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2011-08-31 Wed

#856. LAEME text database Υǡȥƥȵ [map][laeme][lalme]

LAEME text database ǰƤ scribal texts οϡLAEME Index of Sources (PDF) ˤȡä168ĤΤʤϿ޾ΰ֤ꤵƤΤ121ġ72%ˤǤ롥־ Ordinance Survey National Grid Reference Ȥ뤷ƥƥȤˤĤƥդƤΤǡȤ߹碌СǡȤˤɤ٤εϤΥƥȤѥȤѤǤ뤫Ͽ޾ɽ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥κȤ[2011-08-21-1]εHelMapperUK --- hellog ͤαѹϿ޺ CGIפǸϿ޺ġѤƹԤʤäʲ̤Ǥ롥

LAEME data points and text sizes

ۤʤǡ96ǡȴϢŤƥȡʷˤʿͤ6307ۤɤǤʥդ줿Ϥ㴳ˡȤϿޤα˼ɤαߤѤʿѸѤȤơƥǡѤȴִݤȤƤʻͤޤǤˡHelMapperUK ɤ߹ޤǡˡ
ϿޤįľŪˤ狼뤳ȤϡǡˤϿˤ衤South-West Midland South-East Midland ˿ʬȽ椷ƤȤȤǤ롥ϡLAEME ԼԤ1ͤǤ Laing ʸ "Never the twain shall meet" դ򴭵Ƥ̤Ǥ롥LAEME ΥƥȤΰϡLALME Ԥ߽Ф "fit technique" ȤŪˡäƤ뤬μˡݤθ "anchor texts" ȸƤФμ¤ʽȯ¿뤫ɤȤˤ롥ǰʤȤˡѸȰۤʤѸǤ "anchor texts" ʤ˾ʤ"anchor texts" ϡŪʰ˺ݤƼФΤ褦˵ǽ뤿ᡤȯΥʬۤƤȡ줫 "fit" 褦ȻפäƤƥȤŪΤɤ餫¦˰ĤƤޤȤ̤ˤʤ뤳Ȥ¿Midland ˥ǡޤФʤΤϡΤ褦ʻˤⵢ롥
Ͽ޺ġ HelMapperUK ϡȾ LAEME γѤΤ˺ä褦ʤΤLAEME ΤʬϤΤˤѤǤ
ʤLAEME Index of Sources Žդ PDF Ǥ뤬¾ˤLAEME Υȥåץڡ Auxiliary Data Sets -> Index of Sources Ȥɤȡ͡ʥѥ᡼ˤ꥽ƥȤξ󸡺Ǥ롥

Laing, Margaret. "Never the twain shall meet: Early Middle English --- The East-West Divide." Placing Middle English in Context. Ed. I. Taavitsainen et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 97--124.
McIntosh, Angus, M. L. Samuels, and M. Benskin. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English. 4 vols. Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1986.

Referrer (Inside): [2012-10-10-1] [2011-08-21-1]

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2011-08-30 Tue

#855. lexical diffusion critical mass [lexical_diffusion]

óȻ (lexical diffusion) SǤϡͤ޷äϤ"take-off" ȸƤФ롥̤ѸǤϡcritical mass ׳̡ˤȤƤФ롥LDOCE5 critical mass ߤƤߤ褦

1. the amount of a substance that is necessary for a nuclear chain reaction to start
2. the smallest number of people or things that are needed in order for something to happen or be possible


1ˤ褦ˡȤȤʪؤѸǡʬʪϢȿγ³Τɬפʪ̤ؤ̣ΰ̲ꡤʪؤ˸¤餺̤ˡĶȤʤϢȿߤ뤳Ȥ񤷤ʤȤֶ̤򺸱פ̣褦ˤʤä
Ѳ lexical diffusion Ĺ餯ؿ󤻤Ƥ"S-curve", "take-off", "critical mass" Ȥ褦ʥɤͭʤΤϲѲ˸¤ʤȻȤݤˤˤˤߤ뤷षѲγȻʤɤϳȻθ̤ˤƶˤƼŪǤ롥ȻϸѲʳΰǤǤꡤθѲᤷƤ뤳Ȥפȹͤ롥
ǡdiffusion Rogers Diffusion of Innovations ɤʸ471ǤȤΤܤˤĤƤθڤϡդɤ¤ʤȰ쥫ΤߤǤ롥⡤¾θԤΰʸΤʤǿƤˤʤʲϡcritical mass εΤʤǡԤ Schelling ȤԤѤƤսǤֻܥ֥ɮԡˡ

The notion of critical mass originated in physics, where it was defined as the amount of radioactive material necessary to produce a nuclear reaction. "An atomic pile 'goes critical' when a chain reaction of nuclear fission becomes elf-sustaining" (Schelling, 1978, p. 89). Various illustrations of critical mass situations, in which a process becomes self-sustaining after some threshold point has been reached, abound in everyday life. A single log must be present so that each log reflects its heat onto the other. When the ignition point is reached, the fire takes off, and the two logs burn to ashes. / The critical mass bears on the relationship between the behavior of individuals and the larger system of which they are part. It thus centers on a crucial cross-level analysis that is "characteristic of a large part of the social sciences, especially the more theoretical part" (Schelling, 1978, p. 13). "The principle of 'critical mass' is so simple that it is no wonder that it shows up in epidemiology, fashion, survival and extinction of species, language systems, racial integration, jaywalking, panic behavior, and political movements" (Schelling, 1978, p. 89). / The concept of the critical mass is fundamental to understanding a wide range of human behavior because an individual's actions often depend on a perception of how many other individuals are behaving in a particular way (Schelling, 1978). (Rogers 349)


βս꤬ܽͣθؤθڤȤäƼ˾櫓ǤʤषѲؤγȻαѤϻϤޤäФʤΤʤȥ󥹥ѥ줿Ȼ˳غŪǤꡤѲ̤ѶŪ˻ǤĶäƤ褦lexical diffusion ʤɤȸƤ֤Ȥʤˤ鸷ᤷɭѲ¾¿ʪƱ褦γȤ򼨤Τ̤ʤȤϲʤ
¿ΰ̤γȻλǤϡȻγ礬͸5--20%ãȤʤȻߤ뤳Ȥ񤷤ʤȤ (Rogers 12, 274, 360)פˡն critical mass ȹͤƤ褤ϸѲξˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤޤΤڤɬפ롥

Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. 5th ed. New York: Free Press, 1995.
Schelling, Thomas C. Micromotives and Macrobehavior. New York: Norton, 1978.

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2011-08-29 Mon

#854. ̾̾ she (3) [personal_pronoun][she][gender][personification][political_correctness][corpus][statistics][lexical_diffusion]

ɸˤĤ[2011-08-27-1], [2011-08-28-1]εˤƤѸǤˡ she ԸդȤʤäƤƤ롤뤤ϾʤȤ⤽ register ޤäƤƤΤϤʤ
ˤϡ1960ǯʹߡȤ櫓ꥫѸǹޤäƤ gender ˽ʿȤ political correctness (PC) ؤδؿäƤ롥δ顤ʹ֤ΤȤƤ man(kind) -essȿͤɽ魯ʣ -man̿;̾ȤƤ he λѤʤɤ뤵졤ɽƤƤʴϢϡ[2009-08-20-1]ˤο͵ϤʤΤ, [2010-01-27-1]ָѸλ;ñ̾, [2011-04-17-1]֥ȥåŪȥݥȤƤθ츻פʤɤε򻲾ȡ
δ she üˡ򸫤ȡ̾ΩƤƽ̾ǼͳϤʤǤϤʤȤ롥ΰԤȤäȤѸˤȿǤƤ뤳ȤϳΤߤδѤ٤ϤʤȤͤǤ롥
ä˹̾ she ˡϡĥä񤭸դȤ register ˸¤ȡ1960ǯʹߡ㸺ƤƤ뤳Ȥ¾ڤ롥The Times corpus ѤƤ򸡾ڤ Bauer (148--49) ˤȡ1930ǯޤǤϹؼ she ˡɸŪäºݡ1900ǯ1930ǯδ֤ǡؼ it 3ΤߤäȤȤ1935ǯʹߡit 㤬³Ū˸1970ǯˤshe ư쵤ɸȤʤäshe 㤬ƤϵSƤ뤫Τ褦ǤꡤóȻ (lexical diffusion) פ碌롥ʲΥդ Bauer (149) Υդ˴ŤƳƺΤǤ롥

Feminine References to Country Names in The Times Corpus


Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.

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2011-08-28 Sun

#853. ̾̾ she (2) [personal_pronoun][she][personification][gender]

ε[2011-08-27-1]ǡѸ̾̾ she εϡűѸʸˡǤϤʤѸδŪʵˡˤ뤳Ȥ⤷ϸѸǤˡˤĤơʸ󤲤ʤ鸫Ƥ
֤ʤɤξʪؤ she ϡäѤȤ롥ϡʪ򰦾оݤȤƤȤ館Ƥ뤫ȸ롥

Look at my sports car. Isn't she a beauty?
What a lovely ship! What is she called?
Hundreds of small boats clustered round the yacht as she sailed into Southampton docks.
There were over two thousand people aboard the Titanic when she left England.


̾ she ϡʸкŪʴȤ館Ѥ뤬Ū˸ˤ it Ѥ롥

Iraq has made it plain that she will reject the proposal by the United Nations.
France increased her exports by 10 per cent.
Britain needs new leadership if she is to help shape Europe's future.
After India became independent, she chose to be a member of the Commonwealth.


ɽ Australian English ǤϡϵͲʤΤǤ it she Ѥ뤳Ȥ롥ξ硤ʤɤδ𤬰ؤ (Quirk et al. 318)

Remember that battle? Yeah, she was a doozie.
She's an absolute bastard, this truck.


Τ褦ˡʸϽФƤ뤬ߤǤϤˡˤʤäƤƤ뤳Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥פʳؽѱѱѼƤߤȡOALD8 ǤϤˡεҤʤLDOCE5 Ǥ "old-fashioned" Υ졼٥롤Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, 2nd ed. Ǥ "mainly literary" Υ졼٥롤Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary Ǥ "somewhat old-fashioned" Υ졼٥롤COBUILD English Dictionary Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary Ǥϥ졼٥ʤäˤäƥ졼٥˺뤬ΤȤƤˡ register ꤵƤƤ餷Ȥʬ롥

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2011-08-27 Sat

#852. ̾̾ she (1) [personal_pronoun][she][gender][personification]

űѸˤʸˡäѸˤʸˡʤʤꡤ˼ (natural gender) ääȤѲϡѸˤˤ˽פǤ ([2009-05-23-1], [2009-05-26-1]) ѸˤμȤʸˡ伫ä򤹤ȡޤäƴ󤻤ꥢ󡦥ڡѡ䤤롥ϡʤɤξʪ̾̾Ȥ she ѤȤѸδˤĤƤǤ롥줬űѸʸˡƤȤ¸ߤʸˡȲ餫δطΤεǤϡˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ȡ̾ she ǼȤϡűѸʸˡε§ȤϤޤäطʤ⤽űѸǡ (scip) ̾Ǥꡤ̾ǤϤʤäOED ˤȡʰʲ˰ѡˡ̾ȤƤ she ν1375ǯǤ롥14--15οˤĤƤʸˡĥե󥹸줫ȤƲᤷΤ⤢뤬Ūʵˡ (personification) ȸ٤

2. Used (instead of it) of things to which female sex is conventionally attributed. a. Of a ship or boat. Also (now chiefly in colloquial and dialect use), often said of a carriage, a cannon or gun, a tool or utensil of any kind; occas. of other things.


ʤɤξʪƻΤۤˡԻ̾񡤹̾⡤䤽¾ŷΤʤɤ she ǼƤˤ뤬űѸʸˡλ¸ȤϹͤʤѸ줫˭٤ϡMED entry for "she" (pron.) 2(c) 򻲾ȡ
ŪʵˡȤȡĤɤΤ褦˴ƤȤȤȤʤ롥ʸؤΰĤȤѸʸؤǤŪͲ (allegorical personification) ԤʤƤҤ褦ˡե󥹸δʸˡ򤽤ΤޤޱѸȲ᤹٤⤢뤬ͿžƤ⤢ꡤȤư̲ǤʤΤ¤Ǥ롥դλ Mustanoja (49--50) ˳⤵Ƥ뤬Ʊ̾ǤʤˤäƵͲͿۤʤʤɡȤϤʤμͳ٤ä褦ѸεŪ she ˡˤĤƤϡŪʸŪ뤳ȤɬפΤ褦ѸǤˡˤĤƤϡεǡ

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2011-08-26 Fri

#851. ꥹѸФ륢ꥫѸαƶ2狼 [americanisation][ame_bre]

ꥹѸޤ᤿αѸѼ郎ǯꥫѸ첽 (Americanisation) ƤƤ뤳ȤϤˤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ americanisation γƵǼ夲ƤꥹѸ (BrE) Americanisation ʤȡϤĺܳŪ˻ϤޤäΤ
[2009-10-02-1]ε֥ꥫѸλʬפǥꥫѸˤ򳵴Ѥ褦ˡꥫѸ (AmE) ꥹѸ (BrE) ̤ѼȤȯŸƤΤϥꥫΩʹߤΤȤǤ롥Ωʹߤξ϶̩ʴطݤäƤƤꡤŪ߾ϤäMencken ˤȡΤȤ BrE AmE ؤήϽ񤭤ȤФ̤Ƥʤ줿ΤФAmE BrE ؤή¯줬濴ä

Americanisms get into English use on the lower levels and then work their way upward, but nearly all the Briticisms that reach the United States first appear on the levels of cultural pretension, and most of them stay there, for the common people will have none of them. (Mencken 272)


ߤǤϱƶϰŪ AmE BrE ؤǤ롥ܳŪ BrE Americanisation ϤޤäΤϡճ٤2椫Ǥ롥Bauer (65--66) Ѥ롥

Many American servicemen were stationed in Britain during the Second World War, and from that period on there was considerable influence from films and, later, television. Before 1939, very few people could afford to cross the Atlantic. At the start of the war, the 'talkies' were only about ten years old. While the printed word and popular music clearly did have an effect in terms of vocabulary before that time, reactions to the speech of American servicemen in Britain during the war suggests that the effect had not been all that great in other areas, and even in the area of vocabulary had not been all-pervasive.


ꥫˡ (Americanism) ܳŪήΤäޥǥǤϤʤ߱ƷȤľܤܿǤäȤ̣ФơߤαѸѼ Americanisation ϼȤƥ󥿡ͥåȡDz衤ƥӤʤɤΥޥǥDzݥåץʤɤ罰ڤ̤Ƥ

Mencken, H. L. The American Language. Abridged ed. New York: Knopf, 1963.
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-12-26-1] [2013-01-11-1]

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2011-08-25 Thu

#850. 񤭸դȯŪ׹ͤδط [writing][medium][alphabet][grammatology][buddhism][literacy]

εä񤭸 (2) ([2011-08-24-1]) ι (3) ǡŵŪˤäơ񤭸դäդʬŪŪǤܸǤѸǤɸŪʽ񤭸դȤˤĤƤԤˤȤäơϾQŪ˼񤭸դΤۤҤȤʸʸΤˤľϡŪʻ׹ͤθȤҡʹʸˡʸʤɤؤοˤäƤɽ蘆Ƥ롥
ʸȯʹ֤λ׹ͼѤȤΤϷ̤ȤƤϻ¤ΰ̴طä˽񤭸դȯŸŪ׹ͤȯŸΰ̴طɤΤ餤ľŪǤ뤫ˤĤƤǮ蘆Ƥ롥Kramsch (40--41) Ѥ롥

. . . as has been hotly debated in recent years, the cognitive skills associated with literacy are not intrinsic to the technology of writing. Although the written medium does have its own physical parameters, there is nothing in alphabet and script that would make them more suited, say, for logical and analytic thinking than the spoken medium. To understand why literacy has become associated with logic and analysis, one needs to understand the historical association of the invention of the Greek alphabet with Plato's philosophy, and the influence of Plato's dichotomy between ideas and language on the whole of Western thought. It is cultural and historical contingency, not technology per se, that determines the way we think, but technology serves to enhance and give power to one way of thinking over another. Technology is always linked to power, as power is linked to dominant cultures.


Τˡ񤭸դΤŪ׹ͤǽˤʤäȤΤŪ˴ְ㤤ȤϤʤľܤΰ̴ط򼨤ΤǤϤʤ񤭸դŪ׹ͤϸߤ褤ȤϳΤɬŪ¾߽ФȤطˤϤʤ褦˻פ롥ξԤΤŪΥƥåפʳäƤ롥Ѥˤ륮ꥷե٥åȤȥץȥǹͤȡʲΤ褦ʥƥåפꤵ롥

(1) 1000ǯꥷ˽񤭸աʥե٥åȡˤ줿 ([2010-06-24-1])
(2) Ż뤹ץȥ (427?--347?BC) ůؤꥷ˸줿
(3) ƶ˥ꥷǽ񤭸դӤĤ
(4) ξԤϰöӤĤϤ褤ΤǡθϤɬŪʴطǤ뤫Τ褦˸褦ˤʤä

ˤȤäƤʸȯ ([2009-06-08-1]) 䡤ʸؤν񤭸դƳϡ˾˳̿ŪǤɾƤ㤨С[2010-02-17-1]εֳ轡ѸܸͿŪƶפǼ夲褦ˡѸؤϥꥹȶطʤ˥ƥͳǥޥ󡦥ե٥åȤܸؤʩطʤͳǴ줾Ƴ졤ξΤθŪȯŸŤʸƳȤѰžΤΤθŪȯŸľܤοϤä櫓ǤϤʤե٥åȤȤʸθƤԤŪʸؤӼäȤľܤθưϤäϤǤ롥ʸϤޤǡʤ˶ϤʡΤǤʤäȤȤʸƳϤθŪȯŸˤȤäƳ̿ŪäפȤ⤤ϡȤȤªƤΤ褤Τ⤷ʤ
Τ褦˹ͤȡεΩ (3) ƤϡޤǷ򼨤ΤǤꡤλʸ˰¸ŪʤΤǤȹͤ٤ʤΤ

Kramsch, Clair. Language and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 1998.

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2011-08-24 Wed

#849. ä񤭸 (2) [writing][register][medium]

ä (speech) 񤭸 (writing) ΩˤĤƤϡ[2011-05-15-1]εä񤭸פʤɤǼ夲ޤξԤζŪʤΤǤϤʤorality literacy ħϤٸߤ˾ǽǤ뤳ȤˤĤơ[2009-12-13-1]εäȤФȽ񤭤ȤФΩŪפ
ä (ʹ S) Ƚ񤭸 (ʹ W) ֤ϡW ƤԤˤȤäƤϡΤΰ㤤ȤƼǤ褦˻פ롥ŵŪ S ʲáˤ W ʸϡˤΤˤɤΤ褦ħκۤΤˤĤƤϡ٤äͤƤߤʤȤˤФʤ⤷ʤKramsch (37--41) 򻲹ͤˡ7Ω夲褦

(1) S ϰŪ (transient) W ϱ³Ū (permanent) Ǥ롥
W ΤħˤꡤW S 礭ʸҤӤӤ롥Ķƾѡã뤳ȤǤ뤷񤫤ƤƤΤΤƱͤ˱³ŪǤȤۤ뤫Ǥ롥
(2) S ɲŪǴŪ (additive and rhapsodic) W ȷ« (ordered and cohesive) Ƥ롥
S ǤäߤȯäˤѤ߾夲Ÿ뤬äȤ⤿ʤ W ǤϤϤᤫ٤ʷ«ä¤롥S Ϥξ¨ǡW Ϥ餫ơȤۤȤϢ롥
(3) S ϼҲŪ (aggregative and phatic) W ʬŪŪ (analytic and logical) Ǥ롥
S ǤüԴ֤ʷϵŪȤɽ¿ʤ뤬W ǤƤˤĤʬϤ׹ͤ뤳Ȥ˽椹ɽ¿
(4) S ;Ū (redundant) W ;Ū (non-redundant) Ǥ롥
(1) ħ椨ˡS äʹû򶯤餶򤨤򤱤뤿˷֤¿Ѥ롥ǡW ϤΤ褦ûθɬפʤΤǡष;ŪǤ뤳Ȥ򤱤뷹롥
(5) S ʸˡŪ˴ˤǤŪ˴ (grammatically loose and lexically sparse) W ʸˡŪ˰ޤäƤŪ˶Ž̤ (grammatically compact and lexically dense) 롥
S Ρ֤ξ¨ǡפȤбơS ǤϸνȤʸˡŪˤŪˤäƤΤŬڤǤ롥ǡW Ρ֤餫ơפȤбơW ǤϺǽ餫ʤ̩٤ι⤤ʸϤäƤΤŬڤǤ롥
(6) S Ͽ濴 (people-centered) W 濴 (topic-centered) Ǥ롥
S ǤꤽΤΤǤʤʹδʤɤˤθɬפ뤬W ǤΤã뤳Ȥ˽Ǥ롥
(7) S ʸ̮¸Ū (context dependent) W ʸ̮Ū (context-reduced) Ǥ롥
S Ǥʸ̮ˤΤǡ뷹롥ǡW Ͻ񤤤ƤǤʸ̮ɤȤˤϼƤʸ̮θƤˤȤ¿ᡤʸ̮˰¸ˤ

Ω֥쥹ȤС7ܰʳˤ⤤ȽФƤºݤ˼ȤDz٤֥쥹ȤƤߤ⤷ä

Kramsch, Clair. Language and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 1998.

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2011-08-23 Tue

#848. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ (2) [french][latin][loan_word][etymology]

[2011-02-09-1]εѸˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡פε³[2011-08-20-1]εָѸθäεȳפǤ⿨줿 Philip Durkin κǶιֱ "Some neglected aspects of Middle English lexical borrowing from (Anglo-)French" ǡɸƤֱȤΥϥɥȤȤˡΰüҲ𤷤

줬ե󥹼Ѹ줫ƥѸ줫ϡե󥹸ˤθ˴Ť˸ȽǤ뤬¿ϤȤ᤬Τ褦ʥǤϡ줫μѤǤȤǽǤʤѶŪ˾뤳ȤǤʤĤޤꡤξ줫 multiple input ȤǽǰƬ֤Ƥɬפ롥
θǤ뤫ˤ餺Υե󥹡ƥѸ¿ǤꡤθѸȲꤷꤵ¿θޤǤ롥
Helsinki Corpus ˴ŤĴˤȡե󥹡ƥѸǸ٤ι⤤ϡ餫٤ä櫓ǤϤʤѸ˹٤ȤʤäƤե󥹡ƥѸϡȤ13--14˼Ѥ줿Ǥ롥
1380ǯˤϡΦե󥹸ΤߤǤȾѸ¸ߤʤΤ褦ʼѸ줬ϤΤϡ14Ⱦ15ˤƤǤ롥

ե󥹡ƥѤνΥǥǤϡʲΤ褦ʰۤ󤬤ä(1) ѸϤ줫θʤ줫ȽǤʤȤƤˤѤ(2) ˡƱƱȯŸ¾θƱ졤뤤ϤϢ줫̣ѤԤʤȤˤäƸɲäƤȤä
Durkin ϡĴ̤˴Ťե󥹡ƥѤˤĤƿʥǥƤƤ롥ƤϼΤ褦ǤѸ줫ѸˤƤλ塤ä˱Ѹ줬ϿθȤ̤λǤ⡤󥰥ɤˤƥե󥹸ȥƥ¿ʬǸҤθǤ³Υ󥰥ɿͤŪξȤοܿ򷫤֤ƤΤ褦¿Ҳˤơ󥰥ɿͤϡ°ҲĤ˱٤κϤ졤Ѹ졤ե󥹸졤ƥΤǸߤбη֤Ọ̇̄ΤäƤȹͤ롥ˤ錄 "multiple input" η̤ȤơѸη֤Ọ̇̄ѤʣƤΤǤϤʤ
ǥǤϡθ줬ѸȤεϡΥ󥰥¿ҲˤƼѸη֤Ọ̇̄ɤΤ褦¿ƤȤε˾ƤƤ롥֤ľŪȯãȤϡߤʣŪʱƶβǽŻ뤵Ƥ롥[2010-08-06-1]εָ츻ؤϵݤʳؤפǡ츻ˤŪ츻ȳŪ츻뤳ȤҲ𤷤Durkins οǥŪ츻Τߤʤ餺Ū츻ˤܤХ󥹷Υǥɾ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ

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2011-08-22 Mon

#847. Oxford Learner's Thesaurus [lexicography][dictionary][thesaurus][lexicology][synonym][semantic_prosody]

ѸˤϿ¿켭ŵ (thesaurus) ꡤ[2010-08-11-1]εtoilet ˭٤նɽ WordNet Visuwords ǤߤפǼ褦˥饤Ǽλвġ⾯ʤ餺¸ߤ롥Ū켭ŵȤƤ⡤ǯ HTOED (Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary) TOE (A Thesaurus of Old English) Ƥꡤ趷褷Ƥ롥
Ūˤ̻ŪˤѸäθĶäƤƤ뤬ȤƤαѸγؽĶȤ켭ŵϤޤǤޤΩäƤʤäؽδβˤĤƤϡOALD LDOCE ʤɤϷ޳ؽѱѱѼϤƤƤꡤȯѤαѸؽˤΩĤ⤷⤬ƤȲòؽ켭ŵȤΤϤޤǤƤʤäͣ졤American Heritage Thesaurus for Learners of English (2002) ä餤2008ǯˤʤäɸ Oxford Learner's Thesaurus (OLT) Ǥ줿μϻμ긵ˤ⤢äޤä˶ؿϤʤռŪ˳ȤϤۤȤɤʤäǶ Komuro and Ichikawa ˤ OLT μʬϤɤǡؽ켭ŵ˶̣襤ƤħΤäƤȤפʤΤǡʲ OLT ˤĤΤäƤƤ褤Komuro and Ichikawa 򻲾Ȥʤ餤Ĥ󤲤Ƥ

OLT ϡOxford Thesaurus of English (2000, 2004) ʪǤϤʤष OALD7 (2005) Ȥδط (12) ºݤˡOALD7 ⤬¿ OLT ȿǤƤ롥ʤĤޤꡤǽ餫ؽԸ˥塼˥󥰤ƤꡤʿפǤ椤Ȥ˼꤬ϤҤԤ졤ºݤˤΤ褦ˤʤäƤ롥
OLT ˸¤ʤؽ켭ŵμ礿뵡ǽϡ"(1) make users aware of different connotations or shades of meaning synonyms have and to (2) enable users to choose and use the most appropriate word, which may not be part of their (active) vocabulary, in order to express their idea" (14)
ФϳؽԸФ줿1973ĤǡñǤʤʣ礬ФȤʤäƤ⤢ (16)
1ĤθФͿƤοϡͤȤ5--6 (26) ¿ʤؽԤˤȤäŬڡ
󤲤ƤʸϤŬڤǡCD-ROMǤǤϳФʿ3.7Ĥۤɤʸ󤲤Ƥ (29)
֤ζ̤ˤȤ櫓פ register Υ졼٥⤬̤Ȥ˽¤Ƥ (35--45) ä˲ɤʪȤƤ⤷񤫤Ƥ (45, 49)
̣ζ٤ˤäƶ̤췲ˤĤơŪ "synonym scales" ʤˡƳƤꡤؽ塤˸ŪǤ (49--52)

ΤȤ Komuro and Ichikawa "a groundbreaking learner's thesaurus (55) ȹ⤤ɾͿƤꡤä˺Ǹ "synonym scales" ɾˤĤƤϡºݤ˸ƤߤƱ㤨Сafraid synonym scale ϰʲ̤ꡥΤ褦˰ȡƬ롥

Synonym Scale of

ӥ塼ʸɤǤ줫ѶŪ OLT ѤƤߤȻפäޤѸؽΩǤ뤳Ȥϸ˵ڤФ̣θ˺ݤƤ⡤ܳŪ켭ŵ䤽¾μѤθŤơõˤȤȤݤä㤨Сsynonym scale ͿƤʲ126θФ줫Ŭ췲ӽФѥѤ semantic_prosody θ򤹤ȤΤ⤪⤷

admiration [n], afraid [a], anger [n], anger [v], angry [a], annoy [v], approval [n], bad [a], beautiful [a], cheap [a], childhood [n], close [a], cold [a], concern [n], convincing [a], crazy [a], crisis [n], defeat [v], delicious [a], delight [v], determine [v], dictate to sb [pv], disappoint [v], disapprove [v], disgusting [a], distress [n], embarrass [v], emotion [n], exciting [a], expose [v], fast [a], fat [a], fear [n], flush [v], frequent [a], friendship [n], frighten [v], frightening [a], frown [v], funny [a], gap [n], glad [a], happy [a], hate [v], hatred [n], high [av], hill [n], hot [a], hungry [a], hurt [v], hysterical [a], immediate [a], impress [v], inspire [v], interest [v], interested [a], interesting [a], ironic [a], like [v], likely [a], lonely [a], lose your temper [idiom], love [n], love [v], mad [a], magnificent [a], mean [a], mentally ill [a], minute [n], modern [a], negative [a], nice [a], odour [n], pain [n], painful [a], plain [a], please [v], pleasure [n], poor [a], possibility [n], praise [v], press [v], pressure [n], probably [adv], quite [adv], radical [a], rain [v], rape [v], recession [n], recommend [v], remarkable [a], respect [v], revenge [n], ridiculous [a], rough [a], rude [a], ruin [v], run [v], ruthless [a], sad [a], serious [a], shock [n], shock [v], show [v], small [a], smile [v], soak [v], sorry [a], star [n], strict [a], suppress [v], sure [a], surprise [v], take advantage of sb/sth [v], taste [n], tear [v], temper [n], tight [a], tired [a], ugly [a], unhappy [a], upset [a], violent [a], well [a], wet [a], worry [v]


American Heritage Thesaurus for Learners of English. Boston & New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, 2002.
Oxford Learner's Thesaurus: A Dictionary of Synonyms. Oxford: OUP, 2008.
Komuro, Yuri and Yasuo Ichikawa. "An Analysis of the Oxford Learner's Thesaurus: A Dictionary of Synonyms." Lexicon 41 (2011): 11--59.
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. 7th ed. Oxford: OUP, 2005.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-05-30-1]

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2011-08-21 Sun

#846. HelMapperUK --- hellog ͤαѹϿ޺ CGI [cgi][web_service][map][lalme][laeme][bre]

Ѹ򸦵椷ƤȡLALME Dot Map Υ󥰥ϿޤȻפ񤬤롥LALME ϿޤѤΤǤХԡꥹ󤷤ꤹФ褤饤 LAEME Ǥ "Mapping" ǽ "Feature Maps" äܤ٤ܤ˴ؤϿޤϥǥ롥ԤǤϡ"Create a Feature Map" ʤ桼ˤϿ޺ǽ⤪ɲäȤΤȤǡѸؤΥ奢벽ϺŸƹԤȻפ롥
Ǥ͡ʺؤϤ롥㤨СLAEME Ǥ⡤ʬδؿΤܤ LAEME ΤǰƤʤϿ޺ǽΩʤ㤨СѸ̾ʣθǤ̾ŪʸˡפLAEME text database ǤդƤʤΤǥեˤϳѤǤʤäˡLALME ˤĤƤϤ⤽Ͽޤǥ벽ƤѤˤϿޤΥǥ벽ʤȤƥȾɸΥǥ벽᤯˾ޤˡ
Ǥ⡤򤳤ޤͤԤäƤ櫓ˤϹԤʤ¸Υġȼʬδؿ糵ƤΤǤꡤ鸦ĶɬפΤѸϿޤ˴ؤ¤ꡤLALME LAEME ƥȤͿ󤵤С齸᤿ܤ˴ؤǡϿ޾˥ץåȤ뤳ȤϽʬ˲ǽǤ롥ʼפϾʤȻפ뤬ˤκȤ򾯤Ǥز뤿ˡHelMapperUK ʤ CGI ƤߤѹΥ١ޥå׾˥ǡݥȤץåȤȤñǽòƤꡤĤʤɤղõǽϤʤ奢벽ƳѤĤȤӤˤϽʬȻפ롥



ʲǻȤ򤹤뤬ˡޤΥǡեƤΥƥȥܥå˾񤭥ԥڤƽϷ̤γǧɤϡʣʬϤѸƥȤʬۤǡִݤȤʬϤΡĻͳѤ LAEME text database ѤʬϤΡ줾ηǾΤϥƥȤΤǤϤʤʬʬϤΤɽ魯ʼºݡHotta (55) ϿޤϤ褽Τ褦ˤ줿

ǤϡȤʴŪ˺ԸĿͻͤΤΤƤʤΤǥ󥿡եƤޤ󡤤餺ˡƥȥܥåˤ餫ϤƤȤꡤϥǡ (Configuration) ǻϤޤ롥ʲǽѿ

mapѿˤ "England" "UK" 롥ǡϤϿޤϰϤꡥ
scaleѿϡXYؤγΨꡥʤ (scale=1 1) ȡϲ 386 * 313 Pixels (England) 529 * 557 Pixels (UK) 礭
pattern + ѿϡץåȤѤ뵭롥θˤϥڡڤ (1) ("box", "circle", "cross", "diamond", "invertedtriangle", "plus", or "triangle") (2) ηɤĤ֤ݤ (ex. "fill" or "stroke") (3) (ex. "aqua", "black", "blue", "cyan", "green", "lime", "magenta", "red"; ¾ο̾ˤбƤϤϤȿǤʤ⤢) (4) 礭Ĺߤľ¤ Pixelsˤ4ܤͤͿ롥ѥϹʤ桼ǽ

θ˥ǡ (Data points) ³1Ԥ1ǡݥȤǡƹԤϥֶڤ (1) Xɸ(2) Yɸ(3) 줿ѥ̾Τ줫 ("pattern1" ʤɡˤ3ܤͤͿʼºݤˤϥѥ̾Ͼάǽξ硤ưŪ "pattern1" Ѥ롥ˡɸϤˤĤƤϡLALME LAEME ǺѤƤ Ordinance Survey National Grid Reference 3夺Ĥκɸ (ex. "372 244") 뤤ϰ̤η١ (ex. -2.408752393 52.09322081) ΤǽʼưȽꤵˡ
ԡ뤤 "#" ǻϤޤ륳ȹԤϥǡȤ̵뤵롥

Ϸ̤ GIF βȤɽ롥ӡEPS Υ٥ȤƤɤǤ褦ˤʤΥե򤤤ΤǤСƼޤ᤿٤塼˥󥰤ǽˡ
ѹ١ޥåפκˤϡCIA World DataBank II DCW Map Interface for Europe Υǡ򻲾Ȥ

ʸ嵭2011/08/31(Wed)[2011-08-31-1]εLAEME text database ΥǡȥƥȵϡפǡHelMapperUK ǺϿޤμ򼨤

McIntosh, Angus, M. L. Samuels, and M. Benskin. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English. 4 vols. Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1986.
Laing, Margaret and Roger Lass, eds. A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English, 1150--1325. http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laeme1/laeme1.html . Online. Edinburgh: U of Edinburgh, 2007.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.

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2011-08-20 Sat

#845. Ѹθäεȳ [lexicology][loan_word][statistics][bnc][corpus]

ѸθäˤȼѸΨˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤夲ƤĤ󥯤ĥäƤ

[2010-12-31-1]: #613. Academic Word List ˴ޤޤγ
[2010-06-30-1]: #429. ѸκѸ10000εȳ
[2010-05-16-1]: #384. ÿȥޥΨǸűѸȸѸθäӤ
[2010-03-02-1]: #309. Ѹδܸ100εȳ
[2009-11-15-1]: #202. Ѹδܸ600εȳ
[2009-11-14-1]: #201. ѸμѸεȳ (2)
[2009-08-15-1]: #110. ѸμѸεȳ

οŪĴˤϡ󤲤ݤΥ򲿤ˤ뤫type-count token-count ɤΤ餤θõϤ򰷤츻ˤޤĤΤɤΤ褦˽뤫ʤɤιθ٤ब͡ꡤԤˤäƷ̤ޤޤȤʤ뤳Ȥ롥ʣĴ٤С褽ʿͤƤΤΤǤ롥
äƤ ICOME7 (The Seventh International Conference on Middle English) ǡ84OED3 μ紴츻ؼ Philip Durkin ᤬ "Some neglected aspects of Middle English lexical borrowing from (Anglo-)French" ꤹֱǴϢˤĤƿƤΤǡ⤷Ƥ
Durkin BNC 1000ΥꥹȤФ츻ʬϤη̡Ѹ줬489졤ե󥹡ƥ줬489졤Υɸ줬32졤ʳθ줬10Ȥͤ줿絬ϥѥ٥ꥹ (see [2010-03-01-1]) Ѥ츻ĴϤĤʬǤȻפäƤDurkin ΤǤϫϤʤȤǤʤ꤬Ȥޤˡ
ˤꡤ嵭Υ󥯤ǼĴȹ碌ơtype-count ˴Ť100졤600졤1000졤2000졤3000졤4000졤5000졤6000졤7000졤8000졤9000졤10000Ȥ12ʳθõϤǤθΨ줿Ȥˤʤ롥ΤȤʤ븽Ѹäξ󥽡ʬϤ줾ۤʤäƤΤ⤷ʤܰ¤Ȥưʲ򼨤ʬ English, French and/or Latin, Scandinavian, Other Ȥ4줷

LevelEnglishFrench/LatinScandinavianOther
100 (GSL)92%3%5%0%
600 (LDOCE3)474544
1000 (BNC)46.948.93.21.0
1000 (Williams)831322
2000 (Williams)345727
3000 (Williams)2960110
4000 (Williams)2762110
5000 (Williams)276418
6000 (Williams)2761210
7000 (Williams)2362213
8000 (Williams)2659213
9000 (Williams)2558215
10000 (Williams)2560114
Etymological Breakdown of the Most Frequent Words


夫3ܤ4ܤդϡƱ1000٥ǤӤ3ܤϾҤ Durkin BNC ĴˤΡ4ܤ[2010-06-30-1]εǼ Williams ΤΤǤ롥ۤĴˡۤʤ뤬椨դƲ᤹ɬפ뤬ΤȤƤʤ餫˿ܤǽŪˤ25%ƥ󡦥ե󥹸60%ʳ15%Ȥͤˤ褽夯褦

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2011-08-19 Fri

#844. Ѳͽۤ뤳Ȥϴݤ [prediction_of_language_change][language_change]

εָѲͽκ ([2011-08-18-1]) Ǥ⿨줿褦ˡѲͽۤȤĤߤˤĤƤϡ˸ؼԤΤǤ͡ʰո롥Bauer ϡѲͽۤ "hazardous" "risky" ǤȤơپĤ餷Ƥ롥ϢսѤ褦

Dealing with on-going changes is a very hazardous undertaking. It is tempting to conclude that, because we can see the beginning of a change, it follows that the change will continue. This is not true. It may even reverse itself. Consequently, predictions based on current trends mean very little. 'If current trends continue, then we may expect to find people saying xyz in the year 2050' is about as risky as predicting the value of the pound or the rate of inflation. (21)

Not only can we not predict the speed of a change, but we cannot predict whether it will be followed through to the end, or even whether it might be reversed. Diachronic linguistics is not a predictive science. (25)


εǰѤ (2) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤѲϼʳؤˡ§Ȱۤʤꡤ򼨤ˤʤϳΤǤ롥ȤСͽۤ򤹤뤳Ȥ˲βͤΤͽ۲餸ƤǤϤʤȤոФΤǤ롥ͽۤ뤫ʤȤäǽΤǤСỤ̄Ϥʤ
ͽۤγỤ̄򵿤ˡͽۤȤ԰٤ä¸ߤϤΡ̤ؤδؿѲ򿼤᤿Ȥ񿴤ºŤƤ褤褦˻פޤѲ򸦵椷Ƥ̤λѤͽۤʤ뵤Ǥ롥μʴؿ򲡤ȤΤϡˤƤ⸦ˤƤ幥ޤʤޤ鸽ߤؤȸѲƻڤɤѲɵ椷ƤԤˤȤäơλ̤˱ĹʤȤΤϤޤ˶ŪǤ롥
⤽⡤Ѳϡߤޤ³ƤѲή뤫⤷ʤȤ褦ʸŪʲǽռŪ˼ξݤ뤳ȤȤΩƤƤκȤϰۤλäΤǤϤʤ (2) θ褦ˡͽۤϸѲװϤΤΤǤϤʤϤ̤ĤߤǤȡѶŪɾ
ºݤΤȤBauer ƱΤʤͽۤ˶ᤤȤ򤷤Ƥ롥Bauer ηپϡͽۤޤ "tempting" 餳Ūˤϸ̩ͽۤԲǽʤΤȤĴƤäΤȤ򤷤Ƥ̤ǧBauer Ʊݤε Lass (Phonology, 328--29) Lass (Shape, 131) ǤʤƤȤΤǡǧ

Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
ԡѲѸ١ҤĤ˼2003ǯ
Lass, Roger. Phonology. Cambridge: CUP, 1984.
Lass, Roger. The Shape of English. London and Melbourne: J. M. Dent, 1987.

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2011-08-18 Thu

#843. Ѳͽκ [prediction_of_language_change][language_change][drift][acquisition]

(2) ǤϡѲͽȤκˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

̤ˤȤФѲˤĤƤͽϡ
(i) ߿ʹѲ
(ii) ˤƼºݤ˵äŪѲ
(iii) ƱϸˤߤѲ
(iv) Ļθ콬
ʤɤ˴ŤƹԤ롥


(i) (iv) ˤơΤݤءü줫̤ؤȴ⤯ʤäƤܤͤ롥(i) θߤˤѲλ¡(ii) βѲλ¡(iii) ƱϸθߤȲѲλ¡ drift εʤɤͿˡ(iv) ϸ줽ΤΤǤϤʤҥȤθ콬 (language acquisition) μʲ⸽ߤ̤ѤȤβǡˤˤ줾롥
(iii) θˡƱϡƱϸΡĤޤΤˤƸߤӲѲλ¤ȤäƤ褤ΤǤϤʤüŪˤС̸ŪʸѲ෿ (typology of language change) ȤǤ롥ָѲͽκפβǤ޼ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ

Ρü
á
á(1) θѲʸߡ
á
á(2) θѲʲ
á
á(3) ƱϸθѲʸߡ
á
á(4) θѲʸߡ
á
á(5) 콬ȸѲʸߡ

ݡ


μ꤬򻲹ͤˡ줬ɤΤ褦ѲƹԤΤ̤λѤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤˤʤˤĤͽʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ѲͽȤ԰٤ˤĤƤϡؼԤδ֤ˤ͡ʹͤ롥㤨СSapir (Chapters 7--8) ѶŪ˸Ѳͽ򤷤Ƥ뤬 Bauer (21, 25) ͽ˴Ǥ뤫⤤Ƥ롥
ǰѤ (2) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ȤФѲϡޤäƱ郎äȤäɬȤϸ¤ʤΰ̣ǡȤФѲϼʳؤˡ§ (law) ȤϤ (trend, tendency) 򼨤ˤʤ
ɡѲˤĤƤͽҤʤɤϡ֤ȤФѲװϲפȤŪϤ̤ΤǤ롥


ʸϤ顤ԤϸѲͽȤ԰٤βͤϡ줬뤫ɤȤͽȤƤ٤ˤΤǤϤʤѲθ餫ˤ褦ȤĤߤǤˤȹͤƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥Bauer ȽŪ٤褯ʬΤŪˤΩƱդ

ԡѲѸ١ҤĤ˼2003ǯ
Sapir, Edward. Language. New York: Hartcourt, 1921.
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.

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2011-08-17 Wed

#842. th-sound Ϥޤȯ [phonetics][phonology][phoneme][typology][airspeak][th]

̤ th-sound ([θ], [ð]) ϸ첻ȤƤϤޤǤꡤ¿üԤˤȤäƽˤȸƤ롥ºݤ [θ] [t] [s] ѤüԤ¿θƹŪʹҶѸ Airspeak Ǥ three tree Ȥȯ뤳ȤˤʤäƤۤɤth-sound ϤΤ褦ǰ̾⤤ȯȤƤߤʤƤꡤѸ liability 1ĤȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
ºݤΤȤλ໤ϡѸΤۤˤ⥹ڥ䥮ꥷʤŪ褯Τ줿ˤⲻǤȤƸ롥ƱνβؼԤȡβˤޤʲʤΤȤä򤷤ƤȤˡUPSID (The UCLA Phonological Segment Inventory Database) ʤ륵Ȥ¸ߤ򶵤Ƥä451βηϤΥǡ١إǤ륵ȤǡSimple UPSID interface Υ󥿡ե̤ơ줴ȤβϿꡤʬ᲻Ȥ෿Ū׾뤳ȤǤ롥
®໤ˤĤĴ٤ƤߤUPSID Segment Frequency ˤȡ0D ɽ [θ] ȡ6D ɽ [ð] 򲻱Ͽ˴ޤϤ줾ʲΤȤǤ롥

[θ] or "0d" (voiceless dental fricative) occurs in 18 languages (3.99% of the 451 languages): Albanian, Amahuaca, Araucanian, Bashkir, Berta, Burmese, Chipewyan, Greek, Huasteco, Iai, Karen, Lakkia, Mursi, Rukai, Spanish, Tabi, Wintu, Yay.
[ð] or "6D" (voiced dental fricative) occurs in 22 languages (4.88% of the 451 languages): Albanian, Aleut, Burmese, Chipewyan, Cubeo, Dahalo, Fijian, Greek, Guarani, Iai, Koiari, Mari, Mazatec, Mixtec, Moro, Nenets, Nganasan, Quechua, Rukai, Spanish, Tabi, Tacana.

Ĵоݤ451줫줿ۤʤʬ᲻919Ĥ뤬ٽ̤ȤƤ [θ] 126̡[ð] 113̤Ǥ롥̤ǹͤиۤɤޤʲǤϤʤΤ⤷ʤ451Τ4--5%ۤɤˤʤǤȼСΤˤޤȸΤ⤷ʤ줿ۤʤ919ʬ᲻8ʾ748ʬ᲻10ĶˤϸʤȤͤȡ[θ], [ð] ϡθˤߤ¿Τޤʬ᲻2Ĥˤʤ
ʤߤˡ̸Ū٤ι⤤ʬ᲻ȥå10ϡ[m, k, i, a, j, p, u, w, b, h] νȤ

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2011-08-16 Tue

#841. yod-dropping [phonetics][lexical_diffusion][implicational_scale][yod-dropping]

[2010-08-02-1]εBNC ФȯʤƬ <h>פ h-dropping ˤĤƿ줿ϸѸƤ̤βæ yod-dropping 夲롥yod Ȥ /j/ ɽ蘆Ⱦ첻ؤѸμפѼˤơΤ /juː/ /j/ æƤ뤳Ȥ𤵤Ƥ롥 <u(e)> <ew> ֻϤʬȯŪ /juː/ ǤäȤ򼨤ֻޤ¿θ줬ߤޤǤ /j/ 򼺤äƤ롥
Bauer (103--10) ˤȡƹɸȯǤ blue, rule /j/ 򼺤äȯԤʤƤ뤬dew, enthuse, lewd, new, suit, tune ǤѼˤä /j/ ̵ͭɤ򼨤ȤɤѼǤŪ /j/ ݤäƤ beautiful, cute, ewe, fume, huge, mute Τ褦ʸ⾯ʤʤ
Bauer Ĵˤꡤyod-dropping ϤѼ˸¤äȤƤä˰ͤ˺ѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤä˥褦˽˿ʹԤƤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤ줿߿ʹ óȻ (lexical diffusion) ιȤ˶̣ΤϡѼ鷺Ȼν褽Ǥ餷ȤȤǤ롥Bauer (106) ϡyod-dropping β˼Τ褦 "implicational scale" ƤƤ롥

/s/ > /θ/ > /l/ > /n, d, t/


scaleϡyod-dropping äλŪ /j/ ľλҲˤäƷޤäƤ뤳Ȥɽ魯 /s/ ǽ /n, d, t/ ǸˡƱˡscale Τʳ yod-dropping λƤ뤳ȤʬСκ¦Τ٤ƤʳǤǤ yod-dropping λƤϤȤͽ¬ǽˤ롥
⤫ϡνˤϲŪʺ򤬤ΤȤȤǤ롥Ҳ໤⤤Τ㤤Τؤȳ礷ƤäƤ褦˸뤬

Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.

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2011-08-15 Mon

#840. ʪο𤬱ѸǤĤ [scientific_name][elf]

82դ asahi.dom ǡ򸫤Ĥ

ʪο𡤱ѸǤġƥ
ǯ֡ƥ˸¤Ƥʪοȯ𤬱ѸǤǤ褦ˤʤäȥꥢܥdz줿ݿʪزĤޤϻΤǤʤŻҽǤʸǧ뤳Ȥˤ
ʪؤǤϣǯ˹ݥ롼뤬Ǥϡ֥ƥΤߡפǡΤ˷Ǻܤ줿Τ˸¤äƤβʸȯɽ®졤ưפˤʤȴԤ롥
̿̾ѰѰĹΥɥ顦ʥåΡʱѹʪۡˤϡֿʪʳؤˤȤä礭ʰ⡥Ǥľ̤Ƥ뺣郎᤯Ͽ졤õ䤹ʤΤư礤ΩĤϤפäȯɽ


2005ǯΥĤDz줿ݿʪ̿̾ (ICBN) 36ˤСпʪοʬෲ̿̾ˤϥƥˤ뵭ܤ̳ŤƤICBN βƤ6ǯ˰ٳŤݿʪĤǵķ褵뤬Υܥġ2011ǯ723?30ˤǤϡ˴٤ƤƤݷ褵Ƥ֥ƥ̳űѡפĤ˵ķ褵줿XVIII International Botanical Congress ˷ǺܤƤ Congress Resolutions ǡ𤬤ʤƤ롥ʲϢʬžܡֻϰѼԡˡ

Resolution 5
   The XVIII International Botanical Congress, in Melbourne, Australia, resolves that the decisions of its Nomenclature Section with respect to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (now to be the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants), noting with interest that specified types of electronic publication are now effective for nomenclatural purposes, that descriptions of new taxa may now appear in English or Latin, that, for valid publication, new names of fungi must include citation of an identifier issued by a recognized repository that will register the name, and that the Code will henceforth provide for a single name for all fungi and for all fossils falling under its provisions, as well as the appointment of officers and members of the nomenclature committees, made by that section during its meetings on 18-22 July, be accepted.


糰ʤΤǿʪؤʬෲ̿̾δˤĤƤϾܤΤʤεķϡˤƥʿƥʸɤϡʪؤθŵƥǽ񤫤Ƥ뤳ȡƥθʤʥեޥåȤ椨˰ľʿʬෲܤ򤱤뤳ȡƥ줬ŪʸǤ뤳ȡʤɤͳ˵󤲤Ƥ뤬ͳǤϲڤʤۤɤ˥ƥ䤬ƤȤȤޤεķϱѸ줬ĤƤΥƥƱεǽô褦ˤʤäƤƤڵǤ⤢롥
ƥˤƤѸˤƤ⡤Ū˰ŪʸȤΤ¸ߤΤɤϵ路Ȥ˸ʤʵϤ줿ȤƤ⡤ϼΤȤȤѲ뤳ȤϤ롥ޤθ줬ҿݤ³뤫ɤϼҲ׵˰¸뤬Ҳ׵ȤϻȤȤѤΤǤ롥ҲŪǽˤƱѸ줬ĤƤΥƥ˼ääƤƤȤȤϴְ㤤ʤѸ줬塤ĤƤΥƥĶƹŪ˰ŪʸȤʤȤͽ¬ϵ;Ϥ
Ϣơ̾ (scientific name) ˤĤơ[2010-09-21-1]εֳ̾פ򻲾ȡ

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2011-08-14 Sun

#839. register [register][terminology]

ܥ֥γƽ register ѰˤȤѸȤäƤǤϤ뤬ºݤˤʣʳǰǤ롥ʲؿѸؼŵ٤ "register" ιܤ򻲾ȤƼɮ롥
register ϸѼ1פǤ롥ϰ䳬ʤɤθѼϡ§ȤüԤäƤΤǡüԤտŪ˻Ȥʬ뤳Ȥ򤷤ʤŪʥפѼ (user variety) ǤΤФơregister üԤ̤ˤäƻȤʬŪʥפѼ (use variety) Ǥ롥[2009-12-10-1]εֱѸѼΥǥפ variety classes бС(1), (2) user variety (3), (4), (5) use variety (register) Ȥregister ϤޤǰŪѼǤϤ뤬ѰͤǡפʳǰǤ롥
Halliday θ (Hallidayan linguistics) ˤСregister ϰʲΤ褦˲̶ʬ롥

(1) field of discourse äξˡˤϡ礭ʬƸǧλ (cognitive use) ˤΤȡŪ (phatic use) ˤΤ롥ԤäʹοŪʤĤʤۤ뤿θѤǡŪ䰧ŵǤ ( phatic function ˤĤƤ[2010-10-02-1]εָεǽȸѲפ򻲾ȡˡ줬Ѥ˱ƶͿΤϡƸƼʸˡܤǤ롥Ū졤ʥʥ󥹡ֵ̤θꡤʳʸˡΧʸ񡤾⡤Żҥ᡼ʤɤǤϡ줾ͭɽʸˡܤ롥Ȥäǰ˶ᤤ
(2) mode of discourse äΡˡ礭äȤСʲˤȽ񤭤ȤСʸˤʬ롥ξԤϸѤˤƤФ֤뤬ºݤˤξԤδطȤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ[2011-05-15-1]εä񤭸פ[2009-12-13-1]εäȤФȽ񤭤ȤФΩŪפ򻲾ȡ
(3) style (tenor) of discourse äΥˡäʹδط˱ĥٹ礤б٤ι⤤Τ frozen, formal, consultative (unmarked), casual, intimate ʤɤȡΤˤ϶ʬǤʤϢ³Τ롥

register ϰΤ褦ʬ򤷤ƹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤬3Ĥβ̶ʬϤϢ³ΤǤꡤߴط¸Ƥ̤ΩƤ̤ꡤʣǤ롥register 1970ǯʹߤ˹ޤäѸȳǰǤꡤȤƤŪؼԴ֤ǴϢѸ˺ۤʤɤ꤬Τˤ椨

⿮ ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ

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2011-08-13 Sat

#838. ηϤȥȥԡ [entropy][functionalism][information_theory][functional_load]

εָѲˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1]) 񤭤ʤ顤ˤ׾֤뤤ϡ¡׾֤ȤϲͤƤؤξQȤơ̸ָϤ줬춦ƱΤ׵ܴۤΤǤꡤüԤˤȤäƤϤܴۤʵηϤǤפȤͤ롥ϡƸ줬üԤˤȤäƤϾˡפ˶ᤤ֤ˤȤȤ̣롥ιͤǤС̵Ȥϸ鷺Ȥ¡׾֤ˤ¸ߤʤȤȤˤʤ롥Ǥϡ֤üԤˤȤäơפȤפǤꡤޤŪʴǡפ˶ᤤȤȤǤ (ŪʸѤˤĤƤϡ[2011-06-06-1]εMartinet ˤȤäƸȤϡפ򻲾ȡˡޤμԤʣθŪʴ٤ơAΤۤBַפǤʤɤȷ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤȤˤʤ롥⤽⡤ŪˤɤΤ褦ʾ֤ǤСַפǤ뤫ˤĤƵҴŪʴ뤳Ȥ񤷤
Ūɾι꤬ʡַפפȤɽ򤱡Ūʴ̲ǤܤܤƤμ٤ABɾȤȤϲǽ⤷ʤ㤨СηϤо (symmetry) ѹ (balancedness) к (economy) ȤΤ̲ǤΤǤСλɸäơʬŪ˸ηϤΤΡַפȤȤϤǤ뤫⤷ʤ[2010-02-14-1]εָ٤¬뤫פεȤط뤬ʤ̤˹ͤȤȤǤС̲Ϥ䤹[2011-08-11-1]εǽôפ functional load ιͤϲ߽Ф줿Ūʳǰʤ¾ˤѤ뤳Ȥϲǽ⤷ʤʤäȤⲻΤ褦˹٤˹¤줿ǤϤʤȼ񤷤ˡ
ηϤΡַפɾȤơоѹкȤä󤲤Ƥߤ⤦1ĤȤơΥɤǤ⤢ȥԡ (entropy) ͤƤߤΤ⤪⤷ȥԡȤηϤȤƤ𻨤ٹ礤ؤͤ㤤ۤηϤäƤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ȤȤǮϳؤѸ˹ѤƤꡤؤαѤƻⳫƤȤ롥ηϤΥȥԡ¬ˡԤ߽ФȤưפǤϤʤñˤäơηϤȤƤε§ХȥԡԵ§Хȥԡ礹ɽ뤳ȤϤǤ롥
㤨СѲˤϡֲѲϵ§Ū뤬Ե§⤿餷˴ŤѲԵ§뤬ε§⤿餹׷뤬ȥԡѸѤСַˤơ§ŪʲѲϥȥԡ礵Ե§ŪѤϥȥԡ򸺾פȴǤʴϢơ[2011-03-19-1]εָüȷ֥饹פǼ夲ξüݻ䡤[2010-11-03-1]ε2 analogyפε򻲾ȡˡ
Ͼܤʤʸˡ˴פ֤ natural morphology ʤɤʬǤϡѲ򵭽ҡΤˡβμٹ礤θ롥ּפȤ⡤ȥԡоѹкʤɤƱͤˡηϤΡַפ魯1ĤǤ롥"natural", "balanced", "economical", "simple", "therapy" ʤɤȤɽˤݱʤ˲ʹѤɾޤޤƤޤ"entropy" ˤǮϳؤˡ§ȤäƲʳŪʶ뤷ΥɤȤϤޤ깤ĤƤʤ褦˻פ롥
Ǯϳؤ2ˡ§ˤСʪȥͥ륮ϰĤΤߤˡʤѲǽʤΤԲǽʤΤء뤤ѲǽʤΤԲǽʤΤء뤤Ϥޤ줿Τ顤̵줿ΤؤѲסʥեp. 45ˡĤޤꡤΰǥȥԡƤ褦˸Ƥ⡤ɬ¾ΰǤʾ˥ȥԡ礷ƤꡤΤȤƱΥȥԡΰӤ򤿤ɤȤȤǤ롥ʪؤŪʿȤǧƤΤϤˡ§ȸۤɤζˡ§ǤϡηϤȸηϤƤΤ⤷ȲꤹȡεָѲˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1]) ˤʤä Schendl (69) "therapeutic changes in one part of the grammar may create imbalance in another part" may must ɤߤʤʤФʤʤȤˤʤ롥ʤȤˡȥԡˡ§ϷΤߤŬѤȤѲεǤ may ۤɤβǤ褤Τ⤷ʤ

ߡե زǡȥԡˡ§١ҡ1990ǯ
Schendl, Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2001.

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2011-08-12 Fri

#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny [functionalism][language_change][systemic_regulation][phoneme][phonemicisation][minimal_pair][functional_load][teleology]

2֤εֵǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1]) ȡǽôȸѲ ([2011-08-11-1]) ǡSchendl 礤˽Фʤ顤ǽ (functionalism) Ĵǽ (systemic regulation) (therapeutic power) ǽô (functional load) ʤɤѸѤƤ˴ϢƼΤ褦ʼ䤬󤻤줿

Schendl (69)ΰѤˤĤƤҤȤļ򤵤Ƥ
'therapeutic changes in one part of the grammar may create imbalance in another part'
ȤޤɤΤ褦㤬Τפ⤫Ӥޤ󡥼ϤΤƤޤԶѹդȤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤʤΤȤƤⵤˤʤޤΤǸꤤޤ


Schendl ƱǶŪ󤲤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡɼԤȤƤϳͤƤߤ뤷ʤ㤨вˤѲ¾㤨зˤ̤θѲϢŪ˰Ȥ褦ϱѸˤǤ¿뤬Ūˡ뼣Ū (therapeutic) Ѳ̤ΤȤǤ°Ȥʤ褦 (pathogenic) ѲϢȤΤϤäȡΤ˹ͤ줿
ʤ㤬פ⤫ФʤΤȹͤƤߤȡ"therapeutic" ȤѸ줬Ū˲ؤҴŪ˷᤬Ȥطʤ뤫ǤϤʤȻפä̤ѸǤϡּפܻؤǽɸϡ׾֤ηϤˤơפȤϤʤ֤ؤΤǽΩΩäŪȤƤϡȤ "a symmetrical, balanced, simple, economical system" ظƤȤߤʤȤǤʤηƻ Schendl ˸ˡηϤʣβηϤʣȤ߹碌ˤäͭΤǤꡤΰѲ벼ηϤδ鸫 therapeutic ȤƤ⡤̤βηϤδ鸫 pathogenic Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ǤϡηΤδ餹ȡθѲϤɤ therapeutic ʤΤ뤤 pathogenic ʤΤꤹ뤳Ȥ񤷤
ȤƻפĤΤϡεǤ夲 /θ/ /ð/ Ωȯ̤θ򤹤 /ð/ Dz (phonemicisation) ȤѲǤ롥űѸǤ,
[θ] [ð] 1Ĥβ (phoneme) 2Ĥΰ۲ (allomorphs) Ȥ֤Ťˤʤä˼ȤƵǽˤͭ [ð] Ԥʤ褦ˤʤ (ex. that, the, then, there, they, thou, though, with; cf. verners_law) thy vs. thigh Τ褦Ǿ (minimal pair) /θ/ /ð/ ̡βǤؤʬƤä
/ð/ βDzưŤǽŪʴȡҤ٤褦˼Τ褦ˤʤ롥Ѹ˳ (obstruent) Ǥ̵ͭΩ礭ʵǽô̤ôäƤꡤ໤ǤΩηǡ˳о»ʤ°פȹͤ롥/θ/ /ð/ βDzϤо򸺤ǺѤ°ּפƤȲᤵ롥ºݤˤ thy vs. thigh κǾФϾʤΤǡ̵ͭΩϤѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ /θ/ /ð/ βŪΩƤΤϡѸ첻ΤȤ̵ͭȤΩˤƵǽŪǤ롥ʾȤСεϤޤ therapeutic ʹͤɽƤȸ
ƱѲ (graphemics) Ω줫鸫ȡषηŪоƤȤͤ롥ˤơ1Ǥ1ʸбƤΤǤоŪǡѹդƤꡤñǡкŪǤ뤳ȤϵƤʤѸϤ˰̾⤤ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ơоŪǡѹդƤꡤñǡкŪʲǤȽǤδطɵ᤹褦ʸѲȤСϽδ therapeutic ѲȤȤǤȤҤ /ð/ βDz˹碌ƽηϤƱͤѲ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡ̤Ȥ <th> ȤŻ (digraph) ɽ蘆1ĤνǤ2Ĥΰۤʤ벻Ǥб뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäϡΩ줫餹ȡtherapeutic ǤϤʤष pathogenic Ѳȸ롥
ޤȤȡ/ð/ βDzȤѲϡδ therapeutic Ѳäδ pathogenic ѲäȤȤˤʤ롥Ǥϡ䤽¾򤹤٤ƹͤ碌ơѸȤηΤؤαƶȤǸȡѲϤϤƥץ饹äΤޥʥäΤƶμ̤ҴŪ˷¬뤳Ȥ񤷤ΤǡȽǤϤܤĤʤȤˤʤʤΰ̣Ǥϡǽô̤ȤϱƶҴŪ˷¬褦ȤĤߤθǤꡤˡ1ĤʤΤ⤷ʤˡ
ˤơäơּפȤäơ¡פȤ뤫Ϥ褯狼ʤưʪξǤ顤Ʒڤ¤ͽɡ̤ͽܼιͤ롥ʤߤˡѤƤ pathogenic ȯ¤ˤȤƻ therapeutic еȤƺصŪѤޤǤǡѸȤ夷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ

Schendl, Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2001.

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2011-08-11 Thu

#836. ǽôȸѲ [functionalism][language_change][systemic_regulation][terminology][phonology][drift][minimal_pair][functional_load]

εֵǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ([2011-08-10-1]) ǿ줿ǽô (functional load or functional yield) ˤĤơǽô̤ȤϤ벻ħ̵ǽι⤵ΤȤǡ¿̤ΩäƤۤɵǽô̤⤤Ȥߤʤ롥
㤨СѸǤϲ /p/ /b/ Ωϡ¿θ̤Ѥ롥̤θ򤹤С¿Ǿ (minimal pair) 򻺤 (ex. pay--bay, rip--rib ) äơ/p/ /b/ Ωεǽô̤礭/ʃ/ /ʒ/ Ωϡmesher--measure ʤɤκǾФ߽ФƤϤ뤬ۤ¿θ̤ˤΩäƤʤƱͤˡ/θ/ /ð/ Ω⡤thigh--thy ʤɤκǾФ뤬ǽô̤Ͼȹͤ롥
ǽô̤Ȥǰϡ嵭Τ褦ʸ̲ǤΩФǤϤʤŪħ̵ͭΩˤĤƤͤ뤳ȤǤ롥㤨СѸˤ̵ͭ (voicing) ȤΩϡ٤Ƥ /h/ ʳ໤ˤĤƸΩǤꡤˤ˻Ȥ󤵤ƤΤǡεǽô̤礭
Ǥϡǽô̤ȸѲɤΤ褦˷夯ȤΤǽŪʹͤˤȡ¿θ̤˹׸Ƥ̵ͭΤ褦ʵǽô̤礭Ω⤷äƤޤȤȡηϤ˵ڤܤƶ礭äơǽô̤礭ΩѲˤȤΩġȿФˡǽô̤ξΩϡ¾װˤäѲСۤɤ񹳤򼨤ʤǤ椯ȡ/θ/ /ð/ Ωϡǽô̤ᡤ⤹мʤȤ¤ʤ԰ΩǤϤ뤬ǤŪʼ̵ͭȤФʡǽô̤礭Ωˤäƻ٤Ƥ뤿ˡۤưפˤϲäʤȤȤˤʤǽԤμĥ롤ηϤߤȤо (symmetry) λظפȤ̩ܤ˴ؤ뤳Ȥʬ
ηŪΩ뤿ˡ뤤Ωβä򤱤뤿ѲȤͽɡפιͤϡƵǽŪʻǤ롥üԡʽġˤηϤ򤱤ͽɡפˤĤƤɤΤ褦˰ռΤüԡʽġˤθư̵ռˡͽɡ׹԰٤ԤʤäƤȹͤ٤ʤΤϡ[2011-03-13-1]ε֤ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1)פǸΤƱεǤ롥

Schendl, Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2001.

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2011-08-10 Wed

#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ [homonymic_clash][functionalism][systemic_regulation][language_change][functional_load]

Ѳˤ뵡ǽ (functionalism) ιͤϡǤϹƤ뤬¾ǤϸȽ롥ѲεǽŪκǤΤȤơΥ֥Ǥⲿ٤ⰷäƤƱ۵ ( homonymic clash ) 롥homonymic_clash ˴ؤϢεΤʤǤڤƤεǽŪʸѲѤФ϶
ǤСǽŪʸѲѤȤϡˤ systemic regulation ȤĴǽäƤꡤ줿ηϤоŪǶѹդμ줿ηϤؤȼ (therapeutic) ϤȤͤǤ롥ȤƤϡ˿줿 homonymic clash Τۤоؤλظꤹ԰ʻҲ /h/([2009-11-27-1]) ;̾ηϤо ([2009-11-09-1], [2009-10-24-1]) ꡤޤǽô (functional load) ꤬롥
줬üԡʤμҲˤΩƼĴǽϤäƤȤͤϡָʪפȤͤ[2011-07-13-1]εָޤʪޤפ򻲾ȡˤˤĤʤꡤꤽȤȤͽۤ롥ºݤˡǽٻԤ¿СȽԤ¿롥Schendl (69) ȽޤȤƤΤǡѤ褦

A basic problem with such functional explanations is how the individual speakers or the speech community as a whole could know about the actual or threatening asymmetry of systems and act accordingly. Another problem with the notion of 'therapeutic change' is that therapeutic changes in one part of the grammar may create imbalance in another part; finally, if this was the main driving force behind change then we would expect all linguistic systems to have become balanced by now, which they clearly are not. (69)

. . . though linguistic factors such as functional load undoubtedly can contribute to linguistic change, there is no empirical proof of their coming into play in specific cases. (69)


ȽŪոɤ߼ΤϡָѲ⤿餹ϤޤüԤʹ֤ǤηϼȤǤϤʤסָηϤ˼ĴǽȤƤ⡤϶ĴǽǤϤʤסβȤƤϵǽǧ뤬иŪ˼¾ڤǤʤפȤĥ

Schendl, Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2001.

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2011-08-09 Tue

#834. 饤ʸ줫μѸ [loan_word][ukrainian]

饤 (Ukraine) Իԥ (Lviv) dzŤ줿 ICOME7 (The Seventh International Conference on Middle English) ˻ä϶褬仺ϿƤ롤Ǥ롥

Map of Ukraine

θѸ쥹췲Υ饤ʸ (Ukrainian) Ǥ롥Ʊ췲°줿Ϥ˲ơΨ㲼ƤƤȸ뤬ָ (Slavic) ΤʤǤϥ饤ʸ͸ϥ͸˼ϤͭƤʹ3100͡ see Ethnologue: Ukrainian ˡUkrainian, Russian, Belarusian ϸߤʬŪǽȤ롥ʥɤʬϿޤϡ[2011-04-12-1]εǾҲ𤷤 Distribution of the Slavic languages in Europe 򻲾ȡ饤ʹθϿޤϡEthnologue: Languages of Ukraine 򻲾ȡ
饤ʤϰ̤ܿͤˤȤäƱ󤤹ǡ̾ϢۤΤ¿ʤȻפ롥ѸˤȤäƤƱΤ褦ǡOED Ǹ츻򤹤ȡ饤ʸ쵯Ȼפ̾줬3ۤɥҥåȤˤʤä
palygorskite [ˌpæləˈgɔːskaɪt] ʡڹʪۻ륯ѥꥴ륹ȡʤΰˤǡ줬ȯ줿뻳ιۻ̾ˤʤࡥ1868ǯС
gley [gleɪ] ʡϼۥ饤ԼϤ˸ĤߤäܤεͤäǴΤڡաˡѸ clay Ʊ (cognate) ǡƥͳ glue ȤϢ롥Ф1927ǯ
gopak [ˈgoʊˌpæk] ʥѡԹ⤤ķħȤ륦饤̱²١աˡhopak Ȥ⡥Ƨι֤ȯ "gop" "hop" ˴Ť¤Ȥ롥ХƥåǤޤ®2ҤƧǡ٤ߤǤϽ⻲ä롥Ф1929ǯ
饤ʤŪʾˤĤƤϰʲ򻲾ȡ

Ukraine -- CIA: The World Factbook
Ukraine -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia

Referrer (Inside): [2019-04-04-1]

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2011-08-08 Mon

#833. Ͽǥƥ [lexicology]

Test Your Vocab ȤȤǡѸθϿǥƥȤƤ3ʬ餤ǿǤǤΤǡƤߤȤΤǤʤʤФƤʤȤפΤ餵줿̤ȤơθϤ19,300졥οͤϡ18аʾüԤβ10%ϰϤ롥15ФαѸüԤʿͤǤ23,303Ȥ顤ؽԤǤȤϤʤαѸϤ˳˾𤱤ʤ򴶤ƻ˸Ϥ䤵ͤФȴǤ롥
ʾ˶̣ΤϡθϿǥƥȤɤΤ褦ʴǺƤꡤǤɤΤ褦˷׻ƤΤǤ롥ϤޤäƤʤץȤμ¸ȤߤƤ륵ȤΤ褦顤ǤäƤ⤼ҸƤ餤ȤǤ롥ȤΤϡCrystal (34--39) Ƥ褦ˡϤη¬ϡäƸϤȤߤʤäƸäȤߤʤˤ٤ƤäƤ뤿Ǥ롥äˡָáפʤϰϤ뤳Ȥ񤷤ϰʲ꤬뤫Ǥ롥

(1) äδñ̤Ǥ (word) ޤäǤ (see [2011-03-28-1]) ʣ (ex. flower pot, flower-pot or flowerpot?) ư (ex. get at, get by, get in) idiom (ex. kick the bucket, go West ) ϰ̣ȤƤϤҤȤޤȤޤȤƤ1ȿΤݤʤɤ꤬롥
(2) 줬¿Ǥ硤θ򸫤Ƹ1ĤǤΤäƤФθΤäƤȤߤʤȤǤΤ뤤Ϥ٤ƤθΤäƤɬפΤhigh tea, high priest, high season high Ϥ줾ۤʤɽ魯Ʊ1ĤθȤߤʤ٤ݤ
(3) ϰѼҲѼͭθäϡϿǤ˥Ȥ٤ݤ졤¯졤ǿήԸ졤Ѹ졤ŸˤĤƤϤɤ濴ŪʱѸθáפ˸¤ȤƤ⡤濴ŪפδȤϲ ([2010-12-29-1]εMurray θפ򻲾ȡˡ
(4) flu, hi-fi, AIDS, FBI, UFO ʤɤγƼάϤɤ
(5) ̾̾ʤɤθͭ̾Ϥɤͭ̾ϱѸͭΤΤǤϤʤȤͳǥȤä˴ޤޤʤȤƤ⡤㤨Хɥδģ Whitehall ϸͭ̾ǤФǤϤʤֱѹܡפɽ魯̾ȤƤѤ롥
(6) ̵ˤưʪ̾ޤ᤿ƼѸϤɤ

Test Your Vocab ˤɤΤ褦٤ȤäƿǥƥȤƤΤϡѤ˵󤲤ƤñꥹȤ餢ٿ䤷̤뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤǥƥȺˤϡ嵭ͳˤԤˤäƸߤ˰ۤʤȻפ졤̤οǥƥȤ̤δ̤̤Ф
ʤɤȡʬθ򤷤ƤϤޤʤޤϡ20ФʿͤǤ25,337ܻؤ

Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-07-09-1] [2013-04-07-1]

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2011-08-07 Sun

#832. every each [etymology][compound][i-mutation][disguised_compound]

every ϡ֤롤ȤȤΡɤΡĤפɽ魯ƻǡñ̾줬³뤳ȤϱʸˡǤ褯ΤƤ롥¿ΤΤˤĤƸġˤߤƤ礹Ȥǡall ̣Ȥ롥every ĴȤ single դȤ⡤̤˿ƤΡ֤٤ơפǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥
ñ̾򽾤̲εǽôƻȤСֳơΡᤤᤤΡפɽ魯 each פФ롥every each ̣ǸˡƤ뤬⤽ΤϤ츻ŪˤԤϸԤζ˲᤮ʤeach ϸűѸ ǣlc ̤ꡤ ā "aye, always" + ġelīc "alike" ʬϤ롥֤ĤƤʳơΡˡפۤɤθǤ롥ŪǤʤŪ each δްդϡ֤ĤפˤäƤȹͤ롥
ā ġelīc ͻ礷Ƭ첻 i-mutation ([2009-10-01-1]) ˤѲ (disguised compound; [2010-01-12-1]) Ȥ⤤ ǣlc ȡā ôƤ֤ĤפθȤʤäᡤơ֤ĤפĴɬפŪ֤줿Τ ǣfre "ever" Ǥ롥űѸǤ ǣfre ǣlc 2ʬ񤭤Ƥ10ꤹǤʣȤǧƤ褦ǡѸˤ ev(e)rilc, æv(e)ric, everi ʤɤη֤Ϥ᤿
Ѹ every Ϥ2ʳεȤ⤤롥every κǸʸ <y> each ͤޤƤꡤβ [i] ϡ֤Ĥפ̣ ā "aye, always" i-mutation Ǥ롥ĤޤȤevery θ "ever always" ȤȤˤʤ롥
every each ϤθŪȤ椨ˡ괧 a(n) 򽾤뤳ȤΤǤ夬롥MED entry for "everi" (pron.) 3 MED entry for "ech" (pron.) 3 㤬뤬OED ˤԤ14--15Ԥ12--15ʸڤ롥ˡϡmany a(n) Ӥ[2010-11-12-1]εMany a little makes a mickleפ򻲾ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2014-03-05-1] [2011-11-28-1]

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2011-08-06 Sat

#831. Why "an apple"? [article][diachrony][sobokunagimon]

εsandhi ([2011-08-05-1]) ǡѸ괧 a an 2֤ꡤԤλѤ sandhi ΰǤȲ⤷εˡ¿αѸؽԤʤ뤤ȤΤѤʵ֤ʤ *a apple ǤϤʤ an apple ʤΤפˤĤơ̻ŪΩ줫ͤƤߤ
ˤPDFΥ饤ѰդΤǡʲβ򥯥åˡ



ϡŪʵҤ̻ŪʵҤ礭ۤʤȤŤƤ롥ɤ֤פϷʤ⤽䤦٤ȤǤϤʤξλ1Ĥθݤį뤳ȤפǤꡤޤξβ᤬ȿ̤ˤʤäƤ뤫餳ͤ롥
Ϣơ[2009-07-22-1]εone ȯפ⻲ȡ

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2011-08-05 Fri

#830. sandhi [assimilation][euphony][phonetics][terminology][sanskrit][article]

[2011-08-02-1]εshe θ츻פ (3) ǡ"sandhi-theory" ˸ڤsandhi ʥǥˤȤϥ󥹥åȸ (Sanskrit) ͳ褹ʸˡѸǡ椬ǤϢʤ󤸤礦ˤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ǥϡ֡ϡˤޤȤ롤Ĥʤפɽ魯 saṃ-dadhāti ̾ǡϢפ̣롥θȸ³θƬΤ˸벻 (euphony) ؤθϸˤä͡¿첻ҲƱ (assimilation) ޤࡥ
Sanskrit ˤ sandhi ֵ§ȤƿޤƤꡤβʸˤȿǤΤ˽פʲǤ롥ȸΤ뤤ʣιǤΤ˸ϢϳϢ (external sandhi) ȸƤФ졤θ촴ܼܼΤ˸ϢϢ (internal sandhi) ȸƤФ롥
Ѹ˸ʳϢȤƤϰʲΤ褦ʤΤ롥

did you [did juː] ǤϤʤ [diʤuː] ȤʤҲƱ
far ñȤǤ [fɑː] Τ褦 non-rhotic far away Ǥ [ˈfɑːrəˈweɪ] Τ褦 rhotic ˤʤ linking r θݡ
a 첻ʤȤ̵ h ˤǻϤޤ֤ an Ȥʤ븽 (see [2010-07-30-1], [2010-08-01-1]) 嵭2Ȱۤʤꡤsandhi ̵ͭ򼨤۷֤ˡ̤ƤǡѸǤǤ롥

ϢפγǰϡֲءפȤѸˤܸˤѤƤꡤ󥪥ʰ²ˤΥˡ襦ʱۻաˤߥ祦ˡĥ㱣ˤå󡤥󥤡ʻ̡ˤߤˤʤ褦ˡ󡤥IJ˥ԡԡԲ³ĶǼȤƴ㤬¿롥12濴Ȥ뱡ޤǤˤäʩŵ֤ȯƤ褦ޤθݤǤꡤߤޤǤ򼺤äƸŪ˸경Ƥ롥
ե󥹸 vous aimez [vuzeme] est-il [ɛtil] ʤɤ˸ (liaison) sandhi ΰѸܸΤηŪǤ롥

⿮ ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2017-01-09-1] [2011-08-06-1]

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2011-08-04 Thu

#829. she θ츻ν [personal_pronoun][she][etymology][bibliography]

εshe θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1]) dz⤷褦ˡshe θ츻ϽʶȤƤ롥ϢߡѤ߽ŤͤƤƤꡤνޤȤǤ̣뤫⤷ʤޤäŪǤϤʤ󤲤ʸ˺ܤäƤΤ濴ˤĤ򼨤Ƥ

Bennett, J. A. W. and G. V. Smithers, eds. Early Middle English Verse and Prose. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1968. xxxvi--xxxviii.
Clark, Cecily, ed. The Peterborough Chronicle 1070-1154. London: OUP, 1958. lxvi--lxvii.
Dieth, E. "Hips: A Geographical Contribution to the 'She' Puzzle." ES 36 (1955): 209--17.
Flom, G. T. "The Origin of the Pronoun 'She'." JEGP 7 (1908): 115--25.
Lindkvist, H. "On the Origin and History of the English Pronoun she." Anglia 45 (1921): 1--50.
Luick, K. Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache. Stuttgart: Tauchnitz, 1964. Section 705.
Ruud, M. B. "A Conjecture concerning the Origin of Modern English She." MLN 25 (1920): 222--25.
Ruud, M. B. "'She' Once More." RES 2 (1926): 201--04.
Samuels, M. L. "The Role of Functional Selection in the History of English." Transactions of the Philological Society. 1965. 21--23.
Sarrazin, G. "Der Ursprung von NE. 'She'." Englische Studien 20 (1895--96): 330--31.
Smith, A. H. "Some Place-Names and the Etymology of 'She'." RES 2 (1925): 437--40.
Stevick, R. D. "The Morphemic Evolution of Middle English She." ES 65 (1964): 381--88.
Vachek, J. "Notes on the Phonological Development of the NE Pronoun she." Sborník Praci Filosfické Faculty Brnenské University 3 (1954): 67--80.
Vachek, J. "On Peripheral Phonemes of Modern English." Brno Studies in English 4 (1964): 21--29.

ֿ֡;̾ she εˤĤ: enclitic *-se סر : ˭Ѳʳؿʸʳطϵס121990ǯ43--48ǡ
ƣ ů Havelok the Dane λ;̾ʽʡñ SHE ˴ؤơסʡصס22005ǯ27--45ǡ CiNii PDF ǽpp. 28--29 ˽⤬ޤȤޤäƤ롥

ۤȤɤ Bennett and Smithers Ť뼰˽Ĵ٤ΤǡǤ⿷1960ǯǤ롥ʹߤĴ٤СȽФƤդ顤嵭ȤƤ˲äƤ椭

Referrer (Inside): [2022-05-18-1]

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2011-08-03 Wed

#828. Shetland [personal_pronoun][she][etymology][old_norse][map][phonetics]

εshe θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1]) (4) θ츻⡤ "Shetland-theory" ˤĤƾƤ [hj] ( > [ç] ) > [ʃ] βȯãꤹǡOED ˤƱȯãΥ륦˸Ȥ롥Ѹ˴طȤǤϡťΥɸ̾ Hjaltland, Hjalpandisøy 줾Ѹ Shetland, Shapinshay бȤ㤬󤲤롥󥰥ˡűѸ hēope "hip" б shoop ʤ֤ǧΤ⡤ťΥɸ *hjúpa ȯãȤƱͤˤߤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
ơѸ Shetland ϸťΥɸ Hjaltland ͳ褹ȤȤԤ hjalt "hilt" + land "land" ʣǤ롥ϡη֡Τ˷פ˻Ƥ뤳ȤˤΤȹͤƤ롥ȥɽ (the Shetland Islands) ̳μտޤ򼨤ʥåȥϿޤ Encyclopaedia Britannica: Scotland 򻲾ȡȥɽξܺϿޤ Shetland Map 򻲾ȡ

Map of Shetland and the North Sea
Map of Shetland

ϿޤǸ¤ꡤüΥǥޡΥե (the Faeroe Islands) ¤ǡ̳⤫䳤θȤݤǤ롥ȥɽϥꥹΤǥåȥɤκ̽Ƥꡤ羮100礫뤬8ʾ夬̵Ǥ롥̰60ն˰֤Ƥꡤ٤ȤƤǤϥإ륷󥭡󥯥ȥڥƥ֥륯䥯ĥ󥫥쥸ʤɤ¤֡1974ǯޤǤϸ Zetland ȸƤФƤ
ȥɽȷӤĤʪ仺ȤȤƤϡ趯ʻ Shetland pony, ȥӤӻԤ ShetlandʴϢ Shetland sheep Shetland sheepdog ΤƤ롥Ԥΰ sheltie <l> ĤäƤ뤳ȤաˡѸȤ롥1970ǯʹߤϡ濴Ի Lerwick ֥̳ĤθϤȤƽפȤʤäƤ롥
˻ˤϥԥȿͤľФʸ򳫤Ƥ7--8˥ɤåȥɤ붵Ĥ褦ˤʤä8--9ˤϥΥ륦󥰤15ޤǥȥɤ1469ǯåȥɤ James III (1451--88) ȥǥޡ Margaret 뺧ȤˤꥷȥɤϥåȥΤȤʤä18˻ޤǸťΥɸ줫Υ (Norn; from ON Norrœnn "Norwegian" ) ȸƤФ줬ԤʤƤΤ褦˥åȥɻˤμή鳰줿ȼˤǤᡤߤǤ̱ˤ̲Ϥθ䴷롥
ȥɴϢξ Shetland Heritage VISIT.SHETLAND.ORG ͭסȥΥ Shetland Forwirds äȥΥڡ⤷

Referrer (Inside): [2016-05-31-1]

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2011-08-02 Tue

#827. she θ츻 [personal_pronoun][she][etymology][demonstrative][blend][sandhi][old_norse]

[2011-06-28-1]εshe --- Ǥ٤ι⤤츻Ծܤθפǿ줿̤ꡤѸɸŪ3;νñ̾εޤƤ롥[2011-06-29-1]εshe --- 奤󥰥ˤ۷ʬۡפǸ褦ˡǤ⥤󥰥Ǥ͡ʷ֤ѤƤ뤬she ϤΤ褦ʰ۷1Ĥˤʤä⤽ she ʤ뤤ϽǤ scæ ˤ۷ȤƸ줿аޤԾܤʤΤǤ롥
she εˤϿ⤬ƤƤ롥פʤΤޤȤ褦

(1) űѸλؼ̾ se [2009-09-28-1]εˤѥ򻲾ȡˤνñʷ sēosīo ȡ;̾[2009-09-29-1]εˤѥ򻲾ȡˤνñʷ hēo (blend) Ȥ⡥
(2) Ҥ sēo ΰưˤ siō Фơshō ȯŸ
(3) wæs hēo ʤ -s ǽư޷֤줿ȤˡϢ (sandhi) ơsēo ȤʤäȤ ("sandhi-theory") 뤤ϡhēo ˤϡưĸƬ h æ yo Ȥ۷ǧ뤳Ȥ顤 wæs yo ľ sjo ˤ sho Ȥͤ⤢롥
(4) hēo ζư [hjoː] > [çoː] > [ʃoː] ȲѲȤ ("Shetland-theory") Ѳ˳ǧ롥
(5) ťΥɸλؼ̾ν , sjá Ѥ졤;̾ȤѤ줿Ȥ⡥ʤȤ̤ˡ (2) ζΰư˸ťΥɸαƶäΤǤϤʤȤ⤢롥

(2), (3), (4) ϽϤ줿첻 ē ǤϤʤ ō Ǥ뤳Ȥդ she ˶ᤤ֤˻ˤϡ첻꤬ĤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥첻ˤϡ2ĤβƤФƤ롥1Ĥϡ̾ 2;ʣ̾ ȝē ˴Ťˤꡤ첻 ē ˤäִ줿ȤΤǤ (cf. [2009-12-25-1], [2011-07-06-1]) ⤦1ĤϡűѸνñʷ hēo ǤϤʤñгʷ hīe ˴ŤƸɸȯãȤǤ롥
첻βΤߤʤ餺Ҳβ [ʃ] ȯŸаޤ⤦Ĥ礭Ǥ롥(2), (4) Τ褦ˡβѲȤȯãȤ⡤(3) Τ褦 sandhi Ȥ⡤뤤 [ç] ޤǤϲѲȤȯŸ /ç/ βǤȤƤϰ̤ŪǤ뤿˺Ǥᤤ /ʃ/ ִ줿Ȥʤɤ󵯤Ƥ롥
첻ȻҲξɬ⼫ǤϤʤɬפȤȤˡshe 񤷤롥餯ϡŪ1ĤϤʤΤƼѲִ䡤ʤɤˤޤ졤Τʤ she ΤȤȤʤ֤ǽŪ򤵤줿ȤȤǤϤʤ
ʾεҤˤϡOED, رѸ츻ŵ١Bennett and Smithers (xxxvi--xxxviii), Clark (lxvi--lxvii) 򻲾Ȥ

߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
Bennett, J. A. W. and G. V. Smithers, eds. Early Middle English Verse and Prose. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Clark, Cecily, ed. The Peterborough Chronicle 1070-1154. London: OUP, 1958.

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2011-08-01 Mon

#826. that Ʊǽ̾Ƴ how [conjunction][grammaticalisation]

ϴܵɽ魯̾ƳȤǤ뤬how Ƴ줿̾᤬¾ that Ʊεǽ̤㤬롥say tell ʤɤãư˸³㤬¿ۤit is strange [funny, odd] ʤɤνˡηƻθѤ㤬롥

- He told us how she had arrived at the end of the party.
- She told me how she had read it in the magazine.
- It is strange how he could persuade her.


how ϡμʤ֤ΰ̣ɽ路ƤȤǤ뤬ñ that ѤȤɤ롥ʤȤʹˤȤäƤۣǤꡤhow ΰ̣ƤȸʤΤˤ how ΤˡϡֱάפȤʸŪޤɸŪפȤ⤵뤬õȤʤŤȤ狼롥㤨СOED ǤϤˡ "how, adv.", 10 ˵󤬤äƤꡤϸűѸ Ælfric ȤʤäƤ롥

10. With weakened meaning, introducing an indirect statement, after verbs of saying, perceiving, and the like: = That. Formerly freq. how that, and in mod. dialect speech as how . . . see how still more or less calls attention to the manner.


ѸǤ how that Τ褦ʣ³ηǤ褯Ѥ졤 MED entry for "hou" (conjunctive adv.), 4. ˭٤˸Ĥ롥
how ΰ̣³ؤȶŤƤǡʸˡ ( grammaticalisation ) Ȥª뤫⤷ʤȤƤ when where ʤ¾εǤ褦ʤȤꤦ뤬how ϼʤ֤˸¤餺طʤɽ魯ΤˤѤ졤Ǥ٤Ǥ롥How are you? How do you do? ʤɤɽˤ how ΰ̣μ夵򻲾ȡ

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