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ε#2104. ޡ ([2015-01-30-1]) ν˥ե٥åȤˤĤƿ줿ΤǡϤʤѸѤ륢ե٥åȤϡABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZפȤ¤ӽʤΤ
ʸθȤơ4ब̤̾, p. 155ˡ
(1) Ūʬˡθ˴ŤΤǡޤΤۤåȸʸʼޡˡϥʤɤ롥
(2) Ūʬˡθ˽Τǡ¼ŵʤɡ
(3) յŪʬˡ̣δϢθΡ¼ŵϰǤ⤢ΤǡʬŪˤϰյŪʬˡ˽äƤ롥ޤǸŤλʸ٤Ǥϡʸ¤Ӥ켫Ȥ̣äƤȤǡյŪʬΰȹͤ롥ʸ֤Ĥλס֤ϡ (cf. #1005. ʿ̾ˤǸŤΡ֤ϲΡפȯ줿 ([2012-01-27-1])ˤʤɤ⡤¤ӤΤȤƾ϶Ƥǡʬ°롥
(4) ǯŪʬˡʸä줿ꤷ¤٤븶㤨С<Z> ϥƥե٥åȤˤƸ夫ä줿ΤǡʸåȤκǸۤƤ<G>, <X>, <I--J>, <U--V--W-Y> Ʊ̾Ρ֤פ⡥
Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤϥƥե٥åȤΤǤꡤԤ6˥֥ƥư衤ʸդäʤɡĤβѤФƸ˻롥äơѸ쥢ե٥åȤϡ§Ȥƥƥե٥åȤˤʤäƤͤƤ褤Ǥϡƥե٥åȤϲ˴ŤƤΤϡꥷե٥åȤǤ롥ꥷե٥åȤȤʤꡤˤĤβѤä졤ƥե٥åȤΩ
ꥷե٥åȤƥե٥åȤ˻аޤˤϡԤѼ (cf. #1837. ȥꥷʸλκۡ ([2014-05-08-1])) 䥨ȥꥢ (Etruscan) ͿƤꡤʣǤ롥β <C> <G> (cf. #1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1])) <G> ꥷե٥åȤǤ <Z> Ƥ֤夷ꡤ<Z> 夫Ƴ줿ꤷޤ<F> ϡ#1825. <F> εȯŸ ([2014-04-26-1]) Ǥߤ褦ʷаޤǸߤΰ֤Ǽޤä<I--J> ʬ <U--V--W--Y> ʬ (cf. #1830. Y ̾Ρ ([2014-05-01-1])) ơ줾줪褽٤礦֤ۤ줿Τ褦˼βѤϤäΤȤƤϥꥷե٥åȤפˤ뤳Ȥϵʤ
ǤϡΥꥷե٥åȤθϲ#1832. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (1) ([2014-05-03-1])#1833. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (2) ([2014-05-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡꥷե٥åȤϡࡦե٥å (Semitic alphabets) 1ѼǤե˥ե٥å (Phoenician alphabet) ͳ褹롥äơŪˤϥե˥ե٥åȤʤɤθ饢ե٥åȤʤФʤʤ
#1832. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (1) ([2014-05-03-1]) ˷Ǥʸɽαü2ˤʸ̾ΤỌ̇̄Ǥ롥¤ӹäƤ1Ȥʸΰּ̣ (yod) ȡֶʤ (kaf) ֿ (mēm) ȡֵ (nūn) Τ褦˲餫δطäƤȤͤȡʤȤʬŪˤϰյŪʬˡ˽äƤΤǤϤʤȻפ롥bet, gaml, delt ɽhé, wau ʥǤϤΰ֤ˤä, zai ɽlamd, mém, nun ήɽʤɡŪʬˡθʬŪƯƤ褦ˤߤ롥ΤȤƤ⡤褽ҲĴ֤ء첻첻첻ؤ¤Ǥ뤫Τ褦̾p. 157ˡ
ʾޤȤȡѸ쥢ե٥åȤϡյŪŪʸ줿Ȼפե˥ե٥åȤ˵إꥷե٥åȤȥƥե٥åȤγʳˤƼȤǯŪʸ§ˤ꿷ʸäʤɼβѤʤ줿̤Ǥ롤Ȥ롥Ϣơ#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ
ܸҤ餬ʤθޤȤС鷺Τ줿ɽؤ *
| ʤ | |||||||||
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#2101. Williams ΰ̣Ѳ ([2015-01-27-1]) Ǹڤ褦ˡˡ§̣̾ͤѲΥѥȤΤϤۤȤȯƤʤ˶ŤΤȤƵΤ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) Ρ®ע֤ˡפ䡤#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1]) 䡤εǿ줿 Basic Color Terms (BCTs; ̸ܿ) ˴ؤϡBCTs Ūʸ˾Ƥ롥
Berlin and Kay BCTs θϡŪˡΤˤꡤ̣ (linguistic_relativism)ءǧβʳؤʤɤδϢʬ礭ʾͿƤȽˤ⤵餵ƤϤߤ̣ʬǤְ㤤ʤƶϤΤ븦1ĤȤƿƤ롥̣Ѳˡ§Ȥ Berlin and Kay ȯȡοޤ롥

οޤϡΤˤ뿧̸ȯŸƻڤɽȤ롥̻ŪˤߤȯŸIVIIʳˤɤΤȤ졤Ūˤߤй⼡ʳ㼡ʳްդΤȲᤵ롥Ūˤϡ٤Ƥθ줬 black white Ūʿ̸2ͭ롥⤷̸줬3줢ʤСɲäΤɬ red θǤ롥ʳIIIIVؤǽ뤬green yellow ˲ä롥ʳV blue ʳVI brown νɲäȡǸʳVII4Τ줫ޤäʤ̸äɲä롥ĤޤꡤŪ BCTs ϰʾ11ƥǤꡤ줬νȯãȤΤ Berlin and Kay ȯιҤ
⤷줬¤ǤСǧθŪʴؤδͿȤʤꡤʸ˰¸ʤϤʰ̣Ūˡ§פȸƤǤ٤ʾ塤Williams (208--09) ȤƼɮ
Berlin, Brent and Paul Kay. Basic Color Terms. Berkeley and Los Angeles: U of California P, 1969.
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) ǰ̣ΰ̲ (generalization) ü첽 (specialization) ˤĤƿ줿̤θС̣γ (widening) Ƚ̾ (narrowing) Ǥ롥Ѹˤΰ̣ο̤㤬ǤȻפäƤȤWilliams ˤȵƤΤǷǺܤ褦
ޤ̾㤫 (Williams 171--73) ä˵̣ʤοܡˤϡ̾ʳΤ깭̣Ǥ롥ߤμפʸӤ줿
accident (an event)
accost (come alongside in a boat > to approach anyone)
addict (someone who devotes himself to anything)
admonish (advise)
affection (the act of being affected > any affection of the mind)
argue (make clear)
arrest (stop)
artillery (any large implement of war)
carp (talk)
censure (judge)
condemn (pass sentence)
corn (any grain)
cunning (knowledge, skill)
damn (pass sentence)
deer (any animal)
denizen (a citizen of a country or city)
deserts (whatever one deserves, good or bad)
disease (discomfort)
doom (judge)
ecstasy (beside oneself with any strong emotion: fear, joy, pain)
effigy (any likeness)
erotic (relating to love)
esteem (put a value on, good or bad)
fame (report, rumor)
fiend (the enemy)
filth (dirt)
fortune (chance)
fowl (any bird)
ghost (spirit)
grumble (murmur, make low sounds)
hound (any dog)
immoral (not customary)
leer (look obliquely out of the side of the eye)
liquor (liquid)
lust (desire in general)
manure (v., hold land > to cultivate land)
meat (food)
molest (trouble or annoy)
odor (anything perceptible to the sense of smell)
orgy (secret observances)
peculiar (belonging to or characteristic of an individual)
pill (any medicinal ball)
praise (from (ap)praise: set a value on, good or bad)
predicament (any situation)
proposition (a statement set forth for discussion)
reek (smoke from burning matter > produce any vapor)
retaliate (repay for anything)
sanctimonious (holy, sacred)
scheme (horoscope > diagram > plan)
seduce (persuade someone to desert his duty)
shroud (an article of clothing)
smirk (smile)
smug (trim neat)
starve (die)
stink (any odor)
stool (a chair)
success (any outcome)
suggestive (that which suggests something)
syndicate (a group of civil authorities > any group of businessmen pursuing a common commercial activity)
thank (from the general word for think)
vice (a flaw)
ˡ (Williams 175--77) 롥
allude (mock)
aroma (the smell of spices)
aunt (father's sister)
barn (a store for barley)
bend (bring a bow into tension with a bow string)
bird (young of the family avis)
box (a small container made of boxwood)
butcher (one who slaughters goats)
carry (transport by cart)
chicken (a young hen or rooster)
deplore (weep for)
detest (condemn, curse)
dirt (excrement)
divest (remove one's clothes)
elope (run away from one's husband)
fact (a thing done)
frantic (madness)
frenzy (wild delirium)
gang (a set of tools laid out for use > a group of workmen/slaves)
go (walk)
harvest (reap ripened grain)
holiday (a holy day)
journey (a day > a day's trip or day's work)
magic (the knowledge and skill of the Magi)
manner (the mode of handling something by hand)
mess (a meal set out for a group of four)
mind (memory > thought, purpose, intention)
mystery (divine revealed knowledge)
oil (olive oil)
ordeal (trial by torture)
pen (a feather for writing)
picture (a painted likeness)
picture (a painting or drawing)
plant (a young slip or cutting)
sail (cross water propelled by the wind)
sail (travel on water)
sanctuary (a holy place)
scent (animal odor for tracking)
silly (deserving of pity > frail > simple, ignorant > feeble minded)
slogan (the battle cry of Scottish clans)
start (move suddenly)
stop (fill or plug up > prevent passage by stopping up > prevent the movement of a person)
surly (sir-ly, that behavior which characterizes a "Sir")
uncle (mother's brother)
˵¬褦ˡ̣γȽ̾Ӥȡ̾ΤۤŪ¿ΤΤ褦ͳ꤫ǤϤʤȤȤˤΤʬƤ®٤ΤۤҤ礷褦Ȥʹ֤αİ٤⾡äƤ뤫餫⤷ʤǰ (cf. #1962. ǰ ([2014-09-10-1])) δߤС̸ (hyponyms) ФޤزؿФƤȤȾмưŪ˿ʤबʾ̸ (hypernyms) ФκȤˤϫϤפ롥⡤ҤʬƤ졤εϾʤWilliams (177) ϡΤ褦ʸҤ٤Ƥ롥
It is harder to find a pattern for widening than it is for narrowing. It is not entirely certain, but meanings seem to widen somewhat less frequently than they narrow. As a culture becomes more diversified and more complex with more areas of knowledge and activity, those areas require a vocabulary. Because every language has a finite number of words and because speakers are not inclined to coin completely new forms for new concepts, the simplest way to deal with new areas of knowledge is to use the current vocabulary. Borrowing, derivation, compounding, and so on operate here. But perhaps even more frequent is narrowing.
But on the other hand it can also be difficult to talk about the most ordinary activities of daily life as they diversify. Once it becomes possible to drive (drive originally meaning to force an animal along), or ride (ride originally meaning to go on horseback), or walk (originally meaning to travel about in public), then talking about getting some place without specifying how becomes difficult. The word go, originally meaning to walk, generalized so that an English speaker can now say I am going to town this morning without having to specify how he gets there. Carry generalized from transporting specifically in a conveyance of some sort to transporting by bearing up in general: The wind carried the seed, and so on.
Ǥΰˤϡ̣ȶ̣˿ (shift) äФǤϤʤŤۤθ¸줬¸Ƥ pill sanctuary ʤɤ⾯ʤʤ
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
Williams αѸˤɤǤợѲΰܳŪǤ7Ϥ8Ϥ̣ѲƤƤˡѸ˳ΤʤǤŪ褯ޤȤޤäƤ褦˴ʲĤȤ
Williams (170) ϰ̣Ѳζ̤ "reasons", "mechanism", "consequences" 3ʬƹͤ褦ȤƤ롥ƶˤꡤ̣Ѳʬ˴ؤƤĤƤƬꥢˤʤä褦˻פȤΤϡʬǤϤζ̤ޤŪ˶̤Ƥʤäܥ֥Ǥ̣ѲʤθˤʬˤĤơ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])#1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1])#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1])#1973. Meillet ΰ̣Ѳ3Ĥθ ([2014-09-21-1])#2060. ̣Ѹ콸ˤߤ̣Ѳʬ ([2014-12-17-1]) Ǽ夲ƤޤŪʬȤΤϤʤȤäƤ褤ʬˡϡԤοȤäƤǤϤʤۤɤStern ֤ⷫƤ褦ˡ2Ĥΰ̣ѲưŤƱפäȤƤۤʤ륿פ˵뤹뤳ȤϤ뤷դ˵ΥפƱǤäƤ⡤ͳΥפϰۤʤȤ褦ʰ̣Ѳ⤢롥ޤۤʤʣװ߹äơ1Ĥΰ̣ѲȯȤȤ⤴̤ˤߤ롥⤽̣ѲʬȤäƤ⡤̣ѲΤɤζ̤ܤʬह뤫Ȥͤ⤢ꡤǤϤʤäΤWilliams ä˲ȤҤ٤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤ"reasons", "mechanism", "consequences" 3̤̤ƤɾǤ롥
ޤWilliams ϰ̣Ѳˡ§ (semantic laws) 1䤤Ƥ (207--10) ˤĤƤϡ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1])#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1])#1955. ̣ѲΰŪ ([2014-09-03-1]) εʤɤǿƤWilliams (207) ⡤̣Ѳˡ§ȤϤ鷺ȤⷹȤƻŦǤ뤳ȤȤơŪ̵ʹܤĤƤ롥
1. Words for abstractions will generally develop out of words for physical experience: comprehend, grasp, explain, and so on.
2. Words originally indicating neutral condition tend to polarize: doom, frame, predicament, luck, merit.
3. Words originally indicating strong emotional response tend to weaken as they are used to exaggerate: awful, terrific, tremendous.
4. Insulting words tend to come from names of animals or lower classes: rat, dog, villain, cad
5. Metaphors will be drawn from those aspects of experience most relevant to us: eye of a needle, finger of land; or most intense in our experience: turn on, spaced out, freaked out, for example.
Williams (208) ϡ궯Ϥʰ̣Ѳˡ§Ȥơ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) ǿ줿Ѹ®ע֤ˡפΰ̣Ѳ夲Ƥ뤬ϡ־ˡ§פǤϤʤֲˤĤƤθꤵ줿̲פǤɾƤ롥⤦ˡ§̾ͤΤȤƤϡBasic Color Terms ˤߤ̸Ūȡ餬붦 (synaesthesia) ƤʸԤˤĤƤϡ#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1]) ȡˡWilliams ˤСְ̣Ѳˡ§פˤʤΤϡ"universals of change which, because they are so regular and so general, reflect internal influences either peculiar to the particular language or to human language and cognition in general" (208) Ǥ褦
Williams ϡ̣ѲȴϢ slang, argot, cant, jargon ȤäѰΡ㤤ˤܤƤꡤ "A Social and Linguistic History" ˤդ路ҲŪʴƶäƤ롥
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
Williams, Joseph M. "Synaesthetic Adjectives: A Possible Law of Semantic Change." Language 52 (1976): 461--78.
Ѹθ츻Ūֻ˴ؤϡ̾ͥΥƥǮν껺ǤȤƸ롥Ĥ٤ܤϡͥǯʾƧ߸ǤƤƥֻǤꡤѸե줫줿ǤϤʤǤƥܲȤη˶Ť٤ȡƤߤȡѸϡľΤܤƤեɤĤɤۤȤΤʤǡʤߤˤƥΰҸܻؤƤȤȤˤʤ롥ǤϡեϤϤѸֻϤͿ褦¸ߤǤϤʤʤäƤȤȤ㤨СեѸʤɤˤƥեֻ˴Ť֤ʤȤݤϤʤäΤ
ƥ˴Ť츻ŪֻαƤΩʤΤ褦ϸѸ˸롥#594. ѸʹߤΥեѸħ ([2010-12-12-1]) ڤӡ#678. ƥ衼åŪ18ΥեѸ ([2011-03-06-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡ17Ⱦ18ˤƤϡեͼեʸήԤǤ롥κѸؼѤ줿եñϡեֻȯΤޤޤǼ츽ߤ˻äƤΤ¿ȤħĤᤤʳ˱ѸؼѤƤեñ줬ƶե֤ʤȤ⤢ä
㤨СHorobin (134) ϡbisket biscuit ءblew blue ֤ʤ줿ΤϡΥեֻȤ줿ȤƤ롥ºݤˤϡbiscuit 19֤ʤblue 18֤ʤǤ롥ǵäȤƱΥեֻȤ֤ʤˤƥλˤʤäơָ츻ŪֻפȸƤ֤ΤɬΤǤϤʤषե줫κƼѤȾΤƤ٤Τ⤷ʤɽŪˤϡָ츻ŪֻפȻ¦̤궽̣ǽŪ˥ե켰ֻΤ夷Ȥơ#299. explain ˤʤ <i> Τ ([2010-02-20-1])#300. explain ˤʤ <i> Τ (2) ([2010-02-21-1]) Ǽ夲 <explain> ⤢ΤǡȤ줿
Ͼʤ褦˻פ롥ۤμʤĴ٤㤬äȽФƤ뤫⤷ʤΤĴ٤֤17Ⱦ19Ⱦ餤ޤǤδ֤ȤȤȤΤϡѸΥեѤήԴ18ԡǤꡤΥե̿ʸϡ²ΰҿή餬ƬƤˤäƥեͼήԤϲФˤʤä
츻ŪֻȤظˤ븶ưϤ1ĤϡήԤȰҿθˡǤ⤢䤫ꤿȻפƴεǤ롥ˤƤϡѸΥƥ١θ츻ŪֻѸΥե١Ρָ츻Ūֻפⶦ̤Ƥ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#192. etymological respelling (2) ([2009-11-05-1]) ΥꥹȤˤȤꡤѸ fault ֻ l ޤޤƤΤϸ츻ŪֻˤΤǤ롥츻ŪֻŵŪˤϽѸΥƥǮιޤäν껺Ȥ뤬¤Ϥäᤤ⾯ʤʤfault 14 Gower ((a1393) Gower CA (Frf 3) 6.286) "As I am drunke of that I drinke, So am I ek for falte of drinke." ȤƽФ롥ºߤΥƥñľܤεȤϤʤ *fallitum ΩƤƤ롥եǤ15--17 faute faulte ηǸƤ롥Ѹ l ޤֻɸȤʤäΤ17ʹߤȯˤ /l/ εưϤǰꤷʤä
OED ˤȡ17--18 Pope Swift ˤ fault thought wrought ȵӱƧǤȤ1855ǯ Johnson μˤ "The l is sometimes sounded, and sometimes mute. In conversation it is generally suppressed." ս롥fault Ȼ褦ʴĶˤ l ϡؼԤˤȤäƤμä褦ǡͻҤ Dobson (Vol. 2, 425. fn. 5) 褯Ƥ롥
Balm, calm, palm, almond, falcon, salmon, &c. should by etymology have no [l], being from OF baume, &c., and normally are recorded without [l]. But some of them had 'learned' OF forms, adopted directly from Latin, which retained [l] . . ., and others came to be spelt with l partly on etymological grounds and partly on the model of psalm, &c., spelt with but pronounced without l; and from the OF 'learned' variants, and perhaps partly from the spelling in combination with the variation in pronunciation in psalm, &c., there arose pronunciations with ME aul, recorded by Salesbury in calm, Bullokar in almond, balm, and calm, Gil in balm (as a 'learned' variant), and Daines in calm (as a variant). . . .
Variation between pronunciations with and without l in such native words as malt and salt has clearly aided the establishment of the spelling-pronunciations with [l] in fault and vault, in which the orthoepists regularly show the l to be silent, with the following exceptions. Hart once retains l in faults, probably by error; Gil says that most omit the l, but some -pronounce it, and twice gives transcriptions with l elsewhere (in Luick's copy of the 1619 edition a transcription faut is corrected by hand to falt); Tonkis fails to say that the l is silent, and the anonymous reviser (1684) of T. Shelton's Tachygraphy does not omit it (in contrast to this treatment of, for example, balm); and Hodges relegates to his 'near alike' list the paring of fault and fought. Bullokar twice transcribes vault without l, but once retains it.
fault ˤĤƶܤܤȡEnglish Dialect Dictionary ˤϡ"FAULT, sb. and v. Var. dial. uses in Sc. Irel. Eng. and Amer. Also in forms faut Sc. Ir. n.Yks.2 e.Yks. n.Lin.1 War. Shr.1 2 Som. w.Som.1; faute Sc.; fowt Suf. [folt, fat, f$t, fout.]" ȵܤƤꡤ¿ l ʤη֤ʬۤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ɸѸȯ /fɔːlt/ ǰꤷƤꡤ̾ϲռʤɸफܤ餻Сˤ̤ʪ줬äƤ롥fault 츻Ūֻݤ;ȤϡϤޤäƤä⡤Τ³ƤΤǤ롥
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
19American Dialect Society ˤ 2014ǯ The Word of the Year ȯɽ줿ץ쥹 (PDF)
2014ǯޤ #blacklivesmatter Ǥ롥ߤ줿HASHTAG礫ޤǡ2009ǯμ twitter2012ǯμ hashtag ³twitter դΥåɾƤȤȤ
The hashtag #blacklivesmatter took on special significance in 2014 after the deaths of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Mo. and Eric Garner in Staten Island, N.Y., and the failure of grand juries to indict police officers in both cases. It became a rallying cry and vehicle for expressing protest, fueled by social media.
The word hashtag itself was the ADS Word of the Year in 2012. Now, two years later, hashtags were recognized with their own special category in the voting, which was also won by #blacklivesmatter.
"While #blacklivesmatter may not fit the traditional definition of a word, it demonstrates how powerfully a hashtag can convey a succinct social message," Zimmer said. "Language scholars are paying attention to the innovative linguistic force of hashtags, and #blacklivesmatter was certainly a forceful example of this in 2014."
MOST LIKELY TO SUCCEED μ salty ȥΥߥ͡ȸ basic Ϥ¸ηƻܤƤ褦salty "exceptionally bitter, angry, or upset" ΰ̣ǡbasic "plain, socially awkward, unattractive, uninteresting, ignorant, pathetic, uncool, etc." ΰ̣ǿѤƤȤ¯ŪʶŪɾỤ̄ (evaluative meaning) ȯŸƤȤǶ̤Ƥ롥ϢơɾỤ̄ȤŪȯŸˤĤơ#1099. Ҥηƻɾηƻ ([2012-04-30-1])#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤 ([2012-05-01-1])#1193. ե˶줿Ѹθܡ ([2012-08-02-1])#1400. relational adjective qualitative adjective ؤΰ̣Ѳθưϡ ([2013-02-25-1]) Ȥ줿
Ѹʸ塤ѸֻηϤɽŪȤϡɽŪΤˤɽŪˤˤʤäƤȤˤĤơʲεǼ夲Ƥ
#1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1])
#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])
#2043. Ѹֻɽַǡ ([2014-11-30-1])
#2058. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (1) ([2014-12-15-1])
#2059. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (2) ([2014-12-16-1])
ͤƤߤСƱ (homophony) ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) ȤݤϡɽʸŪʸݤǤ롥ɽӤƤСǽʤȤȤϡ⸽Ѹֻȯ˴ؤ븲ħȤʤäƤ뤬εϤɽȯãϤѸ̤ˤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ˤѸֻˤɽŪˡϤʤä櫓ǤϤʤ§ȤɽŪäȤϤäƤƱȯθ줬ֻ̻͡ȤƽɽƤΤ顤ѸˤƱ۵ֻȯȤݤΤΤϳ̵ǤϤʤäǼĥΤϡθݤܳŪ˱ѸֻȤ⤫Ӿ夬äƤΤ϶ѸʹߤǤȤȤ
⤦ܤ褦ɽŰ줵ƤȤʤСѸǤºݤˤŰϤƤʤäˡƱ۵ɤϰۤʤǤϤäƤƱֻɽ줶ʤɽˤʤСʤäɽ˰ǤŤʤСˡ¤Τǡson / sun, plain / plane Τ褦ʷǽˤʤ롥ֻɸಽˤäƼҲŪˤդͿ경ȡƱ۵ζ̤ĤȤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤƱ֤εǽŪͤϹޤ
often t ɤޤ褦ˤʤäƤɽֻȯ⡤ɽοʤäɽȯŸˤؤäƤ롥ȯֻ̩бäƤηϤˤƤϡȡȥȯֻԤäȰפƤ롥äơ§ȤȯΤäƤֻ뤷ֻɤȯƸǤ롥Τ褦ʾˤϡ٤ƺǽ餫ֻȯθ§ΩäƤ櫓ǤꡤΩƤֻȯθݤޤǤʤΩƤֻȯθݤɬפФƤΤϡȯֻ礭ЪΥΥåפȤߵ褦ˤʤäƤǤ롥ɽƤ뤫餳ɽꤿȤߵƯֻȯȤݤΤǤꡤɽߤǤФ٤ʤΤϡ°桦 (75) ԤŦƤȤǤ롥
ĤŤȯʤΤϡĤŤȯΥƤʤäˤƤȤʤꤨʤΤǤ뤫顤ѸΤĤŤɽŪǤʤʤäƤΤȤǤ롥⡤ɽŪĤŤθĤŤɤȯ褦ȤߤԤ줦ΤϡĤŤˡΩơñ줬줾줭ޤäĤΤĤŤޤ¿ο͡ʪ˿Ƥ褦ˤʤäƤΤȤǤ뤫顤ǯŪˤϡŤȤǤϤʤ
° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
αѸظˤơҤɽȤХꥫѸ˴ؤ Kucera and Francis (1967) ΤΤ䡤ꥹѸŤ֤꿷ΤȤ CELEX (1993) 䤽2 (cf. #1424. CELEX2 ([2013-03-21-1])) 褯ѤƤǶᡤȽˡ˴ŤꥫѸθɽ줿٥륮إؤμ¸زʤ SUBTLEXus Ǥ롥HP顤SUBTLEXus ΰ췲ɽΥե䵭ҤɡǤ롥
SUBTLEXus δפˤ륳ѥϡ8388αDzλνǤꡤ5100˵ڤ֡SUBTLEXus ɽϡKucera and Francis CELEX ɽ٤ơĤλФ줿ɸˤƤƤȼĥƤ롥٤ϡФ (lemma) ȤǤϤʤ (word form) Ȥ˿Ƥꡤ㤨̾Ǥñ -s ʤɤʣ̰ʰۤʤ74,286ˡ̾ưʤʣʻȤѤˤĤƤϡ줾ʻ줴Ȥ٤ˤ⥢Ǥ뤷ͥʻ (Dominant POS) Τۤع绻٤ؤ⥢Ǥ롥ǡˤϡۤ˲αDz˸Ƥ뤫ʸȤƸƤΤϲ٤пäɸZipf ɸ (cf. #1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])) ʤɤޤޤƤ롥μΥǡޤޤƤȡŪȥǥǤͭѤǤäե١Ǥ뤳Ȥ⸲ħ
ɤǤ뤤ĤΥǡΤʤ "a zipped Excel file of SUBTLEX-US with the Zipf values included" ɤäƤߤ㤨С(1) Ū¿졤 (2) ¿αDzˤ⸽ϡŪʰ̣٤⤤ȹͤ (1) (2) ˴ؤпλɸݤ碌ơ߽¤٤ƺǽ100ȡäκñ100줬ϤάҳʤɤޤޤƤ뤬ʲΥꥹȤǤ롥
you, I, the, to, s, a, it, t, that, and, of, what, in, me, is, we, this, he, on, for, my, m, your, don, have, do, re, no, be, know, was, not, can, are, all, with, just, get, here, but, there, ll, so, they, like, right, out, go, up, about, she, if, him, got, at, now, come, oh, one, how, well, want, yeah, her, think, good, see, let, did, why, who, as, going, his, will, from, when, back, time, yes, look, d, take, an, where, man, would, them, been, some, or, tell, us, had, were, say, could, gonna, didn, hey
ۤˤϡ10졤25졤50졤100졤250졤500졤1,000졤2,500졤5,000졤10,000졤25,000졤50,000졤100,000ˤĤơDominant POS Ȥ˿夲Ƥߤ뤳Ȥ⤿䤹#666. COCA 5000ʻ̤γϡ ([2011-02-22-1])#667. COCA 50ʻ̤γϡ ([2011-02-23-1])#1132. ñʻ̤γ ([2012-06-02-1]) εǤ⡤̤Υѥˤ褦ĴԤäSUBTLEX-US ǤĴ̤ϼΥդˤޤȤ롥
ʲϤޤθġ (SUBTLEX-US Word Frequency Extractor) ޤʤΤǡ10ޤǤ̤ϤʤͤǤSUBTLEXus ʣʸǽʡSUBTLEXus Online Search ɤ
εǼ夲#1980. Ѳ ([2014-09-28-1]) ȡ#1981. ּѲ ([2014-09-29-1]) ˤĤơ롥ȥ饦åȤˤѲĤۤ (32) ˤ꼨
ΰ̣εҴŪʡϻǤϤʤäȤߥ˥ˤäʽˤΡμŪʡϻ٤֤ηвΤʤǡ沽褦ˤʤᥫ˥ (Traugott 2003: 126)
ȥ饦åȤˤּѲϡƱĤۤ (32--33) ˤȡ
äʽˤʹɤˤΡּʡפظդΤɽ뤳ȡ (Traugott 2003: 128) Ǥ롥ǤաפȤϡȯäǸƤƤФ롤ʹɤˤ٤˸աפȡʹɤˤ̻Ҥȡʹɤˤݻ褦Ȥ륤ФաפΤȤǤ롥ּѲϡְ̣ʹ˾֤Τˤʤᥫ˥פǤꡤäʽˤʹɤˤΡؼʡ٤ظդްդ֤Фơ沽ץʤǤäդϡǧŪҲŪξδؿؤˤ뤳ȤǤ롥äơּѲȤϡŪˡѲꤢȤ˵סּѲפȤפΤؤȤˤʤΤǤ (Traugott 2003: 129--130)
üŪɽСä١ʼˤɲΤѲäʹؤθʴּˤɲΤּѲȤ롥
ѲȴּѲΥץˤĤ˸ؤδŪ˺Ǥפϡ"non-subjective > subjective > intersubjective" Ȥβ⤬Ƥ뤳Ȥβ̸Ū¿λˤٻƤꡤƱ褦˰Ƥʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ȤߴطˤĤƤ蘆Ƥ롥ΰβˤϰ⤢뤬ˤ̣Ѳؤθι϶ǯ뤷
ܸ줫μѲȴּѲȤơǫ?ޤפȯã롥ȤȼĮˤƵҴŪˡֵͤκ¤פ̣Ƥָ¡̾ˡܤưˡפȤɽ16˲Ūˡ֤פȤĤŤޤȤȤ˰̣ǺɸȤƤʪɸˤѤ褦ˤʤäɸλѤüԤμŪȽǤ˴ؤΤ顤ɸ첽ȤϼѲˤۤʤʤˡ֤פϡ?ޤפȷѤߤǤмԷɸʹɸˤȤƴּŪ˵ǽƤ롥
ԡ̾ ҡ ŵҡˡ˸硡Υߥ˥١罤ۡ2011ǯ
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "From Subjectification to Intersubjectification." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 124--39.
#2087. ֻפؤοŪ ([2015-01-13-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡֻפ˺ݤƤ礭ʾ㳲ȤʤꤦΤˡ¸θ줿ֻηϤȿƤȤΥåפ롥Υåפ礭礭ۤɡ͡ϡŪˡɼԤ˼´뤿ˡ֥륷 (188) ϡThe Simplified Spelling Society ˤ֥˥塼ڥ (Nue Speling) ȥˤֵ§Ѹ (Regularized Spelling) 2Ƥ˴Ťֻǽ줿ʸϤ¤٤Ƽʤ2ƤŪ֤ŤˤĤƤϡ#602. 19ʹߤαѸֻפ ([2010-12-20-1]) ȡˡ줾1ܤ˵Τ Nue Speling ǡ2ܤ Regularized Spelling Ǥ롥
Think ov dhe meny wurds dhat wood hav
Think ov the meny wurds that wood hav
to be chaenjd if eny real impruuvment wer to rezult.
to be chainged if eny real improovement wer to rezult.
At dhe furst glaans a pasej in eny reformd speling
At the first glaance a passage in eny reformd speling
looks 'kweer' or 'ugly'. Dhis objekshon iz aulwaez
looks 'queer' or 'ugly'. This objection iz aulwayz
dhe furst to be maed ; it iz purfektly natueral ;
the first to be made : it iz perfectly natural ;
it iz dhe hardest to remuuv.
it iz the hardest to remoove.
ʻθ̤ȴΤ褦˻פ롥 Nue Speling ϴ¸ŪֻηϤ礭æƤ꿴Ū礭 Regularized Spelling οŪŪˤ⤦٤ŪֻݻƤγϡԤ10%Ԥ90%ǤȤ
Ū礭 Nue Speling ͰƤΤϡ1908ǯ˥ꥹߤ줿 The Simplified Spelling Society ζΤȤ Nue Speling (1910, 1948) ³1960ǯ Initial Teaching Alphabet 1992ǯ Cut Spelling (1992) ȯɽʤɡƼβװƤƤB. Brown (1993) ¹ǤϤ뤬Crystal (277) Nue Speling εǤȿǤ Cut Spelling 3ֻǽ줿ӤǤʸϤꡤ줾ħֻװƤȯŸƼ뤳ȤǤ롥ʲ˺ƷǤ褦
Wel, straet in at the deep end!
Menshond abuv wos the revyzed orthografi kauld Nue Speling (NS), wich wos sed to be 'moderatly strikt' in uezing egzisting leters, combined with the so-kauld dygrafic prinsipl, to repreezent the sounds of the langwej. Inishali developt by the Sosyeti in 1910, the sistem is shoen in this paragraf in its moest reesent vershun as publisht in New Spelling 90.
Dhis paragraf and dhe nekst uez dhe preevyus vurshon ov NS, publisht in 1948. Dhis vurshon iz much strikter in traking dhe soundz ov dhe langgwej, and its ues ov 'dh' for dhe voist 'th' (az in 'then' in tradishonal speling) iz a noetabl feetuer.
U wil aulsoe hav noetist bei nou dhat NS results in a hie degree ov chaenj in dhe look ov wurdz, wich moest peepl fiend disturbing --- or eeven regugnant --- on furst akwaentans.
By way of contrast, we have now swiched to Cut Speling, a wel thot-out exampl of a posibl partial revision. It is based mainly on th principl of cutng redundnt --- and thus usuly misleadng --- leters, plus limitd letr substitutions. Th resulting chanje in th apearance of words is not nearly so intrusive as with NS.
Wethr or not CS or NS as demonstrated here ar found acceptbl, som action is seriusly needd to make english esir to use.
ֻװƤظˤ븶Ͻפ¨ʪŪ˸ɤ礭ؤäƤ뤳Ȥ´ȤƤ狼ֻ¿λįƴƤޤƱͤͭǤȤϻפ뤬ϤδƤޤޤǤλ֤ʤϤʤ꤬ȤɤʤΤǤȡ䤹ͤΤȤˤ롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
#2088. gauge ֻȯ ([2015-01-14-1]) ơ<gauge> vs <gage> ΰֻʬۤˤĤŪĴ٤Ƥߤ롥ޤϡѸɤξEEBO (Early English Books Online) ˴Ťƥȡǡ١ˤ긫Ƥߤ褦
| Period (subcorpus size) | <gage> etc. | <gauge> etc. |
|---|---|---|
| 1451--1500 (244,602 words) | 0 wpm (0 times) | 0 wpm (0 times) |
| 1501--1550 (328,7691 words) | 3.35 (11) | 0.00 (0) |
| 1551--1600 (13,166,673 words) | 6.84 (90) | 0.076 (1) |
| 1601--1650 (48,784,537 words) | 3.01 (147) | 0.35 (17) |
| 1651--1700 (83,777,910 words) | 0.060 (5) | 0.19 (5) |
| 1701--1750 (90,945 words) | 0.00 (0) | 0.00 (0) |
| Period (subcorpus size) | <gage> etc. | <gauge> etc. |
|---|---|---|
| 1710--1780 (10,480,431 words) | 5 | 1 |
| 1780--1850 (11,285,587) | 19 | 20 |
| 1850--1920 (12,620,207) | 2 | 49 |
| ID | WORD | 1961 | 1991--92 | ca 2006 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brown (AmE) | LOB (BrE) | Frown (AmE) | FLOB (BrE) | AmE06 (AmE) | BE06 (BrE) | ||
| 1 | gage | 4 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| 2 | gages | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| 3 | gaging | 1 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 4 | gauge | 16 | 15 | 10 | 6 | 16 | 21 |
| 5 | gauged | 2 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| 6 | gauges | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
| 7 | gauging | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
#2088. gauge ֻȯ ([2015-01-14-1]) ǿ줿ꥫѸǤ <gage> ֻŪϢ³ˤĤƤϡޤ餫ˤȤޤǹԤäƤʤ<gage> ѤƤطʤϵˤʤȤꥫѸ¿Ȥֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) θ̤ʤΤ
[ | ѥڡ ]
#1826. 첻ĹûľܼȤǤʤ ([2014-04-27-1]) Ǽ夲˿䤷ʤȡɸΤ褦ˡ֥ե٥åȤ첻ľɽ魯ΤפȸäƤޤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤطʤˤ3ǯĶ륢ե٥åȤˤ롥
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ奮ꥷͤϻҲʸǤե˥Υե٥åȤǺȤƺ3ǯۤ˽첻ϰƤȤ뤬ϰƤϡꥷλҲɽˤȤä;Ūʥե˥ʸΤĤꥷ첻ƤƤߤ褦Ȥɤ餫ȤȾöŪưŤ˴ŤƤĤޤꡤ첻ɽ첻ȯ褦ȤѶŪưä櫓ǤϤʤºݡꥷ͡첻Τɽ綠ȤʤСե˥ե٥åȤΤĤ;ŪʸǤ餫˿ƤȤäƿ첻ФȤϡޤŪʸåȤѤƻҲƱˤĤ첻֤ɽ碌褦˹פȤȤե˥ʸʸΥޥե٥åȤŪȯŸεҤ Horobin (48--49) ȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
The Origins of the Roman alphabet lie in the script used by Phoenician traders around 1000 BC. This was a system of twenty-two letters which represented the individual consonant sounds, in a similar way to modern consonantal writing systems like Arabic and Hebrew. The Phoenician system was adopted and modified by the Greeks, who referred to them as 'Phoenician letters' and who added further symbols, while also re-purposing existing consonantal symbols not needed in Greek to represent vowel sounds. The result was a revolutionary new system in which both vowels and consonants were represented, although because the letters used to represent the vowel wounds in Greek were limited to the redundant Phoenician consonants, a mismatch between the number of vowels in speech and writing was created which still affects English today.
ξöŪ첻ϰƤȤϡΤޤޥȥꥢʸ줫ؤꡤŪˤϸѸˤĤʤäƤ롥ѸˤޤᡤθѤƤ¿θѼŪʳˤơ첻Τɽ魯ˡԤ߽ФƤѸˤ˸¤äƤ⡤Ż (digraph) ʤʸȤ߹碌ˤꡤ첻ɽȤȤϤФйԤƤmagic <e> (cf. #1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1])) ˤߤ褦ȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1])) Ū <e> λѤˤä첻β䲻̤ɽߤʤƤѸˤƤ⡤ˡϴŪ첻ɽˤȤɤޤꡤФ1ʸľܤ첻ɽȤѤϸŪǤ롥ǯȤĹ֤Ū¤ΩĤΤǤСϥե٥åȤҲʸȤƻϤޤäȤμȤΤΤ⤷ʤ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Ѹ첻 <a> ͡첻б뤬¿ cat /kæt/ face /feɪs/ ɽ /æ/ /eɪ/ Ǥ롥äդפΤϡ<w> θ <a> ³Ǥ롥want, war ֻ̾ȯε§˽Ф줾 */wænt/, */wɑː/ Ȥʤꤽºݤˤ /wɒnt/, /wɔː/ Ǥ롥ŪˤС첻ͽ꤫ۤı߿Ȥʤ롥<w> ɽȾ첻 [w] ΤDZ߿Ǥ뤿ᡤħ³첻ˤƶͿȤ̣ǡοʹƱȿǤƤΤȤȤ館롥swan, wan, what, dwarf ʤɤˤꡤθ̤ǧ줿
Τ褦뾮§ˤ㳰¿ΤդɬפǤ롥Ūˤϡû a [k, g, ŋ] ³ˤϡ嵭Ʊ˻ߤ졤絬§ͽ̤ۤ첻 /æ/ ˤʤ (ex. wax; wag, wigwag, swag, swagger; twang, wangle)
ޤѷˤƤ a 絬§ͽ̤ۤˤʤꡤƱαƶȿǤʤ (ex. swam /swæm/, worn /wɔːn/)
<w> αƶϡƱ [w] ޤ <qu> ˤ⤪褽ƤϤޤ롥quality ͽۤ */ˈkwæləti/ ǤϤʤDZ߿첻 /ˈkwɒləti/ Ǥ롥squat ƱͤǤꡤr ³Ȥˤ quarry /ˈkwɔːri/, quarter /ˈkwɔːtə/ Τ褦ˤʤΤ⡤<w> ξƱ<qu> ˤĤƤ㳰 <w> ξȤ褽ƱǤꡤ³ quack Ǥ /kwæk/ Ȥʤ롥quaff quagmire ʤξ첻δ֤ɤΤ⤢ꡤġ˹ͤɬפ롥
Ǥϡ<wa>- <qua>- ˤĤƸƤ<wo>- <quo>- ˤĤƤ⾯Ƥ<o> ͽۤû /ɒ/ Ǥꡤwobble, wok, quod, quondam ʤɤ˼뤬<wo>- ˤĤƤ won /wʌn/, wolf /wʊlf/ ʤɰۤʤ첻б륱⤢롥<wor>- ˤĤƤϡ̾ /wəː/ (ex. word, world, work, worm) /wɔː/ (ex. wore , sworn) Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
<w> ɽ /w/ ϤĴħˤ³첻ƶ䤹¾βĶʤɤκѤƯᡤֻȯδطŤˤĤư̲ȤʤäƤ롥ܤϡ̾ (41--43) Ȥ줿
̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Ѹˤ;̾ηϤˤϡܤƤޤ꤬ۤ˭٤Ǥ롥ϡʸ˱Ѹο;̾ν֤ʣΰ캬̤뤳ȡ;̾ηϤʣ캬δηϤǤ뤳ȤС;̾ηϤ佼ˡκǤǤ뤳ȤŦʰ°桦, pp. 44--46ˡ

̤ˤäɽ˼Ȥꡤ8Ĥΰۤʤ캬ͿƤ롥ѸޤǤϡ2;̾ñ thou----thee--thyself--thy--thine ¸ߤƤꡤĸ *tu- Ȥޤۤʤ캬̤Τǡޤ9Ĥθ캬ʤȤȤˤʤ롥
줾ĸθ캬СI *egme ʲ *me-we *weisus ʲ *n̥s ̤ (cf. #36. rhotacism ([2009-06-03-1])) you *yu-he *ki- ̤롥it ǸƬ /h/ η礱Ƥ뤳ȤˤĤƤϡ#467. ;̾ it θƬ /h/ äݤ ([2010-08-07-1]) ȡthey ϸťΥɸλؼ̾ þeir ʵŪˤϰĸλؼ *so ʤɤ̤ˤͳ褹롥she ΩƤ뤬θ츻ˤĤƤϡ#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1]) Ϥ she γƵǼ夲ƤΤǡȤ줿
衤ޤȤƱ캬βѰۤƸطѤؤΤ顤ɽ;̾ΡֶޡѲɽȸƤ֤Τϡ̩ˤʤI my ȤΤˤжޤδطˤϤʤषñ˿;̾ѲɽȸƤǤۤΤ⤷ʤ
ѥŪоȤˤϡ#180. űѸο;̾о ([2009-10-24-1])#181. Chaucer ο;̾ηϡ ([2009-10-25-1])#196. Ѹο;̾ηϡ ([2009-11-09-1]) ˻Ȥ줿
° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1])#2038. Fennell αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-11-25-1])#2050. Knowles αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-12-07-1]) ³Ѹ˳ܼȴ褹륷ϡ6ǤŤͤѸˤθŵŪĸ̾ Baugh and Cable A History of the English Language ꡥ䤬ΤȤɤΤϸŤǤäѸɤߤ䤹Ȱ褦ʸΤDZѸˤ̥ϤˤȤĤ줿
2013ǯ˽Ǥ줿ǿ6ǤǤϡѸȱѸ̤1Ϥ12ϤʲɲäۤѸξϤǥѥؤ̤Ҳ𤹤ʤɡѸ˸οŸ˱äåפʤƤ롥伫Ȥˤɤ߾夲ե
1 English Present and Future
1. The History of the English Language as a Cultural Subject
2. Influences at Work on Language
3. Growth and Decay
4. The Importance of a Language
5. The Importance of English
6. The Future of the English Language: Demography
7. External and Internal Aspects of English
8. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary
9. Inflectional Simplicity
10. Natural Gender
2 The Indo-European Family of Languages
11. Language Constantly Changing
12. Dialectal Differentiation
13. The Discovery of Sanskrit
14. Grimm's Law
15. The Indo-European Family
16. Indian
17. Iranian
18. Armenian
19. Hellenic
20. Albanian
21. Italic
22. Balto-Slavic
23. Germanic
24. Celtic
25. Twentieth-century Discoveries
26. The Home of the Indo-Europeans
3 Old English
27. The Languages in England before English
28. The Romans in Britain
29. The Roman Conquest
30. Romanization of the Island
31. The Latin Language in Britain
32. The Germanic Conquest
33. Anglo-Saxon Civilization
34. The Names "England" and "English"
35. The Origin and Position of English
36. The Periods in the History of English
37. The Dialects of Old English
38. Old English Pronunciation
39. Old English Vocabulary
40. Old English Grammar
41. The Noun
42. Grammatical Gender
43. The Adjective
44. The Definite Article
45. The Personal Pronoun
46. The Verb
47. The Language Illustrated
48. The Resourcefulness of the Old English Vocabulary
49. Self-explaining Compounds
50. Prefixes and Suffixes
51. Syntax and Style
52. Old English Literature
4 Foreign Influences on Old English
53. The Contact of English with Other Languages
54. The Celtic Influence
55. Celtic Place-Names and Other Loanwords
56. Three Latin Influences on Old English
57. Chronological Criteria
58. Continental Borrowing (Latin Influence of the Zero Period)
59. Latin through Celtic Transmission (Latin Influence of the First Period)
60. Latin Influence of the Second Period: The Christianizing of Britain
61. Effects of Christianity on English Civilization
62. The Earlier Influence of Christianity on the Vocabulary
63. The Benedictine Reform
64. Influence of the Benedictine Reform on English
65. The Application of Native Words to New Concepts
66. The Extent of the Influence
67. The Scandinavian Influence: The Viking Age
68. The Scandinavian Invasions of England
69. The Settlement of the Danes in England
70. The Amalgamation of the Two Peoples
71. The Relation of the Two Languages
72. The Tests of Borrowed Words
73. Scandinavian Place-names
74. The Earliest Borrowing
75. Scandinavian Loanwords and Their Character
76. The Relation of Borrowed and Native Words
77. Form Words
78. Scandinavian Influence outside the Standard Speech
79. Effect on Grammar and Syntax
80. Period and Extent of the Influence
5 The Norman Conquest and the Subjection of English, 1066--1200
81. The Norman Conquest
82. The Origin of Normandy
83. The Year 1066
84. The Norman Settlement
85. The Use of French by the Upper Class
86. Circumstances Promoting the Continued Use of French
87. The Attitude toward English
88. French Literature at the English Court
89. Fusion of the Two Peoples
90. The Diffusion of French and English
91. Knowledge of English among the Upper Class
92. Knowledge of French among the Middle Class
6 The Reestablishment of English, 1200--1500
93. Changing Conditions after 1200
94. The Loss of Normandy
95. Separation of the French and English Nobility
96. French Reinforcements
97. The Reaction against Foreigners and the Growth of National Feeling
98. French Cultural Ascendancy in Europe
99. English and French in the Thirteenth Century
100. Attempts to Arrest the Decline of French
101. Provincial Character of French in England
102. The Hundred Years' War
103. The Rise of the Middle Class
104. General Adoption of English in the Fourteenth Century
105. English in the Law Courts
106. English in the Schools
107. Increasing Ignorance of French in the Fifteenth Century
108. French as a Language of Culture and Fashion
109. The Use of English in Writing
110. Middle English Literature
7 Middle English
111. Middle English a Period of Great Change
112. From Old to Middle English
113. Decay of Inflectional Endings
114. The Noun
115. The Adjective
116. The Pronoun
117. The Verb
118. Losses among the Strong Verbs
119. Strong Verbs That Became Weak
120. Survival of Strong Participles
121. Surviving Strong Verbs
122. Loss of Grammatical Gender
123. Middle English Syntax
124. French Influence on the Vocabulary
125. Governmental and Administrative Words
126. Ecclesiastical Words
127. Law
128. Army and Navy
129. Fashion, Meals, and Social Life
130. Art, Learning, Medicine
131. Breadth of the French Influence
132. Anglo-Norman and Central French
133. Popular and Literary Borrowings
134. The Period of Greatest Influence
135. Assimilation
136. Loss of Native Words
137. Differentiation in Meaning
138. Curtailment of OE Processes of Derivation
139. Prefixes
140. Suffixes
141. Self-explaining Compounds
142. The Language Still English
143. Latin Borrowings in Middle English
144. Aureate Terms
145. Synonyms at Three Levels
146. Words from the Low Countries
147. Dialectal Diversity of Middle English
148. The Middle English Dialects
149. The Rise of Standard English
150. The Importance of London English
151. The Spread of the London Standard
152. Complete Uniformity Still Unattained
8 The Renaissance, 1500--1650
153. From Middle English to Modern
154. The Great Vowel Shift
155. Weakening of Unaccented Vowels
156. Changing Conditions in the Modern Period
157. Effect upon Grammar and Vocabulary
158. The Problems of the Vernaculars
159. The Struggle for Recognition
160. The Problem of Orthography
161. The Problem of Enrichment
162. The Opposition to Inkhorn Terms
163. The Defense of Borrowing
164. Compromise
165. Permanent Additions
166. Adaptation
167. Reintroductions and New Meanings
168. Rejected Words
169. Reinforcement through French
170. Words from the Romance Languages
171. The Method of Introducing New Words
172. Enrichment from Native Sources
173. Methods of Interpreting the New Words
174. Dictionaries of Hard Words
175. Nature and Extent of the Movement
176. The Movement Illustrated in Shakespeare
177. Shakespeare's Pronunciation
178. Changes Shown through Corpus Linguistics
179. Grammatical Features
180. The Noun
181. The Adjective
182. The Pronoun
183. The Verb
184. Usage and Idiom
185. General Characteristics of the Period
9 The Appeal to Authority, 1650--1800
186. The Impact of the Seventeenth Century
187. The Temper of the Eighteenth Century
188. Its Reflection in the Attitude toward the Language
189. "Ascertainment"
190. The Problem of "Refining" the language
191. The Desire to "Fix" the Language
192. The Example of Italy and France
193. An English Academy
194. Swift's Proposal, 1712
195. Objection to an Academy
196. Substitutes for an Academy
197. Johnson's Dictionary
198. The Eighteenth-century Grammarians and Rhetoricians
199. The Aims of the Grammarians
200. The Beginnings of Prescriptive Grammar
201. Methods of Approach
202. The Doctrine of Usage
203. Results
204. Weakness of the Early Grammarians
205. Attempts to Reform the Vocabulary
206. Objections to Foreign Borrowings
207. The Expansion of the British Empire
208. Some Effects of Expansion on the Language
209. Development of Progressive Verb Forms
210. The Progressive Passive
10 The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
211. Influences Affecting the Language
212. The Growth of Science
213. Automobile, Film, Broadcasting, Computer
214. The World Wars
215. Language as a Mirror of Progress
216. Sources of the New Words: Borrowings
217. Self-explaining Compounds
218. Compounds Formed from Greek and Latin Elements
219. Prefixes and Suffixes
220. Coinages
221. Common Words from Proper Names
222. Old Words with New Meanings
223. The Influence of Journalism
224. Changes of Meaning
225. Slang
226. Register
227. Accent
228. British and Irish English
229. English World-Wide
230. Pidgins and Creoles
231. Spelling Reform
232. Purist Efforts
233. Gender Issues and Linguistic Change
234. The Oxford English Dictionary
235. Grammatical Tendencies
236. Verb-adverb Combinations
237. A Liberal Creed
11 The English Language in America
238. The Settlement of America
239. The Thirteen Colonies
240. The Middle West
241. The Far West
242. Uniformity of American English
243. Archaic Features in American English
244. Early Changes in the Vocabulary
245. National Consciousness
246. Noah Webster and an American Language
247. Webster's Influence on American Spelling
248. Webster's Influence on American Pronunciation
249. Pronunciation
250. The American Dialects
251. The Controversy over Americanisms
252. The Purist Attitude
253. Present Differentiation of Vocabulary
254. American Words in General English
255. Scientific Interest in American English
256. American English and World English
12 The Twenty-first Century
257. The Future of English: Three Circles
258. How Many Speakers?
259. Cross-linguistic Influence and the Spread of Languages
260. The Relative Difficulty of Languages
261. The Importance of Chinese
262. India and the Second Circle
263. The Expanding Circle
264. Coming Full Circle
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
<gauge> ֤ä /geɪʤ/ ȯ롥ꥫѸǤϤäñ <gage> ֤뤳Ȥ¿θФǤ <gauge> ֻŪΤ褦15ˡַ̤פ̣ Anglo-Norman gauge ʸե jaugeˤѸäθ츻ˤĤƤԳΤʤȤ¿ե *galgo ʷ̤ˤ̤ꡤŹϥɥĸ galgo (gallowsĤ뤷) ȴϢȤ⤬롥
ˤ衤ѸäȤˤϤǤ <gauge> ȤֻԤƤ褦ȯˤĤƤϤɤäΤ츻तǤϡեѸ sauf safe /seɪf/ Ȥʤäꡤ#540. Ralph ȯ ([2010-10-19-1]) ǿ줿褦 Ralph /reɪf/ ȯ줿ꤹ㤬ϢƻȤƤ롥ǡ<au>, <al> ɽ蘆줿 /aʊ/ ˶ᤤ첻Ĺ첻 /aː/ ȯߡ줬첻ܤϤȤʤǽŪ /eɪ/ Ϥ줿ȤǤJespersen (83) ˤС /(n)ʤ/ ֤ /au/ > /aː/ ѲȤơOF sauf > safe ΤۤOF saufe > save, ONF waufre > wafer (cf. #75. åե֤ ([2009-07-12-1])) ʤɤƤ롥Ҥ Ralph ⤳ѲƱˤߤ뤳ȤǤ
Ǥθ줬ѸؼѤ줿餫 <gage> ֻ¹ԤѤƤȤȤդĤޤꡤ嵭ѲϤȤʤä첻϶ŪˤѰۤδطˤꡤ줾¤ֻȿǤ <gauge> <gage> Ѹ椫¸ƤȤȤˤʤ롥ɸѸˤֻԤȯϸԤѤ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤߤ˻Ȥˤꥫμˤ <gage> κѤϡOED ˤŪǶΤȤǤȤΤǡƱֻѸ줫ŪϢ³ˤĤƾܤΤꤿȤ
ߡgauge <au> ֤ä /eɪ/ ȯͣαñȤʤäƤ롥Ϣ /eɪ/ <ao> бͣȤơ#94. gaol jail ([2009-07-30-1]) ⻲ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
ѸˤǤϡȤ櫓Ѹ¿ֻפȤƤ16Ⱦ˸¤äƤ⡤#1939. 16ˡᤰ ([2014-08-18-1])#1940. 16ֻԤη ([2014-08-19-1]) Ǥߤ褦͡ʸɽ뤤̾ΤȤˡ (orthography) ˡ (orthoepy) ֻװƤǤ Hart Bullokar ʤɤεɤϺǽŪˤ졤ۤɤǤ˱ƶäɾ줦Τ Mulcaster ʤɤβɤäƱͤˡѸǤ#602. 19ʹߤαѸֻפ ([2010-12-20-1])#634. ǯֻ (1) ([2011-01-21-1])#635. ǯֻ (2) ([2011-01-22-1])#468. ꥫȤ Webster ([2010-08-08-1]) Ǥߤ褦˿βפΩ夬äʤǡʬŪȤΤϲʲפǤ롥
ֻ̤פˤͳϡ#606. ѸֻפԤͳ ([2010-12-24-1]) ǹͻ̤Ȥ櫓ŪʲפۤȤɤĤ⼺Ԥ˽ͳƹͤƤߤȡǤŪֻηϤˡȤˤĤƤԤˤȤäơɽŪˤޤ˰ۤʤֻϡŪ˼줬ΤǤϤʤκݡֻפˤʤȤϡɤۤʤäƤ뤳ȤФ뤢ǽŪȤʤΤǤϤʤ㤨С <the> <dhe> ֤ʤפˤäƤϡ̤θɤ礭Ѥ롥줷ޤʤȤΤϳΤˤֻפˤȤäƤǤפϡƤޤޤǤλ֡ĤޤڤβˤΤǤ롥
֥륷⡤ֻפˤȤäƺξɤȤʤΤϡԤˡ˴줿͡Ūֿ͡ۼʤΤˤܼŪȿ (213)Ǥȼ롥ǤϡǽŪȤ⤤ϤɤΤ֥륷 (203--04) ۩
ʤĤˡϰĤδ̣Ƥ롥ǤϤʤˡϲˤϤäƽ˷Ƥ¿νˡѤΤǤꡤĤθ춦ƱΤ˸ͭΤΤǤ롥ˡüԤˤȤäʸΤΤǤ롥̤ͤǡֵ§ѸפǥͤιͰƤΤǤ뤳ȤפФƤ餤ϺݸȤߤʤƤѸΤˡʬηϤ;ȤʤФθȿλαѸοʹ֤ΤΤȤϰۤʤäƤΤΤᡤײ˴ؤʤɼŪפȤäơüԤλƱμ¤̤ͤ櫓ǤϤʤäϸ¤¨ǿŤˤؤ餺Ȥʤ⤷ϤۤȤˤǰŪˡ« (contrat) ϤäƤ褦ʰݤ¿ʤȤ⤢Ƥ롥ɴͤοʹ֤α̿ˤƤˡαƶ礭ϡʬβפ̤͡͡˼뤫ɤä¬ȤϤʤä
ʸβԤ¿⤳ξɤ礭˵ŤƤʤ櫓ǤϤʤäϤ٤Ǥäơο䤷ʤֻפϤФɽ츻ȸƤФΤ椷Ƥξɤν㤯ѤäƤˤϰ㤤ʤֻפŬѤڤʤˤʤɬĤƲ͡οŪɤΤȤԤ¿ϸӤäƤȤȤˤ̤ˤ⡤ֻפˤϡ̤Ƥʤ郎ݤƤ롥
⤦1ᡤ֥륷 (183) Ѥƽ褦
äơͻ̤ΤʤѴĤޤϴά뵭ѴŸ˾ꤷʤȤפǤ롥줬ʬŪ¦̡ˤDZƶϤä͡Ʊդ褦ϤƻǤꡤŤ˹ǤޤηϤ줵뤳Ȥ˹ǤƻǤ롥νǤݻ٤Ǥꡤ罰ä˶Ԥε»ͤꤹΤǤäƤϤʤʤˡνϸ̤礭ʤƤϤʤʤȤΤ⡤⤷줬ŪʲǻŪʸ§ΤˤʤСԤϤΤȡ̿ͤˤ䤵ƤޤǤ顥
른塦֥륷ˡ 忡 СⲬ ͥˡرѸˡˤȸ١ݽǡ1999ǯ
Ѹ줬λǤȤȤϡ#577. Ѹ̩ʤ˱ɡ ([2010-11-25-1]) #929. ѸɸδפȤʤäͳ ([2011-11-12-1]) ۤ me_dialect γƵľܴܤˤƤΰ⤤˴ؤƸƤϤʤΤϡѸˤˤѸ˸¤餺ĤǤԤƤΤǤꡤѸüԤϸ夫鸽˻ޤǾѤƤȤȤ
Ѹ줬λǤȤƼĥΤϡѸ˾夳λˤðۤϡλ˽ɽ蘆츽ߤäƤƥȤθդ٤ǤȤȤդˤơʤäդˤƤɸѸʤΤ¸ߤºݤ˹ԤƤΤϱѸνˤʤѸνγơϡΤ줫ȤäǤꡤǤ⤢äűѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤνϤ̤ˤϤλ夽λ˳ΩʤĤĤäˤɸѸɤ߽ΤǤꡤդľդȤϵäѸϡ٤ɸѸ줬ʤäȤ̣ǡվ塤λȸƤФΤǤ롥
ѸɸѸ줬ʤäΤˤиޤɸಽʤäΤϡΥޥˤäƸűѸɸѸȤȥɸŪϰ̤θѸϰŪʸҤؤեΤӤΤȤɸಽεͿʤäǤ롥#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ǡűѸ줫ѸˤƤɸѸѼοȾǤ "the first decline" ȸƤȤǤ롥Ѹ줬λȤƸȤơҲŪѤȡȼҲŪʵῴϤ㲼äΤ
Ѹ줬λǤ뤳ȤǤͺۤ˼ĥΤ Strang (224--25) ʲ˰ѤƤ
ME is, par excellence, the dialectal phase of English, in the sense that while dialects have been spoken at all periods, it was in ME that divergent local usage was normally indicated in writing. It was preceded by a phase in which the language had one kind of written standard . . . and followed by a phase in which it had others. It stands alone as having a rich and varied documentation in localised varieties of English, and dialectology is more central to the study of ME than to any other branch of English historical linguistics.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
<gh> ֻб벻ˤĤƤϡ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1])#210. ֻȯЪΥˤ ([2009-11-23-1])#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1])#1936. ʹΤѲ ([2014-08-15-1]) ʤɤˤƤѸˤɤΥꥨΤޤȤƤߤ褦֥륷 (145) ϡΤ褦ʥꥹȤƤ롥
[au] boughplough ʤ [ou] doughthough ʤ [ɔ:] boughtthought ʤ [ɔf] coughtroughѰ۷ [ɔ:f] ⤳Ʊ¸ߤ [ʌf] enoughtough ʤ [ɔk] hough [u:] through [ʌp] hiccough [ə] boroughthoroughǸ [ <ough> ] ȤΤʤˤ
<ough> Ȥ³ֻФơñˤä9ʤʤ10ˤȯб뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ΤȤƤ30ۤɤʤ褦ʤΤǡβ¿϶ä٤¤Ǥ롥줾βʤаޤƤŪȤʤȼ¤ʣʤΤǤ (1) ѸʳǤ첻ΰ㤤(2) <gh> ɽ蘆Ƥ̵ [x] ֤첻ѷʤäꤷȡ(3) [x] ü꿰 [f] ִ줿ȡ(4) ˤ֤ʤ(5) ̵֤ˤ첻μ岽νװۤʤʳ˰ۤʤˤƺѤȽҤ٤ˤȤɤƤnight ˤ <gh> Τ褦̵Ÿ [ç] ؤˤϤθβѲľŪľʤΤ̵ [x] ͿȻ֤ʣΤΤ褦ܺ٤ϡ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) ǿ줿֥륷 (145--47) ˴ʷʵҤΤǤ⻲Ȥ줿
ΤȤ30ۤɤȽҤ٤äȥǡ١ǽ夲Ƥߤȸͭ̾졦ʣưʲ34줬ä
although, blough, borough, bough, bought, brough, brought, chough, clough, cough, dough, drought, enough, fought, furlough, hiccough, hough, lough, 'nough, nought, ought, plough, rough, slough, sough, sought, thorough, though, thought, through, tough, tought, trough, wrought
른塦֥륷ˡ 忡 СⲬ ͥˡرѸˡˤȸ١ݽǡ1999ǯ
ѸԵ§Ѥư졤ä˸촴첻 ( Ablaut or gradation ) ˤʬư¿ϡŪʶѲưͳ褹롥űѸǤϸѸ¿ư줬Ѳư°ƤꡤȾޤǤ˼Ѳʵ§ѡˤذܹԤ뤫뤤ѸȤʤäưΤ붯ܹԤˤˤĤƤϡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) ʤɤεȤ줿
ơѸˤޤʤ館ѲưϡѤλˤäɸ drink--drank--drunk Τ褦ABC win--won--won Τ褦ABBʤɡĤμ˶ʬ뤬϶ѸʸɸѸˤƳΩΤȹͤƤ褤#492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡǤϤޤʬ첻ɤΤʤʤäߤǤޤɸѼǤϰۤʤ첻Ѥ줿ꤹ롥
drink win γѥפΰ㤤Ѹ˸ɤεϡűѸζѲưˤ1ʡñפȤˤ2ʡʣפȤˤ2ब̤Ƥ¤ˤ롥#42. űѸˤϲθ촴ढä ([2009-06-09-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡưϼοȿ;Τ˱2ĤΰۤʤäƤdrink ǤС -- 1 -- 2 -- ʬνˡdrincan -- dranc -- druncon -- druncen Τ褦˳Ѥwin ˤĤƤ winnan -- wann -- wunnon -- wunnen ȳѤʤѼ (principal parts) ȸƤ֡ˡȤѸʸ塤ηΤδάĬήȼưβ2η֤̤뵡餷ƤäĤƤ12Τ줫ͥȤʤͣβȤƵǽƤȤˤʤäβʾʣǤꡤѸޤǤ˷֤夻㤷ɤĿͺư¿ädrink Ϥޤ1 dranc ͳ褹֤ɸѸβȤ夹뤳Ȥˤʤꡤwin ˤĤƤϤޤ2 wunnan η֡ʸ won ֤ /wʌn/ ȯˤͳ褹֤Ѥ줿ȤȤǤ롥
12Τ줬Ѥ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫ŤװǤʤdrincan winnan °붯Ѳ3¾ưˤĤĴ٤Ƥߤȡdrinkcan Τ褦˸1Ѥ줿Τˤ hringan, scrincan, sincan, singan, springan, swimman ꡤwinnan Τ褦2Τ줿Τˤ clingan, spinnan, stingan, wringan 롥ɸѼǤϲ̤첻ķ֤Ѥ륱⾯ʤʤ㤨Сsing βɸѼǤ sang ɸѼ sung Ѥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ޤspin βɸѼǤ spun ʳѼǤ span ⤢ꤦ롤ʴꡤp. 76ˡ
ʤbindan, findan, grindan, windan Ѳ3ưǡ2Ѥ줿פǤ (ex. bound, found, ground, wound) 첻ϡѸƱĹ (homorganic_lengthening) ˤĹʤꡤ˸첻 (gvs) ˤ2첻 /aʊ/ Ĥ˻äƤǡwinnan ΥפȤϾۤʤ벻Ūаޤéä
ͺرѸˡ3ǡ̿2013ǯ
ѸȾввʸȤΤƤΤˡɸιʸ롥 make ΰ̣ǽ become ˶عʸˡǤм᤹ԴưǤȤ졤ιʸ5ʸȤߤ SVC Ȥ롥ˤȤäơפΰ̣ä She'll make him a good wife. ɽ뤳ȤǤhim a good wife Ǥ뤫顤ιʸ SVOO ȲǤ롥ξʸطƤΤȲʤСȤ She'll make a good wife. Ϥष SVO ʸʬϤʤ롥Τ褦ʻǡɸιʸ SVC Ȥ SVO ȤĤʤξԻĤʹʸȤȤˤʤ롥λϡˤäƤޤޤǤ롥
ιʸϤȤ˺Ƶ̾ξά뤳Ȥ뤬ˤϡŪˤ̻ŪˤΤդʤŪˤϡShe'll make herself a good wife. ʸˡǽɸιʸѤȤƸ뤳ȤϤޤʤޤ̻Ūˤ⡤̾ޤʸȤƤꡤƵ̾줬άƤιʸǤȤŪǧ뤳ȤϤǤʤषŪˤ make ΡֺפȤŪ᤹븶ˡȯŸƤʸ1ĤˤʤOED ʸ24ˤˤȡιʸѤ make θϡ"Of a person: to become by development or training. Also, with object a noun modified by good, bad, or other adjective of praise or the contrary: to perform well (ill, etc.) the part or function of." ȵҤ롥ɽ魯ͤȯŸ䷱ФƤΤؤȲ롤Ȥۤɤΰ̣ɽ路Ԥ˸ԤȤʤ뤿ǼäƤ뤳ȤްդƤ become Ȥϰۤʤ롥ǺȻʪδطȤǤ⤤ˡǺȻʪδط make ¾ˡʪǤ뤳ȤϡѸμΤ褦㤫ʬ롥
Northern Spies make the best apple pie.
The platycodon makes a fine pot plant for a cool greenhouse.
The Morello Cherry, and other deepe coloured pleasant Cherries, no doubt would make a speciall good wine.
Hydrogen and oxygen make water.
The clothes don't make the gentleman.
Τ褦ǺȻʪɽ make ˡϡOED ʸߤ¤ꤪ褽Ѹ˵Ĥ褦äȤϢ³ΤʤΤǡΤˤäƤϸűѸ̤Ȥ⤤롥OED θ24˴ؤ¤ꡤνʸѸ "a1470 Malory Morte Darthur (Winch. Coll. 13) (1990) I. 295, I undirtake he is a vylayne borne, and never woll make man." ǤꡤƳȿḽѸ줫ʸĤƤ
1572 H. Middlemore in H. Ellis Orig. Lett. Eng. Hist. (1827) 2nd Ser. III. 8, I think he [sc. the Duke of Anjou] will make as rare a prince as any is in Christendome.[ | ѥڡ ]
a1616 Shakespeare Henry VI, Pt. 1 (1623) iv. vii. 44 Doubtlesse he would haue made a noble Knight.
1741 Pope Thoughts on Var. Subj. in Wks. II. 311 For a King to make an amiable character, he needs only to be a man of common honesty, well advised.
1870 E. Peacock Ralf Skirlaugh III. 25 As the times then went, Mr. Earl made a very fair pastor.
1934 H. Roth Call it Sleep i. ix. 63 My, what a tyrant you'll make when you're married!
ѸˤˤϡѲABBAȤѲˤäƤޤ븽ݤ뤳ȤꡤϤФФݤޥΰˤʤ館ơ֥衼͡ (Duke of York) ȸƤФ줿衼ͤʼٻξ˾夲ơ줫鲼̤лϲѤäƤʤ츫̵̣˸뤽ιưˤⲿͳäϤǡֱѸˤˤΤ褦ѲȤˤϤظˤɤʰ̣Τͤʤ礭ʿ¤Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥פȤΤζǤä
괧ȼ°ʹ¤˴ؤʸνФǡ (179) ʾΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ѸˤΤʤ "Duke of York" ŵϡ#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1]) #491. Stuart ī˿षʿʸˤ뱪Ū do ([2010-08-31-1]) ǤߤʿʸǤ do ˡȯãȿǤ롥16˰٤ȯã17ˤϿषɡ夹˻ʤäۤˤϡ#819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1]) #1479. his °ʤο ([2013-05-15-1]) 롥
äƤ°ʤȤ a knight of his this hat of mine Τ褦ʹ¤Ǥ롥ѸǤ *a his knight *this my hat Τ褦˴졦ؼȽͭ̾ܤ뤳ȤǤŪ°ʹ¤ѤȤƵǽ롥ι¤εΩˤĤƤϽ⤢뤬a his knight Ȥ饹ȤѸ°̾ his ֤ of ȤȤ˸褦ˤʤäȤ⤬ͭϤǤʵp. 183ˡ̾űѸ줫ѸˤƤ°ʹ¤ȯãǤϡ°̾줬֤뤫 of ִ뤫Τ줫ä°ʤξˤϡξäƤޤäȤȤ
°ʤȯãϡ14ȾФ a man of þair (a man of theirs) ΥפϤޤꡤ̾νͭԤ an officer Of the prefectes ؤä100ǯˤϡؼȼ this stede of myne Υפ괧ȼ the fellys of Thomas Bettsons Υפ줿4ԤΤǸ괧ȼΤΤߤष17˾äƤä
ϡκǸΥפ˴ؤ "Duke of York" θݤDȤǽƤȯȳΩˤäưŪ˲ǽȤʤäΤΡǽŪˤϡְ̣Ū괧 the ɬʤ (192) ԲǽȤʤäΤȤʬϤ롥DȤǽƤȯȳΩϡ#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ°ʤȤع¤ȯãΤͭŪ˴ؤ븽ݤȹͤ졤°ʤȯã⤽礭ȤߤΤʤª٤ȤĥˤĤʤcf. #1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])ˡ *
괧쥿פοˤĤơϰ̣ŪɬƤ뤬Ϲʸ;ȸƤ褤⤷ʤyour car üŪɽǤȤ虜虜Ū the car of yours ɽɬפϤʤȤʵp. 193ˡ
"Duke of York" ظˤ礭ʿ¤õȤΤϡΤ˱Ѹˤ礭̥Ϥ1ĤǤ롥
塡ֱѸˤΤʤ "Duke of York"ס츦θߡ١ϩˡˡҤĤ˼2013ǯ179--96ǡ
#2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1]) ȡ#2080. /sp/, /st/, /sk/ Ҳð ([2015-01-06-1]) ǰѡȤƬ (Ikegashira) ϡ"A Dependency Approach to Great Vowel Shift" ꤹʸǡ¸ (dependency phonology; DP) Ȥߤ첻 (gvs) ʬϤƤ롥ϰ¸ˤĤƤ̵ΤʬϤˤ첻ܤޤѸμפʲѲˤϰӤȤǤȵƤꡤؿäΤʸɤǤߤƤꡤǿͤˤäݤ߹Ȼפ
¸ΩӤʬϤˤȡ첻ܤβѲϡӤƲṽ¤ڤ ("lightening") ǺѤȤ¸ˤַڤפϹ٤ŪǤˤŪΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤݥȤ첻ܤƲѲӤäƤꡤäưӤƵҤ뤳ȤǤȤĥǤ롥Τ褦ʼĥʤ뤫ˤϡή (drift) ѲŪ (teleology) Ȥ̵طǤϤʤºݡIkegashira (42) ϱѸˤˤӤ "lightening" ή˸ڤǤ롥줫顤첻ܤƲѲƱĥƤ롥
GVS is a change which is caused by that 'drift' (or tendency) of English to make the total weight of words lighter. To make all the 'long' vowels lighter, the phonological element |a| is made less powerful either by lowered (sic) to the the dependent position from the governing position or by deletion. In the cases of the vowels where there is no |a|, [i:] and [u:], the only way to make them lighter is to change the 'middle weight' phonological elements [i] and [u] with the lightest one |ə|. / . . . . As a result of lightening, the vowels have been raised or made into diphthongs. The problem of the starting point of this change thus has no meaning. It was 'simultaneous'. It is quite natural to suppose that GVS occurred at the same time as a result of the long and continuous 'trend' of English to lighten words in some way.
ŪˤϡʣŪʲѲӤǤΤϳΤ̥ϤǤ롥Ʊ褦ư顤Ritt Ρ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ⡤drift ȤŤؾäΤȻפѤʵȤơӤŪȳ첻ѲƱȤɤΤ褦ľܤ˷ӤĤΤ첻ܤӤ "lightening" ܻؤƤȤ줿ȤƤ⡤ϳƲѲƱ˵äȤưŪ˴ްդΤ夲 (push chain) Ǥ夲 (drag chain) ǤʤȤ̣Ǥϡ#1404. Optimality Theory ߤ첻 ([2013-03-01-1]) Ȥ̤ΥХХȸäƤ褵ŪȤƤ٤
ʤƱ¸ʬϤˤС첻ܤΩѸγĹ (meosl) ϡϤû첻γơ˲ |a| ղä줿ΤȤưӤƵҤȤ (Ikegashira 35) ̥ϤȲƳǧǤǤ롥
Ikegashira (Kadota), Atsuko. "A Dependency Approach to Great Vowel Shift." Ľظʸ22桤2007ǯ31--43ǡ
ɸ /s/ + ̵λҲϡѸ˾塤ŪðۤʿƤðϱѸ첻ǤϹΤƤꡤ͡ʹͻʬϤʤƤʲƬ (132--33, 136--38) ˰͵Ʋ⤷褦
ޤˡ§ (grimms_law) ϡλҲ2ǤȤƸˤŬѤʤäȤΤƤ롥#641. ޥλҲ (3) ([2011-01-28-1]) ȡ#662. sp-, st-, sk- ̵ˤʤͳ ([2011-02-18-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ[s] ε©αƶǸ³֥å줿Ǥ롥
ˡűѸťΥɸƬdzǧ褦ˡsp-, st-, sc- ñϡȤ߹碌̤ñȤƬʤȤǤʤäĤޤꡤŪˤ2Ĥʬʤˤ⤫餺1ĤβΤ褦˿ȤȤȤ
ޤ#2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1]) (6) Ǥߤ2Ҳû (shortening before two consonants) ˤꡤfīfta > fifta, sōhte > sohte, lǣssa > læssa ʤɤûprēstes Ǥ㳰ŪûʤäξˤƤ⡤/s/ Ȥ³Ȥߴط̩Ǥꡤ碌1Ĥñ̤ȤƿäƤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ롥
äơ/sp/, /st/, /sk/ ϡOnset ˵ݤ˻ҲðۤǤ롥Onset λҲǤϡʹ (sonority) 㤤Ҳ˻Ϥޤꡤ⤤Ҳ³ȤĤޤ㢪פ§Ǥ롥Ȥ[s] [t] ʹ٤⤤Τǡsp- ʤɤǤϡֹ⢪פȤʤꡤ§ȿ롥
ǸդäСְ㤤θ椫⡤Ҳ˴ؤְ㤤ðǧȤ롥
ʾβľ̤ؼԤλҲ(1) ޤ2ҲȤư(2) 2ҲǤϤ뤬1ĤΤޤȤޤ (ʣ粻ǡ composite phonemeˤȤư(3) 1ҲȤưʤɤνƤͤȤơƬ (138) ϡ¸ (dependency phonology) Ω줫顤λҲ /s/ ƳȤȤ "contour segment" ǤȤʬϤƤƤ롥"contour segment" ιͤϡѸǵäȤƱĹ (homorganic_lengthening) ˴ط /mb/ ʤɤλҲˤѤǤ褦Ǥ롥
Ƭġ˽ҡ"Consonant cluster" ȲѲðȲṽ¤ᤰäơס츦θߡ١ϩˡˡҤĤ˼2013ǯ127--43ǡ
#2061. ȯäˤ봳Ĥȸˤ봳ġ ([2014-12-18-1]) ǰ褦ˡμ (borrowing) ϲǤꡤѸ (loanword) Ϸ̤Ǥ롥Weinreich Ūˤζ̤ĤԤϾʤäȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬Roberts ȤԤζ̤ˤĤƤ롥Roberts (31--32) ϡܿβ "fusion" ȸƤӡ̤ȤƤξ֤ "mixture" ȸƤʬޤRoberts "fusion" "mixture" 줾ʬȤȤˡΤ褦ʲ̤ʳˤ2ѾΥפ2ĤʬΤȤƸܿȤ٤ΤƤ롥ʲRoberts (32) οƸ褦

ľʸɤߤʤˤȴ¿Ѹ줬Ω¤Ǥ뤬줾ŪʻȤδ֤ߤδطȤ館ˤΤBILINGUALISM FUSION MIXTURE ȤŪȸ2ν̤ɾǤȤƤ⡤ʳˤĤƤѸ줬äƤݤǤꡤƤɤδطƤRoberts (31--32) ˤΤޤäƤ餪
When a bilingual situation ends, the surviving language (that is, the language whose grammar prevails) is colored in greater or less degree by the perishing language (that is, the language whose grammar succumbs). The extent of this coloring depends upon the relationship of the two languages during the antecedent bilingualism. Subordinative bilingualism results in admixture; a portion of the weaker language is added to the stronger, which still retains both its grammatical and its lexical integrity. Co-ordinative bilingualism results in intermixture; virtually the entire vocabulary of the weaker language is swallowed up by the stronger, which thereby loses its lexical, though not its grammatical, integrity.
The words admixture and intermixture, as here used, denote accomplished situations, the results of processes. To designate the generative processes, the terms affusion and interfusion, corresponding respectively to admixture and intermixture, are proposed. Affusion has three modalities: infusion, suffusion, and superfusion. Interfusion has three stages or temporalities: diffusion, circumfusion, and retrofusion.
Affusion 鸫ƤȡInfusion ̾θμѤ롥Suffusion ϡظƶ (substratum_theory) ξظ줫θŪƶ롥Superfusion (loan_translation) 롥importation substitution ȤΩȡռŪʴĤ̵ռŪʴĤȤΩޤˤʤä褦ʬ
Interfusion ܤȡDiffusion äȼѸäѰ˴ؤʬؤƤ롥Ѹäˤ̤λع¤ʤɤˤߤФ褤 Interfusion ʳ餵˿ʤȡCircumfusion ʳȤʤ롥Ǥ㤨ƸϤ٤ƥեƥѸǤäƤ⡤괬ǽȤʤ褦ʾ߽Ф롥ˡRetrofusion ϥ줫ΰΡפβǤꡤեθˡαƶ house beautiful, knights templars, sufficient likelihood, nocturnal darkness ʤɤɽ߽Ф롥
Roberts 2 (bilingualism) δǤΩƤ褦ȤŪǤʸ褦ǰʤ餦ޤäƤ褦ˤϻפʤϤΤܿȤƤϡ#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Thomason and Kaufman ˤǥ뤬ǯǤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
Ѥ˴ؤȷ̤ζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#904. ѸŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ⻲ȡޤϢơ#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1]) εȤĥä⻲Ȥ줿
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Roberts, Murat H. "The Problem of the Hybrid Language". Journal of English and Germanic Philology 38 (1939): 23--41.
̾ -th ˤĤƤϡ#14. ̾-th ([2009-05-12-1])#16. -th ̾ΤȤˤʤäư졦ƻϡ ([2009-05-14-1])#595. death and dead ([2010-12-13-1])#1787. coolth ([2014-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲ƤѲʤɤʣʷаޤˤꡤΤ -th դȤδطȯֻξǤϸˤʤäƤΤ¿Τ褦1Ĥ young -- youth Υڥ롥long -- length, strong -- strength Ǥϡ촴 ng ݤƤΤˡyoung ̾Ǥɡ youth ȤʤΤϲΤ
űѸǤϴΤȤʤƻ geong̾ geoguþ ǤꡤԤǤϤǤɡæƤ롥ޥǤƱߤƤߤȡOld Saxon juguð, Dutch jeugd, Old High German jugund, German jugend ɡ̵ͭɤƤ뤬ϥޥ̾ɡƤ褦ޥĸǤ *jugunþi n ƷƤʥƥ juvenis (adj.), juventa (n.) ⻲ȡˡPartridge ˤȡ"OE geong has derivative geoguth or geogoth---a collective n---prob an easing of *geonth" ȤꡤȯؤΤɡȤȤ餷ܤ̤Ĵĸʳ young θ촴ο long strong ΤȤϰۤʤΤä褦ʤ14ƬˤϷƻ young ľˤ youngth ֤ԤƤ롥
ʤߤ OED ˤȡűѸ geoguþ ϡư dugan (to be good or worth) ̾ duguþ (worth, virtue, excellence, nobility, manhood, force, a force, an army, people) ȥޥʳطˤäǽȤűѸ duguþ Ѹؤ douth Ȥä1400ǯǽȤѤȤʤä
Partridge, Eric Honeywood. Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. 4th ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966. 1st ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; New York: Macmillan, 1958.
ε#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1]) ˰³;̾ȯˤĤơ2;̾ʡŪʤ you ϡŪˤϸűѸбгʡͿʤ ēow ̤ (cf. #180. űѸο;̾о ([2009-10-24-1])) űѸμʤ ġe Ǥꡤ ye η֤ǶѸޤǼʤȤ̤ѤƤ#800. you ˤ ye ִ phonaesthesia ([2011-07-06-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡyou ˼ʤκ¤å줿ʸ塤ʡŪʤζ̤ʤ you ɸŪʷ֤Ȥʤꡤߤ˻롥
ͤǤϸűѸ ēow ɤΤ褦ˤƸѸ /juː/ ʶˤȯãΤȽȤʤ (251) ˤ you βˤҤȤȡܤޤʣ첻Ѳ뤲Ƥ뤳ȤʬäűѸβ2첻Ū /ˈeːou/ ϶ܤˤ徺2첻Ū /eˈoːu/ βĤ褦ˤʤꡤ1ǤȾҲȯã /joːu/ ȤʤäѸˤϡ2첻경 /juː/ Ȥʤä /juː/ ϸѸȯƱľ뤷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤϤʣǤ롥/juː/ ϶ȤƤ16ȾФ餵ʤѲ뤲ơ/jəu?joː/ ȯã17ˤϾü/juː/ ϼȤ /jʊ, jə/ ޤ졤ߤƱμϢʤ뤬줬ƶƶ /juː/ 褷Τ餷űѸ° ēower 褦ʣʷϩФơѸ your ʶ /jɔː, jʊə/ˤϤ
;̾β岽ȶ֤Ȥѥϡε ([2015-01-02-1]) #1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1]) Ǥ⸫줿 (316) Ŧʤ¾ο;֤̾ˤĤƤͿƤΤǡѤƤ
ModE ˤʸˡζ̤ ModE ˤ϶ʻ¸塤ԤѤȤʤꡤԤƶȤʤꤳޤȯã PE ˻Ȥϩ̤Ȥ褦Ǥ롥ޡΤޤƱͤѤ뤳Ȥ⤢ä
① Prn: my [əɪ?ɪ]/me [iː, ɛː?ɪ, ɛ]//we [iː?ɪ]//thou [uː?ʊ]/thee [iː?ɪ]//ye [iː?ɪ, ɛ], ƶˤ [ɛː]/your: (i) uː > ʲoː, (ii) uː > 16c ȾС[əʊ], (iii) [juː] μ [jʊ] ʤ鶯 [juː]ˤ3ĤԤƤ/ you: ME [juː] (i) Ȥơ16c ȾС[jəʊ?joː] 17˾üˡ(ii) [jʊ] > (16c) [jə] ޤϺƶ [juː] ʤ줬 PE dzΩ//he [hiː, hɛː?ɪ]//she [ʃiː?ʃɪ]//it [ɪt?t] [t] ϸü//they [ðəɪ?ðɪ]//their [ðɛːr?ðɛr] . . . // who [oː, uː?ɔ, ʊ]
ʤyou ֻ¤üʸǤ롥ѱñˤ <u> ǽΤ§ȤƤʤ you ϶ˤƵ㳰Ǥ̾p. 45ˡ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Ѹ1;ʣ̾Ūʤη֤ us Ǥ롥ȯϡLDP ˤȶ /ʌs, ʌz/ /əs, əz/ ǤʸҲ /z/ Τ "BrE non-RP"ˡűѸǤĹ첻 ūs ǤꡤĹ첻û³岽 (centralisation) ΤζǤꡤۣ첻ΤμǤ롥ȡޤǤñ˹ͤƤȯŸεפڤȤƤϴְäƤʤȻפ뤬ľŪˤȤ館ƤǽȵŤ
;̾Τ褦ʸϡǽ塤˶ȼ夤碌Ƥ̾ʸ̮ǤϵôȤ̵ȤñΤѤ줿Ū˻ȤʤɶĴ뵡⤢뤫鿷ޤ뤳Ȥ⤢С鿷Ф뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤΤӤ˼㴳ۤʤ벻Ƥ㤨С#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡűѸ1;ñ̾ʷ ic I ȯŸΤ⡤ҲæȤ³Ĺ (compensatory_lengthening) η̤ǤϤʤǽˤФи붯ȼȤζȿǤƤǽ⤤βˤĤƤϡ (66) OE iċ ϡME ˤʤäơstress ʤ /ʧ/ æ /i/ Ȥʤꡤμ鶯 /íː/ ȹͤפȤθƤ롥
(67) ³1;ʣ̾гʡͿʷ֤ȯˤڤǤ롥űѸ ūs ˤƸѸ us ȯؤȯãˤĤơic I ʿŪʹͤƤ롥
OE ūs ϡME ˤʤäƶ /ús/ 줬 Mod E /ʌ́s/ ˤʤäΤǤME /uːs/ ϡʲѲéСGreat Vowel Shift ˤä /áus/ ˤʤϤΤΤǤ롥¡ME /üːr/ ModE /áuə/ ȤʤäƤ롥
ޤ /uːs/ û첻 us ۣ첻ʤ /əs/ ޤ줿û첻 us Ϥ餯ȤƸ줿Τ鶯ӤƤʤϤǤꡤΤޤޤǤ̾βѲΥ롼Ȥ˾ä /ʌs/ ȯŸ뤳ȤϤʤϤǤ롥ȤΤϡ/u/ > /ʌ/ 岽϶ͭˤΤǤ롥դˤСѸ /ʌs/ 뤿ˤϡΤϤȤƶ /ús/ ԤƤʤФʤʤϡ岽ä /əs/ դη֤ƶΤȹͤΤ
äơűѸ ūs 鸽Ѹζ /əs/ ؤȯŸϡľŪʤΤǤϤʤ¿;ޤФΤȹͤʤѸɸ /ʌz, əz/ ͭҲ /z/ ͭⲻŪʼ岽θ (cf. #858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]))
OED ˵Ƥ us ΰ۷ְįС͡ʷ֤Ѹ˾˹ԤƤȤ褯Ǥ롥
α. OE-16 vs, OE- us, eME uss (Ormulum), ME oos, ME os, ME ows, ME vsse, ME vus, ME ws, ME wus, ME-15 ous, 16 vss; Eng. regional 18 as (Yorks.), 18 ehz (Yorks.), 18 ust (Norfolk), 18- az (Yorks.), 18- es (chiefly south-west.), 18- ess (Devon), 18- ez (Yorks. and south-west.), 18- uz (chiefly north. and north midl.), 19 is (north-east.), 19 ous (Yorks.); Sc. pre-17 os, pre-17 us, pre-17 uss, pre-17 usz, pre-17 vs, pre-17 ws, pre-17 wsz, pre-17 17 ous, 17 ows, 18 wes (Orkney), 18 wez (Orkney), 18 wus (Orkney), 18- 'is, 18- iz, 18- wis (Shetland), 18- wiz (Shetland), 19- is, 19- 'iz, 19- oos, 19- uz; Irish English 17 yus (north.), 18 ouse (Wexford), 18- iz (north.); N.E.D. (1926) also records a form 18 ous (regional).
β. eME hous, ME hus, ME husse, ME hvse, ME hws, 15 huse; Eng. regional 18- hess (Devon), 18- hiz (Cumberland), 18- hus (Northumberland), 18- huz (north. and midl.); Sc. 15 18- his, 17-18 hus, 18 hooz (south.), 18 huzz, 18- hiz, 18- huss, 18- huz, 19- hes, 19- hez; Irish English (north.) 18- hiz, 19- his, 19- hus, 19- huz.
γ. Enclitic (chiefly in let's: cf. LET v.1 14a) 15- -s (now regional and nonstandard), 16- -'s, 18- -'z (chiefly Sc.), 19- -z (chiefly Sc.).
ͺرѸˡ3ǡ̿2013ǯ
ǯޤƤǤȤޤ2015ǯǤǯѸˤ˴ؤĹҲ𤷤ƤޤΤǡɤꤤޤ
ǯǽȤơѸؽԸˡ첻첻Ĺûб˴ؤ夲롥Ѹγ첻ˤϡ줾ĹײȡûײȸƤФȯбƤ롥
| Vowel letter | "Short" vowel | "Long" vowel |
|---|---|---|
| <a> | [æ] | [eɪ] |
| <e> | [ɛ] | [iː] |
| <i>, <y> | [ɪ] | [aɪ] |
| <o> | [ɑ/ɔ] | [oʊ] |
| <u> | [ʌ] | [juː] |
| Suffix | Long | Short |
|---|---|---|
| -al | crime | criminal |
| grade | gradual | |
| nation | national | |
| nature | natural | |
| rite | ritual | |
| -(at)ive | derive | derivative |
| evoke | evocative | |
| provoke | provocative | |
| -ic | athlete | athletic |
| cone | conic | |
| lyre | lyric | |
| metre | metric | |
| microscope | microscopic | |
| mime | mimic | |
| satire | satiric | |
| tone | tonic | |
| volcano | volcanic | |
| state | static | |
| -ity | audacious | audacity |
| breve | brevity | |
| divine | divinity | |
| extreme | extremity | |
| obscene | obscenity | |
| rapacious | rapacity | |
| sane | sanity | |
| serene | serenity | |
| sublime | sublimity | |
| vivacious | vivacity |
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