ෿ιۤߤɽϡHaller and Macris (207) ۤ¤˺ƸΤǤ롥

1. Type of shortening
A. Acronym (initial): ad
B. Mesonym (medial): Liza
C. Ouronym (tail): Beth
D. Acromesonym (initial + medial): T.V.
E. Acrouronym (initial + tail = blend): brunch
F. Mesouronym (medial + tail): Lizabeth
2. Medium shortened
A. Phonology: ad, Liza, Beth
B. Orthography: Dr.
3. Hierarchy affected
A. Monolectic (one word): ad
B. Polylectic (more than one word, i.e., a phrase): brunch

Haller and Macris ϡBaum acronym ʬ˸ 1st order, 2nd order ʤɤζʬŪǤʤȤơɽ "1. Type of shortening" "3. Hierarchy affected" 2ĤδѤ͡ shortening ˡ1 δϡûθη (etymon) ɤʬĤƤ뤫ȤǤ롥桤ȤȤ߹碌ˤ6ĤŪʥ饹ߤƤ롥3 Ǥϡetymon 1줫ʣ줫ʤ礫̤롥2Ĥδˤäơ㤨 brunch "a polylectic acrouronym" Ǥʬव롥
Ȥ櫓פʤΤϡ"2. Medium shortened" ˤäơηŪ˰ƤʤäûȽ񵭾ûζ̤줿ȤǤ롥ξûϡetymon ΡְǤ (subtractive) ȤǶ̤Ƥ뤬񵭾ûˤͭΡ֤ (replacive) פ뤳ȤŦܤͤ (203--04) 㤨С£ pound ν񵭾ûȤߤʤȤǤԤϸԤν񵭾ΤɤʬȿǤƤʤΤǡִȤۤŬڤǤ롥ιͤǤ椱СXmas (= Christmas) Τ褦ϡ"acroreplacive" ȤǤƤ٤뤳Ȥˤʤ (204)
3Ĥδˤäơ¸ shortening ¿򵭽Ҥ뤳ȤǤ롥δǤϵҤǤʤʣ⤢ܤ򲡤ƤбѤ񤷤ʤ

Heller, L. G. and James Macris. "A Typology of Shortening Devices." American Speech 43 (1968): 201--08.

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2011-10-06 Thu

#892. ʸˡ Dionysius Thrax η [derivative][compound][grammar][greek][word_formation][dionysius_thrax]

[2011-09-27-1]ε#883. Algeo ο쥽ʬ (1)פǡΤˤηʸˡȾΤ륮ꥷʸˡؼ Dionysius Thrax (c100BC) ˸ڤ路 Techne Grammatike ϡҤʤ⡤ǯʾδɸƥȤȤѤ줿ˤդΥ󥰥顼Ǥ롥ϡDavidson ˤˤꡤThrax ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤսɤǤߤꥷμѤ碌ƤʤΤǡThrax θʬϿʬä˸뤬ѸθͤDzͤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤΤǡפ򵭤
Thrax ϡSection 14 ̾ˤ2Ĥ Species Ƥ롥1Ĥ primitive ǡ⤦1Ĥ derivative Ǥ롥ηѸǤСԤϸ캬뤤 simplexԤ줢뤤 complex 7ब̤Ƥ뤬δϰ̣ä굡ǽäǻʬ줬ʤ7ĤȤϡPatronymics, Possessives, Comparatives, Diminutives, Nominals, Superlatives, Verbals Ǥ롥ˤ̾줬Ф뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Thrax ̾ˤ3Ĥ Forms Ƥ롥1ܤ simple ǡ2ܤ compound ǡ3Ĥ super-compound Ǥ롥줾ȤơMemnon, Agamemnon, Agamemnonides 󤲤Ƥ롥compound ˤ4ब̤ƤꡤȤƤ϶̣(1) 2Ĥδ줫ʤ (ex. Cheirisophos), (2) 2ĤԴ줫ʤ (ex. Sophokles, (3) 1ĤԴ1Ĥδ줫ʤ (ex. Philodemos), (4) 1Ĥδ1ĤԴ줫ʤ (ex. Periklês)
Thrax θäǤꡤľܤѸ˱ѤǤ櫓ǤϤʤͳǤȹ«Ǥζ̤ռƤܤͤ롥primitive simple ȤѸ⡤ѸƳǤ롥
ʣΤ˶̤ Thrax ϡѸˤ⳵ͼѤƤ褦

Davidson, Thomas, trans. "The Grammar of Dionysios Thrax." Journal of Speculative Philosophy 8 (1874): 326--39.

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2011-10-05 Wed

#891. ή˵դ餦Τ褦 initialism Ÿ [acronym]

##887,889,890ε acronym ˤĤˤƤäˡ#889. acronym 20 ([2011-10-03-1]) ǤϡѸή acronym ˤꡤȶĴñȤȯ acronym ʿԤơե٥åȤ1ʸȯ initialism Ʊ˱ɤƤ뤳ȤϡCPU, EU, FBI, USB ʤˤȤޤʤȤ´
Ի׵ĤʤȤˡѸˤϰޤꤿ initialism ƤŸȤή˵չԤ褦ʷ⻶ΤǤ롥ŸȤäƤ⡤Ĺ򤽤Τޤ櫓ǤϤʤե٥åɤߤʸŸȤȤǤ롥
򸫤ΤᤤBaum ˤȡΥץȥפ O.K. okay Ÿ (expand) ǤȤ¾ˤϡM.C. emcee, D.J. deejay, TV teevee Ȥ㤬롥female emcee ̤᤿ femcee ȤޤǤ롥acronym Ʊ͡initialism κθ̤ι̩ٲ (densification) ˤΤȤС[2011-01-12-1]ε#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹פ򻲾ȡˡinitialism ŸԲIJǤ롥̵ֻŸǤäơȯϲŸƤʤޤν񤭸ե쥸ˤʤȤŦƤ ("limited for the most part to areas of colloquial writing where one might least expect formality of expression" [Baum 74]) äơޤǸ¤줿ΰ˹ԤʤƤŪˤʤȤ뤬δֱӡδᲽȤݤȤʤ
礭ήΤʤ˸뤳ξ񹳤θưϤϡβBaum (73) ϡinitialism ͿäȤ¤餲뤿ǤϤʤȻŦƤ롥

Alongside this tendency toward condensation there is a slowly growing counterimpulse toward reestablishing the full dignity of the initial word by expansion. Perhaps this countermovement is stimulated by the notion that the initial word is too stark in appearance.


Baum (75) Ϥޤξ񹳤Ʊ򼨤Ƥ⤤롥

This counterimpulse to abbreviation, as indicated in these few examples, is obviously a weak one, still relegated to the periphery of the language. But a sizable proportion of these expanded initial words---okay, Seabee, emcee---has by now gained lexicographical acceptance, certainly an indication that the neologism is finding approval.


Ѳˤơ礭ĬήΤʤξ񹳤ȤϾ̯񤬤롥⻲ͤޤǤˡ

[2010-06-04-1]: #403. ή˵դäƤӵ
[2010-08-31-1]: #491. Stuart ī˿षʿʸˤ뱪Ū do
[2011-06-12-1]: #776. ʬƻ -ed

Baum, S. V. "Formal Dress for Initial Words." American Speech 32 (1957): 73--75.

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2011-10-04 Tue

#890. ͹ƬǾ acronym Ͻ̾¿ [acronym][personification][political_correctness][gender]

ε[2011-10-03-1]ǾҲ𤷤20 acronym ȯŸˤ⤷ Baum ǯ˶̣򤽤ʸ񤤤Ƥ롥SARAH (= search and rescue and homing; ܺ֡), CORA (= conditioned reflex analogue; ο͸ƬǾ), ERMA (= electric recording machine, accounting; ưĢ) ʤɡΥԥ塼Ѥοܤ̾ΤȤ줿 acronym ˤϡ̾¿ȤΤǤ롥
ϡǤϤʤȯ˴ؤäƤ뵻ѼԤϤۤȤɤäꤵ졤ʪȤȤƵͲƤȤפ뤫Ǥ̾̾ ˤĤƤϡ##852,853,854 ε򻲾ȡˡǤϡ֤ȸΩƤطʤˤΥ᡼ϤȤȡBaum (224--25) ˤм̤Ǥ롥

In general, the technological acronym seems to be growing more and more feminine, perhaps from much the same motivation as has encouraged meteorologists to appropriate girls' names for the yearly hurricanes. There is a sly and meaningful humor apparent in using a woman's name---Sarah, Cora, Erma---for what is really an intricate nervous system constructed of electronic tubes and thousands of feet of electric wire.


ʤۤɡ䡤ޤ Baum ΰոǤѼԤܤ뤫⤷ޤ󤬡
Ѥˤ褦ˡ͹ƬǾ⤺äȸι⤤ǤϥꥱˤĤƤϡƹ1953ǯƳƤ̾Ϳε§1978ǯѤ˽̾ߤͿ̿̾ˡؤȲ᤿National Hurricane Center εˤС̾ˤ̿̾δ19ν꤫餢Ȥˡ̾Ǥ˽ƱȿȤΤͳä褦оɤ˽ --- Ǥ⤢櫓ǤϤ뤬
Baum ƶϤޤ1956ǯΤȤʤΤǡ͹ƬǾ̿̾ˤĤơθλ𤬵ˤʤȤǤ롥ܤǤϡˡ AIBO ̾ͳ1ĤˡפؤäƤȤΤȡ

Baum, S. V. "Feminine Characteristics of the Acronym." American Speech 31 (1956): 224--25.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-06-28-1] [2013-06-22-1]

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2011-10-03 Mon

#889. acronym 20 [word_formation][acronym][pde]

[2011-10-01-1]ε#887. acronym ʬפ acronym ƬˤμˤĤƸѸθѲĬή1ĤȤơι̩ٲ (densification) ŦƤ뤬[2011-01-12-1]ε#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹פ򻲾ȡˡڤãʤ1Ĥ acronym Ǥ롥acronym Ȥ켫Τ American Dialect Society ˤä20 "Word of the Century" ˥Υߥ͡Ȥ줿ۤɤǤ ([2009-12-28-1]) ѸɽȤäƤ褤Ѹˤ20 acronym ȯŸˤ˥ꥫҲˤƳ⤷Baum ˤ붽̣ʸ򸫤ĤΤǡʲ׻ݤ⤷Ƥ

ե٥åʸȤ̡ȯ initialism 顤Ȥȯ acronym ؤήԤѲϡǤ᤯ˤϡ1λ˴ѻ롥AWOL (= absent without official leave; 1920ǯ), DORA (= Defense of the Realm Act; 1917ǯ), ANZACS (= Australian and New Zealand Army Corps; 1915ǯ) ʤɡޤȯŪä
1930ǯ塤President F. D. Roosevelt ˤ the New Deal ʥ˥塼ǥˤԤ뤿̵ɤޤ줿̾ΤȤ NIRA (= National Industrial Recovery Act; 1933ǯ) T.V.A. (= Tennessee Valley Authority; 1933ǯ) ʤɤ acronym initialism ¿Ѥ졤äƻѸǹޤ줿ˡꥫѸǤϤ¤ˡ夹뤳ȤȤʤä
2λ˷ɤ̵˺졤ά줬ޤ줿λˤϡinitialism acronym 򹥤෹餫˸褦ˤʤ롥EIDEBOWABEW (= Economic Intelligence Division of the Enemy Branch of the Office of Economic Warfare Analysis of the Board of Economic Warfare), MEW (= Ministry of Economic Warfare), WAVE(S) (= Women's Appointed Volunteer Emergency Service) ʤɡǸϡˤƤϡȡפΰ̣ȶäơŬ紶뤳Ȥա
̣ȤŬ紶տŪ˵ acronym ϡˤƤиƤ롥Basic English (= British American Scientific International Commercial English; 1932ǯ), CARE (= Cooperative for American Remittance to Europe; 1945ǯ) ʤɡ
acronym ʬõΤ褦˸뤬⤦1 acronym γƤʬ˿͹ƬǾʤ뤤ϥԥ塼󥹡ˤ롥ENIAC (= electronic numerical integrator and computer; 1945ǯ) Audrey (= automatic digital recognition) ʤɡ

¾Ǥ̵θץ̾ˤ acronym ѤƤ롥Υ֥ϢǤ⡤ξά̾䥳ѥξά̾Ȥ acronym ¿ (see List of Corpora)

Baum, S. V. "From 'Awol' to 'Veep': The Growth and Structure of the Acronym." American Speech 30 (1955): 103--10.

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2011-10-02 Sun

#888. ˤĤư [word_formation][onomatopoeia][phonaesthesia][root_creation][origin_of_language]

εŪˡ (root creation) 롥Algeo ο쥽ʬˤСetymon ⤿ʤפŤ롥
ŵŪȤƵ󤲤Τˡgoogol 롥10100褷ŷʸŪפɽ路1940ǯƹοؼ Edward Kasner (1878--1955) 9Фα¤줷ƤäΤȤƤ롥OED ¤ηаޤ򼨤ʸǺܤƤ롥

1940 Kasner & Newman Math. & Imagination i. 23 The name 'googol' was invented by a child (Dr. Kasner's nine-year-old nephew) who was asked to think up a name for a very big number, namely, 1 with a hundred zeros after it. . . At the same time that he suggested 'googol' he gave a name for a still larger number: 'Googolplex'. Ibid. 25 A googol is 10100; a googolplex is 10 to the googol power.


̤ͭ̾ϡɸ Kodak Eastman Kodak Co. ϶ȼ George Eastman (1854--1932) ¤ǡStrang (24--25) ˾ܺ٤Ƥ롥
캬ϡ뿷ˡΤʤǤϰŪǤʤɤ㳰ȤäƤ褤Ȥ櫓Ū̾ΤɬפȤ뾦ɸˤϸ캬뤳ȤϼΤǤ롥
ơ캬ϡ̵¤ȹͤ뤬ˡ̵פɤǤ롥캬 etymon ⤿ʤޤä⤿ʤȤȤǤϤʤAlgeo ʬǤϡ캬ϲŪưŤ̵ͭˤ "onomatopoeia" (ex. miaow) "arbitrary coinage" (ex. googol) ˶̤Ƥ뤬ԤǤϼβȤ¸ߤ롥ˤ뻲ȤȤȤǤ phonaesthesia ⤽ȶᤤǰǤꡤ"arbitrary coinage" ȤƤ googol ⡤ǯƬǤ phonaesthetic ɽݤäøŪưŤäȤǽǤʤKodak ⲻΰݤͤ˹ͤƤ¤äȤȤʤΤǡ캬ɤ١̵¤פǤ뤫ϡǤ롥ޤϡñ˸츻Ūʾμ­Ƥ뤬椨⤷ʤ츻ؼԤθεڤФʤȤˡ¤ etymon äȤǽϾˤ (Algeo 124)
캬ϡΤȤʤ顤εȤ̩ܤ˴ؤ[2010-07-02-1]ε#431. ʶθεפ򻲾ȡˡ줬ޤ줿οϡ̣ǤϤ٤Ƹ캬äȸ뤫⤷ʤȯŸϡˤ캬Ψ100%¤ʤ0%ؤȶŤƤ椯ª뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ

Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
Algeo, John. "The Taxonomy of Word Making." Word 29 (1978): 122--31.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-13-1] [2011-10-10-1]

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2011-10-01 Sat

#887. acronym ʬ [word_formation][terminology][acronym][initialism][blend]

[2011-09-29-1]ε#885. Algeo ο쥽ʬ (3)פʬɽįƤȡȵŤȤ¿1ĤˡITEM_NO 21--25, 27, 28 θ˶̤ͿƤ acronym ƬˤȤθƾΤ˴ؤ꤬롥
̾acronym radar (= radio detection and ranging) Τ褦ˤ켫Ȥ1ȤȯΤؤե٥åȤȤ1ʸɤޤ FBI initialism ƬʸˤȤ϶̤롥Web3 CALD3 򸫤Ƥߤ褦

Web3: a word formed from the initial letter or letters of each of the successive parts or major parts of a compound term (as anzac, radar, snafu)

CALD3: an abbreviation consisting of the first letters of each word in the name of something, pronounced as a word


acronym ϡ嵭Τ褦 initialism ȶ̤줿ǡ˲̶ʬ롥Algeo ʬɽˤ "1st order" "2nd order" ȤΤǤ롥ʬ Baum (49) ˵äƤ褦ʤΤǡ򻲾ȤƤߤȼΤ褦Ƥ

acronym of the 1st order (or a pure acronym): "formed only from the first letter of each major unit in a phrase" (ex. asdic for Anti-Submarine Detection Investigation Committee)
acronym of the 2nd order: "two initial letters of the first unit" (ex. radar for radio detection and ranging, loran for long range navigation)
acronym of the 3rd order: "Lewis Carroll's portmanteau word" (ex. motel from motor and hotel)
acronym of the 4th order: "a blend formed from the initial syllables of two or more words" (ex. minicam for miniature camera, amtrac for amphibious tractor)
acronym of the 5th order: "other coinages [that approach] agglutinative extremes, introducing medial as well as initial and final letters" or "a code designation very much like the truncated blends used in cablegrams" (ex. TRANSPHIBLANT for Transports, Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet)

5th order Ȥʤȡacronym ȸƤǤ٤ɤܤĤʤʤäƤ롥the 3rd order blend Ǥ顤acronym ΰȤȤ館ΤɤܤĤʤetyma ȤʤǽθƬäƤǡʤȤȾʬ acronym ŪäΤʤȿʻ롥
ǽ顤Τ褦 acronym β̶ʬʬΤʬǤϤʤȵäƤacronym, blend, clipping, initialism ʤɤδط餫ˤΤͭפȤȤ狼äޤBaum Ⱦ᡹ȻŦƤ̤ꡤ"Perhaps now that the acronym has been institutionalized, some kind of order will be re-established in discussions of this subject" (50) .
acronym ȤѸ1943ǯ˽ФƤꡤǯ acronym ˤ¤ϤȯŪ礷Ϥ᤿ʽиǤϤʤˤȤ褽פ˰㤤ʤɬפۤɤ acronym ƤȤȤ

Baum, S. V. "The Acronym, Pure and Impure." American Speech 37 (1962): 48--50.

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