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#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) εǡɸˤĤ龼¤ˤƽǤ줿켭ŵ˴Ťͤʿοͤۤ (71) ˷ǺܤƤ롤ؿ켭ŵȬǡ١ʾشۡ2002ǯˤ˴ŤʬۤǤ롥
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ӸؤˤСѸȺǤƤθϥեꥸ (frisian) Ǥȸ (cf. #787. Frisian ([2011-06-23-1])) üԤǤեꥸͤȤϡɤΤ褦ʽĤäΤɤǥͤưƤűѸǰƬˡκեꥸͤߤΥϤ⳰Ǥ˳Ƥƣ (21--23) ˽äƳ⤷褦
46Υޥ̱²ưλˤϡƱޥϤǤեꥸͤäե (481--987ǯ) λ۲ǰ᤹ȡ7ꥪ⳰dzȯʾȳưŸ饤濴˥ɥΦˤޤǿʽФȤȤˡϤäƥɡȥȾ硤ǥʥؤưϰϤʪ磻Ӥ顤θפԤʤäƤꡤˤƤȤ
Τ褦ʥեꥸͤξϤθʲäΤƣ (21--22) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤʰʸΡ֥ƥספȤϳΤʤߤ줿ڤǡĬˤʤΤ褦ˤʤä͡εサϤؤˡ
եͤϼȬˤʤΤ褦˹ϰϤˤ錄뾦ȳưŸǤΤǤˤդ줿褦ϥƥפξ˽ߡϩǶ٤ȤĤʤäƤ˿ƤߡΤϤΤΤǤäƥפξ餹եͤϥҥĥʤɤܤȥ祦ȤȤȤǡιʪϤɤƤۤʤФʤʤä줬餯ȳư˶ΩƤȻפ롥θ֤Ӥ顤ӡʤɤäƽФ˲äơ⤷פСˤΤ٤褦ʳϤûʪΤϼήǤ롥
̱²ưʻ夬ȤȤˡեͤ깭ȳưŸȤϡͤˤΤҤȥޤȤܤƤ褤Ǥ䤬ư켷ˤϥͤμĤγͺ뤬ͽ褦ʥեͤγǤ롥Τ硹Ū˹ǰפ깭Ȥʤɤϡޤ˥եͤξȤѤΤȤ뤫⤷ʤ
ޥåʥեꥸ˴ѤȤ뤬⤦1Ūˤ⤷ΤϡեꥸͤȥδطǤ롥եɤϥθϤ˶ᤤΤǡǽΥåȤȤʤ뱿̿ä9ˤϥˤ絬ϤΫå깭줿ŪʶᤵΤߤʤ餺եꥸͤˤ˭٤ʾȻ˰Ĥ줿ˤʤեꥸͤϤˤäǷΤϳΤǤϥ˾褸ǡϰؤξȳư˳ȯ餷
7ʹߤΥեꥸͤˤ衤17ʹߤΥͤˤ衤ĶŪ˳ưˤ̱²̾ۤɤαƶϤΤΡĹŪƤ뤳ȤϤʤäȤƤƱͤˡեꥸ䥪ϱ³ŪƸ뤳ȤϤʤäʬ錄Ѹ줬ʹߤƤΤʢˡषϤθȤ夷ƤȤˤʤ롥
ƣ ؿ⡡ˡ١Ͻн˼2012ǯ
褤ǯ⽪˶ŤƤƤΤǡդ December 12ˤθ츻褦
αñϡƥ decem 10ˤ1ǤȤƺ줿 *decemmembris (< *decem-mēnsris < decem + mēnsis) ̤ȹͤ롥Υƥñ줬եͳƱѸäƤΤѸκǽΤȤǡPeterborough Chronicle 1122ǯεҤ˽ФƤ롥űѸǤϡη se ǣrra ġeōla (the earlier Yule) ȾΤƤ
decem ΰ캬 *dekm̥ ǤꡤѸȤƤ ten, -teen, -ty, tithe (cf. #3105. tithe tenth ([2017-10-27-1])) طۤ¤ hundred ʤƥƥͳ cent ¾ˤ⡤ˤ thousand ط롥ˤĤƤϡ#100. hundred ȰӸء ([2009-08-05-1])#1150. centum satemס#2240. thousand "swelling hundred" ([2015-06-15-1])#2285. hundred "great ten" ([2015-07-30-1])#2286. űѸ hundseofontig (seventy), hundeahtatig (eighty), etc. ([2015-07-31-1])#2304. űѸ hundseofontig (seventy), hundeahtatig (eighty), etc. (2) ([2015-08-18-1]) Ȥ줿
ơΰ캬 *dekm̥ Ѥƥ줫μѸСdecemvir ʽ紱ΰ͡, decimal 10ˡΡ, decimate ¿οͤ, decuple 10ܤΡ, decussate ʽ˸, denarius ʥǥʥꥦ, denier ʥɥ˥ߡ, dicker 10Ĥΰȡ, dime ʥࡤ10ȹŲߡ, Dixie Ӥ, dozen ʥ12ġ, duodecimal 12ˡΡˡꥷ줫ϡdean ʳĹ, decade 10ǯ, decanal ʳĹΡ, dodecagon 12ѷ, doyen ʸŻԡ, Pentecost ʥڥƥơܺסˤѸäƤ롥
ܸDZ12ɽ魯ֻסʤ魯ˤθ츻̤ܤȤ롥褯ΤƤָ̱츻ˤСֻڤסĤޤվʤΡˤФ뤿ǤȤβʿΡؿջྶ٤ˤǤˡ¯˻ڤȱաͭפȤΤƤ¾ȤƤϡ͵β̤ƤֻͶˡסʤϤġˡ٤Ƥʤְٲ̤ġסʤϤġˤǯ̤ġסʤȤϤġˤ˴ŤȤΤʤɤ롥
̾¾ε⻲ȡ#2910. ̾ͳ ([2017-04-15-1])#2890. 3March ([2017-03-26-1])#2896. 4April ([2017-04-01-1])#2939. 5May ([2017-05-14-1])#2983. 6June̵ ([2017-06-27-1])#3000. 7Julyʸ ([2017-07-14-1])#3046. 8Augustշ ([2017-08-29-1])#3073. 9SeptemberĹ ([2017-09-25-1])#3103. 10October̵ ([2017-10-25-1])#3167. 11November ([2017-12-28-1])
ǯ November 11ˤȤΤ̯11˽˺ƤΤǡꤤ
αñϡƥο novem 9ˤ˴Ť November 뤤 Novembris (mēnsis) եͳ1200ǯ Novembre ȤƱѸäƤΤǤ롥ƥǤθ *novem-ri-s λҲ֤ b źä -mbr- ȤʤäΤʤΤ褦ʸ治ź (epenthesis) ˤĤƤϡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) ȡˡַפɽ魯θθȾǤεˤĤƤϡ#3073. 9SeptemberĹ ([2017-09-25-1]) Ȥ줿
ƥnovem ΰ캬 *newn̥ ǤꡤѸȤƤϤ nine ط롥ƥ줫μѸȤƤθ캬ݻƤñˤ nonagenarian 90Ρ, nones ʥ9ʷˤä57ˡ, noon ʡʸ6ơ9ΰդء, novena 9 ֤ε 롥ޤꥷ줫μѸȤƤ ennead ʶİȡˤ롥
űѸǤ Blōdmōnaþ (blood month) ȸƤФ졤鲺䤫ǤϤʤϥͤ٤ȤưʪӤȴϢȤ
ܸDZ11ɽ魯פϡȥ졼Ȥ߷ʤդĤˤͳ褹Ȥͤ뤬͡ʸ츻⤬롥ΥĥʿʪˤάȤ⤵뤷10ηȹͤ11ηȤȤ⤢롥
ε#3165. ȤƤ conspicuous external ([2017-12-26-1]) ȴϢơƤӡֱפμդꡥѸˤϡʳؤȯŸȼӤʳѸ줬ޤ줿ΤۤȤɤꥷƥͳ褹 (combining_form) Ѥ (compounding) ˤ¤Ǥʡ#552. combining form ([2010-10-31-1])#1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1])#3013. 19줿ŵŪʣ ([2017-07-27-1]) ȡˡ
Kay and Allan (20--21) Τ褦˥ȤƤ롥
While borrowing continues to reflect contact with other cultures, many scientific words are not strictly speaking loanwords. Rather, they are constructed from roots adopted from the classical languages. This has the advantage of a degree of semantic transparency: if you know that tele, graph and phone come from Greek roots meaning respectively 'afar', 'writing' and 'sound', and vision from a Latin root meaning 'see, look', you can begin to understand telegraph, telephone and television. You can also coin other words using similar patterns, and possibly elements from other sources, as in telebanking.
"neo-Hellenic compounds" "neo-Latin compounds" ȤƤФ嵭Τ褦ʸäϡ̣Ǥϥƥ䥮ꥷ줫μѸȤߤʤ뤫⤷ʤŬڤˡֱפ뤤ϡֱפȤߤʤΤ褤ΤǤϤʤĤñ줬ñȯ¤줵줿櫓ǤϤʤ¤ηŪѤ줿ˡǤ뤫֥ѥ줿פȸƤ֤ΤŬڤ⤷ʤ
Kay, Christian and Kathryn Allan. English Historical Semantics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.
ɸȴϢϡ#1493. Ѹʤ̱ ([2013-05-29-1])#1927. ʩ ([2014-08-06-1])#2979. Chibanian ϥƥ졩 ([2017-06-23-1]) 䡤waseieigo γƵǼ夲Ƥ
Baugh and Cable (222) ǡ˱Ѹ줬ƥñݤ˻ܤŬ (adaptation) Ƥ뤬Τ褦1ʸä
. . . the Latin ending -us in adjectives was changed to -ous (conspicu-us > conspicuous) or was replaced by -al as in external (L. externus).
αñϡ̣ǤϼѤ줿Ȥ⤤뤬̣ǤϱѸ줬Ȥ⤤롥ֱפȸƤ֤Τդ路ǤϤʤ
OED ˤСconspicuous ϡƥ conspicuus ˴ŤѸ¦ǤϤƥͳηƻ -ous դȤˤäƿ˷Ǥ롥16ȾФ˽ФƤ롥
1545 T. Raynald tr. E. Roesslin Byrth of Mankynde Hh vij These vaynes doo appeare more conspicuous and notable to the eyes.
¤ϤΡʼȤƥƥͳ¾θξ⤢ˤղäƼͳ˿ʷƻѥϥޥ˹줿Τǡե -eus դΤ14--15濴ȤƱѸˤ -ous η̤äƤĤޤꡤޤäʩȤ٤Τ졤줬ѸˤήǤȤ櫓Ȥơdangerous, orgulous, adventurous, courageous, grievous, hideous, joyous, riotous, melodious, pompous, rageous, advantageous, gelatinous ʤɤOED -ous, suffix ˡ
ޤѸǤե˽ǤΥѥѶŪѤ conspicuous Τ褦ʱ褦ˤʤäƤƱȤơguilous, noyous, beauteous, slumberous, timeous, tyrannous, blusterous, burdenous, murderous, poisonous, thunderous, adiaphorous, leguminous, delirious, felicitous, complicitous, glamorous, pulchritudinous, serendipitous ʤɤOED -ous, suffix ˡ
ɸΤ⤦1Ĥñ external conspicuous Ȥ褯ѥñϡƥ externus ˴ŤѸ¦ǥƥͳηƻ -al դȤˤäƷǤ롥Ф Shakespeare
a1616 Shakespeare Henry VI, Pt. 1 (1623) v. vii. 3 Her vertues graced with externall gifts.
a1616 Shakespeare Antony & Cleopatra (1623) v. ii. 340 If they had swallow'd poyson, 'twould appeare By externall swelling.
ȿո internal Ʊͤλ𤫤Ȼפ䡤ϰΤȤ post-classical Latin Ȥ internalis ǧȤθΥƥȤƤλѤ "14th cent. in a British source" ȤȤʤΤǡϤϤפפ롥ѸǤνϡ15 Polychronicon
?a1475 (?a1425) tr. R. Higden Polychron. (Harl. 2261) (1865) I. 53 The begynnenge of the grete see is..at the pyllers of Hercules..; after that hit is diffusede in to sees internalle [a1387 J. Trevisa tr. þe ynnere sees; L. maria interna].
֡פϷ褷ʤ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
Ѹˤ˴Ϣǯɽޤ timeline γƵǼƤϡ#2562. Mugglestone ԡˤαѸǯɽ ([2016-05-02-1]) 饤ɲƤߤ饤ɤλͤˤꤹ٤ƤȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤꤢͷӤʤį롥14餤顤㥴㤷Ƥ롥

Ϣơ#2358. 饤ɤǤѸǯɽ ([2015-10-11-1])#2871. űѸΥ饤ǯɽ ([2017-03-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
Mugglestone, Lynda, ed. The Oxford History of English. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
¤ؤΥȤơsyntagm paradigm Ω롥ΩϡؤǧθؤǤȤ metonymy metaphor Ωˤʤ館뤳ȤǤ롥Niemier (196) ϡˤ metonymy metaphor ʤ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . metaphors represent the paradigmatic pole because they replace an expression by another expression, and metonymies represent the syntagmatic pole which in a given syntagm, for example the regalia of a monarch, selects an outstanding element, such as the crown, which then evokes the whole syntagm.
ȤǡNiemeier ǧθؤδ顤metonymy Τۤ metaphor ŪǤȹͤƤ롥ξԤδطˤ͡ʵ뤬1ĤΩȤƷİͤ롥Niemeier ˤСmetaphor metonymy Ϣ³ΤȤǤȤmetaphor metonymy ϢǤˤ衤ϢλȽΥΥۤɡξüɤδط metonymy ŪȤ metaphor ŪۤȤʤäƤ롥ĤޤꡤȤƤ metonymy ʤϢˤδطȤ٤ʤΤľŪˤϤषӤ metaphor ȤȤ館뤳ȤΤۤ¿ȤȤǤ롥Τ褦 metonymy Ǥ⤢ʤ metaphor Ǥ⤢褦˸Τ "metaphtonomy" ȾΤ롥
ȤơI am boiling with anger. 褦ɽϡ츫ȿȿʹ֤Ȥ2ĤΥɥᥤ֤ metaphor Τ褦ˤפ뤬桹ܤäƤȤŪ˴ѤΩĤ褦ǮФ϶ݤȤ٤ΤǤꡤΰ̣ǤϤष metonymy Ȥ롥ɽ metonymic ȯŸ I blew up my top. ܤ꿴ƬȯˤȤɽˤʤС metaphoric ˴ȯŸνʳ metonymy ϢȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ metaphor ˸ȤNiemeier (210) ۩
. . . the broader and the more general the perspective gets, the less metonymies and the more metaphors seem to be involved (and vice versa), although the metonymic basis seems to be kept intact for the metaphors as well.
. . . I want to propose a functional view of metaphor and metonymy instead of regarding them as fixed concepts. The fact whether the metonymic basis of a metaphor is obvious to a language user or not determines this language user's notion of whether s/he is using or perceiving a metaphor or a metonymy. Scanning the different steps in the development of a metaphorical construction may reveal that all the single steps involve metonymy and that therefore the whole expression may be considered to be a metonymy, but summarizing the development of such an expression by focusing only on the starting-point and the output may lead us to conciser it to be a metaphor.
Niemeyer (210) ϡ metonymy metaphor ٤Ǥ뤳ȡ metonymy ΤۤŪǧΥץǤǽ뤳ȤƤ롥
. . . metaphors may indeed have a metonymic basis . . . .
metaphor metonymy ϡǧΰ̣Ǥ⤽¾͡ΰˤƤפʳǰǤꡤ֤̾뤬δطɤȤ館٤Ǥ롥
Niemeier, Susanne. "Straight from the Heart --- Metonymic and Metaphorical Explorations." Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads: A Cognitive Perspective. Ed. Antonio Barcelona. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000.
Francis Bacon (1561--1626) ήиλ۲Ȥ William Whewell (1794--1866) 롥οʪϡǤ˺ƤָŰء (aetiology) ϻϤʪǤ롥ΰѤŰؤȳΩܻؤ (101--02) ͳǤϤ롥
ʳؤϡꥷ ɦӦɦʸˤ츻Ȥơذ̳ء (aetiology)٤ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ롥ΤȤФϤ줬褦Ȥ¬γޤȤ館ƤϤʤʤʤ顤Ūʰ̴طǤϳؤΤ褦ʱʵṲ̄ʳؤޤǤ롥䤬礷褦ȤΰϡǽʲǤϤʤ¤βоݤȤ롥줬줫褦Ȥϼؤʬʤϡ¸ (Ц˦, ϦͦӦ) ʪоݤȤȤͳǡظʪء (palaeontology)٤̾ŤƤ롥ǡΤդĤγǰ (Ц˦, ɦӦɦ) ӤĤ뤳ȤˤꡤŰ (palaetiology) ȤդƳƤԹϤʤ褦˻פ롥ǤŰؤȤϲλݤ˴ؤưˡ§˴Ťߤ¬γǤסʡصǼʳؤˡ١軰p. 397
θŰؤо (object 뤤ϡֿʲҡפȤˤϲǤ褤櫓ǡСʪ졤ܡ̱¯ʤɲǤ⤢Ǥ롥γؤʸͻȤ褦ɽŪʤΤǤϤʤޤΤδܸΤ֤֤̻֤ѶŪߤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥֤̻֤Ȥ¤ϡˤȤɤޤ餺٤ƤŪİ٤ξؤǤ롥ñʤϤξػˡʤԺߡʤȤ鷺Ȥ⡤ˤʤΤǤ롥̻ȴԤäƤ褦˻פ롥
ŰؤϡפˤǤ롥ѸˤĥͤС
طͤ٤ƤϥĥȤȤˡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2006ǯ
̤ if ʲΡˤꡥҲؤǤ "Language is a dialect with an army and a navy." ȤƤ褦ˡζ̤ϤФХХå˹ȤĤƤ뤫ݤǷޤ뤳Ȥ¿ź1ˤʤäѼ郎ŪΩˤä1ؤȡ־ʡפȤȤäεդޤä (cf. #2006. ḽ衼åѤǼΧƤ ([2014-10-24-1])) ⤤ĤܹΩȤʤ뤳ȤȤС餿줬θѸȤʤ
ΥͥϻҲؤιֵʤɤǤ褯夲ΤΩ˺ݤƺѤȸޤײ (language_planning) ˤĤơŪĤޤȤϤʤäۤǥ֥饦Ƥ夬⤷ܤΩ٤ȤܤߤĤ p. 58 ˡ̱θؤɽפθѸޤΥߥ졼⤵Ƥ⤷ΤǰѤ褦
ꥸʥλܺȤơѸפȤݤȯۤޤϰˤäƤϤޤäۤʤȤʤ뤳Ȥ顤ĤƤΡ쥳ȥСפäˤɸȤʤƤޤŷȾΤ줿夫顤٤ƤȥꥢǡﮡʤΤˤ뾦Τı߳˿ʤʤ顤¡פ»ʤȤΤʤߥ˥ġȤƵǽ³Ƥ쥳ȥФħ̱ѤȤǤ
ѸˤܹɸѡΩμҲưࡼ˷³̤ؤθդޤƽϸǿƤޤƤ졦Ÿ졦ʤɤϡƽ֤Υߥ˥ǸͤʤǥåȤθơѸ˽ऺ밷ǧ٥ˤȤɤ뤳Ȥˤޤ
ʤߤˡס쥳ȥСסܹɸפˤդƤ롥
ܸ²Ͻܸɤΰɤ2ʬɤʬƤθԤ¿ϡܤʬۤɡܤʬۤ¸ɡ彣ʬۤɤȲΰɤ4ʬɤʬΩȤäƤ롥פ¸ɤΤʤˤ췲ΤƤ̾Ρ쥳ȥС졤ʤɤ롥 (58)
쥳ȥͻϺ桤ṾξͤޤäܺξԡDZ߳˾ԤˡǫۣʸȤȯãΤ쥳ȥСפȤƤ롥˭Ҥ̾ؤܤ٤̾ȤʤäͷӤˤĹǥ徦ͤɽ֤ܤפʤɤΤ롥(58)
ܹɸܹɸϡȺäޤ줿ϰäˤʤäƤ롥NHKˤڤ(59)
ʤ7ĤνޤȤΤϥϥȻȤȤˤʤäƤ2010ǯνǤȤݥȡˡ
Ωͤԡˡ夬⤷ܤΩ١ޥϥ2010ǯ
1220դǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλͤ12ε֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡޤ
κǸǤϡɸε֤ʤѸ϶Ż뷿Ż뷿θؤڤؤꡤκݤˤʤܸSVOȤ줿ΤפȤؤȥѥե졼ޤȾǤϤ褤褳䤤ܳŪޤڤɤ褦5W1HΥߥƥΩƤäŸޤ
Ѳˤ餺˸ݤεˤ䤤 Why Ǥεˤ˶Ťˤϡˤʳ4W1Hä겡ڵѤ߾夲ƤɬפޤξǡŪ Why ؤβƤȤǤϡαʸˡ˾ǤŪѲ1ĤλȸΩơ5W1H˥ߥƥΩƤꤿȻפޤ
ϢܵŸϲǤͭϤʲǤϤޤ˾λǤŪ뤳ȤϤۤԲǽȸ虜ޤϺε˸¤ޤѲݤˡ¤褯Ĵ١λ¤ȿʤǰ̴طΥȡȤΩƤ뤳ȤϲǽǤ⡤λߤ1ĤȤƤФȻפޤʲϢܵΰѤǤ
ѲϷ褷ƶ櫓ǤϤʤȤ狼äȻפޤѲظˤϸŪŪʽװʣŪ˺ѤƤꡤΤˤΰĤҤȤĤͤߤ뤳ȤΤǤWhat, When, Where, Who, How ¤ɤƤСǸˤϵˤ䤤 Why ˤ᤹ܶ뤳ȤǤΤǤ
ϢܵȤƤϺǽȤʤޤ줫ܥ֥䤽¾ΤǡѸѤʵˤäƤȻפޤΤǡȤꤤ夲ޤ
Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary (HTOED) ϡѸ켭ŵ (thesaurus) ȤƺΤΤǤǤʤŪʡ켭ŵȤơ̤ƤͣܳŪʥեǤ롥1965ǯ Michael Samuels ˤäԻץȤΤΤ夲졤ǤޤǤ45ǯκзפʥᥤξܺ٤ The Story of the Thesaurus ȡ
HTOED ϡ3ĤΥСǻȤ뤳ȤǤ롥
(1) 2009ǯ˽Ǥ줿Τ2ܡ1饹Ρ2Ǥ롥Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary (HTOED). Ed. Christian Kay, Jane Roberts, Michael Samuels and Irené Wotherspoon. 2 vols. Oxford: OUP, 2009.
(2) 饹ؤ (1) Υ饤ǡThe Historical Thesaurus of English ȤƤ롥
(3) OED Online Ȥ߹ޤ줿饤ǡ
ƥС֤ˤդ٤ۤ롥Ȥ HTOED OED 2Ǥ˴ŤԻ줿ΤǤ뤿ᡤ3Ǥ˸ƲѤ줿ƤʬŪ˴ޤ OED Online ϢȤƤ륪饤ǤȤδ֤ǡǯ̣ƤʤɤˤĤư㤤ߤ뤳Ȥ롥ޤOED Online ǤϡOED ˤ˽ä1150ǯʹߤäƤʤűѸñ줬٤ƾʤƤΤǡűѸñˤĤ濴ŪĴ٤ˤ A Thesaurus of Old English (TOE). Ed. Jane Roberts and Christian Kay with Lynne Grundy. Amsterdam: Rodopi, [1995] 2000. Available online at http://oldenglishthesaurus.arts.gla.ac.uk/ . ̤Ͽ (1) (2) ǤѤ٤Ǥ롥
HTOED ǺѤƤ̣Ƥϡ235,249ܤˤޤǺʬƤꡤ793,733줬ޤޤƤ롥ʬξܺ٤ Classification Υڡȡ3ؤޤǤʬɽ (PDF) ⻲ȤǤ롥 *
ꥹˤѸ˵Ҥϡ19Ⱦ˻ϤޤäȤäƤ褤оݤѸȤǤȤƤ⡤ˤεҤǤʾ塤λΥǥȿǤˤϤʤ19ȾθѤϡɸѸŪѼȤƾȤϰޤɸѼϤ¸ߤʤΤ褦˰ȤΤä variationist ʱѸ˴ѤߤȡŪ˸ǤʤФäΩΤ褦˸뤬̾ΩãαѸʻˡ˳ؼԤȤΤ褦ΩäƤΤǤ롥Knowles (142--43) ξˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ롥
In the course of the second half of the nineteenth century, the story of English gradually emerged in its modern form . . . . The study of words was fitted into a familiar account of English history identifying the different events that had led to the enlargement of the vocabulary; the coming of the Saxons, and the Danish and Norman invasions. Caxton could be seen as the harbinger of the new age that dawned at the end of the Middle Ages. A particular interest was taken in the sixteenth century, the growth of the vocabulary at this time being interpreted as an expression of the Renaissance. From an Anglican point of view, the Reformation was a major advance which led to Elizabethan English.
The belief in progress can give the impression that the language has marched onward and upward, while suffering setbacks on the way. Thus West Germanic leads on to late West Saxon, which in turn leads to Elizabethan English, and eventually modern Standard English. The emphasis on literary texts led to an interpretation of major literary figures as creators of the language, with the result that the Beowulf poet, Chaucer, Shakespeare and Milton were taken to illustrate the rise of the language . . . .
As the understanding of language broadened at the end of the nineteenth century, the 'internal' history branched out to cover the attributes of words, including spelling and pronunciation, semantic change and (to a limited extent) their changing grammatical behaviour. This 'internal' history has preserved some older beliefs about language change, including the ambivalence towards dialects. Although the relationship between dialects and Standard English has long been perfectly well understood, and this is made clear in explicit descriptions, conventional accounts of change in English pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary have never quite fitted the known 'external' history. Changes are given precise dates, as though they took place everywhere at about the same time in a standard language. In fact, there are changes usually ascribed to the Anglo-Saxon period which have still not taken place in the rural dialects of Cumbria. This approach to change is consistent with an older story, according to which (standard) Saxon collapsed after the Norman conquest, not to be reestablished until the end of the Middle Ages. Some scholars . . . have even sought to establish a historical link between the old and new kinds of Standard English.
19Ⱦʤ줿Ѹ˵ҤϡɸѸγΩȤƷǤΥۥå˴ѤλʪȤäƤ褤˽Ҥ٤褦ˡ variationist ʱѸ˴ѤäƤȤϤűѸʰˤ鸽ѸޤǤΡʤ̤αѸ˱ѸˤҤ뤢äƤŪʻȤơɸѸ濴ˤŪʻ˴ѤɤޤäƤƤ뤫ϵǤ롥21οܻؤѸˤˤ⡤ϻ䤨ƤʤɤޤʤǻĤäƤΤǤϤʤ
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
#576. inkhorn term ȱѸ켭 ([2010-11-24-1]) εǡͥΥƥ줫֤βɽñ1ĤȤ splendidious θϸߤǤѤȤʤäƤ뤬ΰ̣ϸǤ̤Ѥ splendid ƱֲʡڤʡפǤ롥Ԥϥͥڤ䤫ʤꤷ15ѤƤꡤԤñȤƤ17ȾˤϽФƤʤˤäƽǯ夬ۤʤˡ15--17ˤϡ캬̣Ʊ splendid Ϥñ줬Ĥ⸽ƤϾäƤäΤǤ롥HTOED splendid ιƤߤȡΤ褦ˤ롥
02.04.05.03 (adj.) Splendid
þurhbeorht OE geatolic OE torht OE torhtlic OE wrætlic OE orgulous/orgillous a1400 splendidious 1432/50--1653 splendiferous c1460--1546 splendent 1509-- splendant 1590-- splendorous 1591-- splendidous 1605--1640 transplendent 1622; 1854 florid 1642--1725 splendious 1654 splendid 1815-- splendescent 1848-- nifty 1868-- ducky 1897-- (colloq.) many-splendoured a1907--
Ū splendidious, splendiferous, splendent, splendant, splendorous, splendidous, splendious, splendid, splendescent, splendoured 10줬ߤŪܤ˸졤糵ϸ˾äƤʤα¼Ǥϡsplendiferous, splendent, splendorous ϸФΩƤƤˡ
Ρʥƥ줢뤤ϥեͳˤ̣Ʊ (synonym) Τ褦ʣäȤǡϤʤ¿θ줬礷ǤƤäΤ
Kay and Allan (15) ⡤θ췲˸ڤĤļΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Sometimes there was a degree of experimentation over the form of a new word. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the OED records the following forms meaning 'splendid': splendant, splendicant, splendidious, splendidous, splendiferous, splendious and splendorous. Splendid itself is first recorded in 1624. Unsurprisingly, most of these forms were short-lived; no language needs quite so many similar words for the same concept.
б̾ˤĤƤ HTOED ȴФȡ"splendency a1591--1607 splendancy 1591 splendence 1604 splendour 1774-- splendiferousness 1934--" ȤϤ˭٤Ǥ롥
Kay, Christian and Kathryn Allan. English Historical Semantics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.
γȤŪŸϡѸȱѸ̤̤뤳ȤΤǤʤȥԥåǤαѸ˾ΰյˤĤơ饤 (HTML) ˤޤȤƤߤޤɤȤƤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ޤ
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(1) Ѹɸಽϲ岡ơѸˡֵῴϡפ⤿餷ǡ
(2) Ѹ¿ͲѸˡֱϡפ⤿餷
ߤ̤αѸΤδäۤ
ܺ٤ϳơΥڡܥ֥εƼؤΥ˭٤ĥäƤޤ
1. γȱѸ
2.
3. (1) ȯŸ
4. Ϣǯɽ (#777, #1377, #2562)
5. (2) Ѹεῴ --- ɸಽϲ
6. ɸಽȵϲ
7. 18εϼ
8. ʸˡȯ
9. ʸˡ
10. (3) Ѹα --- ͡ʱѸ
11. ͡ʱѸѼ
12. ѸѼνʬˡ
13. 21ῴϤȱϤΤ礤
14. ޤȤ
15. ʸ
¾Ρ֤ޤȤ饤ɡפȤơ#3058. ֱѸˤˤ¤ΰյפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-09-10-1])#3068. ֽפȱѸˡפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-09-20-1])#3089. ֥ꥫΩȱѸפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-10-11-1])#3102. ֥ꥹȶȱѸפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-10-24-1])#3107. ֥ΥޥȱѸפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-10-29-1])#3121. ְѤȯȱѸפΤޤȤ ([2017-11-12-1]) ɤ
Ѹ̾ʼȤСJohnson (1755), Webster (1828), OED (1928) 뤬ζ֤ˤäפƤ봶ΤΤɸμǤ롥Ѹ켭ԻˤδϡɾͿ٤Ǥ롥
Charles Richardson (1775--1865) ϡɥޤˡΧؤ˸ءʸؤžʸؤŻ뤷ĤĻΤǶ˷ȤäJohnson μФȽŪΩꡤ鼭Ի˼ȤEncyclopædia Metropolitana ˤϢܤϤ塤1835ǯʬηǽǤϤᡤǽŪˤϾ崬 (1836) Ȳ (1837) ʤ A New Dictionary of the English Language 1839ǯˤϴǤǤƤ롥
μκħϡñΰ̣ŪȯŸˤäƤǤϤʤŪʰʸѤפŤ褦ȤȤǤ롥Ū§(historical principle) ˤۤʤʤνϰϤѸ Robert of Gloucester, Robert Mannyng of Brunne ޤ̤餻Ū§οʿȤäƤ褤ơˤθ§ѤŰ줵Τ OED ä櫓
Richardson Webster ˤϹɾ줿Ȥޤ"a word has one meaning, and one only" Ȥüʸˡ͡ʲս̵츻μ갷ˤߤ٤ΤʤäJohnson Webster Ȥ缭θ٤ OED ؤΤĤʤ̤¸ߤȤơѸ˾嵭٤ԻȡˤǤϤ
Knowles (141) ϡRichardson OED ؤμԻ˾ιΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The Oxford dictionary was an outstanding work of historical scholarship, but it was not the first historical dictionary. This was Charles Richardson's A new dictionary of the English language, which appeared in 1836--7, and which attempted to trace the historical development of the meanings of words using historical quotations rather than definitions. The original intention of the Philological Society in 1857 was simply to produce a supplement to the dictionaries of Johnson and Richardson, but it was soon clear that a complete new work was required.
ʾ塤رѸؿ̾ŵ (288--89) Charles Richardson ιȤƼɮ
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
ãڸ ԡرѸؿ̾ŵ١ҡ1995ǯ
#2103. Basic Color Terms ([2015-01-29-1]) Ӻε#3153. Ѹˤˤ̸ܿȯŸ ([2017-12-14-1]) ǡ̸ܿ (Basic Colour Terms) ŪȯŸϩ˿줿ѸˤˤƤ⡤BCTs μϡŪȯŸϩͽ̤ۤνǡűѸ줫ѸءѸ줫Ѹؤ¤äƤơBCTs Τߤʤ餺 non-BCTs ȤȤˤμƤο̸äϲääΤ
Biggam (123--24) ˤСűѸ줫ѸˤƤäϡΥޥΥեѸ˵ȤBCTs ˴ؤƤСѸDzä줿bleu ϳΤ˥եͳbrun ϸűѸȤƤΤ Anglo-French brun ˤѤ줿Ȥ⤢äޤ硤ǻø ١٤礵űѸ BCCs ȰۤʤꡤѸˤȤ櫓Ż뤹 BCCs बƤΤϡ뻺ȵѾο˵ΤǤϤʤȤŦ⤢롥
The dominance of hue in certain ME terms, especially in BCTs, was at least encouraged by certain cultural innovations of the later Middle Ages such as banners, livery, and the display of heraldry on coats-of-arms, all of which encouraged the development and use of strong dyes and paints. (125)
ѸˤʤȡPURPLE, ORANGE, PINK BCCs ˲äꡤḽŪ11बФȤˤʤäλˤϤʳˤ⤪Ӥ non-BCTs и뤳Ȥˤʤä⡤μҲʸѲϢưƤȤ
From EModE onwards, the colour vocabulary of English increased enormously, as a glance at the HTOED colour categories reveals. Travellers to the New World discovered dyes such as logwood and some types of cochineal, while Renaissance artists experimented with pigments to introduce new effects to their paintings. Much later, synthetic dyes were introduced, beginning with so-called 'mauveine', a purple shade, in 1856. In the same century, the development of industrial processes capable of producing identical items which could only be distinguished by their colours encouraged the proliferation of colour terms to identify and market such products. The twentieth century saw the rise of the mass fashion industry with its regular announcements of 'this year's colours'. In periods like the 1960s, colour, especially vivid hues, seemed to dominate the cultural scene. All of these factors motivated the coining of new colour terms. The burgeoning of the interior décor industry, which has a never-ending supply of subtle mixes of hues and tones, also brought colour to the forefront of modern minds, resulting in a torrent of new colour words and phrases. It has been estimated that Modern British English has at least 8,000 colour terms . . . . (126)
Ѹο̸ˤ̤ơäȤѸ쳰̻ˤǤ롥
Kay, Christian and Kathryn Allan. English Historical Semantics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.
Biggam, C. P. "English Colour Terms: A Case Study." Chapter 7 of English Historical Semantics. Christian Kay and Kathryn Allan. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015. 113--31.
#2103. Basic Color Terms ([2015-01-29-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡˤ뿧̸ȯŸˤϡ褽ŪȤƻڤȹͤƤ롥Ѹο̸⡤ˤ̤ƤƻڤɤäȤǧƤ롥ޤǴŪѸǤ basic colour terms (BCTs) basic colour categories (BCCs) ǧƤChristian and Allan δѸ콸Ѥ (178)
basic colour categories (BCCs) are the principal divisions of the colour space which underlie the basic colour terms (BCTs) of a particular speech community. A BCC is an abstract concept which operates independently of things described by terms such as green or yellow. BCCs are presented in small capital letters, for example GREEN.
basic colour terms (BCTs) are the words which languages use to name basic colour categories. A BCT, such as green or yellow, is known to all members of a speech community and is used in a wide range of contexts. Other colour words in a language are called non-basic terms, for example sapphire, scarlet or auburn.
Biggam ˤȡѸ BCCs ȯãϰʲ̤Ǥ롥
OE: (1) WHITE/BRIGHT, (2) BLACK/DARK, (3) RED+ (4) YELLOW, (5) GREEN, (6) GREY
ME: (1) WHITE, (2) BLACK, (3) RED+, (4) YELLOW, (5) GREEN, (6) GREY, (7) BLUE, (8) BROWN
ModE: (1) WHITE, (2) BLACK, (3) RED, (4) YELLOW, (5) GREEN, (6) GREY, (7) BLUE, (8) BROWN, (9) PURPLE, (10) ORANGE, (11) PINK
BCTs ȯãϰʲ̤ꡥ
OE: hwit, blæc/(sweart), read, geolu, grene, græg
ME: whit, blak, red yelwe, grene, grei, bleu, broun
ModE: white, black, red, yellow, green, grey, blue, brown, purple, orange, pink
BCTs μϡűѸ6Ѹ8ͳơѸ11ؤƤȤˤʤ롥ηϩϡ[2015-01-29-1]οޤǼŪʡϩȤۤܽŤʤäƤ롥
Kay, Christian and Kathryn Allan. English Historical Semantics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.
Biggam, C. P. "English Colour Terms: A Case Study." Chapter 7 of English Historical Semantics. Christian Kay and Kathryn Allan. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015. 113--31.
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) ۤ¿εǿƤƸѲ "multiple causation" θ§ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤThomason ϡܿ˴ؤϥɥ֥åεΤʤǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . a growing body of evidence suggests that multiple causation --- often a combination of an external and one or more internal causes --- is responsible for a sizable number of changes. (32)
The search for internal and external causation should proceed in parallel, because of the strong possibility, an actuality in many cases, that both internal and external causes influenced the linguistic outcome of change. (46)
ǡThomason ϸˤ⡤Ȥ "multiple causation" Ȥˤ衤ѲεˤΡ֤ʤפ뤳ȤԲǽǤƤ롥ϤäսʤΤǡΤޤްѤ롥
. . . in spite of dramatic progress toward explaining linguistic changes made in recent decades by historical linguists, variationists, and experimental linguists, it remains true that we have no adequate explanation for the vast majority of all linguistic changes that have been discovered. Worse, it may reasonably be said that we have no full explanation for any linguistic change, or for the emergence and spread of any linguistic variant. The reason is that, although it is often easy to find a motivation for an innovation, the combinations of social and linguistic factors that favor the success of one innovation and the failure of another are so complex that we can never (in my opinion) hope to achieve deterministic predictions in this area. Tendencies, yes; probabilities, yes; but we still won't know why an innovation that becomes part of one language fails to establish itself in another language (or dialect) under apparently parallel circumstances. there is an element of chance in many or most changes; and there is an element of more or less conscious choice in many changes. Even if we could pin down macro- and micro-social features and detailed linguistic features to a precise account (which we cannot), accident and the possibility of deliberate change would derail our efforts to make strong predictions. This assessment should not be taken as a defeatist stance, or discourage efforts to find causes of change: recent advances in establishing causes of changes after they have occurred and in tracking the spread of innovations through a speech community have produced notable successes. More successes will surely follow; seeking causes of change is a lively and fruitful area of research. But the realistic goal is a deeper understanding of processes of change, not an ultimate means of predicting change. (32--33)
ޤäƱǤ롥Ѳ˴ؤˤ Why 뤳ȤԲǽ How ФȤϲǽǤ Why ˶ŤƤϤϤ٤Ǥcf. #3026. ˤˤ How Why ([2017-08-09-1])ˡϢ Thomason ν긫ϡʲεǤƤΤǻͤޤǤˡ
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
#2113. ʸˡѤξ ([2015-02-08-1])
ˡ#2589. ѲưΤϷǽ (2) ([2016-05-29-1]) Ǥ "multiple causation of language change" Ż뤹٤Ȥ˿ƤΤǡεȤŽäεɤ
Thomason, Sarah. "Contact Explanations in Linguistics." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 31--47.
ε#3150. ܿϸñˤ뤫ʣˤ뤫 ([2017-12-11-1]) ǡܿη̡ñ㲽ΤʣΤȤ夲Trudgill ηȤƤϡñ㲽˻Τ "high-contact, short-term post-critical threshold contact situations" ξ¿ȤȤΤ褦ʾϡ˾夢ޤʤäȤǤꡤдʹߤŪǤϤʤȤĤޤꡤۤʤüԤɤû֤ǻ̩ܿиȤ֤ϡ˻ˤϷ褷̤ΤȤǤϤʤäΤǤϤʤTrudgill (313) ۩
I have argued . . . that we have become so familiar with this type of simplification in linguistic change --- in Germanic, Romance, Semitic --- that we may have been tempted to regard it as normal --- as a diachronic universal. However, it is probable that
widespread adult-only language contact is a mainly a post-neolithic and indeed a mainly modern phenomenon associated with the last 2,000 years, and if the development of large, fluid communities is also a post-neolithic and indeed mainly modern phenomenon, then according to this thesis the dominant standard modern languages in the world today are likely to be seriously atypical of how languages have been for nearly all of human history. (Trudgill 2000)
դ˸С餯˻θܿ˴ؤ֤ϡǤ 1 3 ΥפäȤȤˤʤʤܿϸߤθʣݻĹ뤳Ȥ¿äΤǤϤʤȡ˻ʿŪ¸˻ƮŪͻ¤ȤܤΩ벾Ǥ롥
Trudgill, Peter. "Contact and Sociolinguistic Typology." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 299--319.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ܿ (contact) ϸñˤΤ뤤ʣˤΤźθܿλȤȡΥ⤢ΤƤ롥Trudgill ˤĤƤΤǡҲ𤷤褦ޤܿϸʣ˴ͿȤˤĤơ
. . . there is considerable evidence that language contact can lead to an increase in linguistic complexity. This appears to occur as a result of the addition of features transferred from one language to another . . . . This is then additive change in which new features derived from neighboring languages do not replace existing features but are acquired in addition to them. A sociolinguistic-typological consequence of language contact is therefore that languages which have experienced relatively high degrees of contact are more likely to demonstrate relatively higher degrees of this type of additive complexity than languages which have not. (301)
ȴϢơϰؤΩ줫顤बޤ䤹Ū¿äŪñʸ칽¤䤹 "spread zones" Ȥư²ιԤʤƤϰʤɡˤȡȿФ˸Ū¿ʣħŤ "residual zones" Ȥƥ˥塼˥ʤɡˤȤǰˤĤƤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤ"contact among languages fosters complexity, or, put differently, diversity among neighbouring languages fosters complexity in each of the languages" (303) ǤȤĤιͻФȤǾ嵭ŤΤβսǤ롥
We can thus take seriously the sociolinguistic-typological hypothesis that languages spoken in high-contact societies are relatively more likely to have relatively more complexity, not just in terms of having more features such as grammatical categories and articulation types, but also in terms of possessing features which are inherently more complex. (305--06)
ǡŪʤ⡤ܿñ㲽⤿餹ϹǧƤʤۤˡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])) ⻲Ȥ줿ˡ
. . . the paradox here is that contact can also, and just as clearly, lead to simplification. This is very well known, and is a point which has been made by many writers. Pidgins, creoles, and creoloids . . . are all widely agreed to owe their relative structural simplicity to language contact; and koines to dialect contact . . . . (306)
ǤϡܿΤʤ¦̤ʣñ㲽ꤹΤTrudgill ϡܿζ١֡콬˴ؤ׳ȤװŦƤ롥׳ȤϡפˡܿиƤο͡ҶͤȤ㤤Ǥ롥Trudgill ηϰʲ̤ꡥ
1 high-contact, long-term pre-critical threshold contact situations are more likely to lead to additive (and only additive) complexification;
2 high-contact, short-term post-critical threshold contact situations are more likely to lead to simplification;
3 low contact situations are likely to lead to preservation of existing complexity.
ӺΤ褦ˤ⸫뤬̣Ǥ롥
Trudgill, Peter. "Contact and Sociolinguistic Typology." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 299--319.
#3146. ˤְŪطפȤϲ (1) ([2017-12-07-1])#3147. ˤְŪطפȤϲ (2) ([2017-12-08-1])#3148. ˤְŪطפδñ̤ϸΤ狼 ([2017-12-09-1]) ǡˤְפˤĤƹͤΡְ˽äơ²ηޤΤ褦 family_tree ƤΤΤ褦ʸΡְŪʬפϡΩĤΤNoonan (51) ѤʵƤ롥
. . . it might be worth asking what genetic classification is good for. It has already been stated that genetic classification is not always useful in providing information about the structure of a language or its morpheme inventory, the more so the higher up the taxonomic ladder one goes. Information about where in the world a language is spoken provides more useful information about grammatical structure, but we don't have classifications of languages by region that are comparable to genetic classifications. On the positive side, however, genetic classification has proven a boon to historical linguistics, providing the superstructure around which theories of language change have developed over the last two centuries. Such classifications also, potentially, provide information of considerable historical value. Typologists use genetic classifications to explain similarities among languages and as a consideration in constructing cross-linguistic samples. And, of course, most of us find satisfying the classification of familiar things: typically the first thing a linguist will ask on being told of an unfamiliar language is: "What family does it belong to?"
1ĤϡöŪǤϤ뤬⤦1ĤθʬˡǤ (typology) ϡϰʬۤȸħϢŤ褦ȤʬˡȤͭ˾ǤϤ뤬ŪʬɤŨΤΤϤޤʤƤʤȤǤ롥
2Ĥϡ˸ؤˤƸѲ椹뤿κȾȤ "superstructure" ͿƤȤǤ롥ĸ줫饲ޥĸФơűѸ졤ƸѸˤޤǵڤֹ̣ǤαѸˤѸθѲ椷褦ȤݤˡǤˤ礭ȤߤȤʤäƤʤи椷ˤȤΤŪʤΤǤϤˤ衤ꤹ뤳ȤǸƤ뤳Ȥ¿
3ĤβϡŪʤΤǤ롥ʹ֤ϿȤβΤΤʬषưʪǤ롥ޤƤդȤܶʤΤʬषʤ
Noonan, Michael. "Genetic Classification and Language Contact." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 48--65.
Ϣε ([2017-12-07-1], [2017-12-08-1]) ǡˤְŪطפܤƤ롥ؤ19衤ǰˤƤѸˤƤʪؤ¿ʱƶƤؤ¾ʸŪ껺椹ʬ٤Ƥ⡤Ȥ櫓ηäȤ롥ºݤˡʪȤϹԤʤƤʡ#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1])#1579. ָϿʪǤפȡ ([2013-08-23-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1]) ʤɤȡˡ
ʪǤϤʤäơȤɤޤѤɤþΤˤʤФʤʤ㤨СʪˤΤȤǰϡǤϤ줾첿ΤؤθǤϡʪθΤˤʤ館븫ȼˤʤ館븫ξ롥Noonan (52) εѤ褦
Within a biologically inspired framework, there are at least two possible classes of interpretations of genetic relatedness. One could conceive of languages as unitary organisms and consider relatedness in a way analogous to that of individual animals or plants, which can be related via lineages created through sexual or asexual reproduction. Alternatively, one could conceive of a language as a population, either of speakers or of linguistic constructs, or even of a population of speakers each with his/her idiolect and hence his/her own set of linguistic constructs. Population models of this sort might adopt a species analogy for understanding genetic relatedness.
Ǥϸ "unitary organism" ʸΡˤȤߤΩ "population" ʡּפγǰ˶ᤤˤȤߤΩ줬Ҳ𤵤Ƥ롥ԤθϺǶΰԤƤΤ̤ˤԤβƤ롥ԤˤĤơNoonan (52) Ϥä롥
In linguistics, the unitary organism model was the one adopted by historical linguists in the early nineteenth century; this model has survived as the received mode of understanding genetic relations to the present day. Within this model, two languages are said to be genetically related if they descend from a common ancestor. Since it is at least possible that all languages descend from a common ancestor, languages are usually claimed to be related only if their relatedness can be established through the comparative method or some alternative procedure.
In principle, a unitary organism model could adopt either an asexual (parthenogenetic) or a sexual model for conceptualizing genetic relatedness. The established model, known as the family tree or Stammbaum model, adopted parthenogenetic (asexual) reproduction as the mode for understanding genetic relationships among languages. The expressions mother/ancestor language and daughter language are components of the model and reflect the original analogy, as do the notions of language birth and language death.
"unitary organism" ȤߤΩΤʤˤ⡤"asexual (parthenogenetic) model" "sexual model" 2郎̤ȤΤ⤷ؤθǤϡס̼פΤ褦ʽѸ줬ΩĤ˸ؤǤ "unitary organism model" ΤʤǤ "an asexual (parthenogenetic) model" Ū˼ƤȤȴطΤνѸˤĤƤϡ#2055. 첻פȤƾΡ ([2014-12-12-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Noonan, Michael. "Genetic Classification and Language Contact." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 48--65.
ε ([2017-12-07-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ֤ΡְŪطפȤˤϤʤƤΤ
ϼ¤Ԥˤä͡Ǥꡤ٤ƤθؼԤƱդƤȤΤϤʤNoonan (50) ϡְŪطפȤơ礭3٤̤ȤƤ롥
(1) the generational transmission approach¿θؼԤƤ롤䤹Ǥꡤ椨Ū˻Ŧ뤳ȤǤ⾯ʤͤǤ⤢롥ΩˤäƤϡ֤ΰŪطȤϡŪ塹ѤƤˤƱǤ롥ƤΤȤۤƱηϤҶλҶȤ뤬塹֤뤳ȤˤäơƱθ줬ѾƤȤͤΥ䤬ʤ¤ꡤȤȤ¿쾯ʤѲȤƤ⡤ŪˤƱθ줬ѤƤȤߤʤΤQŪǤ롥ѸüԤϡ̤äƤʤűѸüԤ̤뤳ȤǤ뤷ӸؤϤڤƤǤϤ뤬ޥĸüԡưĸüԤؤ̤뤳ȤǤʤȾʤȤϤǤˡäơѸȰĸˤϡϢʤݻƤŪطȤ롥
(2) the essentialist approachüԤϢ³ŪǤϤʤηѾ˾ƤΩǤ롥ľŪ˰طΤ֤ǤϡʸˡŪʷǤŪħѤϤǤȤΩġդˤСΤ褦ʸħܤ줫̼ܤؤȰѤƤСá̼פδطˤ롤ĤޤŪطˤȤߤʤȤǤ롤Ȥ롥(1) (2) ΩϡФƱʬϷ̤ȤӸؤˡĴ¤Ȥ⤢뤬εäΩ(1) ǤüԤˤηѾ(2) ǤϤθηѾǤȤ㤤դɬפ롥
(3) the hybrid approach(1), (2) ʳ͡ʹͤ͡ˡǼ줿ΩǡǤصŪ "the hybrid approach" Ȥ1ĤΥ٥βˤޤȤƤ롥ȾӸء쥪ʤɤ˴ޤޤ롥ζϡʤȤ⤤ĤξˤƤϡʣθ줬礷ΤǧƤ뤳ȤǤʾ嵭 (1), (2) ΩϸΰŪȤǰǧ᤺Ȥ "mixed language" ¸ߤǧˤ衤ְطפγ֤ˤȤˡӸؤˡӽ櫓ǤϤʤˡ٤ƤλŬѤȤϹͤƤʤޤϸνΤǤȤθäƤ롥ΩǤ͡ʥ˥奢ΰ㤤ꡤޤäǤϤʤ
Τ褦˸ؤθŪѤְŪطפظˤϡ¤¿ޤǥΩƤΤǤ롥Ϣơ#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) ȡˤĤƤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) ȡ
Noonan, Michael. "Genetic Classification and Language Contact." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 48--65.
˸ؤˤơĸĸ֤ȯȯãط "genetic relationship" ȸƤФ롥ʪؤ° "genetics" ȤѸžѤ뤳ȤϹԤʤ졤ΤΤȤƼƤ˹ͤФȡ줬̣뤫ϡޤäǤϤʤѸ츯طʤˤ͡Ƥꡤ⤽ԤˤäۤʤäƤ롥ˤĤơNoonan (48--49) ŪܤƤΤǡȤƤߤεǤϡˤŪطȤϲȤ⡤ǤϤʤȤȤ餫ˤ
ޤ⤹٤ϡΰŪطȤϡüԽĤʪŪʰŪطȤ̵ȤȤǤ롥μήɸؤǤϡͼʤɤΰŪʪŪʬȸʬȤ̵طǤ뤳ȤȤƤ롥ĿͤϡɤοͼΤȤޤ줿ȤƤ⡤ʤ⽬뤳ȤǤ롥ĿͤνϡΰŪħˤꤵ櫓ǤϤʤޤ餷ҲθĶˤꤵ롥äơΰŪطεˡüԤʪŪʰ꤬;ϤϤʤ
ޤ (linguistic typology) ϡ֤ˤõꡤ餫δطФȤʬǤϤ뤬ϤޤǶŪʴطɵǤꡤŪطˤĤƲҤ٤褦ȤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ2ΤΰŪطС줬¤ŪƤȤǽϳΤˤ뤬Ǥʤ¿롥դˡ¤ŪƤ2Ĥθ줬ۤʤ°ȤȤϤǤ⤢롥⤽μ (borrowing) ϡʤ֤ˤäƤǽǤꡤѤ̤ƶŪɤƤˤʤȤϡź¿Ĥ뤳ȤǤ롥
ǤϡˤŪطȤϡüԽĤʪŪʰŪطΤȤǤϤʤŦ褦ʶŪ˴ŤطΤȤǤʤȤСäΤȤؤΤ䤤ϡ˸ؤˤƤۤȤŪ줿ȤʤΤǤϤʤˤ⤫餺ŪˤѸ줬Ȥ³ƤΤȤСۤΤȤƤȤˤʤ롥ѸϰŪˤϥޥɤ°ȤܸˤϰŪطΤָ줬ʤʤɤȸȤˤϤʤؾޤޤƤΤˤĤơεǹͤ
Noonan, Michael. "Genetic Classification and Language Contact." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. 2013. 48--65.
ϸѸȤǤϤʤΤǤ濫ä2017ǯ٤إȥꥢīʸ15ˤˡLate Modern English Ĭήפꤹ륨åƤ뵡ޤܥȥꥢīʸزβĹüͺԽѰĹ͵꤬Ȥޤˡ
äǻƤǤϤʤΤǤɤߤ䤹ʸϤȤʤ褦ˤϿޤΤǡѸˤȤʤ餺Ȥ⡤ʸؤѹˤȤˤⲿȤϤʸϤˤʤäƤȤϻפޤʲΤ褦ʥǽޤ
1. Ѹ츦Υ֡भ
2. ʤ LModE ɾ㤫äΤ
3. ʤ LModE ʤΤ
4. ɤΤ褦ʸ椬ʤƤ뤫
5. LModE Ȥ줫αѸ
¤ΤȤLModE Υ֡⤹Ǥ˷褷ƿʤȤۤɤˡѸˤʬȯŸƤޤμդǤ LModE θ֤ͤϾʤޤLModE ϡΤ˸ѸȤ̤ͤݤˡ̥ŪʻǤϤޤΥåǤϡΥ֡ˤͳ뤳Ȥ櫓ǤκΥݥȤȤƻŦΤ20ȾμҲؤȥѥؤȯŸǤ
ҲؤȥѥؤȯŸˤꡤѸ˸ԤˤȤäƸ椹٤ȤȸǤ뤳Ȥ쵤ơθ̤¾λ줿Τ LModE äΤǤ롥
ܺ٤ϡåʸϤϡʲ̤Ǥ
LModE ϡФ餯δ֡Ѹ˸˿ʥͥ륮³ƤɮԤϼѸȤƤ뤬˼Ĥʤ褦 LModE ˥åץǡȤʤСȴ뼡Ǥ롥
δ졡Late Modern English Ĭήסإȥꥢīʸ١15桤2017ǯ207--16ǡ
Ѹ첻ˤǤϴȤơűѸ West-Saxon ˤ <æ> ֤Ĺ첻ϡε˱2˶̤롥줾Ū ǣ1 ǣ2 ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤʤȤ˸ԤˤäƤ 1 2 źžڤߤˡ2ϡѸʹߤˤˤƤˤäƤФж̤뤳Ȥ顤ƱѤʤɡѸ˸塤פôäƤ롥
(75--76) ˤСޥӸؾ塤ǣ1 ǣ2 εϰۤʤäƤ롥ǣ1 ޥʳǤ *[aː]- ɡ֤ West-Saxon ˤ岽Τǡnon-West-Saxon ǤϤ˾夲Ф [eː] Ȥʤä (ex. dǣd "deed", lǣtan "let", þǣr "there") ǣ2 ޥ *[aɪ] űѸޤǤ [ɑː] ѲΤ i-mutation ФϤǤ (ex. lǣran "teach", dǣlan "deal") ϡWest-Saxon Τߤʤ餺 Anglian Ǥݤ줿Kentish ǤϾ夲ˤ [eː] Ȥʤääơǣ1 ǣ2 βδطϡWest-Saxon Ǥ [æː] : [æː]Anglian Ǥ [eː] : [æː]Kentish Ǥ [eː] : [eː] Ȥʤ롥ޤȤСʲ̤ꡥ
PGmc aː > OE WS æː NWS æː > eː WGmc aɪ > OE ɑː > (i-mutation) WS, Angl æː K æː > eː
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ε ([2017-12-03-1]) ³ԡҡ (205) ˤȡۥᥪȤϡּ夤ѿδطˤפǤ롥ҡ (205--06) ϡۥᥪ̿ȤʣϤˤʤ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
̿ϤΡפȤˤ꼡ߺѤʤ롥ƱΤνĤǤäƤ⥫ˤäʬϤᡤ¿ޤ롥äƤǤ¿ϥۥ⥫֤Ȥưݻ롥ξ֤ǤϥŪˤ곰ξϤФ¿ͤĽʱԤäƤ롥
ѤƤ֥Ūפ⡤ʣϤʬΥ㡼Ǥ롥ҡʡ¿߽ФסХ1994ǯ5ˤϥŪΤ褦Ƥʵȱʡp. 163 ¹ˡ
㤨СǤۤĤΥ饹ʬƤ줾Ǥۤܰǿư֤Ĺ³塤ФФˤʤꡤФ餯³ǡޤۤȤġʤʤġˤΥ饹ޤФФˡġĤȤäȤ֤ĤޤꡤĤŪʾ֤δ֤줿֤ͳƥåƤΤǤ롥
ˤƤ֥ۥᥪפ֥ŪפŪ˸롥㤨СʸˡŪ˶ޤ˰¸ȸ˰¸Ȥξˤδ֤ɤưΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ΥեȤʳǡɤ餮줬뤫⤷ʤ椯椯Ϥʤ夯ΤǤϤʤηϤˤƤ⡤ηϤˤƤ⡤ɤưȤ̣ŪȤΤϤʤưŪ˥ХݻƤ롥
ʿξǴŻߤƤ뤳ȤξߤɤѤƥХȤ³뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥Ȥɤ礭ʤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬Υԥä뤿ˡ¦˻פڤäƥХ뤳Ȥǡ̤ȤƺƤӰ֤˲뤳ȤϤ롥ľΩưŻ߾֤ȤŪˤϤ뤬ŪˤϤʤݡŪǽꤷǤưŪǤ뤳ȤȤΤۥᥪǤ롥
ˮɧ ϺʣϤΥŪʥꥪ١īҽŹ1996ǯ
ȱ ءʣϡפȤϲ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ1996ǯ
ηϤȼȿħȤʣϤǤ뤳ȤˤĤơʲεǼ夲Ƥcf. #3111. ȸѲ (1) ([2017-11-02-1]) #3112. ȸѲ (2) ([2017-11-03-1])#3122. ηϤϡ֥ձפˤ ([2017-11-13-1])#3123. ȥե饯 ([2017-11-14-1])#3130. ʣϸء ([2017-11-21-1])ˡ
ѲѰۤоݤˤƤȡ˴ؤ븽ݤΤޤʣ˰ݤ롥ɤΤ褦˹ͤƤˤȸäʣϤˤư롥и̵ۤΤ褦ˤߤơǤְ㤤ʤ餫ϤľȤʣϤ˰㤤ʤȤȯۤˤʤ롥Ū濴ηǡưŪʰ¸ߡ̤ȤƥХݤ륢ХΤʤѲѰۡΤ褦̷⤹ħݤʪݤʪȤäǤǤʤоݤΤߤ롥
ءʣϡפȤϲ٤路ȱ (169) ϡΤ褦Ҥ˽äơ֥ۥᥪפȤ¤ǸƤǤ롥
ʬؤϡȿȤդäƥ褦ʡŪʰǤϤʤ¿μͳ٤ļ夤Ūưˤ櫓ǤʤȤäƴˤФФˤʤ櫓Ǥʤߤƶ礤¸礤ʤ顤Ĥޤ¿ݻʤ顽뤤¿Ĥ椨ˡڤǤϤȤʤ֤äơæʤΤ褦ʤդޤ롤ưŪʰ֤Ǥ롥
ҤϤ¿ݻ֥ۥᥪ homeochaosפȸƤǤ롥ۥᥪŪŪꤷ餮ФᤷΥեɥХåȹͤƤΤФۥᥪϤΤ褦۾֤ۤʤƤ⤤ȤƤƤ롥
ˡΥۥᥪˤΤϡΡּפּͳ١פȤäȤߤΤΤѲۤʤȤߤ뤳ȤȤȤϥץʳˤȸƤФʵȱ, pp. 169--70ˡ
ۥᥪȤ˽פˤʤΤϡ֤μ륷ƥऽΤΤμͳ٤ư륱Ǥ롥ŪˤϡŪʥ˥åȤߤߺѤФʬꡤޤ椫üꤹǤꡤȤк˦ʤɡȾΥƥϤͳ٤ưƥˤʤäƤ롥
ͳ٤ꤵ줿ä֤μѤݤ줿Ĥƥ˸̾ΥǤϡ֤ǤεƻˤʤäƿФƤȡɤޤꤿޤ롥֤ΤΤѤ뤳ȤϤʤȤͳ٤ư볫ƥǤϡ礷ƤäƱưԵ§ˤʤȡǼͳ٤Υפ뤳Ȥ롥ơ˽и;ʬʼͳ٤ꤵʬۤȡ缫ͳ٤μ夤֤˥ۥᥪεƯơ¿ݻ롥Τ褦ʳƥͭʥΥʥߥҤϡֳפȸƤǤ롥
ƥƥȤưݻ뤿ưŪʵƤΤǤСϸˤŬѤǤǽ⤤줯餤ưŪʣǤ롥
ȱ ءʣϡפȤϲ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ1996ǯ
ˮɧ ϺʣϤΥŪʥꥪ١īҽŹ1996ǯ
#3101. ѸμΨ ([2017-10-23-1])#3066. פȼΨ ([2017-09-18-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ16衼åѤǤ϶٤˳Ƚ졤ʸɤ߽Ǥ͡¿ʤäƤȤϳΤΨȤƶŪʿͿ뤳ȤԻԤκ麹˽ʤɤ礭̲뤳ȤǤФǤʤ⤽¿פ並椬äΩäƤȤ𤬤롥ȤϡˡŪ˽̾ǤͤʸɤळȤǤȤΤǯǾʳؤθˤСȤɤळȤϤޤä̤ι٤ǤꡤξԤϢưΤȹͤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ǡڥƥ (317--19) ϡ͡ϰ褫μǽϤ˴ؤŪʾơΨŪ˵Ȥˡʤη̤ȤơʲθƳФƤ롥ޤԻԤμΨκۤˤĤƤϡۤ礭ʤäΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥͡ǯδ֤ˤ˰ưνޤԾǤϤɤǤʪŽФƤпȼԤǤäƤ⡤ʸƤϤ
Ψ˽ˤĤƤϡäȤǤƤ⡤줬Ū˳Τ褦ʻ˳Ϲ⤤ǽϤᤵŻˤĤȤϤʤäˡϿȤƤĤˤΤǤ롥Ǥܤɤߡڤ¿褦ǤϤ롥
褯ϿλĤäƤԻ˸ꤹС⤤ΨؤԻԤϰ¸ߤ16ΥͥĥǤ33%ۤɤä1530ǯΥ衼Ǥ20--25%ۤɤäΥ衼ΨϡƱޤǤˤ41%ˤޤķ;夬äƤ롥
16³17˥ɤμΨ˾徺Ȥϴְ㤤ʤγȽڡ¾μҲŪװξ徺˹Ƥ뤬νװϤޤѸֻɸಽˤŪ˴ͿƤΤǤ롥褤罰ܳŪʸܤϤȤˡɸŪֻ褦ˤʤäΤ
ڥƥɥ롼ˡ ʡˡذȤ̿ͥܤ١ҡ2015ǯ
#3120. ²˱Ѹΰʪ뤳Ȥˤ Caxton ([2017-11-11-1]) εǡCaxton ƥǤϤʤѸǽ줿ΤˤǤаޤҲ𤷤ºݡCaxton ¯Ż뤹뷹ϡ³16ˤѤ졤ǥɤϥ衼åѤΤʤǤðۤʰƤεǤҤ٤褦ˡ16ˤƥɤǽǤ줿ʪΤѸʳθΤΤϤ鷺1ۤɤäפΤǤ롥
ڥƥ (559) ˡ1450--1600ǯ˥衼å줿ʪγספꤹɽ롥ɤ¯нŤΩäƤ뤳Ȥʬ
¯Τ ƥγؽѽ ե 40,500 35,000 ꥢ 48,400 39,600 ɥ 37,600 56,400 2,530 8,470 Ͻ 17,896 14,021 146,926 153,491 Τ 81.99% 92.48% 13,463 1,664 ڥ 12,960 5,040 ʥ 873 793 衼å 4,980 4,980 32,276 12,477 Τ 18.01% 7.52% 179,202 165,968
Υ衼åѤϥեꥢɥĤˤꡤ鳰Ǥϳ¯ΰ¿äȤϤ뤬Ǥ⥤ɤ¯Ψȴƹ⤤ξϡüŪˤȤޤȤ뤫⤷ʤˤϰǶȳܤλǤפƤȤҲŪװ⤢ä褦ڥƥ (411--12) Ѥ롥
ɤ¿ˤơ衼åѤǤäȤðۤʽһԾƤä黰ȤϡϤαѸɼؤ߽ФȤȤƤϤƤꡤࡼ˵ǽȿƤɥϥ衼åѤǤͭԻԤǤäեɤȥ֥åϺǤŤؤ˿줿Ǥ⤳ιΰȤϾϤʤޤޤǤäϻ˥ɤǽǤ줿ʪϤ褽ޡοϽȾʬǤ롥ޤɤˤǶȤϤۤܥɥ˸ꤵƤꡤʪϤۤȤɤѸΤΤǤäɥνǶȼԤԤƥνʪϡݡɤܥإߥ⾯ʤäΤǤ롥
Τ褦ʥɤνǻȤδ̯ħϡ̩ܤ˴ϢƤܤɥˤäѤꤵƤᡤŤʴˤƤʪȥ뤹뤳Ȥ⡤ϤʤäҤȤĤˤϡȳܤβ˶ŪǤäǤ⤢롥ɤνǻȤϡɥҽǶȹˤäƻۤƤʰƱȹ礬μιŪǽ̤ͣλǤˡɥDZĶȤŪǤäᡤݾ㤵ƤäƥɥǤĤξǤ졤ǧĤDZĶȤȤष褦Ȥܤμ뤳ȤϡɥҽǶȹפˤʤäƤ⤤Τȹ¤ݼŪǤꡤμ¤Ȥ狼äƤʪפ夲뤳ȤƤԤ¦⤽ʾ˰ۤϤʤäȤΤۤܤʤƤ⡤ȥڥեɥĤ顤ñǤƤޤäŪʽҼ̤ơɤɼԤʵϤγؽѽҤƲ¢ۤ夲뤳ȤǤɤ⥤ɤνǶȼԤϤ٤ˤƤϡۤȤɽפ̤ƤʤäΤǤ롥
礤ǹĤȯ줿ȤǤΤȤϡ¯줿Ѹ줬äդȤƤդȤƤĹ˰ҿΤ˹Ȥ⤤롥
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