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˰³ƤꡥCaon (297) ˤСԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> ǽƤΤϡҤ٤褦ˡ16Ⱦʹߤ Mulcaster ƱֻԤǤȿƤSalmon Ȥ Caon (297) ˤС¤ϤȾ̤ۤ16Ⱦ John Rastell ʤʪˤäƤƤȤ
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries linguists and spelling reformers attempted to set down rules for the use of final -e. Richard Mulcaster is believed to have been the one who first formulated the modern rule for the use of the ending. In The First Part of the Elementarie (1582) he proposed to add final -e in certain environments, that is, after -ld; -nd; -st; -ss; -ff; voiced -c, and -g, and also in words where it signalled a long stem vowel (Scragg 1974:79--80, Brengelman 1980:348). His proposals were reanalysed later and in the eighteenth century only the latter function was standardised (see Modern English hop--hope; bit--bite). However. according to Salmon (1989:294). Mulcaster was not the first one to recommend such a use of final -e; in fact, the sixteenth-century printer John Rastell (c. 1475--1536) had already suggested it in The Boke of the New Cardys (1530). In this book of which only some fragments have survived, Rastell formulated several rules for the correct spelling of English words, recommending the use of final -e to 'prolong' the sound of the preceding vowel.
® Salmon ʸꤷɤǤߤJohn Rastell (c. 1475--1536) ϡˡΧȡȡۼԡԻԡڰȡ̱ϤοʼԤʤɤͤ¿ͤʿʪä褦ǡɤ߽ˡˤؿƤȤξҤ The boke of the new cardys wh<ich> pleyeng at cards one may lerne to know hys lett<ers,> spel [etc.] Ȥ̾ǽƤꡤ褽1530ǯ Rastell ˤʤơ餯ˤ줿ȹͤƤ롥¸ΤҤΤߤͿս Salmon ʸ (pp. 300--01) ˺ƸƤ롥
Rastell ֻؤδؿϡΰüɬҲȤʤäƤطʤ̵ǤϤʤRastell ϡȤȤơɤߤ䤹ֻɬפƤꡤThe boke ˤֻߤΤRastell ϡMulcaster ʤɤơ16ȾȤᤤˡǤˡ (orthography) ȤȯۤäƤΤǤ롥
Rastell 첻ҲɽˤĤƤĤƤԤäƤ뤬ɸȴϢơSalmon (294) μλŦפǤ롥"[A]nother proposal which was taken up by his successors was the employment of final <e> (Chapter viii) to 'perform' or 'prolong' the sound of the preceding vowel, a device with which Mulcaster is usually credited (cf. Scragg 1974: 79)."
ᤤˡ˴ؿƤΤ Rastell ǤʤäƱ Thomas Poyntz ʤ륤ɾͤ첻ĹȤ diacritic <e> ƤƤ롥Poyntz ƤΤϡRastell Mulcaster ƤȤϰۤʤꡤ첻ľ <e> ³Ȥˡäʤ<saey>, <maey>, <daeys>, <moer>, <coers> ǡǤ (Salmon 294--95) Poyntz ˡϸˤʤäˤ16ȾˡؼԤǤϤʤ¶ȲȤƳDZѸˡΩưϤƤȤϡõƤƤ褤
Caon, Louisella. "Final -e and Spelling Habits in the Fifteenth-Century Versions of the Wife of Bath's Prologue." English Studies (2002): 296--310.
Salmon, Vivian. "John Rastell and the Normalization of Early Sixteenth-Century Orthography." Essays on English Language in Honour of Bertil Sundby. Ed. L. E. Breivik, A. Hille, and S. Johansson. Oslo: Novus, 1989. 289--301.
Ѹˤˤơ final /e/ ȡֻ final <e> ʬƹͤɬפ롥15ȡ֤ <e> ϡб첻˼äƤȹͤƤ뤬ֻϤθϢʤȽ³줿Ѹˡˤȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1])) ȤƤ <e> εǽˤĤƤϡ#979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1]), #1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) طˡȯãˤĤƤ #1344. final -e ˡ ([2012-12-31-1]), #1939. 16ˡᤰ ([2014-08-18-1]) ǿƤϡѸˡˤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> ȯãƤȤ櫓κǽͻҤ˿줿
Scragg (79--80) ϡѸγĹ (meosl) ˸ڤӤʤ顤 <e> εǽε§ϡ16Ⱦβֻ Richard Mulcaster (1530?--1611) ˵ȤݤǵŸƤMulcaster ˤĤƤϡ#441. Richard Mulcaster ([2010-07-12-1]) ڤ mulcaster γƵȤ줿ˡ
One of the most far-reaching changes Mulcaster suggested was for the use of final unpronounced <e> as a marker of vowel length. Of the many orthographic indications of a long vowel in English, the one with the longest history is doubling of the vowel symbol, but this has never been regularly practised. . . . Use of final <e> as a device for denoting vowel length (especially in monosyllabic words such as mate, mete, mite, mote, mute, the stem vowels of which have now usually been diphthongised in Received Pronunciation) has its roots in an eleventh-century sound-change involving the lengthening of short vowels in open syllables of disyllabic words (e.g. /nɑmə/ became /nɑːmə/). When final unstressed /ə/ ceased to be pronounced after the fourteenth century, /nɑːmə/, spelt name, became /nɑːm/, and paved the way for the association of mute final <e> in spelling with a preceding long vowel. After the loss of final /ə/ in speech, writers used final <e> in a quite haphazard way; in printed books of the sixteenth century <e> was added to almost every word which would otherwise end in a single consonant, though the fact that it was then apparently felt necessary to indicate a short stem vowel by doubling the consonant (e.g. bedde, cumme, fludde 'bed, come, flood') shows that writers already felt that final <e> otherwise indicated a long stem vowel. Mulcaster's proposal was for regularisation of this final <e>, and in the seventeenth century its use was gradually restricted to the words in which it still survives.
Brengelman (347) ƱͤμݤǵƤ뤬<e> ε§ Mulcaster Τߤ˵ˡLevins Coote ʤƱˡ˴ؿĿ͡νŪʹȤƤȤ館Ƥ褦
It was already urged in the last quarter of the sixteenth century that final e should be used as a vowel diacritic. Levins, Mulcaster, Coote, and others had urged that final e should be used only to "draw the syllable long." A corollary of the rule, of course, was that e should not be used after short vowels, as it commonly was in words such as egge and hadde. Mulcaster believed it should also be used after consonant groups such as ld, nd, and st, a reasonable suggestion that was followed only in the case of -ast. . . . By the time Blount's dictionary had appeared (1656), the modern rule regarding the use of final e as a vowel diacritic had been generally adopted.
ˤ衤16ˤϡʤ餯15ˤˡǤ˸ŪֻѤΤʤ <e> ΤΤƤռŪ˻Ѥ§褦ȤΤMulcaster 濴Ȥ1600ǯβԤäȤȤˤʤºݡβװƤ17˺դƤȤˤʤꡤߤ "magic <e>" ε§ΤǤ롥
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
Brengelman, F. H. "Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling." JEGP 79 (1980): 332--54.
Ƶ̾ oneself ȾǤˡ;̾νͭʷƤƤ뤫 (ex. myself, thyself)ŪʷƤƤ뤫 (ex. himself, themselves) ϡѸˤĹ餯Ƥ1ĤǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤#47. ͭʤŪʤmyself himself ([2009-06-14-1])#1851. Ƶ̾ oneself ͳˤĤƤν ([2014-05-22-1]) ǰäƤ
myself, thyself ǽͭʤѤ뤳ȤˤĤơεǤ self ̾Ȳᤵ줿Ȥȥȸ줫αƶȤҲ𤷤⤦1ͭϤʤΤϡMustanoja (146) ʤɤΤȤͿʷ첻岽Ǥ롥ѸǤϡ12;ΤǤ self ֤Τ3;ΤξƱͤͿʷǤꡤme self, þe self ʤɤɽ蘆Ƥ me þe ܼ (proclitic) Τ褦˵ǽϤȲŪ˼岽e ɽ蘆첻 i ؤѲ13 miself, þiself Ȥʤ˵ڤӡmi, þi ϽͭʤȤơself ̾ȤƤȤƺʬϤ졤12;ʣ˱Ѥ our selve(n), your selve(n) ⸽褦ˤʤäȤܼβ岽ϡbiforen, bitwene ˤ be- > bi- ʤɤˤФдѻ롤褯븽ݤǤ롥
Keenan (344) ⡤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ Mustanoja β岽ٻƤ롥
I claim these forms [= mi + self and þi + self] are just phonologically reduced forms of the procliticized dative pronouns me and þe. The correspondence of Old English long close e to Middle English short i is well attested . . . . Me and þe are the only dative pronouns that consist of a single light syllable. The others are either closed (him, us, hem or disyllabic or diphthongal (hire, eow). So it is natural that phonological reduction takes place first in 1st and 2nd sg. Once reduced we may identify them with possessive adjectives, surely the basis of the Pattern Generalization to your + self and our + self in 1st and 2nd pl (modern spelling) in the mid-1300s, which facilitates interpreting self as a N.
ϡme þi ΤߤñǤȤŦˤơϤ褦˻פ롥ޤ;̾Τ褦ʸˤơ˾塤٤֤ⷫμ岽ȶƤȤϡ#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1])#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1])#2077. you ȯˡ ([2015-01-03-1]) Ǥ⸫ƤȤǤ롥
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
Keenan, Edward. "Explaining the Creation of Reflexive Pronouns in English." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. D. Minkova and R. Stockwell. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 325--54.
ε ([2015-10-27-1]) ˰³Ѹ˸ Anglo-French κɾˤĤƤꡥRothwell ϡѸäѸʸθˤơAnglo-French äȽŻ뤷ʤФʤʤ⤹롥ƻȤƤ MED θ³ˤڤ֤ʤɡѸʸؼԤ˰ռפĥ٤֤ⷫ롥եäΡּѡ (borrowing) ȤǰˤѳפäƤꡤİͤ롥ĤʸϤѤ
The MED reveals on virtually every page the massive and conventional sense and that in literally thousands of cases forms and meanings were adopted (not 'borrowed') into English from Insular, as opposed to Continental, French. The relationship of Anglo-French with Middle English was one of merger, not of borrowing, as a direct result of the bilingualism of the literate classes in mediaeval England. (174)
The linguistic situation in mediaeval England . . . produced . . . a transfer based on the fact that generations of educated Englishmen passed daily from English into French and back again in the course of their work. Very many of the French terms they used had been developing semantically on English soil since 1066, were absorbed quite naturally with all their semantic values into the native English of those who used them and then continued to evolve in their new environment of Middle English. This is a very long way from the traditional idea of 'linguistic borrowing'. (179--80)
[I]n England . . . the social status of French meant that it was used extensively in preference to English for written records of all kinds from the twelfth to the fifteenth century. As a result, given that English was the native language of the majority of those who wrote this form of French, many hundreds of words would have been in daily use in spoken English for generations without necessarily being committed to parchment or paper, the people who used them being bilingual in varying degrees, but using only one of their two vernaculars --- French --- to set down in writing their decisions, judgements, transactions, etc., for posterity. (185)
εǤ bachelor Ρȿפθ apparel Ρְפθ⤦1 Anglo-French DzǤȤơRothwell (184) εƤ rape Ȥ夲褦MED ˤȡֶפΰ̣Ǥ rāpe (n.(2)) ϡѸǤ1425ǯ㤬ФǤ롥ΦΥեǤϤθϸʤΤAnglo-French Ǥ rap ȤƤθˤ13ʸڤ롥
[A]s early as c. 1289 rape is defined in the French of the English lawyers as the forcible abduction of a woman; in c. 1292 the law defines it, again in French, as male violence against a woman's body. Therefore, for well over a century before the first attestation of 'rape' in Middle English, the law of England, expressed in French but executed by English justices, had been using these definitions throughout English society. rape is an Anglo-French term not found on the Continent. Admittedly, the Latin rapum is found even earlier than the French, but it was the widespread use of French in the actual pleading and detailed written accounts --- as distinct from the brief formal Latin record --- of cases in the English course of law from the second half of the thirteenth century onwards that has resulted in so very many English legal terms like rape having a French look about them. . . . As far as rape is concerned, there never was, in fact, a 'semantic vacuum' . . . .
Rothwell (184) ϡۤˤ larceny Ϥ¿ˡΧѸ˻褦ʾƤϤޤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ѸθäθˤĤơޤޤ٤Ȥ¿ĤƤ褦
Rothwell, W. "The Missing Link in English Etymology: Anglo-French." Medium Aevum 60 (1991): 173--96.
Ѹǡȿפ1ĤȤƤ bachelor ˴ؤợδ#1908. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (1) ([2014-07-18-1])#1968. ΰ̣ʬʬϡ ([2014-09-16-1])#1969. ΰ̣ʬʬϤ ([2014-09-17-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ13˥ե줫Ѥ줿θϡּ㤤Ρԡפạ̈žơȿפȯŸȤ롥
OED bachelor, n. θ4aˤȡǤνФ Chaucer Merchant's Tale (c1386) Ǥꡤl. 34 "Bacheleris haue often peyne and wo." ȸ롥MED bachelēr (n.) θ1(b)ˤȡʲ̤ꡤ14ˤޤ̤롥"c1325(c1300) Glo.Chron.A (Clg A.11) 701: Mi leue doȝter .. Ich þe wole marie wel .. To þe nobloste bachiler þat þin herte wile to stonde.
嵭ΰ̣Ѳϡбեñ bachelier ˤʤäȤ졤ߤǤϱʩδ֤ "false friends" (Fr. "faux amis") δطȤʤäƤ롥Τ褦ˡΰ̣ѲŪ˱ѸȼȯãȹͤƤȤRothwell (175) ϡѸȼȯãˡAnglo-French ȤĤʤΥ饯о줵ơԤڤ
Chaucer's use of this common Old French term in the Modern English sense of 'unmarried man' has no parallel in literature on the Continent, but is found in Anglo-French by the first quarter of the thirteenth century in The Song of Dermot and the Earl and again in the Liber Custumarum in the early fourteenth century. It is a pointer to the fact that the development of modern English, at least as far as the lexis and syntax are concerned, cannot be adequately researched without taking into account the whole corpus of Anglo-French.
The Anglo-Norman Dictionary Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡbacheler θ2Ȥ "unmarried man" ꡤ嵭νŵȤȤ˳Τ㤬Ƥ롥ѸȼȯãǤϤʤޤƤΦΥեȯãǤʤ¤ Anglo-French ˤȯãǤꡤ줬Ѹˤܿ줿ˤʤȤʤȤñǤϤ뤬ܤڤ褦ʷǤ롥ְפθıѸ apparel ȡ⤿ʤե appareil false friends Ʊͤ Anglo-French ͳȤȤ
Rothwell ʸǤϡAnglo-French ȤפȤˤꡤѸä˴ؤ¿λ¤餫ˤʤꡤ꤬褹뤳Ȥ⤵롥Ѹ˸Ǥ⡤եȤФޤѥɸŪʥեѼפ⤫١ȤƥեѸʤɤΤäAnglo-French ȤѼɾ뤳Ȥˤäơ̤ȤƤѸ˾¿꤬ǽȡRothwell ⤯Rothwell ΤΥϡ#2349. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1])#2350. Prioress Anglo-French ϰ̤Ϥۤ㤯ʤä ([2015-10-03-1]) ǻȤʸǤӤƤꡤȯŪǤ롥
Rothwell, W. "The Missing Link in English Etymology: Anglo-French." Medium Aevum 60 (1991): 173--96.
ѸܤʤɤǸ֢פǤ롥ѸǤϡ"plicrow", "paragraph mark", "paragraph sign" ʤɤȸƤФ롥P(aragraph) ˤΤȻפǤĴ٤뵡ꡤǤϤʤΤä餤СC α2ŽФΤȤȤ
Parkes (302) ˤȡΤμܤνλꡤȤäŪˤޤȤޤäñ̤ʸϤǤ뤳ȤΤˡ͡ʵ椬ȤƤƥȤΤʤʬ꤬̿ϤޤȤˡ̣ capitulum (kapitulum) Ƭʸäơ.K.פɽ㤬Фи줿ޤC Ȥˤ₵פ֢פȯãԤ˴ޤޤ2Žϡ̻˼٤սΤˡ//פΤ褦2ܼѤȤͳ褹롥Ρ//ΤγϤɽ魯Τ˽ʬʵǽƤᡤΤޤȤƤѤ褦ˤʤäǽȤơλϤˡ֦áס֦ס֡פʤɤդ paragraphus δȯãƤ (Parkes 305)
ȯãξܺ٤Ĵ٤Ƥʤɤ餳ν椬ǽȷξ̤ˤƹήparaph ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤɵ椬ΩƤΤ餷ɽȤƸޤǼѤƤΤ֢פȤȤˤʤ롥
ѸνդǤϡˤϡʥǥȡˤѤΤŪŻʸʤɤǤ˰̲ĤĤΤȼʤ1ԶǤ롥δϡܸνդˤƤǤȯŪ˳ȤäƤȻפ롥
ŪãʡϤɤǤ졤Ȥʤ뤤ϤहŪñ̤Ȥߵϡź˽ΤˤäȤȤ
ܥ֥ǰä⤦1ĤζɵˤĤƤϡ#1274. hedera, or ivy-leaf ([2012-10-22-1]) ȡ
Parkes, M. B. Pause and Effect: An Introduction to the History of Punctuation in the West. Aldershot: Scholar P, 1992.
Ϣ#2370. ݥȥ줫θüѡ ([2015-10-23-1])#2371. ݥȥǯɽ ([2015-10-24-1]) εǡݥȥ夲ƤݥȥϡݥȥιȤ1ͤˤääƤ뤬2Ͷοʤ֥饸ǹȤäƤ뤳Ȥΰ̣礭ۤˤ⡤Ūʷаޤˤꡤݥȥ줬ѤƤϰϤ롥Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde Islands, East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal, São Tomé e Príncipe ǸѸȤѤƤꡤ¾ Ethnologue Portuguese ˤа Andorra, China-Macao, France, India ǤäƤ롥
ݥȥüԤϥݥȥε̾ Lusitania ˤʤǡLusophone ȸƤФ졤ޤüԶƱΤ Lusosphere 뤤 Lusofonia 륾ե˥ˤȸڤ롥ݥȥ쿢̱ϤϤ٤ΩϤǤ˲äƤ뤬1996ǯˤݥȥƱ (Community of Portuguese Language Countries, or Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa (CPLP)) ƤϥꥹܥˡϡꥹƳΡ#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1]) 䡤եƳΡ#2192. La Francophonie (1) ([2015-04-28-1])#2193. La Francophonie (2) ([2015-04-29-1]) ΥݥȥǤȤߤ뤳ȤǤݥȥο̱ϼθɾ⤢롥
С Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal, São Tomé e Príncipe 9Ǥꡤ¾ΤĤΥ֥С֤Ƥ롥¤ܤϥ֥饸ͤȤͥĤȤ顤2014ǯ7 CPLP Υ֥СȤʤ뤳ȤǧƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ2014ǯ723դ̳ʤˤƻȤ줿

ε#2370. ݥȥ줫θüѡ ([2015-10-23-1]) ǡݥȥ줫ŪʼѸߤμѸäϡ15--16˥ݥȥ뤬ιȤŸˤäƤ롥طʤ٤ϿޤźĤġݥȥǯɽإʥʥ른եåιݥȥ٤δ (p. 60--61) Ƹ褦

| 4200 | ȿŪʼҲˤäơݥȥΥݥǡ䥴른ͥ˵褬Ƥ롥 |
| 500 | ŴΥȿͤݥȥۤ롥 |
| 201 | ݥȥߤ۲ˤ |
| 140 | ޤȿͤƻۤ礹 |
| 27 | 륫롦ȥݥȥդ°륷˥Ĥ롥 |
| 567 | ޥϤȿͤ٥ꥢȾ˻ۤ礹롥 |
| 711 | ඵ̤η⤬٥ꥢȾ˿롥θ7ǯΤ˥٥ꥢȾΤۤΤࡼͤΥޥīλ۲ˤ롥 |
| 1096 | ֥르˥ȤΥꥱݥȥȤʤ롥 |
| 1143 | եꥱȤʤꥤ٥ꥢȾ¾ʬʬΥΩݥȥ벦롥 |
| 1249 | ե3٥ꥢȾ礫ǸΥࡼͤɤФݥȥΩ롥 |
| 1416 | ꥱҳҤ쥹˳ϤȹҳعĤꡤҳ夬Ϥޤ롥 |
| 1488 | ݥȥҳΤΥХȥᥦǥ˾ޤҳΤ˥ؤιϩΩ롥 |
| 1494 | ڥȥݥȥ뤬ȥǥ㥹हӡ̥ꥫΦȯϤξʬ䤹롥 |
| 1497 | ޤɤؤ2ǯ֤ιҳ˾Фθ塤ݥȥͤΥؤɤȤǰפϤޤ롥 |
| 1500 | ڥɥ쥹֥뤬֥饸ãݥȥȥꥫΦȤǰϩ |
| 1572 | 륤ǡݥȥͤαʱξħȤʤإ른٤ |
| 1580 | ڥե2ݥȥ벦ե1Ȥ¨̤ݥȥϥڥʻ礵롥 |
| 1609 | ݥȥ벦ե2٤ƤΥꥹʥꥹȶ̤˲ࡼ͡ˤ̿롥ηˤꡤݥȥкѤ礭˼롥 |
| 1650 | 졼ˤμȤʤ롥 |
| 1755 | Ͽ̤ꥹܥ6ͤ˴¿ηʪݲ롥ꥹܥϥݥХߤλشΤȺƷ롥 |
| 1807 | ʥݥ쥪ܥʥѥȤݥȥ˿祢6ϥ֥饸ƨ졤1821ǯޤǥ֥饸ˤ롥 |
| 1822 | 祢6©ҤΥڥɥ֥饸Ω֥饸Ȥʤ롥 |
| 1846 | ̱˪ˤꡤ⤬ͳݼΤդĤϤʬ롥 |
| 1890 | ꥹκǸĭơեꥫˤ뿢̱ϳײ롥 |
| 1908 | ĹˤꥹܥǰŻ롥ˤޥ̥2Ȥ¨̡ |
| 1910 | ̿Ϥޥ̥2̤1Ω |
| 1911 | ˡǧ롥 |
| 1916 | ꥹܥǥɥٽᤵ졤ɥĤ۹𡥥ݥȥϢ¦Ȥ1ェޤ2ǯ臘 |
| 1926 | ǥå48ǯ֤ˤ錄뷳Ϥޤ롥 |
| 1928 | ȥ˥ǡ顦饶뤬̳ä˽Ǥ롥 |
| 1932 | 饶뤬Ȥʤꡤ䤬ȺۼԤȤʤ롥 |
| 1933 | ֥ɡΥʿȡˡˡμͳ¤ȥ饤ȿܱưػߤ롥 |
| 1936 | 饶뤬ڥǥեեΨ뱦Ϥٻ |
| 1939 | 2Ω롥Τꥹ쥹ζϤѤ뤳Ȥǧ롥 |
| 1947 | ȺȿФꥹܥιϫƯԤȷˤܤð |
| 1949 | ξ (NATO) ߥСȤʤ롥 |
| 1955 | ϢʹϢˤ˲ |
| 1961 | ɤݥȥο̱ϥʻ礹롥顤˥⥶ӡȿ𤬤롥 |
| 1968 | 饶뤬ȯݤ줿塤ޥ륻Τ˽ǤȷˡˤȤŤʤ |
| 1974 | ̿͡ǡ衼åѺĹȺݤ̱ˤꡤܤ̱ѡ |
| 1975 | ̱Ϥä˥ӥ⥶ӡܥ٥ǡȥᡦץڡΩǧμ³λ롥 |
| 1982 | ʸ̱褹롥 |
| 1986 | ޥꥪ쥹60ǯ֤ʸ̱ΤȤʤ롥˥Х롦ХФ˽Ǥ衼åϢ (EU) ʤǤ衼åѷкѶƱΤ˲ |
| 1999 | Ǹ˻ĤäƤڤǤޥڿ̱¹ִԤ롥 |
| 2002 | ̲ߥɤλѤᡤ桼˰ܹԤ롥 |
ε#2369. Ѹˤˤ륤ꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥ줫θüѤˡ ([2015-10-22-1]) ˴ϢơϤȤ櫓ݥȥ줫μѸ˾Ƥ褦ݥȥ뤬ιȤȤ˲ڡ¸ߴ16ʹߤ濴ȤơʲΤ褦ʼѸ줬Ѹä (Strang 125, 켣 113) 롼Ĥ뤳ȤǤ롥
Φꡧ coco(-nut) ʥ䥷ڡʤμ¡ˡ, macaw ʥ, molasses ̪κΥåסϡ, sargasso ʥۥγ
եꥫꡧ assagai/assegai ʡեꥫ轻̱ΡϺٿȤꤲ, guinea ʥˡʶߡˡ1663--1813ǯ֥ꥹ¤줿ߡ21 shillings 襢եꥫ Guinea ζǤĤäϡ, madeira ʥޥǥ磻Υݥȥ Madeira 縶ζŸ磻ϡ, palaver ʸġ, yam ʥޥ
ɤꡧ buffalo ʥ奦, cast(e) ʥȡΥɤ١ϡ, emu ʥҥɥ, joss ʿ, tank ʡ˥, typhoo ˥ꥷαƶѷ, verandah ʥ٥
ꡧ mandarin ʡī (1616--1912) Ρ˹鴱, pagoda ʥѥ
ܤꡧ bonze ˷硤Ρ
ݥȥڤͳ褹Ѹˤ moidore ʥ⥤ɡΥݥȥ롦ڥΤζߡ18ѹѡϡ, port ʥݡȡʥ磻ˡˤʤɤ뤬षǤ롥Ϣơ#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) #756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1]) ǵ⻲ȡ
ʤܸ줫ݥȥͳƱѸä bonze 16μѸƱˡݥȥ줫ܸؤθüѤⵯäƤȤդѸϡ#1896. ܸäθ ([2014-07-06-1]) ǵȤǤ롥⡤ΥݥȥŪʳưǤФǤ롥
#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1]) Ǿ줿褦ˡѸ˾塤ե椷¾3ĤΥޥ줫θüѤϱƤꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥγƸ줫μѸϡ˶ʹߤˤĤơ#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) #756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1]) ǿ줿Ѹˤ⡤褽եͳǤϤ뤬ꥢݥȥ˵ĸμѤä (#2329. ѸμѸ ([2015-09-12-1]))
Culpeper and Clapham (210) ϡŪޥʡʤΥޥ줫θüѤˤˤĤơOED ˤפȤˡΤ褦üŪˤޤȤƤ롥
The effect of Italian borrowing can be seen from the 15th century onwards. Italy was, and still is, famous for style in architecture and dress. It was also perceived an authority in matters to do with etiquette. Travellers to Italy --- often young sons dispatched to acquire some manners --- inevitably brought back Italian words. Italian borrowing is strongest in the 18th century (1.7% of recorded vocabulary), and is mostly related to musical terminology. Spanish and Portuguese borrowing commences in the 16th century, reflecting warfare, commerce, and colonisation, but at no point exceeds 1% of vocabulary recorded within a particular period.
ޤꥢ줫μѸ줬ʤΤϡ15Ǥ롥#1530. ɻʾɽƤ Compa ([2013-07-05-1]) Ǹڤ褦ˡ13Ⱦʹߡ16ޤǡꥢŪʾȡͻϥɷкѤ礭ʱƶͿƤ줬Ū;ȤȤʤäƸƤΤ15դ꤫Ȳ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥θ塤ꥢѸ18βѸήˤäƥԡޤ
ڥȥݥȥϡꥢ⤵ΩΤʤŪȤΤ16˸ꤵ롥ιȤȤ̾ڤξͺθŪʸȤ
Ƹ줫θüѤͻҤϡŪˤߤаʾ̤Ūʰ㤤ȼ̤ˤʤ (Strang 124--26)
(1) ꥢͤ꿢̱ꤹԤǤϤʤޤǥ衼åιͤǤääơꥢ줬ä⡤衼åŪʤΤ˸ꤵȤäƤ褤ͥȯϤȤȤ⤢ꡤݽѡڡʸءۤʬθä¿ȤϤޤǤʤʸʪ̤ƤȤϹ̣ǤιͤθͳơθäѸήȤߤ٤ȤƤϡեͳ褦ʷ֤äƤ뤳Ȥ¿
(2) ڥήϡɽ Mary ȥڥ Philip II η뺧ˤξ̩ʴط餦Ȥ¿ڥڤΤߤʤ餺Φͳ褹äξʤʤȤħǤ롥
(3) ڥʾŪʼѸΤϡ15--16˹ҳѤȯãؤŸݥȥθǤ롥ݥȥϡΦΤߤʤ餺եꥫ䥢¿θä衼åѤ˻ꡤ줬̤ȤƱѸˤ⤿餵줿
ŪʼѸϡ#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) Ȥ줿
Culpeper Jonathan and Phoebe Clapham. "The Borrowing of Classical and Romance Words into English: A Study Based on the Electronic Oxford English Dictionary." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 1.2 (1996): 199--218.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
Ѹ speak, speech ϡ줾ŪˤϸűѸ sprecan, sprǣc ʤɤ̤뤬ˤβ r üƤȤ˵Ťɥĸб sprechen, Sprache ˤ r ޤޤƤ뤳ȤʬȤꡤr ޤॲޥĸ̤εǤ (PGmn *sprekan, *sprǣkjō)
OED 츻ŵĴ٤ȡѸθˤ r ξüϤǤ˸űѸ줫ѻ졤11ˤϰŪˤʤäǡŤ r ֤ͭ12ȾаʹߤѤƤä r ξüϡOHG, MHG, MDu. бˤƤ˸褦ѸǤȤƤ pang (< ME prange) ȤƤۤɤˤǤϤʤȤ餫Ǥ롥
εҤˤ11--12˿θȶ¸ߤ줿Ȥˤʤ뤬MED ǵ sprēcen (v.) ȡƤΤۤȤɤ The Peterborough Chronicle Ǥ롥131ĵƤ뤬12ȾȾФˤƽ줿 The Peterborough Chronicle r ξѤ¾ǸΥƥȤȤߤʤƤ褤
礦ɺǶ The Peterborough Chronicle 1123ǯɤǤơr ̣˽вäEarle and Plummer Ǥ餽βսѤ롥
. . . se king rad in his der fald and se biscop Roger of Seres byrig on an half him. and se biscop Rotbert Bloet of Lincolne on oðer half him. 7 riden þær sp`r'ecende.
Henry I ֤ȼĤ˽Ф֤٤ʤϤ˾äƤ륷Ǥ롥ѤκǸ˸ʬȤ֤Ƥ sp`r'ecende θ̻Ϻǽ specende ֤ꡤθ r p פ롥r ΰ֤ˤĤƤϥ쥹ߥȹͤƤ褤̣Τϡr 虜虜ơƱƥ¾ sprecon ʤɤη֤ȹ碌Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥
μ̻ιưưƤߤ褦餯̻äդˤơǤ r Τʤ specen Τ褦ʷ֤̤äΤǤϤʤǡפ鷺վǤ specende ֤äƤޤäʸϸˤƤϡޤǤˤǤ˸ŤᤫʼĥäӤӤ褦ˤʤäѰ۷ sprecen Τۤդ路Ȼפľr ΤǤϤʤ1121ǯΤ "Copied Annals" ̤ʤǡμ̻ϸűѸɸŪʽդǸ֤뤳Ȥ˴Ƥꡤ³ "First Continuation" ʬݤˤ⡤äƤפ餳˸롥̻ r ϡΤ褦ʸ̮ΤʤªɬפΤǤϤʤ
⤷ΥʥꥪȤСsprecen r üƤäΤߤʤ餺12ȾˤƿƷӤӤƤ register ָȤȤˤʤ롥
Earle, John and Charles Plummer, eds. Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel with Supplementary Extracts from the Others. London: OUP, 1892. 2 vols.
űѸŵŪ <cyning> 뤤 <cyng> ֤Ƥ줬ѸǤŵŪ <king> ֤褦ˤʤäƤ롥 /k/ ɽ魯ʸ <c> <k> ؤ֤줿ȤȤˤϤʤưŤäΤ
/k/ бʸ <c> <k> ִ줿аޤˤĤơScragg (45) ϵǽŪΩ줫鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . Old English orthography continued to represent the two sounds [= [k] and [ʧ]] by <c> (i.e. both of these words in late Old English were spelt cinn or cynn). Although <c> could still unambiguously represent /k/ before back vowels and consonants (as it still does in cat, cot, cut, climb, crumb), there was no agreed way of distinguishing the sounds graphically before front vowels. The use of <k> for the plosive appeared sporadically from the ninth century but it was not until the thirteenth that it was fully established in words like king and keen, by which time <ch> had been adopted for the affricate.
<c> <k> ؤѲϡ/y/ ߿Ȥ첻ѲͿƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥űѸǤϸ (palatalisation) θ̤ˤꡤ첻Ԥ /k/ [ʧ] ȤƼ¸褦ˤʤäƤ첻Ԥ /k/ [k] ȤƼ¸³ƤꡤߤʬۤʤᡤξϤޤƱ첻Ǥΰۤʤ¸Ǥˤʤääơɽ魯ʸ <c> 1Ĥǻꤿ
Ȥ첻 /u/ i-mutation ˤ첻 /y/ Ȥʤꡤ߿ /i/ ؤѲȡcinn [ʧin] cynn [kin] Ωޤ졤ʬۤ롥 /ʧ/ /k/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤȤƶ̤褦ˤʤäDz (phonemicisation) βǤ롥
ʳˤơۤʤ벻ǤϰۤʤʸɽΤդ路ȤǽŪȯۤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ͤˡϤĤμ¸ȼѤδ֤Ф夤Τϡ/k/ Ф <k> /ʧ/ Ф <ch> Ƥˡä <c> ΤΤĤäƤʤȤդ줿
Ѹˤ <k> <ch> Ѥ줿طʤˤϡֻѤ륢Υޥ̻νͿƤScragg θǤʸǤб˴ؤ뵡ǽŪ˽ϤƤΤФOED K, n. εҤϡΥޥֻˤڤǤꡤХμ줿Ȥ롥
Yet, in the Old English use of the Roman alphabet, both the guttural and the palatal sound were represented by C, although in the practice of individual scribes K was by no means infrequent for the guttural, especially in positions where C would have been liable to be taken as palatal, or would at least have been ambiguous, as in such words as Kent, kéne, kennan, akenned, kynn, kyning, kyðed, folkes, céak, þicke. But, even in these cases, C was much more usual down to the 11th century; and K can be regarded only as a supplemental symbol occasionally used instead of C for the guttural sound. After the Conquest, however, the Norman usage gradually prevailed, in accordance with which C was retained for the original guttural only before a, o, u, l, r, and K was substituted for the same sound before e, i, y, and (later) n; while the palatalized Old English c, now advanced to /ʧ/, was written Ch. Hence, in native words, initial K now appears only before e, i, y (y being moreover usually merged in i), and before n ( < Old English cn-), where it is no longer pronounced in Standard English, though retained in some dialects.
űѸǤ⤹Ǥ <k> ѤƤȤˤդ٤Ǥ롥ʸǤֻѲޤᡤѲˤϡʣξװͿƤȤ (multiple causation of language change) ˺ƤϤʤʤ
Ϣơ/k/ бʸŪˤĤơ#1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1]) ȡ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
ɸϡ̾פθ뤷ƤܸüԤˤȤäơѤʵǤ롥ܸǤϡڰϺסѸǤ John Smith ȤʤΤϤʤ
üŪˤСξˤ뽤、θκۤͳǤ롥Ǥñʡַƻ̾פȤ˴ؤƤѸǶ̤Ƥ뤬ʬʤĹΤˤʤȡܸǤϡֽ、פȤʤΤФơѸǤֻطפ⤫٤Ф狼褦ˡ、ܽפθȤʤ롥ڲȤΰϺפܸǤϡڡʤΡ˰Ϻפ뤬֥ߥȤΥפѸ褦Ȥ John (of) Smith Ȥʤ롥֤ΡפǤС*Smith's John Τ褦˽ͭʡʸŤ°ʡˤѤСܸˡֽ、פȤʤ⤢äΤǤϤʤȤ䤬롥ʤμʤ줿Τ
ε#2365. ΥޥαѸ̾κѡ ([2015-10-18-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ (surname) Ѥ褦ˤʤäͳ1Ĥϡ̾ (first name) ΤߤǤϿʪǤʤǽޤäǤ롥ɤȤƤǶΤǤ̱ΤˤʪϽפʥ٥Ǥɤ John ʤΤ̤ɬפϤäǡȥ˥ߡθ̾俦̾ʤɤŬʼ̻ȤѤơ֡ΥפʤɤȸƤ֤褦ˤʤäκݤαѸǤθϡä̾ʤɤѤˤϡX's John ǤϤʤ John of X ̤ä̾ England's king Ȥϸ鷺 the king of England ȸ̤Ǥ롥ڤΰϺפ֤ΡפάơڰϺפȤʤäꤵΤƱͤˡ John of Smith ֻ of ά John Smith Ȥʤäȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ʴϢơ°ʤȱ°ʤ̻ŪʬۤˤĤƤϡ#1214. °̾ΰ֤θ경ˡ ([2012-08-23-1])#1215. °̾ο of ȯã ([2012-08-24-1]) ȡ
ˤäꤵֻ줬æȤٻ뺬ȤƤϡof ǤϤʤȤƤ⡤Uppiby (up in the village), Atwell, Bysouth, atten Oak ʤɤֻߤᤤѻ뤳Ȥ롥#2364. ΥޥαѸ̾Υե줫֤ ([2015-10-17-1]) ˾Ȥ餷Ƥ⡤ɤˤե de Lacy ʤɤϤ̤ǤäΥѥˤǼǼԤϽͭο̾¿äȤ¿פʤλˡֻϤ褽üƤȤˤʤ롥
ѸγϤȡե de 䡤бɥĸ von, van ʤɤϡФп̾˻ĤäƤ롥Ρ֤Ĥʤפֻοϡ줴Ȥ˰ۤʤ褦
ε#2364. ΥޥαѸ̾Υե줫֤ ([2015-10-17-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤɤ̾ (first name) ˲ä (surname) Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤϡͥΥޥʹߤǤꡤѤνҲŪʬι⤤Ԥ㤤ԤˤƤǤä13--14ˤư̤˳Ȥä褦ϰ躹⤢ꡤ٤äCoates (327--28) Ѥ롥
Surnames came into use among the Norman aristocracy shortly before the Conquest. The practice was neither universal nor stable then or in the early period of Norman rule in England, though by about 1250 it was the norm in the highest social class and the knightly and other taxpaying classes. Between 1300 and 1400 the practice had spread to the urban moneyed classes, though it appears that in some towns, such as York, the lower classes might be without surnames till as late as 1600. Rural small free tenants, for whom evidence is more scant, began to acquire surnames before 1300 in the south, and the practice moved northwards, with new surnames still being formed in Lancashire as late as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and this development is mirrored by that of the servile class. The adoption of surnames did not happen overnight anywhere, and our knowledge of the process is hindered by the different degrees to which social classes are represented in the record. . . / Surnames are distinguishing names given to people bearing the same personal name, and many of these came to be inherited, though the system is not in fully complete operation everywhere till the 1600s. Those which have been inherited were of course the ones originally bestowed on males, for a complex of reasons involving unambiguous identification of the rightful heir.
ǴٲޤǤˤϡԤʤФʤʤۤɡδϤäȹޤäƤäȤˤʤ롥Ȥ˴ؤƤϡѸˤ¿θѲؤȤΤФ촷ѲȸƤ֤٤κѤषؤȳȤäȤΤ⤷
ŪŤФ̤ؤȤȤˤĤƤϡ#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1])#1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1])#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1]) Ȥ줿
Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.
Ѹο̾ˤĤơܥ֥Ǥϡ#590. last name ϤĤ̳Ūˤʤä ([2010-12-08-1])#813. Ѹο̾ˡ ([2011-07-19-1])#1673. ̾¿ȿ̾ء ([2013-11-25-1]) ۤpersonal_name γƵǰäƤ
Ѹ̻̾ŪʰܤѤä˥ΥޥΥե줫֤Ű֤ˤϡä롥ˤϡۤȤɤο̾ѸΥޥǤȤ߹碌Τä줬쵤˥եȤʤäŪˤС#813. Ѹο̾ˡ ([2011-07-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ1066ǯΥΥޥȸοǯδ֤ʬθűѸ̾ Richard, William, Henry ʤɤ Norman French ֤̾줿¿Ѹ˷ѾƤ롥˻ĤűѸ̾ Edward, Alfred, Audrey, Edith ʤɾǤפȤȤˤʤ롥ե줫֤줷̾ȤƤϡȤƤΦޥե첽ǺѤ줿 Robert, Roger 䡤ե첽ͤ̾ John, Matthew, Mary, Peter, Luke, Stephen, Paul, Mark ʤɤޤƤ褤ˤ衤ɿͤϡΥޥ塤äȤ֤˥ե̾̾褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥Ȥ϶
ͭ̾ (onomastics) ȤǤ Coates (320--21) ΥޥαѸ̾ˤĤΤ褯ޤȤƤʸϤΤǰѤ褦
[N]ames of English origin declined fairly suddenly after 1066, but at different rates in different social groups . . ., persisting till about 1250 only among the peasantry. . . . Very few names of OE origin were preserved, the only really durable ones being of three popular saints, Edmund, Edward and Cuthbert.
The typical 'English' names of the Middle Ages and later fall mainly into two categories: French-mediated ones of CWGmc [= Common West Germanic] origin and French-mediated ones of customary saints. Germanic ones included William, Robert, Richard, Gilbert, Alice, Eleanor, Rose/Rohais, Maud, together with the Breton Alan; Christian names were those of biblical personages or post-biblical popular saints, including Adam, Matthew, Bartholomew, James, Thomas, Andrew, Stephen, Nicholas, Peter/Piers, John and its feminine Joan, Anne, Margaret/Margery, from the late twelfth century onwards, Mary, and from the fourteenth Christopher. Whilst the fortune of individual names ebbed and flowed in time and in place, this is the name stock for both sexes which until recently served as the canon of 'English' names.
̱²Τۤե֤̾줬ᤫäȤȤ䤹¤ƱȤ (surname) γˤĤƤ⤤롥Υޥʹߡ̾뽬ȯãطʤˤϡ#590. last name ϤĤ̳Ūˤʤä ([2010-12-08-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡԤˤǤħʤɿ̱ŪǻääơޤǶʧ̳Τ뵮²ӤӤ뤳ȤȤʤäξˤƤ⡤̾ȥơʼҲŪҿˤ̩ܤʴط롥
Coates θͭ̾ˤĤơ#1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1])#1185. ͭ̾첽 (2) ([2012-07-25-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.
ε#2362. haplology ([2015-10-15-1]) ǥꥷ haplo- (one, single) ˿줿θ캬˴ϢƤ⤦1ʸؤ伭ؤѸȤƤФнв hapax (legomenon) 夲褦ΤʤǡʥǤϤʤȡǡ1٤ѤƤʤʶˤؤꥷ hapax (once) + legomenon (something said) ʤʣʣ hapax legomena Ȥ
"nonce word" hapax legomenon ƱȤƤ뼭⤢뤬Ԥϡפ֤λ¤Ѥפؤnonce-word ϿŪǰƬѤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤФhapax legomenon ʸ˸1٤Ǥ뤳Ȥ˾ƤƤȤ㤤롥nonce ʤξ¤ΡˤȤθ츻ˤĤƤϡ#1306. for the nonce ([2012-11-23-1]) ȡ
hapax legomenon ϡȤδϢǡФиڤƤˤ롥OED ˤȱѸˤ1692ǯΤȤǡ"J. Dunton Young-students-libr. 242/1 There are many words but once used in Scripture, especially in such a sence, and are called the Apax legomena." Ȥ롥
ʸؤ츻ؤˤơhapax legomenon ϤФȤʤ롥θθ츻Ϥ̣Ǥ뤳Ȥʤʤ伭ؤǤϡΡָפȤǧƤ褤Τδְ㤤ǤϤʤ˷Ǻܤ٤ݤȤƬˤ꤬ (see #912. ʤ (3) ([2011-10-26-1])) ǡ䤽Ȥϡhapax legomenon ϽפʹͻоݤȤʤ롥ȤΤϡ1٤Ū˽и뤿ˤϡüԤŪʸȤʤФʤʤǤ (see #938. (4) ([2011-11-21-1]))
ºݤΤȤ halax legomenon Ϸ褷ƾʤʤΤȤϡåפˡ§˾Ȥ餻жä٤ȤǤϤʤ (see #1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1]), #1103. GSL ˤ Zipf's law θڡ ([2012-05-04-1])) ѸȤƤϡChaucer Ѥnortelrye (education) Shakespeare honorificabilitudinitatibus, ޤ Dickens sassigassity (audacity?) ʤɤ롥
haplology ʽŲæˤϡβؤǤ롥벻䲻Ϣ³Ȥˡæ븽ݤ㤨Сprobably b Ϣ³뤿ˡ¯Ǥ probly Ȥȯ뤳Ȥ롥Ʊͤˡlibry (< library), nesry (< necessary), tempry (< temporary), pa (< papa) 褯ʹ롥Ūˤ⡤humbly ϸŤ humblely haplology Фޤ줿#1145. English England ̾Ρ ([2012-06-15-1]) ȡ#2250. English θƬ첻ʻˡ ([2015-06-25-1]) Ǥߤ褦 England Englaland la 1æΤǤ롥morphophonemic morphonemic Ѥ뤳Ȥ⽽ʬǧƤ롥
haplology ȤѸϡ1893ǯ˽Ф롥ꥷ haplo- + -logy ʤꡤԤ haplo- ϡñΡĤΡפ̣ ha- ȡ?šפ̣ -pl(o) ʤ롥#352. ƥ /s/ ȥꥷ /h/ б ([2010-04-14-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡꥷ h ϥƥ s бΤǡhaplo- simple ƱǤ롥
嵭 haplology ϲæ褦æֻˤߤ졤 haplography ʽŻæˤȸƤФ롥<philology> <philogy> Ƚꡤ<repetition> <repetion><Mississippi> <Missippi> Ƚ褦तǤ롥ʤդ˻ʣ dittography ʽʣ̡ˤȤݤ⤢롥<literature> <literatature> Ȥ褦ǯϡ⥿ԥε¿ʤꡤhaplography dittography λϤषƤΤǤϤʤ
ǤֻǤʣʬæϡϤ餷ʤѤȤȤ館뤳Ȥ¿֤ȤȤѤȤƺѤ褦ˤʤäΤ⤢롥Τ褦ʥǤϡhaplology haplography ̻ŪʲȤȤ館ɬפ롥ʲˡ˾ؿѸؼŵ (529) 餤ĤƤߤ褦
OE eahtatiene > ME eightetene > eighteen
OE eah(ta)tiġ > eighty
ME honestetee > honesty
OE sunnandæġ > Sunday
OE Mōn(an)dæġ > Monday
OE fēowertēneniht > fortnight
Missis > Miss
Gloucester > [ˈglɔstə]
Leicester > [ˈlestə]
OE berern > ME beren > barn
OF cirurgien ME surgien > surgeon
Poleland > Poland
ϢơMerriam-Webster μ haplology ⻲ȡ
ɱѸˤˤĤơ#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1])#762. ꥶ٥Ūʥˬ ([2011-05-29-1]) ε̤άҤƤطʤˤ륢ɤγ̻ˤƤȻפʡޥåࡦޥå (60--61) 濴ˡ¿⻲ȤĤġάǯɽѰդɤϿޤ⻲ͤޤǤˡ

| 7000 | åȥɤǽο͡ΦϤĤäƥɤƽࡥ |
| 3200 | ܥήƻʯĤ롥 |
| 2000 | ɤǶ°ٹϤޤ롥 |
| 700 | ȿͤɤˤäƤ롥 |
| 432 | ѥȥåɤơιȾꥹȶ˲롥 |
| 795 | ǽΥХ֥٥˾ΦϤ롥 |
| 800 | 餯Υɿͤνƻǡ̩ۤɤɤɽŪܡإ륺ν٤Ĥ롥 |
| 1014 | ɤβ֥饤ܥ롼ڤ줷դ襤ǥХˤ롥襤ľ塤ϻ˴ |
| 1170 | ֥ȥܥפȥڥ֥ɤ˿ΥޥͤΥɿάϤޤ롥1ǯ塤ȥܥβˤʤ롥 |
| 1171 | ɹإ2ɤʬ۲ˤ롥 |
| 1366 | ɤΥޥͤϤ뤿ᡤɤ֥륱ˡˡפꤹ롥 |
| 1494 | ɹإ7ɵIJɿ̩λ۲ˤɻۤ롥 |
| 1601 | ɽꥶ٥1ɤ˷ꡤƥҥ塼ˡ뤪Ʊ襤ˤ롥 |
| 1603 | ɤڤ |
| 1641 | ȥåΥɿͤץƥȤΥɿԤå줿ϤɤΩ夬ꡤɴͤΥץƥȤ |
| 1649 | ɤθС०Ψ뷳ɤΥɥȥեɤǿͤԻȥåΥɿͤϤץƥȤԤˤ롥 |
| 1690 | ꥢबܥ襤ǥॺ2ηˤꡤɤΥץƥȵサϤ롥 |
| 1782 | ɵIJȼˡΧꤹ븢롥 |
| 1798 | ɤΩᡤ쥢ɿͶʤɤϤȿԤ˽ꡤͤ˴ |
| 1801 | Ϣˡˤꡤ졼ȥ֥ƥӥϢ粦Ω |
| 1845 | 㥬˱¤ȯ4ǯˤֵȤʤ롥ʿΥɿ̱ͤȤʤäƥꥫʤɤϤ롥 |
| 1870 | ꥢࡦåɥȡ꤬ɿͤξˡŪᡤǽŪˤϽͭǧ뿷ˡΩ롥 |
| 1913 | ɼˡƤꥹ屡3ܤݷˤ |
| 1914 | 1ȯˤꡤɵIJȡɤθ˴ؤˡ꤬٤롥 |
| 1916 | ˪ǥɤ̱²Ϥפʷʪɶ¹Ωϥꥹˤäð롥 |
| 1916 | ॺ祤ؼ㤭ݽѲȤξ٤ǤƱμפʺȤȤƳϤ롥 |
| 1919 | ǯ˾äեޤɹ̱IJʥɥˤĤꡤդӥꥹΩʥեȤϡ֤켫ȤǡפȤ̣˥ꥹȹ̱IJٻϤȤΤƮ롥 |
| 1920 | ꥹIJǥˡΩ̥ɤ6ˤҤȤĤεIJʳΥɤˤҤȤĤεIJ줾Ĥ롥 |
| 1921 | ꥹΤȤƤΥɼͳΩ롥ꥹɾФ롥̥6ϥꥹˤȤɤޤ롥 |
| 1922 | ꥹδΩȤ̱²ϤȿФڤꡤ̱IJꥹɾǧٻɤȿɤȤ1ǯˤ郎ȯ |
| 1937 | ɼͳѻߤΩ̱ȥμΩ뿷ˡ̱ɼˤ꾵ǧ롥 |
| 1949 | ˪1916ǯˤǰơ4뤬ȥɤȤʤꡤꥹϢˮæह롥 |
| 1955 | Ϣ˲ |
| 1959 | ǡ餬Τ˽Ǥ |
| 1973 | 衼åѷкѶƱ (EEC) ˲ɶ· (IRA) ̥ɤǤιƳ |
| 1985 | ꥹȤΤˡꥹɶ꤬हФ롥ˤꥢɤϡ̥˴ؤ롥 |
| 1991 | 衼åϢ (EU) ˲ |
| 1993 | ꥹξ꤬ƥ٤뤹̥ʿĤƤȤƱʥ˥ˤ˽̾ |
| 1998 | ɤ̥ɤǤɼˤꡤ٥եȹաˤΤ̥᤹Ū褬ǧ롥 |
| 2004 | EUεĹȤʤ롥 |
| 2004 | 衼åѺηкĹã롥 |
| 2005 | IRAƮν롥 |
| 2007 | Сƥϡ3ܤμФ롥 |
ѸΥեȤդ礤ϸűѸڤ뤳Ȥʤ³Ƥ롥եüѤΥԡϡ#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1]) #117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) Ǹ褦1251--1375ǯθ⡤Ϥ̾ʤ⡤ѤϢʤ³ƤƤ롥ѸʹߤγƻΥեäμѤˤĤƤϡ#1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1])#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1])#594. ѸʹߤΥեѸħ ([2010-12-12-1]), #678. ƥ衼åŪ18ΥեѸ ([2011-03-06-1]) Ȥ줿
ϡѸˤեѸ夲Schultz ϡOED Online Ѥơ1900ǯʹߤ˱ѸäƤեäĴSchultz եѸȤƼФǧꤷΤϡ1677Ǥ롥Schultz ʸǤϡ14Ĥΰ̣ʬʤȤʤ벼̶ʬˤȤץƤ뤬Ǥ12ʬ줾°οȳΤߤ (Shultz 4--6)
(1) Anthropology (11 borrowings, i.e. 0.7%)
(2) Metapsychics and parapsychology (11 borrowings, i.e. 0.7%)
(3) Archaeology (30 borrowings, i.e. 1.8%)
(4) Miscellaneous (46 borrowings, i.e. 2.7%)
(5) Technology (62 borrowings, i.e. 3.7%)
(6) La Francophonie (63 borrowings, i.e. 3.8%)
(7) Fashion and lifestyle (77 borrowings, i.e. 4.6%)
(8) Entertainment and leisure activities (86 borrowings, i.e. 5.1%)
(9) Mathematics and the humanities (92 borrowings, i.e. 5.5%)
(10) People and everyday life (154 borrowings, i.e. 9.2%)
(11) Civilization and politics (156 borrowings, i.e. 9.3%)
(12) Gastronomy (179 borrowings, i.e. 10.7%)
(13) Fine arts and crafts (260 borrowings, i.e. 15.5%)
(14) The natural sciences (450 borrowings, i.e. 26.8%)
20ΥեѸħϲ1ĤϡSchultz "the vocabulary recently adopted from French is characterized by its great variety, ranging from words related to everyday matters to highly specific terms in technology and science" (8) ȤޤȤƤ褦ˡ̣ʬ롥ݽѡʳؤŪ˶ΤȤƤϥޥȤäƤ褤ޥǤ뤳ȤѸΥեѸħˤƤϤޤ뤳Ȥ顤ϱѸˤˤեüѤƻŪˤߤħȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ
ܤ٤ϡѸΥȤơɸեΤߤʤ餺եνѼ䥯쥪ʤɤޤޤƤ뤳Ȥֽ硤ʥ륤ʡեꥫʤɤΥեѼ狼μѸ줬ʤʤѸˤ⡤եΤߤʤ餺Ȥ櫓˥Υޥե (norman_french) äήƤʹߡ֥եפλؤϰϤȤȤȤˡѸѼ¿ͲƤȤȤ
μѸȤƤαѸͤƤߤƤ⡤ϥꥹɸѸ䥢ꥫɸѸ줬ۤͣμѸѼä⤷ʤߤǤϥԥ䥯쥪ޤƼαѸѼ郎ѸѼȤʤäƤ¤롥ƱȤեˤĤƤȤȤʤΤǤϤʤ
Schultz, Julia. "Twentieth-Century Borrowings from french into English --- An Overview." English Today 28.2 (2012): 3--9.
ɸȴϢơ#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1])#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2013-01-22-1])#1845. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ (2) ([2014-05-16-1]) ͡ʸҲ𤷤ƤϡȤƱѸ줬Ū¾줫¿θäѤƤ¤˾Ȥ餷ơѸ̱̱ˤĤƹͤƤߤ
Ѹ줬¿θ줫餪ӤäѤƤȤϡŪ (purism) Ω줫Ƚ̵ǤϤʤˤ衤̤ϹŪ˸롥ѸθüѹϡۤȤɤ٤ƤαѸ˵ҤǤĴħǤꡤؤ "cosmopolitan vocabulary" ʤɤȻ夲뤳Ȥ¿³ơѸ졤ƱѸ̱ϡˤȡФƳƤꡤ¿ŤͭȲᤵ뤳Ȥ¿Ū˱ѸǤϸ륢ǥߡΩˤäȤ⤳ιŪʵ˰äƤޤ⤦1ĤιݸǤե줬嵭DZѸȿФħȤ⡤Ū˱ѸΡ̱פ⤭Ħˤʤ롥
Ѹ̱˴ؤŪʥϤ켫Τ줿ǤꡤüѤΤ¦̤ȿǤƤʤȤBailey (91) ˤС̱αѹͤϡοͼŪͥ۴椨ˡ줫θäߤ˼줿櫓ǤϤʤषǤ¾Υ衼åѿͤƤäˤĤƤΤθؼ뤳ȤȤ줬¤ȤСѸʹ̱ˤϤष̱ŪǤȸ뤫⤷ʤ
Far from its conventional image as a language congenial to borrowing from remote languages, English displays a tendency to accept exotic loanwords mainly when they have first been adopted by other European languages or when presented with marginal social practices or trivial objects. Anglophones who have ventured abroad have done so confident of the superiority of their culture and persuaded of their capacity for adaptation, usually without accepting the obligations of adapting. Extensive linguistic borrowing and language mixing arise only when there is some degree of equality between or among languages (and their speakers) in a multilingual setting. For the English abroad, this sense of equality was rare. Whether it is a language more "friendly to change than other languages" has hardly been questioned; those who embrace the language are convinced that English is a capacious, cosmopolitan language superior to all others.
Bailey ˤСֳ줿̱ŪʱѸפΥϡ켫Τ̱ϼλʪǤꡤ̱ϼθüѤλ¤ȿȤȤˤʤ롥
Bailey ο̱ϼȸüѤεϡȤƶʹߤˤ˴ؤǤꡤѸ줬Ʊ餤ˤ˸üѤԤäƤλεˤľܿƤʤȤդ٤ѸϡѸϥƥե줫¿θäڤʤФʤʤҲŪ˲̤θäΤǤꡤ̱Ū̱ŪޤǤʤäΤ顥
Bailey, R. Images of English. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1991.
SIMILE Timeline API ȤΤѤơ֥饦ǥࡼưǯɽǤȤȤΤäΤǡ饤ɤǤѸǯɽäƤߤǯɽǡϡ#777. Ѹάǯɽ ([2011-06-13-1]) ǷǤ Crystal ǤѤ뤳Ȥˤ
饤ǯɽΤΤϡ饢Ƥʤ뤤ϰʲβåˡ塤ܤˤƲäɤȤΤ褤ǯɽ˻ž夲ƤȤ

Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
ɸ˴ؤ롤OED2 CD-ROM ǤѤܳŪŪȯCulpeper and Clapham ˤΤǡĴˡ뤫ꡤ츻εǽȤʤ٤κʤ褦忴褦OED ʤɤѤŪϾʤʤˡθ̩˴դߤơĴΤ̤ȤƼƤ褤ΤǤϤʤȹͤ롥äȤ⡤ɮԤȤ OED ѤƸפ뤳ȤΰյפˤĤƿŤƤꡤ̤⤽˱ƿŤ˲ᤷʤФʤȤ⤷Ƥ롥äơʲεҤ⡤âʬ˰ռĤIJᤵ줿
Culpeper and Clapham ΰäŵ줪ӥޥȤϡŪˤϥƥ졤ꥷ졤ե졤ꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥ濴ȤǤ롥ͤȤƤ٤礭ˤʤΤϡǽ4ۤɤǤ롥ɮԤϡOED Ǻܤ2,314,82θФ줫顤θľθȤѸ77,335Ф̡̤Ȥ⡤Ȥ˽Фäˤ뤽μѸγŻ뤷ơƼθͤФ
ĤҤȤĤοͤŪǤꡤ줾̣ᤷƤΤ⤪⤷ΤǤ Culpeper and Clapham (215) ʸκǸƤ礿ȯ7Ѥ褦
(1) Latin and French have had a profound effect on the English lexicon, and Latin has had a much greater effect than French.
(2) Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese are of relatively minor importance, although Italian experienced a small boost in the 18th century.
(3) The general trend is one of decline in borrowing from Classical and Romance languages. In the 17th century, 39.3% of recorded vocabulary came from Classical and Romance languages, whereas today the figure is 15%.
(4) Latin borrowing peaked in 1600--1675, and Latin contributed approximately 7000 words to the English lexicon during the 16th century.
(5) Greek, coming after Latin and French in terms of overall quantity, peaked in the 19th century.
(6) French borrowing peaked in 1251--1375, fell below the level of Latin borrowing around 1525, and thereafter declined except for a small upturn in the 18th century. French contributed over 11000 words to the English lexicon during the Middle English period.
(7) Today, borrowing from Latin may have a slight lead on borrowing from French.
7ȤäƤ⡤θǤۣäĴ̤ϿͤȤƶβƤꡤ狼䤹(1) ϡեȥƥǡɤ餬Ū¿μѸäѸˤ⤿餷ƤȤ䤤üŪΤǤꡤƥιΤ֤ۤä礭פȤƤ롥(7) ˤСΥƥ̤ͥϡ㴳κʤ⡤ѸˤĤƤ褦Ϣơ(6) 顤ι줬ե줫ƥڤؤäΤ16ȾǤ뤳ȤȽ뤷(4) 顤ƥΥԡ16Ȥ17Ǥ뤳Ȥ狼롥
(3) ǤϡʹߡˤѸΨäƤƤ뤳ȤƤ뤬ϡ#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]) ǤߤȤ礹롥(2) (5) Ǥϡƥȥեʳν줫αƶϡΤȤƶϾ뤤λˤ串ȤʤäȤ٤Ǥ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ѸˤˤѸפˤĤƤϡcat:lexicology statistics loan_word γƵȤ줿ܵȴϢơäˡ#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1]) ȡ
Culpeper Jonathan and Phoebe Clapham. "The Borrowing of Classical and Romance Words into English: A Study Based on the Electronic Oxford English Dictionary." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 1.2 (1996): 199--218.
ε#2355. եθðʳؤαƶ --- 硤ֻ ([2015-10-08-1]) ǰ Denison and Hogg (17) ʸϤǤϡѸ̾ʣ -s Ѹ˳礷װȤơեαƶͤ뤫⤷ʤȤΤȤäϡʸǤ⤷ФоƤƤꡤǶǤϰ°桦 (p.43 fn) Ǥʣ -s Ťˤϥեʣηαƶ⡤١äƤ⤷ʤפȿƤ롥
ˤĤĴ٤ Hotta (268) ΤʤǡϤФƶŪΩäƤ롥Jespersen ˵ʤ顤Τ褦˵
For the reasons why Old French could not be relevant, refer to Jespersen (Chapters 33). To summarise the main grounds against the hypothesis of Old French influence on the English s-plural:
1. Considering that the genitive singular -s spread earlier and faster than the nominative plural -s, French should first have influenced genitive singular forms, which is however impossible because Old French had no s-ending for the genitive singular.
2. The extension of the s-plural started before the Norman Conquest, making it unnecessary to propose French influence.
3. The fact that -s prevailed earlier in the northern dialects than in the southern is against the expectation if French influence was assumed. Such French influence would have been felt first and foremost in the South.
4. The s-ending was just one of the various plural endings available in Old French, and it was usually an accusative plural ending instead of a nominative plural.
5. In English, adjectives rarely took the s-plural after the Old French model. If French influence had been at work, not only nouns but also adjectives might have been affected.
6. The English s-ending was usually preceded by a vowel typically spelled e, while in Old French such a vowel spelling never occurred. We might note that the forms -es and -s were kept distinct well into Late Middle English.
ʤפԸǤ Roedler ⡤Ѹˤ -s ʣγ˴ϢơʥեǰƬ֤ʤ˸쳰Ūʱƶβǽ "überflüssig" ڤäƼΤƤƤ롥եƶˤϤۤȤʤ
Ϣơ#946. ̾ʣˤγס ([2011-11-29-1])#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) ([2012-09-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
Denison, David and Richard Hogg. "Overview." Chapter 1 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 1--42.
° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Jespersen, Otto. Chapters on English. London: George Allen, 1918. Rpt. of Progress in Language.
Roedler, Eduard. "Die Ausbreitung des 's'-Plurals im Englischen." Vol. 1. PhD thesis, Christian-Albrechts University, 1911; Vol. 2. Anglia 40 (1916): 420--502.
ѸˤǤϡեϸäΰˤ¿ʱƶڤܤʳǤϸΤʤȸ뤳Ȥ롥#2351. ե줫ζưμѡ ([2015-10-04-1]) Ǹ褦˶ñ̤Ǥ⾯ʤ̱ƶڤܤƤֻΰˤ礭ʾͿƤ
ȤϤʸˡ䲻ˤĤƤϡե줬ƶͿʤäȤϻ¤ʲ˥ĥäǿƤ褦ˡƶͤܤ⤤ĤŦƤ뤬ڵΤʤΤ¿Υޥʸ塤եϱѸμҲŪϰ̤Ȥ뤳Ȥˤꡤ̤ȤƲ̸ȤƤαѸʸˡѲ¥ʤȤ̣ǡŪʱƶڤܤȸȤϤǤ
#204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1])
#1171. եȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1])
#1208. եαʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1])
#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])
#1815. ̾ one ˡϥեαƶ ([2014-04-16-1])
#1884. եѸʸˡü˴Ϳ ([2014-06-24-1])
#1924. եѸʸˡü˴Ϳ (2) ([2014-08-03-1])
#2047. ΥޥαѸ˾ΰյ ([2014-12-04-1])
#2347. Ӥȯãˤե졤ƥαƶˤĤơ ([2015-09-30-1])
ơϢȡѤƤ Denison and Hogg (17) ϡեθðʳؤαƶȤ˴ؤơŪˤ϶ϾǤ뤳ȤȤʤ⡤ȶΰˤƤϸΤȻŦ롥
. . . we should . . . look at French influence outside the borrowing of vocabulary. It is best to start by saying that French influence is largely absent from inflectional morphology. The only possibilities concern the eventual domination of the plural inflection -s at the expense of -en (hence shoes rather than shoon) and the rise of the personal pronoun one. Although there are parallels in French, it is virtually certain that the English developments are entirely independent.
The strongest influence of French can be best seen in two other areas, apparently unrelated but in fact closely connected to each other. These are: (i) derivational morphology; (ii) stress.
եؤαƶǧˤϡ#96. ѸȥեǺ褫 ( hybrid ) ([2009-08-01-1]) ˵褦ʺ (hybrid) нʬˤĤƤϡ#718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1]) rsr (= Romance Stress Rule) ˴ؤƵȤ줿ȶȤ2Ĥΰ褬 "closely connected" ǤȤΤϡѸθ§ȶ§ŬѤ캬ޥϤޥϤˤä̤Ƥ¤ؤΤǤ롥
ޤȤȡեθðʳؤαƶȤơܤ٤ΤȤС硤ֻȤäȤ
Denison, David and Richard Hogg. "Overview." Chapter 1 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 1--42.
ťΥɸȥե줬ѸͿƤƶϡѸˤǤϤФоȤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤#111. ѸˤˤťΥɸȸťեαƶӤ ([2009-08-16-1]) #126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1]) Ǥ夲ƤεǤ⼨褦ˡξαƶ͡оŪǤ롥ɤδߤ뤫ܰܤꤹۤɤDenison and Hogg (15) ϡȤ櫓ҲŪʴ顤ξαƶ˴ؤפΩ夲Ƥ롥ˤȡťΥɸ줬ϰδްդĤΤФե줬ʸ (style) Ѱ (register) δްդĤȤǤ롥
. . . Scandinavian influence was originally predominant in the Danelaw. . . . [E]ventually many Scandinavian elements entered southern dialects as well, but this is a two-stage process. There is the original contact between the two language which brought Scandinavian features into the English of the Danelaw. Then, later, there is spread within English by means of interdialectal contact. Contact between French and English, on the other hand, shows a much lesser geographical variation. The key here is register. That is to say, the variables which affect English in respect of French are far more to do with a contrast between types of social language than geography. Thus, if a text is concerned with, say, religion or science, or it is a formal piece, then it is probably that it will contain a higher proportion of French loanwords than a text which is purely secular or colloquial, whichever part of the country the text comes from. In this respect we should also note that Scandinavian loans are more likely to be colloquial (or everyday).
СťΥɸαƶʤȤΡ1ʳפˤƤϰʿʿѼˤκۤ⤿餷ΤФեαƶϡȤʸΤѰʿľѼˤκ߽ۤФȤȤǤ롥ϡξαƶ˴ؤ͡Ω⤤Ȥơ̯Ǥ롥
Denison, David and Richard Hogg. "Overview." Chapter 1 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 1--42.
4֤ˤ錄äƥ֥ƥƤͤϡ410ǯȤ٤֥ƥ礫űˤäޤ줿Ūˤꡤ֥ƥϥȽ̱²ؤ롥̱²Ūٱ٤ΦƤͤ͡ʤޥ̱²֥ƥ˸ƤӴȡषޥϥȷμߤƤȤꡤ쵤οƼԤȤʤä
ϡͤˤ֥ƥΡŪʽŪʵҤǤ롥Ǥϡͤδȿͤδ̤Ȥ¤ˤ狼䤹ޤƤ롥ۤ180žȤäƤ褯ȼäơμ礿Ѹ⡤ȷϽ줫ޥʤʤҤäƱѸˤظؤͤϡȿͤʤޤǤáΤ᤹뤤ʤɼؤŰŪɤäȤˤʤ롥
ۤɤޤǤδȤΤϡͤˤȤäơäޤǤƤ䤤ʤΤ褦ʴ顤ºݤˤϤʤ٥ͤȥȿͤͻ礬äΤǤϤʤʤɤεʤƤ⤤롥
Τ褦ʽŪʸФƤƤȤϤͤˤ륤ĸΨŪˤʤ줿Ȥϻ¤Τ褦ɸ˳ؤǤϤ뤬ʤѸˤˤƤפǤ롥Denison and Hogg (10) ϡ嵭ζʽŪʵҤ̤ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
But that is not quite enough to explain the rapidity of the Germanic settlement, which was far more a conquest of Britain, linguistically speaking, than the Norman Conquest 500 years later would be. What its speed suggests is that there must have been considerable population pressure in northwestern Europe at the time, perhaps partly because in the fifth century the average temperature was lower than it had been earlier and would again be later. Whatever the case may have been, this conquest saw an overwhelmingly rapid replacement or absorption of the existing Celtic linguistic community by the newly arrived Germanic speakers. There is now some genetic evidence for mass immigration to central English . . . , consistent with displacement of the male Celtic population by Anglo-Saxons but saying nothing about females. Before long Celtic speakers had been confined to the lands west of Offa's Dyke, to Cornwall, the northwest, and north of the Borders of Scotland. The gradual elimination of Celtic has continued remorselessly, albeit slowly, ever since. It may only have been with the coming of Christianity and the establishment of churches and abbeys that Anglo-Saxon England started to achieve the beginning of the types of political and social structure which we associate with later centuries.
ǯѸˤˤƥȸθŪƶФˤ褦ˤʤäƤΡŷŪʡץͤοϡΤ褦ʲˤؤ礭Ǥ롥¤ΤäβԤ롥
Denison, David and Richard Hogg. "Overview." Chapter 1 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 1--42.
#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1])#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1])#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1]) εǡͭ̾ʸäΩ calf/veal, deer/venison, fowl/poultry, sheep/mutton, swine (pig)/pork (bacon), ox/beef ˤĤơΥͤDenison and Hogg (16) ⡤̤γ٤֥פŦƤ롥
. . . the introduction of French loans for food, such as beef, pork and mutton, is sometimes held to demonstrate a considerable degree of bilingualism. This view owes a great deal to Scott's Ivanhoe, which claims that animals on the hoof were called by their English names, but by French names when cooked. The initial reaction is to believe that; it is only when we recall terms such as English lamb (alongside mutton) or Anglo-Norman cattle alongside English cow that its plausibility diminishes. It is more likely, although less romantically appealing, to suggest that French loans were most probable in administration and learning, and that by and large 'ordinary' words were only borrowed in the few areas where there was constant interaction between English and French speakers. This neither demonstrates extensive bilingualism nor even that there was extensive borrowing beyond a few specific areas.
ʤۤɡΤ lamb ϡ#146. child ʣ children ʤ櫓 ([2009-09-20-1]) ǸűѸǤüʶޤȤƿ줿褦ˡޥϤǤ롥θϡߡưʪȤƤλӤɽΤߤʤ餺ɽ魯줬ΰ̣ѤȤȤϡ֡פ鳰ƤȤȤǤ롥ʤOED ˤȡlamb λΰ̣17ˤʤäƽȯãȤ뤬MED ˤȡa1399 ΡפθǤ㤬Τˤ롥
ޤcattle ⡤#95. ޤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2009-07-31-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤNorman French ͳñ˰㤤ʤܤΰ̣ΤߤǤꡤեѸȤƤդ路Ϥΰ̣Ϥʤ
֡פοäϡΤ˲ʤäƤ롥
Denison, David and Richard Hogg. "Overview." Chapter 1 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 1--42.
ѸˤեüѤˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])#1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1]) ۤ french loan_word γƵ͡˰äƤե줫ζư (phrasal_verb) μѡΤˤ (loan_translation or calque) ˤĤƤϤޤ夲ƤʤäΤǡˤ
եζưϤȤʣ줫ʤƼɽʤ餺ѸѤƤȤˤĤƤϡԸǤƤ㤨СIglesias-Rábade λȤ F. H. Sykes (French Elements in Middle English. Oxford: 1899.) A. A. Prins (French Influence in English Phrasing. Leiden: 1952.) ˤС623ۤɤζ礬եͳȿǤȤƤ (ex. take lond (< OF prendre terre (disembark))) ¾ŪʸϾʤ˥եɽΤʤʤΤɤ¤ϱѸˤ뼫ȯãȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǽǤϤʤʤɵ䤨ʤ
ǡIglesias-Rábade nime(n)/take(n) ѤưɽŪʤꡤư줬 "light verb" 뤤 "operator" ȤƺѤθư̾줢뤤ֻư̾ȼʸ MED 꽦ФǡΥեбɽ뤫ɤǧ¾ŪʸʤäоݤȤʤ2Ĥιʸ̩ȡʲ̤Ǥ롥
(1) Verbal phrases made of a 'light' V(erb) + deverbal noun: e.g. take(n) ende, take(n) dai, nime(n) air
(2) The 'light' verb nime(n)/take(n) + a 'prepositional' deverbal: e.g. take(n) in gree, take(n) to herte, take(n) in cure
(1) ηˤĤƤϡ306ζ礬졤Τ49Ĥե줫ΰ̣ѤǤꡤ156Ĥե˻ɽߤĤȤΤǤȤ (Iglesias-Rábade 96) (1) ηˤĤƤϡΤϸűѸ줫餢ΤΡե¿ζˤäƱѸǤμѤȤϤȤƤ (99)
. . . this syntactic pattern acquired great popularity in lME with extensive use and a varied typology. I do not claim that this construction is a French imprint, because it occurred in OE, but in my opinion French contributed decisively to the use of this type of structure consisting of a light verb translated from French + a deverbal element which bears the action and the lexical meaning and which usually kept the French form and content.
(2) ηˤĤƤϡIglesias-Rábade (99) ϡΤζаŪ˸űѸ̤Ȥϸˤͥեʤ뤤ϥƥˤѤȹͤΤȤƤ롥
This pattern, too, dates from OE, though it was restricted to the verb niman + an object preceded by on, e.g. on gemynd niman ('to bear in mind'). However, this construction came to be much more frequent in lME, particularly with sequences which had no prototype in OE, and, more intriguingly, most of them were a calque in both form and content from French and/or Latin.
̣ΤϡηˤĤƤ⡤νФ14Ⱦ15ˤƥԡޤȤȤñΤΥեѸŪʥԡ14Ⱦ褿ȤͤȡξμѤΥԡɤƤ褦˸롥ºݡ˴ޤޤ̾ϼѸǤ뤳Ȥ¿Iglesias-Rábade (104) ϡ̲ "It seems plausible that the introduction of foreign single words precedes the incorporation of foreign phrases, turns of speech, proverbial sayings and idioms." ȤȤ館Ƥ롥
ζ礬ѸäƤϩˤĤơIglesias-Rábade ϡʩ2ѼԤäդˤƤ⤿餷ȤϡʸˤƽФ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ顤ȤƽշͳήȹͤƤ (100)Ȥơp. 104 ǤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
To conclude, I believe that English had borrowed from French an important bulk of phrases and turns of speech which today are considered to be part of daily speech. In my opinion phrasal structures of this type must have been rather artificial and removed from everyday speech when they first appeared in late ME works. I base this conclusion on the fact that such phrases were not common in a contemporary specimen of colloquial speech, the Towneley Plays . . . . I thus suggest that most of them made their way into English via literature and the translation process, rather than through the natural process of social bilingual speech. It is worth noting that most ME literature is based on French patterns or French matter. Most of this phrasal borrowing was the natural product of translation and composition.
Iglesias-Rábade εơΥեζ礬դͳѤäȤơεϡ줬äդؿƩƤäΤϡʤ𤬤äƤΤȤ
Ϣơ#2349. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1]) ȡĥäε⻲ȡ
Iglesias-Rábade, Luis. "French Phrasal Power in Late Middle English." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 93--130.
ε#2349. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1]) ǰѤ Rothwell ʸǤϡɸ꤬Ƥ롥褯ΤƤ褦ˡThe Canterbury Tales The General Prologue (ll. 124--26) ǤϡPrioress ¤Υե (Anglo-French, or Anglo-Norman) äʪȤƾҲ𤵤롥
And Frensch she spak ful faire and fetisly,
After the scole of Stratford atte Bowe,
For Frensch of Parys was to hire unknowe.
ŪˡΤϡʥѥΥեƤʤ¤ΥեΤߤäļ˼ԡפε̣̤βᤵ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥȡful faire and fetisly ˤϡʥեλȤǤ Chaucer λߤơäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Rothwell ϡ Prioress ˤƤ⡤äɤΥեѼˤƤ⡤ۤϰ̤㤫ä櫓ǤϤʤʸ롥2롥
(1) ѥΰҿޤꡤŪ¾ΥեѼ郎㤯褦ˤʤäƤΤϻ¤Ǥ롥λ Anglo-French ˸¤餺եνѼˤĤƤƱͤˤäΤǤꡤAnglo-French Ȥ櫓ڻ뤵줿櫓ǤϤʤRothwell ۩
As far as continental French is concerned, it is important to recognize at the outset that disparagement and unfavourable comparison with the dialect of the Paris region --- francien --- were not confined to Anglo-Norman but were also the lot of outlying dialects of the continental mainland. Within the bounds of what is now northern France and Belgium dialectal variations were frowned upon as soon as a strong literary tradition began to develop in the Ile-de-France. (40--41)
Chaucer's quip at the expense of his Prioress is to be regarded then as a small reflection of the general movement towards the standardization of the French language that originated in Paris before the end of the twelfth century, a movement whose aim of making the language of the capital the norm for eventually the whole of France was to involve not only the subordination of the vigorous northern dialects, but also the eclipse of the brilliant literary civilization of Provence, built around the langue d'oc. (41--42)
(2) षեνѼ٤ Anglo-French ϥɤȤΩˤäƽդȤƤٲƤΤǤꡤǤϼҲŪϰ̤ݤäƤäʸˡ̤Ǥ⽽ʬˡΩɤʡѼäΤǤꡤեüԤˤȤäƤǽʥեΡפʤɤǤϤʤä
It must be emphasized . . . that the general level of competence in most of the Anglo-Norman works that have come down to us is remarkably high, if judged not only by the accurate use of vocabulary, but in the far more searching test represented by the handling of syntax. (42)
There is no suggestion that the living French of England was unable to express with complete adequacy any of the ideas, objects, and shades of meaning required by the civilization it served. In fact, if we are to judge simply from material provided by the standard dictionaries of medieval French, it would appear that in certain technical areas such as the law, Anglo-Norman may well have been more highly developed at an earlier stage than the corresponding language on the continent. (43)
ȤơRothwell ϡAnglo-French Фи⡤ѥΥե줫Ω (autonomous) ƤȤĥѸʸؤθˤƤ⤽Τ褦ʤΤȤƺɾ٤롥
Insular French, then, was for some considerable time after the Conquest no more than a normal and accepted part of French culture, but had gradually and imperceptibly moved into a position of increasing eccentricity by the time we reach the age of Chaucer. Yet it may perhaps be a mistake to view this apparently aberrant offshoot of French as no more than a failed and vanished imitation of francien. . . . [T]he standing of Anglo-French may well improve once it is viewed not as a peripheral dialect, the inferior linguistic medium of a transplanted culture, destined to disappear after a few centuries, but as an efficient vehicle of a highly-developed civilization, a language that did not really disappear but was absorbed into English, transforming the latter in the process. (45)
Rothwell, W. "Stratford atte Bowe and Paris." Modern Language Review 80 (1985): 39--54.
ɸˤĤƤϡʲΰϢεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])
#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1])
#1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])
#1540. Ѹˤء ([2013-07-15-1])
#1638. եȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥζ ([2013-10-21-1])
#2069. ؤءˡ ([2014-12-26-1])
˴ϢơRothwell ʸɤRothwell (50) ˤȡѸΤ˸ŪʵϿθ줬ƥ줫եءե줫Ѹܤޤ뤷ڤؤä (language_shift) ȤҲŪʻθʤФʤʤȤ
If the English language appears to embark on a far more extensive campaign of lexical borrowing from the later fourteenth century, this is because French had become the second official language of record in England, alongside and often in replacement of Latin. This means in effect that from the thirteenth century onwards French is called upon to cover a much wider range of registers than in the earlier period, when it was used in the main for works of entertainment or edification. This change in the role of French took place at a time when English was debarred from use as a language of record, so that when English in its turn began to take on that role in the later fourteenth century, it was only to be expected that it would retain much of the necessary vocabulary used by its predecessor --- French. . . . For successive generations of countless English scribes and officials the administrative vocabulary of French had been an integral part of their daily life and work; it would be unrealistic to expect them to jettison it and re-create an entirely new Germanic set of terms when English came in to take over the role hitherto played by French.
13--14ˤơե줬ˡΧطϤȤŪʸȤƤƤȤϡ#2330. 13--14ɤˡΧޤλѸ ([2015-09-13-1]) ǤߤΤ褦˥ɤˤƥեǸŪʵϿ봷ˤ錄äƳΩƤȤˡ14ȾѸ줬ƤΤǤ롥վΥХäȤϤ¿μ̻ˤȤäơ餳θؤˤϸǤääˡΧ˴ؤѸ¿ϡޤǥեñǤޤʤäƤƤꡤбѸϷ礱ƤΤ褦ʾǡ̻դѸؤȥեȤݤˡ줿եѸ¿ѤȤϼä
ѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤Ťȡ֤θüѤϡΤ褦̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ롥ϢǶȤơ#2345. űѸ diglossia Ѹ triglossia ([2015-09-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
Rothwell, W. "Stratford atte Bowe and Paris." Modern Language Review 80 (1985): 39--54.
ܥ֥Ǥ code-switching (CS) ˴ؤƤĤεƤȤ櫓Ѹˤλϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1]) Ƥ CS ˴ؤ븦ȯŸ˸岡ǡޤ˸ (historical_pragmatics) ήԤˤ٤ǡŪˤ CS θ⾯ĿӤƤƤ褦ǤꡤѸˤˤƤ⤤ĤʸФ褦ˤʤä
˱Ѹˤ CS μ֤ϡޤޤƤʤȤ¿⤽⡤CS ѻ˥ƥȤϤɤٻĤäƤΤSchendl ϡѸ줫Ѹˤơʣ줬ߤƥȤϷ褷ƾʤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
There is a considerable number of mixed-language texts from the ME and the EModE periods, many of which show CS in mid-sentence. The phenomenon occurs across genres and text types, both literary and non-literary, verse and prose; and the languages involved mirror the above-mentioned multilingual situation. In most cases Latin as the 'High' language is one of the languages, with one or both of the vernaculars English and French as the second partner, though switching between the two vernaculars is also attested. (79)
CS in written texts was clearly not an exception but a widespread specific mode of discourse over much of the attested history of English. It occurs across domains, genres and text types --- business, religious, legal and scientific texts, as well as literary ones. (92)
鷺͡ʥƥȤ CS 褦ʸإƥȤȤƤϡŪˤ "(i) sermons; (ii) other religious prose texts; (iii) letters; (iv) business accounts; (v) legal texts; (vi) medical texts" ƤꡤʸإƥȤȤƤ "(i) mixed or 'macaronic' poems; (ii) longer verse pieces; (iii) drama; (iv) various prose texts" ʤɤȤ (Schendl 80)
Ѹˤ뤤˸ؤˤ CS ʤޤƥȡˤ椹յϾʤȤ3롥1Ĥϡ2Ѥȸܿξβ˻2ĤϡCS ȼѤζܤ˴ط롥üѤ¿ѸˤˤȤäơѤβ餫ˤ뤳ȤϡŪˤºŪˤˤƽפǤ (see #1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1])) 3ĤˡŪ CS ̻ŪʼͿ뤳Ȥˤꡤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Schendl, Herbert. "Linguistic Aspects of Code-Switching in Medieval English Texts." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 77--92.
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