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2012-09-30 Sun

#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥ե󥹸αƶܡ [french][celtic][old_norse][contact][cleft_sentence][french_influence_on_grammar]

##1223,1249,1250,1251 εǡBailey and Maroldt ˤäƻϤ줿Ѹ᥯쥪β򸫤ƤBailey and Maroldt ȽƤФäʸˤϼŪʹͻ⤢뤳ȤդäƤ
[2012-09-28-1]ε#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3)פ (5) Ǽ夲ֱѸȥե󥹸Ȥδ֤ʿԴطѻܡ (Bailey and Maroldt 51--52) 򡤡֥ե󥹸αƶܡפΥꥹȤȤªСʩܿθ󶡤ƤƤȤͭѤ⤷ʤ[2012-09-01-1]ε#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫פǾҲ𤷤褦ˡGörlach ϡʲΤۤȤɤιܤ˰۵Ĥ򾧤ˤƤȤϤʤˤΰ̣

A. Anglo-Saxon elements in French functions:
1) the -līce deadjectival adverb-formative;
2) the use of wh-interrogatives as relative pronouns; cf. French qu-interrogatives and relatives;
3) progressive formations and other tense/aspect/diathesis formations;
4) prepositions of the pattern exemplified by outside of, or Anglo-Saxon prepositions in French uses;
5) French-like uses of the pronoun cases;
6) the cleft-sentence formation;
7) case functions of the of-"genitive" and the to-"dative";
8) second-person informal/formal distinction in forms of address;
9) Middle English calques that got lost later; e.g. the which;
10) analytical comparison.

B. French-influenced developments, the first of which is essentially universal:
1) loss of inflections, especially case and gender distinctions;
2) word order, especially after negative elements; but not the order of adjectives.

C. French elements:
1) vocabulary --- quantitatively as well as qualitatively very considerable;
2) a huge part of English derivational morphology;
3) most phonomorphological rules;
4) certain sounds; e.g. initial [v dž] and the diphthong [ɔ].


ޤޤǤޤʹȤΤʤȸ줢뤤ϸťΥɸ줫αƶβǽȤơθڤܤαޤäΤդäƤ"The fact that clear [l] as well as non-aspirated [p t k] are widespread in the North could be due to either Keltic or Nordic influence" (25).

Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.

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2012-09-29 Sat

#1251. Ѹ᥯쥪ط [creole][me][family_tree][history_of_linguistics][evolution][sociolinguistics][historiography][language_equality]

##1223,1249,1250 εǡѸ᥯쥪Ȥ벾ȽŪ˸Ƥ褽ηϤĤƤΤʾ˴ؿ󤻤ƤΤϡʤβ⤬졤ʣθԤ˻ٻ줿ΤȤطʤǤ롥
Baily and Maroldt 򳫤1970ǯʹߡ쥪츦椬ˤʤꡤȤ櫓ʲҲؤ礭ʻɷͿƤȤϡְ㤤ʤͿƤ롥
ʲȤδطǤСBaily and Maroldt ϡʪȤ˲ФƤ롥

One of the authors has for more than a half-dozen years been contending that internal language-change will result only in new subsystems, while creolization is required for the creation of a new system, i.e. a new node on a family tree. Each node on a family tree therefore has to have, like humans, at least two parents. (22)


ϡӸؤǤΩƤ the family tree model ιǤ⤢ꡤƱΤ⤦ĤηǤ⤢롥ȯۼΤŪʤΤˤ襯쥪븦ʪǤ뤳Ȥϵʤ
ˡθؤȤ⤤ҲؤȯŸȤδطǤϡκ¤˺ǤᤤҿΤǤѸ򡤼ҲŪˤĹ餯Ƹߤ⺬᡼դ줿쥪Ʊ뤵뤳ȤˤäơԤϸŪʿĥ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤθդ줿ͥ뤤Υ᡼ϡޤǼҲŪʲʹѤȿǤǤꡤ줽켫ΤͥϤʤʿʤΤȤåԤϤβ̤ưŤƤΤǤϤʤ
ϡΤ褦ʲΥǥȤǤ⤤褦ưطʤˤΤǤϤʤꤷʤ Bailey and Maroldt ɤǤΤ褦ꤷʤȡ[2012-09-27-1]ε#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2)פǤڤ褦ˡԤѸɤƤ creolisation λʪ˻Ωƾ夲餷ͳ狼ʤΥʵФʤ⡤ֱѸ᥯쥪פ䤷Ȥۤطʤˤϡ̣ɿŪŪʥǥΤǤϤʤȡ
ȤʸκǸǡϸ΢ڤ줿षդäΤcreolisation εʤȤȤƤαѸλΤäΤǤ롥ˤسȤɤߤŤä

A closing word on the value of creolization will not be amiss. Just as the evolution of plants and animals became vastly more adaptive, once sexual reproduction became a reality --- because then the propagation of mutations through crossing of strains became feasible --- so creolization enables languages to adapt themselves to new communicative needs in a much less restricted way than is otherwise open to most languages. Thus creolization has the same adaptive and survival value for languages as sexual cross-breeding has for the world of plants or animals. The flexibility and adaptability which have made English so valuable as a world-wide medium of communication are no doubt due to its long history of creolization. (53)


[2012-04-14-1]ε#1083. ʤѸȤʤä (2)פǼ夲 Bragg αѸ˴Ѥ⻲ȡ

Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.

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2012-09-28 Fri

#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) [creole][me][french][old_norse][contact][historiography]

#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1]) ڤӡ#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ
ΤäȤʤä Bailey and Maroldt ϡѸȥե󥹸Ȥκˤ륯쥪첽򾧤¿ȽӤƤɤǤߤͤùߤɤܤǡʸ֤ˤʤäγϤۤꤵƤȤäƤ褤ȽɬפʤȤ⤤˷깭ƤꡤϤǤ⤷ΤǤĤԥååפ롥

(1) Ѹϡá졦̣ ("semantax"!) ("phonetology"!)֤ΤˤƤ⡤ʤȤ40%ϺʪǤ (21) ʸäϤ褤ȤƤ졦̣֤κ٤ϤɤΤ褦¬Τ
(2) "In the instability created by the second, or minor, French creolization is to be seen the origin of the Great Vowel Shift, which, more than anything else, created modern English" (31). Ʊʸ˴ϢڤۤˤʤΤǡʸ̣ƤΤۤȤǤ롥
(3) "The Anglo-Saxon suffix -līċe (ME -ly), which has a functional counterpart in French -ment, is hardly an example of the reduction of inflections! This is in accord with the assumption of creolization" (33). 1ʸȡ1ʸ2ʸΰ̴ط
(4) Ѹȥե󥹸̾ζηϤϻƤꡤưפͻ¤[2011-11-29-1]ε#946. ̾ʣˤγספǤ⿨줿̤ꡤʣ -es ˴ؤ¤ꡤξľŪʴطϤʤȹͤƤ롥Hotta 154, 268 [Note 66] 򻲾ȡ
(5) ʸΤ̤ơѸȥե󥹸Ȥδ֤ʿԴطѻ (pp. 51--52) ƱǤ뤬椨ΰ仺ǤʤΩʿȯãǤʤġμѤǤʤҤäƱʩΥ쥪벽ȤդƤޤäƤ롥ȤƤϼüᤤǤƻˤʤƤġθ椬㤯

ȤƤμüᤵȤȤǤСϢۤΤܸ졦ߡ쥯쥪ξ֤Ӹؤ˴ŤطμΩ˼ԤξΥ쥪򾧤ԤǤϸ̩ʲбɬפȤ줺ޤʺȤȤդ뤫
쥪벽λǤøʰݤ򸺤뤿ˤϡ쥪θ漫ΤäϤɬפ롥줫ƥ쥪벽󵯤ɤ

Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.

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2012-09-27 Thu

#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) [creole][me][old_norse][contact][historiography][pchron]

[2012-09-01-1]ε#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫פǡBailey and Maroldt ˤ˱Ѹ᥯쥪Ф Görlach η㤷ȿ򳵴ѤѸ᥯쥪ϡBailey and Maroldt Τߤʤ餺Poussa ʤɤʣɿԤ߽ФƤγϡBrandy Ryan ˤ򻲾ȡˡ
Bailey and Maroldt ڤ Poussa ͤľäƤߤξԤȤˡޤǽεΩġϡ餫ͳǡѸɤƤ creolisation λʪ˻Ωƾ夲餷ʸ "creolisation" "(strong) influence from another language" ɤؤ̤뤳Ȥ顤ɤΤȤ¾줫αƶ٤ɤ뤫ɤνѸѤɽ뤫Ȥ˴ؤ˹Ԥ夯褦˻פ롥"influence" ȤŪѸ­ˡ"creolisation" ȤŪʡ loaded Ѹ򴺤ѤɬפɤˤΤޤݤ߹ʤ
μεƤ֤ΤϡڵԺߤλΡʼҲ˸ŪɤΤ褦˺ƷѸΤɤΤ褦¤ľȤѸ˵Ҥ˴ؤ꤬󵯤뤫Ǥ롥¸θФĩ濫뤤ĩȯǤȤǸʪȤƤϳڤΤȤƤϺǽ餫þƤȸ虜ʤ
㤨СPoussa ϡűѸȸťΥɸȤ creole 򾧤Ƥ뤬ηϰʲ̤Ǥ롥

It is argued that the fundamental changes which took place between standard literary OE and Chancery Standard English: loss of grammatical gender, extreme simplification of inflexions and borrowing of form-words and common lexical words, may be ascribed to a creolization with Old Scandinavian during the OE period. The Midland creole dialect could have stabilized as a spoken lingua franca in the reign of Knut. Its non-appearance in literature was due initially to the prestige of the OE literary standard. (84)


Görlach ˵Ƥ褦ˡʸˡξüȶޤñ㲽ϡťΥɸδͿλ夫μȯãüȯƤꡤťΥɸȤܿˤ®줿ȤϳΤޤǼϩαĹǤ롥ܸäμѤˤĤƤϡ[2012-07-23-1]ε#1183. ťΥɸαƶɾܻؤơפǿ줿꤬ؤ롥creolisation ˤϴܸäִդΤǤꡤܸäִС creolisation ʤΤȤĤȤƤ褦˻פ롥Knut 󥬡ե󥫤ȤƤο creole 侩Ȥɾcreole ʸȿǤʤäͳˤǼͤ롥ʸ̤ϳΤ˾ʤThe Peterborough Chronicle Continuations Τ褦ˡűѸ줫ѸؤθѲϢ³򼨺ڵ򤬤뤫
⡤쥪ˤĤǤʤΤϡ̾"creol(isation)" ȤϤޤǰۤʤä2֤δطˤĤƸ뤳ȤʤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥űѸȸťΥɸΤ褦ʷŪˤ෿ŪˤȤ⤤٤ƱΤ礦ˤϡcreolisation Ȥϲ̣Τcreole creolisation θˤơФħŤʤʤ¤ꡤѸѤϡθܿ»ͤƤޤΤǤϤʤ

Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Poussa, Patricia. "The Evolution of Early Standard English: The Creolization Hypothesis." Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 14 (1982): 69--85.
Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.

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2012-09-26 Wed

#1248. s th Ĵκ [plural][verb][inflection][suffix][phonetics][3sp]

̾ʣ -s ˤϻμפʥơޤ1ĤǤ[2011-11-29-1]ε#946. ̾ʣˤγספ򻲾ȡˡȤ櫓ʤۤʤ -s Ф줿ΤȤˤϤäƤHotta (148--49) ǤϡĤθŪװŦ1ĤȤơ-s ¾ʣɽ޸٤ƲŪ˶ǤǤꡤˤȤŦ
-s βŪۤȤˤĤơHickey (62) ˴Ϣڤ򸫤ĤǤϡ̾ʣ -s Τߤʤ餺ư3ñ -th Ф -s ˤĤƤƤ롥

. . . acoustic prominence can be appealed to in the history of English as well, for instance the substitution of /-θ/ by /-s/ in the third person singular or the progressive productivity of /-s/ plurals from Old English onwards and their encroaching on already established plural types --- cf. ME nasal plurals, such as eyen eyes --- can be accounted for on the grounds of the phonetic salience of /s/ and hence its suitability as a grammatical suffix.


-s βŪۤϡ饤ХФľŪʾȤϡǽŪĤ˹׸ a conditioning factor 餤ˤȤ館ƤΤ褤ΤǤϤʤȹͤ뤬Ѳ˲ŪħؤäƤȤܤͤ롥ä [s] [θ] ĴŪʺۤˤĤƤϡŪͤù΢򤷤ȤϤʤäΤǡHickey (71 [fn. 5]) μϤ꤬ʰλʸϰѼԤŸΡˡ

Ladefoged and Maddieson (pp. 145--72 of Ladefoged, Peter and Ian Maddieson. The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.) suggest a division of fricatives into sibilant and non-sibilant given that with the former (/s, ʃ/ articulations in English for instance) the constriction at the alveolar ridge produces a jet of air that hits the obstacle formed by the teeth. In non-obstacle fricatives, such as /θ, ð/, the turbulence is produced at the constriction itself. Laver (pp. 260--63 of Laver, John. Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.) discusses the auditory characteristics of fricatives as does Fry (p. 122 of Fry, Dennis Butler. The Physics of Speech. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.), who notes that the noise energy for [s] is prominent between 4000 and 8000 Hz. It is similar in frequency distribution to [θ] but has much greater energy which means it is more clearly audible (see diagrams, Fry 1979: 123).   *  


Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Hickey, Raymond. "Salience, Stigma and Standard." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 57--72.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-05-28-1]

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2012-09-25 Tue

#1247. ɸѸϸ෿ŪˤꤽˤʤѼǤ [standardisation][typology][personal_pronoun][negative][inflection][3sp]

ε#1246. Ѹɸಽȵϼδط ([2012-09-24-1]) ǡѸɸಽ̵ռμʲǤȤ Hope θҲ𤷤Hope ϤƤθ̷⤹롤ѸɸಽˤޤĤԼƱ˻ŦƤ롥ɸಽβΤΤϿ͡ΡּפǡָŪפʱĤߤʤΤη̤ȤƤɸѸϸ෿ŪˤϺǤ⤢ꤽˤʤԼʡѼǤȤHope (52--53) ϡȤ4󤲤Ƥ롥

(1) 3ñ -s ݻ෿ŪˤϺǤݻˤåȤ˶޸ĤäƤ롥եɸʤɡ٤ŪʸǤ⤳ΥåȤǤ̵ɸѤ롥
(2) Զѹդʿ;̾ηϡʲɽȡˡѸ ([2009-10-25-1])Ѹ졤νǤϡ꤭줤ηϤߤ롥(cf. thou / you, you / youse, you / you-all; [2010-10-08-1]ε#529. ɸѼ2;ʣ̾פ򻲾ȡ)

singularIshe / he / it
singular / pluralyou
pluralwethey


(3) what ȤƤѤƤʤطȤƤѤƤʤȡǤϴطȤƤѤ롥
(4) ԻѡǤѽФ##124,301,549 ε򻲾ȡ

ۤˤ⡤ɸŪֻȤơ-d, -'d, -t, -'t Τ褦ȯ˶ᤤΤǤϤʤष¿ξȯȤϤΥ줿 -ed Ф줿ʤɤ󤲤Ƥ (Hope 54--55 [fn. 8]) ෿ŪԼʸˡܤ󤲤ȤǡHope (53) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Thus, in each case, Standard English arrives at a typologically unusual structure, while non-standard English dialects follow the path of linguistic naturalness. One explanation for this might be that as speakers make the choices that will result in standardisation, they unconsciously tend towards more complex structures, because of their sense of the prestige and difference of formal written language. Standard English would then become a 'deliberately' difficult language, constructed, albeit unconsciously, from elements that go against linguistic naturalness, and which would not survive in a 'natural' linguistic environment.


͡ɸಽܻؤ̵ռβΤʤǡ෿ŪˤϤʤʡԼʸŪʤΤȤ̤Ȥơؤ֤Τ񤷤¦ˤȤäƤ϶ΤʶΤԹΤ褤˸ηϤǤꡤ顤ϤƳؤԤϰΤȤĬʤϼޤΤȤ
Τˡ˵󤲤줿ʸˡܤϡ෿ŪˤꤽˤʤΤΤ褦˻פ롥ȿȤСɤθ෿Ūˤ䤹ʸˡܤФǹƤ櫓ǤϤʤġιܤߤʿѤΰæϤǤ⤢षΤ褦ʰæäƤϤ෿ȤͤޤϤȤƤ⡤Hope ΡֽŪ̵ռˤҤͤϴߤ롥ε[2012-09-24-1]Ǥɸಽȵϼν̤ĴºݤΤȤξԤδطȤǤ

Hope, Jonathan. "Rats, Bats, Sparrows and Dogs: Biology, Linguistics and the Nature of Standard English." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 49--56.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-08-23-1] [2012-11-09-1]

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2012-09-24 Mon

#1246. Ѹɸಽȵϼδط [standardisation][prescriptivism][prescriptive_grammar][negative][invisible_hand]

ε#1245. ʣŪβȤƤν񤭤ȤɸѸȯŸ ([2012-09-23-1]) ǡɸѸȯŸ¿ο͡ˤŪ (selections) βǤȤ Hope ΰո󤷤ǤϡȤϰռŪʤΤʤΤ̵ռŪʤΤʤΤԼʤΤʤΤ̾ĿͤϰռŪǤԼǤȤ⤤뤬¿ˤȤʤ̵ռŪǤ꼫ǤȤ⤤롥
Hope ϡɸѸȯŸΤġΥӥХȤħˤĤơΤ褦˹ͤƤ롥ɸಽβϡ͡νĤ̵ռŪʸѤ˶ư "a 'natural' linguistic process" 뤤 "a language-internal phenomenon" (51) Ǥ롥ϡФɸಽȰ勞˰뤬¤оȤʤƤ뵬ϼȤΤ "language-external: a cultural, ideological phenomenon" (52) ǤΤ椵롥̤˼ҲŪǤȹͤƤɸಽ "natural" "language-internal" ȤߤʤΤϵ;Ϥϼȶ̤ǤϡԤʬϤǤϤʤʽŪ̵ռȤϡKeller θѲˤָפε򶯤۵롥invisible_hand γƵ򻲾ȡ
Hope (50) ϡѸɸಽȵϼδطԤԤΩĴطǤ롥

One of the paradoxes of the relationship between standardisation and prescriptivism is that prescriptivism always follows, rather than precedes, standardisation. It is therefore wrong to see prescriptivism as the ideological wing of standardisation: standardisation can be initiated, and can run virtually to completion (as in the case of English in the early seventeenth century), in the absence of prescriptivist comment. In fact, it is arguable that prescriptivism is impossible until standardisation has done most of its work --- since it is only in a a relatively standardised context that some language users become conscious of, and resistant to, variation.


18εʸˡǻŦƤε§㤨С¿ζػߡˤϡǤˤٴѤȤɸಽƤ餳ŦΤǤäơФи򤵤Ƥ褦ˡʸˡȤǤиä櫓ǤɬʤθϡɸಽȵϼƱƤ롤뤤Ʊ˺Ѥδְ㤨ƤȤ館Ƥ뤳Ȥˤ롥ɸಽȵϼȤ2Ĥβ̤ξԤδطǧ뤳ȤפǤ롥

Hope, Jonathan. "Rats, Bats, Sparrows and Dogs: Biology, Linguistics and the Nature of Standard English." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 49--56.
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.

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2012-09-23 Sun

#1245. ʣŪβȤƤν񤭤ȤɸѸȯŸ [standardisation][dialect][writing][variation]

[2012-09-06-1]ε#1228. ѸˤˤɸѸȯŸȳΩäơפǡɸѸν񤭸դȯŸ¿ˤĤƿ줿Wright ԤʸΤʤǤȤ櫓ĥƤΤ Hope Ǥ롥񤭤ȤɸѸȯŸϡαѸˤǼĥƤ褦ľŪʲǤϤʤ¿ε͡ʸ콸ĤͿ֤ΤʣŪʲǤäȤĴ롥ˤƤϡܤ variation ΤʤɸȤʤ٤Τ򤹤԰٤ϡͣ selection ǤϤʤ¿ selections ȤƤȤ館롥[2010-11-10-1]ε#562. busy ֻȯפǡbusy ֻ顤ȯȤɸȤƸꤵ줿аޤ򸫤 selection ǤϤʤ selections ꤷʤФʤʤȤɽ魯
ڤΤ褤 Hope (51) ͤΤʤǤ⡤ä˼ĥʼβսѤ褦̣ǤϡWright ʸΤɽƤȤսǤϤʤ

. . . the 'selection' process of standardisation is not the selection of a single dialect, but the selection of single linguistic features from a range of dialects --- features which are then recombined into a new dialect which lacks a common ancestor. Standardisation thus becomes, not a unitary process operating on a single dialect at a single time, but a group of processes operating on all dialects over a much longer time. Selection becomes selections, and this accords much more closely with the observed nature of Standard English (the mixing of northern and southern forms, for example). Standardisation is not simply a set of decisions made by one identifiable group of late medieval bureaucrats: it is a complex of processes, growing out of the decisions made by a much wider range of writers in English (including, for example, the hundreds, perhaps thousands, of people involved in keeping and exchanging business records).


ϢơѲüԤѶŪʤ뤤ϺѡˤȤƤȤ館ͤˤĤƤϡ#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) #1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤ󤸤ѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Hope, Jonathan. "Rats, Bats, Sparrows and Dogs: Biology, Linguistics and the Nature of Standard English." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 49--56.

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2012-09-22 Sat

#1244. ʤϼ18˵Ĺ [language_myth][standardisation][prescriptive_grammar][history]

[2011-01-13-1]ε#626. ֥ե󥹸ŪʸǤפȤáפǡ16˻Ϥޤäե󥹸ɸಽή줬18γ̿ˤƺǹĬޤե󥹸ǽȤäؤȤؤäаޤ򸫤θȾǥꥹǤϡֱѸᥤꥹ̱ξħפȤռϤäȼ夤ȽҤ٤Watts ͤɤߡ奤ꥹˤбѸɸಽȿòΤˤꡤ18˻äĺãƤȤ狼äߡѸǽ䤽̩ܤ˴Ϣ뵬ϼοϡŪʥե󥹸פۤɷϤʤΤΡ̣Ǥ˿ƩƤȤͤƤߤȶstandardisation γƵȤ櫓Ƕε ([2012-09-06-1], [2012-09-15-1]) ɸѸȯŸȳΩˤˤĤƽ񤤤ƤϡʤȤ櫓18ɸѸϲĬΤͤƤߤ
Watts (34--35) ˤСѸ줫Ѹλˤơߤ˴طˤޤĤοääƤäפʿä󤲤ȡlanguage and ethnicity myth, language and nationality myth, language variety myth, myth of superiority, myth of the perfect language, golden age myth, myth of the undesirability of change Ǥ롥Watts ϡƻθѤϪ褹ɾ򽸤ᡤοäξĹǯ˿޼ (41) language and ethnicity myth language variety myth 17νˤǹԤΤФmyth of superiority, language and nationality myth, myth of the perfect language, golden age myth, myth of the undesirability of change 18Ⱦˤư쵤˿ĹƤ롥Ԥοäλ夬«ͤ줿ΤȤϼȤ礭ʿäޤ줿ΤȤ롥
λطʤˤϡȤ櫓ꥹιݼҲˤƬȡҤ⳰ؤθؼɬä1603ǯ James I ˤ륤󥰥ɤȥåȥɤβʳȤơ1707ǯˤξεIJ줷ꥹϳؤ⿷Ф̤ꥫ̱Ϥɽ򲡤ƥե󥹤йȤȤˡǤϥйĤġ쥤ɲҤΩɳؤ­äեꥫȥꥫǤǰפե󥹤䥪Ȥγμ⤤ä㤷ʤä
Τ褦ʹݸפΰ۾ȯãȿ̱褤η㲽ˤꡤꥹ϶ȥǥƥƥ㤷ɬפȤ褦ˤʤäȥǥƥƥ夲뤿ˡкѡˡʤʸ濴ǤɥϡѤƽ񤭤ȤɸѸŪ˿ʤǽ뤳ȤΤߤʤ餺񳰤ؤΤ餷ǤäƽФơ񤭤ȤɸѸ줬ҤξħȤƻ夲졥ȤȤ˵ϽĬήޤ줿ΤǤ롥
18Ⱦ˵ϼޤ줿ȤϤäƤ⡤ʤȤǡȤ櫓ǤϤʤWatts (30) ζĴ褦ˡΤ褦ʥǥȯãϡΤ褦ʤΩƤäƤεä

. . . any language ideology can only be formed
1 on the basis of beliefs about language, and attitudes towards language, which already have a long history, and
2 as a driving force behind a centrally significant social institution, the institution in this case being public education.


Watts, Richard J. "Mythical Strands in the Ideology of Prescriptivism." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 29--48.

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2012-09-21 Fri

#1243. ٤θ̻ŪΤ [frequency][corpus][representativeness]

ε#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) #1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis ([2012-09-17-1]) Ǽ夲 Phillips θΤ褦ˡ٤θѲθˤ¿ʴؿ󤻤Ƥ뤬ˡѤʵȤơ٤켫Τ̻ŪѤȤ¤ɤΤ褦˹ͤФ褤ΤȤ꤬롥θǤϤʤäΤ뤤ʬͤˤϡ1--2λ礭ǤϤʤľ롥1λǤϤɤ2ǤϤɤȹͤȡɤޤľΤϤʤϤʤPhillips (225--26) ϡˤĤƼΤ褦˳ڴѤƤ롥

The words' frequencies are based on present-day English, but the general pattern of relative frequencies probably holds for the English in our data base (1755--1993) as well. For example, I would be very surprised if the 3-syllable verbs with CELEX frequencies over 100 --- concentrate, demonstrate, illustrate, contemplate, compensate, designate, and alternate --- were not also much more common in 1755 than those with frequencies of 0 --- altercate, auscultate, condensate, defalcate, eructate, exculpate, expuergate, extirpate, fecundate, etc.


2;λˤƤʤ顤٤100ʾθ0θ٤ȤΤ绨Ĥˤ褦˻פ롥ΤˡPhillips ϼºݤʬϤǤ101ʾ塤10--1001--10ȤӤʬѤƤꡤ绨Ĥپ绨ĤʤޤޤѤ뿵ŤϼƤ롥⤷ä10--100դ٥٥θܺ٤Ĵ٤褦ȤΤǤС2δ֤ˤʤ٤ѲƤǽϤ롥Phillips ʤ餺Ȥ⡤٤Ѥ̻Ū˴ؿï⤬ͤϤ
˻פĤñʲƤϡƻɽǤ礭ʥѥѤɽ뤳ȤǤ롥ƤȤƤñºݤ˿ԤΤϰ֤֤⤫롥ֻٸꤷѸǤСѥѰդɽμưǤѸǤֻ variation 椨 lemmatise Ƥʤ¤ϸФñ̤ǤɽҤޤ夬ŤʤФʤۤɡѥ˴ޤޤƥȤ representativeness Ͽˤʤ롥ӤäݤɽǤ⡤ʤϤۤ褤ƤߤȻפäƤ롥뤤ϡˤäƤϤǤˤ
ʤѤˤ CELEX Ȥñǡ١ϡѸθ֤˴ؤŪʸǤ褯ȤƤΤǤ롥ܺ٤ϡCELEX2 򻲾ȡޤ٤̻֤δطˤĤƤϡ[2012-05-03-1]ε#1102. Zipf's law ȸοաפ򻲾ȡ

Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.

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2012-09-20 Thu

#1242. -ate ưζܹ [frequency][lexical_diffusion][stress][suffix][-ate]

[2012-09-17-1]ε#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesisפǡ -ate ưζưƤƤȤѲ˿줿̾ư (diatone Ʊͤ˸ߤʹζܹԤǤꡤóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȤƤܤͤ롥
ΰܹԤˤĤƤ Phillips óȻδ鸦椷Ƥ뤬OED "contemplate, v" ˤޤȤޤä⤬ΤǡҲ𤷤褦Danielsson (271--72) Ǥ⡤OED Τβս꤬Ƥ롥

In a few rare cases (Shakes., Hudibras) stressed 'contemplate in 16--7th c.; also by Kenrick 1773, Webster 1828, among writers on pronunciation. Byron, Shelley, and Tennyson have both modes, but the orthoepists generally have con'template down to third quarter of 19th c.; since that time 'contemplate has more and more prevailed, and con'template begins to have a flavour of age. This is the common tendency with all verbs in -ate. Of these, the antepenult stress is historical in all words in which the penult represents a short Latin syllable, as ac'celerate, 'animate, 'fascinate, 'machinate, 'militate, or one prosodically short or long, as in 'celebrate, 'consecrate, 'emigrate; regularly also when the penult has a vowel long in Latin, as 'alienate, 'aspirate, con'catenate, 'denudate, e'laborate, 'indurate, 'personate, 'ruinate (L. aliēno, aspīro, etc.). But where the penult has two or three consonants giving positional length, the stress has historically been on the penult, and its shift to the antepenult is recent or still in progress, as in acervate, adumbrate, alternate, compensate, concentrate, condensate, confiscate, conquassate, constellate, demonstrate, decussate, desiccate, enervate, exacerbate, exculpate, illustrate, inculcate, objurgate, etc., all familiar with penult stress to middle-aged men. The influence of the noun of action in -ation is a factor in the change; thus the analogy of ,conse'cration, 'consecrate, etc., suggests ,demon'stration, 'demonstrate. But there being no remonstration in use, re'monstrate, supported by re'monstrance, keeps the earlier stress.


Ĥޤꡤ3ʾθˤƤϡŪˤ penult ι˱ƶ penult antepenult Ūˤϡpenult ˻ҲˤϡŪˤϤβ˶ȤḽѸˤơб̾ -ation ζѥˤȤŤ䤬Ưᤫζ˰ĺءantepenult ؤȰܹԤƤƤȤΤǤ롥
Danielsson OED ˤ3ʾθˤĤƤθڤʤPhillips 2ˤĤƤĴ̣Ȥˡ2 -ate ưʤ penult IJΤΡˤǤϡȿФζܹԤäƤȤfrustrate, dictate, prostrate, pulsate, stagnate, truncate ʤɤθǤϡŪˤ penult ˶Ѹˤ ultima ˶۷ƤƤʺǽ3ˤĤƤ夷ˡơζܹԤˤĤƤ⡤Phillips ٤ι⤤ΤѲƤƤȤ¤ͤߤ᤿ (226--28)
٤㤤ΤѲƤ Phillips μĥ̾ưȡΩ̤Ǥ롥٤ȸóȻοʹԽȤˡʰФꤸƤ롥

Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Danielsson, Bror. Studies on the Accentuation of Polysyllabic Latin, Greek, and Romance Loan-Words in English. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1948.

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2012-09-19 Wed

#1241. Ūˤߤ Anglo-Saxon ν13 [periodisation][lexicology][french][loan_word][romance]

ѸˤλʬˤĤơperiodisation εǰäƤȤ櫓ĸűѸ줬ꡤѸ줬ϤޤäˤĤƤϡ[2012-06-12-1], [2012-06-13-1]εǽ򸫤ѸγϻˤĤƤϡεޤοȤŪʴ˵äƤ뤬ƤŪʴऱŪʴѤȡϰѤ롥ε#1240. Υޥ󡦥󥯥ȸˡΧѸִ ([2012-09-18-1]) Ǽ夲 Lutz ʸǤϡäδλʬƤƤ롥
Lutz ϡ(1) 褯ΤƤ褦˥ե󥹸äήΥԡ13ʹߤǤ[2009-08-22-1]ε#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡס[2012-08-14-1]ε#1205. Ѹ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ȯΤϤʤפ򻲾ȡˡ(2) ѸαѸƥȤϸűѸƥȤѤΤ¿ե󥹼ѸϤۤɸȿǤƤ餺(3) ¾ٱѸޥ󥹤νи٤줿Ȥ¤򼨤ʤ顤űѸʤ뤤 Lutz θƤ֤褦 Anglo-SaxonˤνŪʶʬǤνѸν֤ȤǤΤǤϤʤƤ롥

For the lexicon, we need a . . . bipartite periodization distinguishing Anglo-Saxon (comprising Old and Early Middle English) from English (comprising all later stages), which reflects the lexical and cultural facts. . . . During this extended period of time, several generations of inhabitants of post-Conquest England preserved their Anglo-Saxon lexicon and, more generally, seem to have looked back to their Anglo-Saxon cultural heritage when they expressed themselves in their own tongue. . . . / By contrast, the English we are familiar with is basically a creation of the late thirteenth to fifteenth centuries when the French-speaking ruling classes of England gradually switched to the language of those they governed and, in the course of that process, imported their superstratal lexicon in large quantities. (161--62)


Lutz ͤϡ̤ȤơΥޥ󡦥󥯥Ȥȥե󥹼ѸܳŪήΤˤϻȤ¤ĴƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ

Lutz, Angelika. "When did English Begin?" Sounds, Words, Texts and Change. Ed. Teresa Fanego, Belén Méndez-Naya, and Elena Seoane. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2002. 145--71.

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2012-09-18 Tue

#1240. Υޥ󡦥󥯥ȸˡΧѸִ [lexicology][norman_conquest][history][loan_word][french][norman_french][me][law_french]

[2012-09-03-1]ε#1225. ե󥹼ѸʬۤðפǸڤ Lutz ʸˡɸθøؤ򼨤ɽ󤲤ƤűѸѤƤˡΧѸ줬ѸʹߡʸѸ³ˤбե󥹼Ѹˤ֤줿ȤǤ롥ŪǤϤʤִͤͻҤ褯ʬɽǤ롥ʲ˺Ƹ褦 (149)

OE ModE
   
dōm   --   judgment
dōmærn , dōmhūs   --   court-house
dōmlic    --   judicial
dēma , dēmere    --   judge
dēman   --   to judge
fordēman   --   to condemn
fordēmend   --   accuser
betihtlian    --   to accuse, charge
gebodian , gemeldian    --   to denounce, inform
andsacian , onsecgan    --   to renounce, abjure
gefriþian    --   to afford sanctuary
mānswaru , āþbryce    --   perjury
mānswara    --   perjurer
mānswerian    --   to perjure oneself
(ge)scyld , scyldignes    --   guilt
scyldig    --   guilty, liable
scyldlēas   --   guiltless
   
āþ   >   oath
þēof   >   thief
þeofþ   >   theft
morþ, morþor + OF murdre   >   murder


doom deem ʤɡޤǻĤäƤϤ뤬ˡΧѸȤƤθϼäƤ롥ޤˡΧѸȤƻĤäƤǸ4ˤĤƤ⡤ե󥯸ťΥɸƱ줬ΥޥͤˡΧѸȤƤǤ夷Ƥ椨Ȥͤ롥
Lutz ϡԤ٤ȶӤĤθäѸؼѤ줿¤󤲡ȤեʸؤƴȤ褦ʼѤθưϤ˴ؤʤ뤬ԤΡϡפꤻʤե󥹸Ѥ⤢ȤȤĥ롥ե󥹸Τĵʸޥ󥹡Ȥäڤ䤫ϢۤαƤˡŪŪϤƤޤäƤΤǤϤʤ󵯤Ƥ뤫Τ褦

. . . the particularly large share of French in the basic vocabulary of Modern Standard English cannot be attributed to its cultural appeal alone but results from forced linguistic contact exerted by the speakers of the language of a conquering power on that of the conquered population. Ordinary borrowing, guided by the wish to acquire new things and concepts and, together with them, the appropriate foreign terms, could not have led to such an extreme effect on the basic vocabulary of the recipient language.


Ϣơ#1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ ([2012-08-18-1]) #1210. ѸΥե󥹼Ѹΰ ([2012-08-19-1]) 򻲾ȡޤˡΧˤե󥹸ˤĤơ#336. Law French ([2010-03-29-1]) ȡ#433. Law French ȱѹ񲦤ϡ ([2010-07-04-1]) ⻲ȡ

Lutz, Angelika. "When did English Begin?" Sounds, Words, Texts and Change. Ed. Teresa Fanego, Belén Méndez-Naya, and Elena Seoane. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2002. 145--71.

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2012-09-17 Mon

#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis [frequency][phonetics][language_change][lexical_diffusion][stress][diatone][-ate]

óȻ (lexical diffusion) ȤƿʹԤ벻Ѳƻڤ٤ؤƤ餷ȤϡŤ19ŦƤºݤˡPhillips (1984: 321) ˵󤲤Ƥ褦ˡ٤ι⤤줫Ѳ뤲ȤѲϿڤƤǡ٤㤤줫Ѳ뤲ǧƤꡤ٤ȸóȻνδطˤĤƤϡޤ˵䤬¿ˤĤơPhillips ϡꥫѸˤ glide deletion Ѹ unrounding Ѹ̾ưdiatonic stress shift; diatone ε򻲾ȡˤȤ٤㤤˿ʹԤȤ3ĤβѲ夲ơ"Frequency Actuation Hypothesis" 󾧤ϡ"physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first" (1984: 336) ȤΤǤԤ surface phonetic form ƯѲԤ underlying phonetic form ƯѲؤˡ
Phillips 1998ǯ -ate ǽưζ֤ΰư˴ؤ븦ˤơŪưŤƤʤѲͽۤ褦٤㤤ˤϿʤޤष٤ι⤤˿ʤǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤǡ Frequency Actuation Hypothesis 򾧤

[F]or segmental changes, physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first. For suprasegmental changes, changes which require analysis (e.g., by part of speech or by morphemic element) affect the least frequent words first, whereas changes which eliminate or ignore grammatical information affect the most frequent words first. (1998: 231)


ĤޤꡤΰưΤ褦ĶʬβѲ˴ؤƤϡüԤˤʬϤ뤫ʤǡ٤ȽδطžȤ櫓Ǥ롥ʤʤΤˤĤơPhillips Bybee (117--19) "lexical strength" ȤͤФƤ롥
ɬ⤳εǼƤʤޤPhillips μĥȤϰۤʤꡤ̾ư夬٤ι⤤˿ʹԤȤ򼨤ǡȼƤ롥٤ѲνˤĤƤθϽ˽ФǤꡤ;Ϥ¿ʬ˻ĤƤ롥

Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Bybee, Joan L. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1985.

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2012-09-16 Sun

#1238. 󥰥Υޥ̻ο [language_myth][scribe][anglo-norman][variation]

ε#1237. ɸѸΥǥȱѸɸಽ ([2012-09-15-1]) ǻȤ Milroy ʸǡSkeat ȯüȯ "the myth of the Anglo-Norman scribe" ḽŪɸѸΥǥ˱ѸᤷȤ̤˵󤲤Ƥ롥
Skeat ϡThe Proverb of Alfred ˤĤƤʸ ("The Proverbs of Alfred." Transactions of the Philological Society. 1897.) Τʤǡܤ˸ֻ̯ϡűѸǽ񤫤줿 exemplar ɤ߲򤱤ʤä̻˵٤ޤǤϤ褤ΤSkeat Ϥˡμ̻ϱѸ1Ȥʤ󥰥ΥޥͤäΤȷŤMilroy (21) Ƚ褦ˡ"Unfamiliarity with an older writing system does not necessarily mean that the scribe could not speak English" Ǥ롥
Skeat ιˤ Havelok the Dane Sisam (Sisam, K. and Skeat, W. W. The Lay of Havelok the Dane. Oxford: Clarendon, 1915.) ǡοä϶롥

The manuscript spelling appears . . . to be of a very lawless character, but is easily understood in the light of Professor Skeat's discovery (in 1897) that many of our early MSS . . . abound with spellings which can only be understood rightly when we observe that the scribe was of Norman birth and more accustomed to the spelling of Anglo-French than to that of the native language of the country, which he had acquired with some difficulty and could not always correctly pronounce. (cited in Milroy, p. 26 from Sisam and Skeat, xxxvii--xxxviii)


󥰥Υޥ̻ˤȤִֻ̯פˤϡ(1) Ƭ <h> ξά䡤դŪ <h> (2) <wh> ѤȤƤ <w> (ex. wat) (3) <sh> ѤȤƤ <s> (ex. sal) (4) <ht> ѤȤƤ <th>, <cht>, <cth>, <ct>, <t> (ex. rith, ricth) (5) <t> ѤȤƤ <th> (ex. with) (6) <th> ѤȤƤ <t> (ex. herknet) (7) <u>, <wu> ѤȤƤ <w> (ex. wl, hw) (8) <t>, <d> ʤɤդˤæ (ex. lan for land) ʤɤ롥
ɸѸΥǥ˿äƤܤˤϡѸֻˤ uniformity äƤ٤ǤꡤæƤΤǤʤäǤʤ̻μˤΤ˰㤤ʤȱǤߤǤϡѸֻθ椬Ÿ嵭Τ褦ֻѰۤˤηΤ뤳Ȥ狼äƤ롥
ߡѸֻθϡLALME LAEME ߽Ф Edinburgh ɤ濴ˡˤʤƤ롥ˤȤä variation ֤ǤԲķǤȤȤϡƳȡθį뤳ȤˤäƤưפǤΤǤϤʤϢơ[2012-08-08-1]ε#1199. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (2)פ⻲ȡ

Milroy, Jim. "Historical Description and the Ideology of the Standard Language." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 11--28.

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2012-09-15 Sat

#1237. ɸѸΥǥȱѸɸಽ [standardisation][historiography][sociolinguistics][variation]

Milroy "Historical Description and the Ideology of the Standard Language." ϡѸˤˤ standardisation ȱѸػˤˤ standard ideology Ʊ˹ͻɤ߱ΤʸǤ롥variation ¸ߤξݤstandard ideology ˿äαѸ˵ҤȽ뤽˯ϡMilroy ʤǤϤΤΡ
Milroy ϡȯãɸѸΥǥϱѸ˸Ԥ򴬤ߡν񤤤ѸˤΤΤƱǥ˲ôƤȼĥ롥Ȥ櫓󥰥ɤ¾̥衼åѽȯãȼȽΤȤǡޥȤƤαѸĴ졤Standard English ϡ˲ (historicisation) Ƥ˲ΤʤǡAnglo-Saxon Old English ȤƱѸˤ˰֤Ť뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ̤ä Germanic 뤤 Proto-Indo-European ޤǤ⤬Ѹˤμ뤳ȤˤʤäޤѸι¤ŪѲϤäѤŪװˤ⤿餵줿ȤѲѤŪȤʤꡤѸ줬αƶƤȤ¤ϡѤǤȤͤ줿Sweet, Sisam, Skeat, Wyld ȤѸˤۤƤؼԤǤ顤ƶɤǤƤ Standard English ΥǥƤΤǤꡤߤǤ餳ξϾʤ餺³ƤȸäƤ褤
Milroy ϡ̤ο͡Τߤʤ餺Ѹ˸Ԥ⶯äƤɸѸΥǥ뤤 standardisation Ȥˡߤ˴Ϣ5ĤħǧƤ롥uniformity, respect for writing, invariability, prestige, carefulness Ǥ롥

(1) "the chief linguistic consequence of successful standardisation is a high degree of uniformity of structure" (13)
uniformity θȤơˡȸäˡΤ˶̤ʤδϸŪˤŪҲŪˤŪǤʤˡºݤˤϤѼüԤϤʤ֤ɸѸΩΤˤʤ롥
(2) "standardisation is implemented and promoted primarily through written forms of language" (14)
ˤꡤ񤭸нŤαѸ˵Ҥ¥ʤ롥
(3) "standardisation inhibits linguistic change and variability" (14)
ɸѸ줬Ѳ˼ޤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ®٤ϤäǤ롥ɸಽѲȤȤϡSwift Johnson λ夫龯ѤäƤʤ
(4) "the equation of the standard language with the prestige language" (15)
prestige language ȤϾͿˤääˤʤҤѼؤ"prestige" ȤǰʬϤʤҲŪƥ꡼ɽ魯ΤǤꡤΤϤ狼äƤʤкŪ˶̤볬ȽŤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ɬפ¿θ椬ɬפȤƤ복ǰǤ롥
(5) "carefulness and clarity of enunciation" (19)
RP Υ饸ɽ褦ˡȯ򤪤ʤˤϡޥ˴ƤꡤɤƤɬפ롥ۤɤޤäƤʤ¤ꡤ¸ʤȯǤ롥

ɸಽΥǥ츦Ԥˤʸ츦Ԥˤ˶򤫤ƤȤȤϽŤ¤Ǥꡤ򤤤˹뤫뤤ϾʤȤǧƤϡ츦ԤμץơޤΰĤǤ롥

Milroy, Jim. "Historical Description and the Ideology of the Standard Language." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 11--28.

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2012-09-14 Fri

#1236. ڤ [wave_theory][family_tree][history_of_linguistics][comparative_linguistics][geography][isogloss]

#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1]) #1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1]) εǡػˤˤͭ̾ΩǤ the family tree model the wave theory (Wellentheorie) δط򸫤ػ˾ϡSchleicher Schmidt йȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ¿ѲŤΥǥȤƤϡषߤ䴰طˤ롥ɤ餬Ȥϡ줾δǤϤɤͭǤꡤξλԤ褷ꡤͻ礷ǤΤŪȤΤǤϤʤξԤδطͻˤäơPulgram ʸɤ
Pulgram (69) ϡʤ the family tree model οԤǤä19ӸؼԤ޾ϩͤäΤϡ餬 (1) ƸˤѰۤǧ᤺(2) ϢΤѲǽǧʤäȤ˵ȤǧƤޤСˡΤΤ¸Ωפɤ뤰ȤˤʤꡤϤǤǧʤäΤ޾ϩˤƳϩ򸫤ΤSchmidt the wave theory äSchmidt ϡϢ֤ǰפܤä硤ɬַѾפȤȤ⡤ŪŤơֳפ줿Ф褤ǤϤʤȤƤ󼨤ΤǤ롥Pulgram (70) ɾˤС

It was the great merit of Schmidt's wave theory to provide a visual scheme, entirely different from the family tree, which could plainly and correctly account for the overlapping of isoglosses and explain inconsistent partial similarities.


Schmidt ƤϡӸؤιԤͤޤȴƻͿƱˡ[2012-03-15-1]ε#1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡פǿ줿褦˸ (linguistic geography) ȯŸ¥Ȥˤʤä
Pulgram (72) ϡξǥȤ˸Ѳˤȼλ򼨤ǤꡤޤǤθθ³ã򼨤ޤˤʤ᤯롥

If it is true . . . that the family tree and the wave diagram are usable not for the illumination of uncharted areas but merely for the illustration of the known or what is believed to be true, that they are representations of our two primary methods of investigation in accord with the principal types of linguistic differentiation, that they are complementary and no more exclude one another than do comparative linguistics and dialect geography, then it may be agreeable to use both types of visualization of linguistic processes as legitimate didactic devices, though always with due warning as to their figurative nature and their impermanence in the face of new discoveries and insights.


ޤ褦ɾȤơBloomfield Language (New York: 1933. p. 311) "The earlier students of Indo-European did not realize that the family-tree diagram was merely a statement of their method . . . ." ȰƤ롥
Ƭ the family tree model the wave theory ߤ䴰طǤȽҤ٤ξѤƤªʤ֤ޤ󤢤ꡤȯ³ʤФʤʤΤȡʸɤǧƱռ顤ˤַפȡֱƶפδطƹͤƤߤ[2010-05-01-1]ε#369. ˤƶפ[2010-05-03-1]ε#371. ƶɬ̤Ǥʤפ򻲾ȡˡ

Pulgram, E. "Family Tree, Wave Theory, and Dialectology." Orbis 2 (1953): 67--72.

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2012-09-13 Thu

#1235. Why "visit-ed"? [verb][preterite][conjugation][inflection][phonology]

[2011-08-06-1]ε#831. Why "an apple"?פǡƱݤŪʻ̻ŪʻȤǤ180ٰۤʤäƸ󼨤ȤơѸˤʬ -ed ȯ夲褦ηǤˤϡľβĶ˱3Ĥȯ롥visited minded Τ褦 [t] [d] Ԥˤ [ɪd] ȤƼ¸졤looked watched Τ褦 [t] ʳ̵Ԥˤ [t] ȤʤꡤʳǤ played moved Τ褦 [d] Ȥʤ롥Ū˹ŪʴꤹΤǤСηǤ /d/ ȤƤԤ촴β˽ä [ɪ] (epenthesis) 줿ꡤ[t] ؤ̵ȹͤΤǤ롥Ԥ [td] [dd] ȤϢ³򤱤뤿ȹͤФ褤ԤνƱȹͤФ褤
ĤǤˡ3ñ -s ˤĤƤ⸫ƤηǤľβĶ˱3Ĥȯб롥[s, z, ʒ, ʃ, ʧ, ʤ] ԤˤϡϢ³򤱤뤿첻줿 [ɪz] ȤƼ¸ʤξ硤ֻ <es> Ȥʤˡ嵭˴ޤޤʳ̵Ԥˤ [s] ȤʤꡤʳǤ [z] Ȥʤ롥ˤ /z/ ꤷƤ첻뤤̵ˤä [ɪz] 뤤 [z] ¸ȹͤƤФ褤⡤αѸǤϹƤŪʵ§ (rule) Ǥ롥
̻ŪʴϡϤޤäդ˸롥ֻ <ed> <es> ̤ꡤηǤϡʤȤѸޤǤ첻ݤäƤꡤΩƤ첻μ줿ξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡDobson Sections 310--11 򻲾ȡˡĤޤꡤľβĶˤ餺 [əd] [əz] Ǽ¸ƤΤǤ롥Ȥ첻üϤޤäĶˤƤϡ첻üΤߤƯθѤϤʤä̤ΤĶˤƤϡ촴ܿȤˤԤ̵ơޤ̤ΤĶˤƤϡ첻üΤΤ˻ߤ졤첻ݤ줿ŪȤȡȤƤǤδ /əd/ /əz/ ǤꡤĶ˱ [d], [t], [əd] 뤤 [z], [s], [əz] ¸줿ȹͤۤºݤβѲ¨§Τ褦˸롥ʬϤϰ̤˸αѸǤϺѤƤʤ
a an ξƱͤˡɤʬϤƤ뤫ȤȤϡƽפǤϤʤƱݤۤʤ٤įƤǤꡤΤΤͥϤʤηк붦Ūʻ餹д /d/ ꤬ͭǤꡤʪ̻Ūʻ餹д /ɪd/ ꤬ͭԤȤȡѸȶѸʹߤȤǡȤ§180ѤäȤˤʤꡤ rule inversion ȤȤˤʤ롥
ʾ塤Kastovsky (132--33) εۤƼɮ

Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Morphological Restructuring: The Case of Old English and Middle English Verbs." Historical Linguistics 1995: Selected Papers from the 12th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Manchester, August 1995. Vol. 2. Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard M. Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2000. 131--47.

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2012-09-12 Wed

#1234. Hockett random fluctuation [language_change][causation][phonetics][history_of_linguistics]

#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1]) ȡ#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1]) ǡѲˤŪװȳŪװˤĤơAitchison ζѹդμ줿ͤҲ𤷤ƤΤ褦ʶѹդݤƤ櫓ǤϤʤä˲ѲˤĤƤϡ1950ǯˤŪѲнŤѲѤäꥫθؼ Charles Fransis Hockett (1916--2000) ᤿random fluctuation Ǥ롥
Hockett ˤСüԤϤ첻ȯȤˡŪȯɸŪפȤܻؤƤ롥Ū濴ͤʤȤ򤵤ǽ㤤ΤǡüԤϤФФøȯ¸롥٤֤ⷫͤȯϡΤȤŪ濴Ϥ褦ʬۤ뤬֤ȤȤ˥ߥŤʤäƤ椯ȡŪ濴ۤξĤƤ椯̤ȤơäˤȤäƤʹˤȤäƤ⡤ۤ濴ưȤˤʤ롥줬ѲȤ櫓Aitchison (135--36) ¹Hockett (443--45) Ѥ褦

It is just this sort of slow drifting about of expectation distributions, shared by people who are in constant communication, that we mean to subsume the term 'sound change'. . . The drift might well not be in any determinate direction: the maxima might wander a bit further apart, then come closer again, and so on. Nevertheless, the drift thus shown would constitute sound change.


ιͤˤ3Ĥ (Aitchison 136--37) (1) Hockett 褦ˡˤƤ椯ȤȡϤ䤬ƺ٤˴٤ºݤθϡѲƤΤȤƤݻƤ롥(2) ۤʤǤ褦Ѳ֤äƤ롥Ѳ˵ȤСΤ褦ˤ(3) Ѳˤϡ䤹ѲȵˤѲȤ롥Ѳˤϲ餫Ū¤뤳ȤϳΤʤ褦Ǥꡤrandom fluctuation ȤƤʤ
ߤǤϡHockett 䡤#1155. Postal θѲѡ ([2012-06-25-1]) ǿ줿 Postal μĥ褦ˡrandom fluctuation Ѳμ礿븶ǤȤϱƤʬŪʸǤ뤫⤷ʤȤǽϻĤƤꡤꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Hockett, C. F. A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York: Macmillan, 1958.

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2012-09-11 Tue

#1233. ѲݤڤǤ [language_change][causation][sociolinguistics]

ε#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1]) ˰³ѲŪװγŪװꡥAitchison ϡŪװʤ뤤ϼҲŪװˤȤơ줿ѤΤۤˤ⡤ήԤȼҲŪɬȤܤ󤲤Ƥ롥
ήԤȤС[2012-06-25-1]εǼ夲#1155. Postal θѲѡפפФ롥ޤήԸפȤݤ褯ΤƤ褦ˡʬŪήԤˤäƶΩƤѲϳΤˤ롥ҲŪɬϡμѤθưϤȤƤФˤΤǡɬפϤʤ[2009-06-13-1]ε#46. ѤϤʤ뤫פ[2011-10-16-1]ε#902. Ѥ䤹ܡפ򻲾ȡˡäΤۤѲˤƤ⡤μҲŪɬȿǤ densification ȤŦƤ[2011-01-12-1]ε#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹סˡŪˡѲγŪװΰĤȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
Aitchison δǤϡήԤҲŪɬȤŪװѤƱͤˡŪװˡ֤Ĥ̤ˤʤŪװѲΤΩƤ򤷡ŪװѲΥå롤ȤȤAitchison ǤϡϳȤ˰³˥ڤȥڤȤŸ롥

When a gale blows down an elm tree, but leaves an oak standing, we do not believe that the gale alone caused the elm to fall. The gale merely advanced an event that would probably have occurred a few months or years later in any case. However, the gale dictated the direction in which the elm fell, which might in turn set off a further chain of events. If the elm fell against another tree, it might weaken this tree, and leave it vulnerable in another gale. Sociolinguistic causes of language change are similar to this gale. They exploit a weak point or potential imbalance in the system which might have been left unexploited. This exploitation may create further weak points in the system. (151)


Aitchison ϡŪװȳŪװΤɤ餬פȤˤĤƤ⡤ŪΤʵŸƤ롥

Note . . . that a number of linguists might disagree with the judgment that sociolinguistic causes are 'superficial' and other types 'deep'. It might be more accurate, perhaps, to replace the terms 'superficial' and 'deep' with the words 'immediate' and 'long-term', which do not imply that one type is more important than the other. It is clear that no long-term cause can take effect without an immediate trigger. It is equally clear that sociolinguistic factors do not set off changes randomly. The language must be ready to move in that particular direction.


ŪװȳŪװΥХ󥹤ˤĤơ˼ΰᡥ

Change is likely to be triggered by social factors, such as fashion, foreign influence and social need. However, these factors cannot take effect unless the language is 'ready' for a particular change. They simply make use of inherent tendencies which reside in the physical and mental make-up of human beings. Causality needs therefore to be explored on a number of different levels. The immediate trigger must be looked at alongside the underlying propensities of the language concerned, and of human language in general. (197)


#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1]) εȹ碌ƹͤ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

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2012-09-10 Mon

#1232. ѲϱϳǤ [language_change][causation][borrowing][sociolinguistics]

#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1]) Ǽ夲ѲθˤĤơǶᡤ#1222. ե󥹸줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]) Ǻƹͤ뵡ä
丫ˤСܿˤ¾줫αƶϡηϤѲ⤿餹ΤǤϤʤμѤϡηϤ̣ηϤˤФαƶͿȤϤ¿ξ硤ηϤΩΤȤƼ롥ޤ֡ؤαƶϡä٤٤ȤƾʤäȤƤ¦θηϤη֤ĤꡤǤŪ˻ϤޤäƤѲ¥ʤȤṲ̄ˤʤˤ衤¾줫αƶϡηѲƤ֤ΤǤϤʤǡ֤ĤꡤŪ˿ʹԤƤѲ˰첡äȤ䤽켫ΤϡޤǤ¿ʬŪǤäѲ򸲺߲ȤǡѲˤƽפϰ̤ƤȤͤ롥ѲϡŪηϲϤΤȤǽ졤ŪʰϤΤȤȯΤǤϤʤ
Aitchison αϳȤϡ¤˸̯Ǥ롥

Overall, then, borrowing does not suddenly disrupt the basic structure of a language. Foreign elements make use of existing tendencies, and commonly accelerate changes which are already under way. We may perhaps liken the situation to a house with ill-fitting windows. If rain beats against the windows, it does not normally break the window or pass through solid panes of glass. It simply infiltrates the cracks which are already there. If the rain caused extensive dry rot, we could perhaps say that in a superficial sense the rain 'caused' the building to change structurally. But a deeper and more revealing analysis would ask how and why the rain was able to get in the window in the first place. (145)


Ǥϡξ硤ϳθȤƤפʤΤϤɤʤΤΤҤӡŪװˤζʳŪװˤεǡ³ƹͤ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

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2012-09-09 Sun

#1231. drift ѲѤΰѤ4 [drift][causation][language_change][popular_passage]

ѲθưϤȤơdrift ꤹԤϡäƾʤʤdrift Ȥơäˡ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]) ȡ#686. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (2) ([2011-03-14-1]) εǵǯʻ餳äƤΤؤ Ritt Ǥ롥Ritt θѲѤϻɷŪȻפäƤ뤬κǶʸ (p. 131) ǡdrift ٻ븦ԤνפʰѤ4ۤɤʤƤΤǡƸصΤᡤѸŵŸƤˡ

Languages . . . came into being, grew and developed according to definite laws, and now, in turn, age and die off . . . (Schleicher, August. Die Darwinsche Theorie und die Sprachwissenschaft: offenes Sendschreiben an Herrn Dr. Ernst Häckel. Weimar: H. Böhlau, 1873. Page 16.)


Language moves down time in a current of its own making. It has a drift. (Sapir, Edward. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1921. Page 151.)


A living language is not just a collection of autonomous parts, but, as Sapir (1921) stressed, a harmonious and self-contained whole, massively resistant to change from without, which evolves according to an enigmatic, but unmistakably real, inner plan. (Donegan, Patricia Jane and David Stampe. "Rhythm and the Holistic Organization of Language Structure." Papers from the Parasession on the Interplay of Phonology, Morphology and Syntax. Eds. John F. Richardson, Mitchell Marks, and Amy Chukerman. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society, 1983. 337--53. Page 1.)


languages . . . are objects whose primary mode of existence is in time . . . which ought to be viewed as potentially having extended (trans-individual, transgenerational) 'lives of their own'. (Lass, Roger. "Language, Speakers, History and Drift." Explanation and Linguistic Change. Eds. W. F. Koopman, Frederike van der Leek, Olga Fischer, and Roger Eaton. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1987. 151--76. Pages 156--57.).


Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-08-23-1] [2013-02-27-1]

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2012-09-08 Sat

#1230. over offer ϺǾФǤϤʤ [phoneme][phonemicisation][minimal_pair][meosl][degemination][language_myth]

[2012-08-31-1]ε#1222. ե󥹸줬ѸβǤͿʱƶפ (1)(c) ǿ줿[f] Ф [v] βDzϡѸˤ벻ηѲȤơѸˤǤϤ褯ˤΤܤ롥ե󥹸Ѥˤ offer Τ褦ʸ줬Ѹä˲äꡤŻҲ (degemination) ȤѲˡover : offer ʤɤκǾФ졤 /v/ ΩȤǤ롥
Britton (233) ˤСεϸŤ Kurath (1956) üȯߤǤ⳵Ǻ֤Ƥ뤬Sledd (1958) ˤäȿƤ롥ĤޤꡤοäǤȤºݤͤɤȡΤ Sledd ˷ۤ夬롥Kurath εȤοäʤ⤹ȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Britton 233)
Kurath ˤСѸˡ[VCV] ϥȡ ȤĶǡǽ첻Ĺ[VVCV] Ȥʤä Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening (MEOSL) ȸƤФ벻ѲǤ롥[VCCV] δĶǤŻҲ[VCV] Ȥʤä [C] ໤ [f, s, θ] ξˤϡŪ [VCV] δĶʿ [VVCV]ˤǤϤͭŪ [VCCV] δĶʿ [VCV]ˤǤ̵ƤꡤʬۤϿĶǤݤ줿ᡤ /v/ : /f/, /z/ : /s/, /ð/ : /θ/ 줾̡βǤȤΩ褦ˤʤäȤ
褯ͤƤߤȡλҲ̵ͭϡѲФޤѤäǤ⡤ĶˤäƼưŪ˷ޤΤΤǤ롥[VVCV] [VCV] ٤ƤߤСԤĹ첻ԤƤꡤԤû첻ԤƤ롥³ [C] ̵ͭϡľ첻Ĺ򻲾ȤƷޤΤǤꡤΰ̣ʬ (complementary distribution) ʤƤȲǤ롥äơ[v, z, θ] ΩǤȤƤߤʤȤϤǤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
Kurath [f] ʤɤβDzεþ褦˸뤬ˡ⤽βDzϤǤ˳ΩƤȤĥ⤢롥Ƥ褦ˡMEOSL schwa ξüθ˵äꤹΤǤСschwa ξü MEOSL ޤǤηִ֤ˡ[V + voiced C] [V + voiceless C] ΩϤǤΩƤȤˤʤ뤫դϹä褦ʤΤǡʾοϤ˻ߤƤ

Britton, Derek. "Degemination in English, with Special Reference to the Middle English Period." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 232--43.
Kurath, Hans. "The Loss of Long Consonants and the Rise of Voiced Fricatives in Middle English." Language 32 (1956): 435--45. Rpt. in Approaches in English Historical Linguistics: An Anthology. Ed. Roger Lass. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969.
Sledd, James. Some Questions of English Phonology. Language 34 (1958): 252--58.

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2012-09-07 Fri

#1229. ϼ4Ĥή [prescriptive_grammar][icehl]

8ܡICEHL-17 γزǥ Zurich ˹ԤäƤ824ˤϡߥؤ Anne Curzan ˤ "Prescriptivism: More Than Descriptivism's Foil" ꤹ plenary session ꡤֵϼ4Ĥήפ󵯤줿ޤĴζʬΤ褦ۤ줿ϥɥȤΰȴФ

Four Strands of Prescriptivism

Four different yet integrated strands, based on the aims of prescriptive advice about usage:

Standardizing prescriptivism: rules/judgments that aim to promote and enforce standardization and "standard" usage;
Stylistic prescriptivism: rules/judgments that aim to differentiate among (often fine) points of style within standard usage;
Conservationist prescriptivism: rules/judgements that aim to preserve or purify usage;
Politically responsive prescriptivism: rules/judgments that aim to promote inclusive, nondiscriminatory, and/or politically correct usage.


ֱǤϡʳμҲϤӤʤ顤4ĤήˤĤƤιߤȤϪ줿㤨С̵§Ȥȡstandardizing prescriptivism Ͽ롥֤Ĥʤ̿ǤΤƱͤˡεϤʤХߥ˥Ωʤǽ롥ɽȤɤȤΥ롼Ǥ롥ǡstylistic prescriptivism ϡ롼Ȥޥʡ˶ᤤ㤨С椬ĤѤäƤ鲿äޤǤδ֤ȯ֤ʤФʤʤȤ̵§ϤʤͤˤäƵϰϤϰۤʤޥʡȤʿͤΤ褦ʤΤϤ˰㤤ʤʤƤ⥳ߥ˥ΩĤTPO θɽФʤСѤ򤫤⤷ʤȤ̣ǤΡϤߡפȤȤ館롥conservationist prescriptivism ˤĤƤϡäȤ褤̾ΤʤװȤեޥʸȤơ"old parenting" ȤɽϤ狼䤹Ȥä
ºݤˤϡ4Ĥήδطʣǡߴ֤ΰư⤢롥̤˽вäƤˡˤϡ4Ĥήܤ̤ʤ󤵤ƤΤ϶̤ʤ黲ȤɬפΤȵդ줿Ǥ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2017-08-30-1]

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2012-09-06 Thu

#1228. ѸˤˤɸѸȯŸȳΩä [standardisation][chancery_standard][writing][bibliography]

ѸˤˤơѸ줫ѸˤƿʹԤ Standard English γΩϡ礭Ǥ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤standardisation 䡤Ȥ櫓 chancery_standard εǡϢ夲Ƥ
Wright (1--2) ˤȡ̤θˤϡMorsbach (1888), Doelle (1913), Heuser (1914), Reaney (1925, 1926), Mackenzie (1928), Ekwall (1956), Samuels (1963), Fisher (1977) ȤήȯŸƤ

Morsbach, Lorenz. Über den Ursprung der neuenglischen Schriftsprache. Heilbronn: Henninger, 1888.
Doelle, Ernst. Zur Sprache Londons vor Chaucer. Niemeyer: 1913.
Heuser, Wilhelm. AltLondon mit besonderer Berücksichtingung des Dialekts. Osnabrück: 1914.
Reaney, Percy H. "On Certain Phonological Features of the Dialect of London in the Twelfth Century". Englische Studien 59 (1925): 321--45.
Reaney, Percy H. "The Dialect of London in the Thirteenth Century". Englische Studien 61 (1926): 9--23.
Mackenzie, Barbara Alida. The Early London Dialect. Oxford: Clarendon, 1928.
Ekwall, Bror Eilert. Studies on the Population of Medieval London. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1956.
Samuels, Michael Louis. "Some Applications of Middle English Dialectology." English Studies 44 (1963): 81--94. Revised in Middle English Dialectology: Essays on Some Principles and Problems. Ed. Margaret Laing. Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1989.
Fisher, John Hurt. "Chancery and the Emergence of Standard Written English in the Fifteenth Century." Speculum 52 (1977): 870--99.


äˡEkwall ƶ Samuels 񤭸ɸ Type 4 ȤƵ󤲤Chancery Standard ȤŪʸ˸ѸѼ郎ɸಽδפǤȤήȤʤäƤ ([2010-02-27-1]ε#306. Samuels Ѹȯã񤭤Ȥɸ4ספ򻲾ȡˡ
ǶǤϡѸ˸οŸȼҲؤؤδؿˤꡤSamuels ꤹ褦ŪɸѸȯŸȳΩȤǥǤϤʤʣʸݤȤŪˤȤ館ƤƤ롥ΤˡSamuels ¾ξνǤϡɸಽȯŸξܺ٤פ⤫٤뤳ȤϤǤʤ褦˻פ롥㤨СWright (2) 󼨤Ƥ褦ˡʲ꤬ޤ򤫤Ƥʤ

(1) ɤ٤δ֤ˤ錄äơɤΤ褦ʼΥƥȤˤơ֤äɸಽʤΤ
(2) Central Midland East Midland ɥؤΰ̱ˤܿ⤬Ƥ뤬ϡҲŪʴ顤ɤΤ褦ɾ뤫
(3) Chancery Standard ϡѼȤϡֻηϤˤʤΤǤϤʤȤС¾Τɤοʿ줿Ѽ (levelled varieties) ɸѸؤϤȤʤäΤ
(4) ɸѸθáäɸ񤭸դѤäϤɤΤ褦򤵤줿Τ΢֤ȤơϰŪʸäɸŪʸäϤɤΤ褦򤵤줿Τ

Wright ԤʸǤϡʾΤ褦꤬Ƥ롥绨ĤʷȤƤϡʲ̤Ǥ롥

Some of the papers presented here report data which displays not the familiar S-curve of change, but a more unwieldy W-curve (that is, changes which begin, progress, then recede, then progress again . . . ). Standardisation is shown not to be a linear, unidirectional or 'natural' development, but a set of processes which occur in a set of social spaces, developing at different rates in different registers in different idiolects. (6)


Wright, Laura. The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Introduction. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000.

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2012-09-05 Wed

#1227. Ọ̇̄ [information_theory][frequency][sign][semantics]

#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1]) #1110. Guiraud ˤؤι ([2012-05-11-1]) ǻȤ̣ؼԤ Guiraud ϡ (information_theory) θؤؤαѤˤؿηϤ쵭Τ;١ѤʤɤͻƤ롥
1954ǯʸɤߡ¿μŪƶ줿㤨С˥ե󡤥˥ե١ĹδطˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ (128) ǽϥ˥ե˥ե֡סкǤû˥ե󤬺Ǥ٤ι⤤˥ե˳Ƥ롥줫顤˥ե󤬸ˡֶưסˡѹäס
Υ˥եȥ˥եߴطްդΤϡ餫ͳ٤̣֤ѲƤ椯ȡޤݤƤξԤδ֤ζѹդ뤿ˡηϤĴǽȯưѹդ᤽ȤȤȤǤ롥̤θ򤹤СѲϡãθΨ¤ݤ¤ˤƵȤȤˤʤ롥ηϤηϤ1ĤǤʾ塤˴ؤ̸ǤָΨפ˽虜ʤȤˤʤ
ǤϡָΨפ졤ְ̣פϼξݤΤ̤̣ȤȤƤ Guiraud ϡΤ褦ˡǾθ̣Ѥ˳褫ȹͤƤ롥ҴŪ˿ɽ蘆٤ĹȤɸѤơܤ˸ʤ˥եȥ˥եδطõΤǤϤʤ

La relation coût/information (ou forme/fréquence) traduit objectivement ces rapports entre le signe et le concept et permet de poser en termes objectifs le problème de la signification. (128)

ѡʤ뤤Ϸ֡١ˤδطϥ˥եȥ˥եδ֤ΤδطҴŪɽ魯ΤǤꡤ̣ѤҴŪ󼨤뤳ȤǽˤƤ롥


Guiraud, P. "Langage et communication. Le substrat informationnel de la sémantisation." Bulletin de la société de linguistique de Paris 50 (1954): 119--33.

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2012-09-04 Tue

#1226. Ѹˤäǯʬ [loan_word][lexicology][statistics][emode][renaissance][inkhorn_term][latin]

ѸˤˤѸκǤȤơѸˤե󥹸äή󤲤롥˴ؤƤϡפδǤ⡤#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ϤȤơfrench loan_word statistics ΤĤεǼ夲ƤפȤȤǤСѸΥƥѸˤȤäΤۤϿŪǤ롥
[2009-08-19-1]ε#114. ѸμѸεȳפǸڤGörlach ϽѸθä򼡤Τ褦ɾƤ롥

The EModE period (especially 1530--1660) exhibits the fastest growth of the vocabulary in the history of the English language, in absolute figures as well as in proportion to the total. (136)

. . . the general tendencies of development are quite obvious: an extremely rapid increase in new words especially between 1570 and 1630 was followed by a low during the Restoration and Augustan periods (in particular 1680--1780). The sixteenth-century increase was caused by two factors: the objective need to express new ideas in English (mainly in fields that had been reserved to, or dominated by, Latin) and, especially from 1570, the subjective desire to enrich the rhetorical potential of the vernacular. / Since there were no dictionaries or academics to curb the number of new words, an atmosphere favouring linguistic experiments led to redundant production, often on the basis of competing derivation patterns. This proliferation was not cut back until the late seventeenth/eighteenth centuries, as a consequence of natural selection or a s a result of grammarians' or lexicographers' prescriptivism. (137--38)


Görlach ϡA Chronological English Dictionary ˴ŤơΤ褦ʸפͿƤ (137) ޼Ƥߤ褦

The Growth of the EModE Vocabulary, 1500--1700
Decade15101520153015401550156015701580159016001610162016301640165016601670168016901700
New words4095081415140016091310154818761951330027102281168811221786197313701228974943


ѸΥƥѤˤĤƴϢϡ#203. 1500--1900ǯˤѸäá ([2009-11-16-1]) emode loan_word lexicology γƵ򻲾ȡ

Görlach, Manfred. Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.
Finkenstaedt, T., E. Leisi, and D. Wolff, eds. A Chronological English Dictionary. Heidelberg: Winter, 1970.

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2012-09-03 Mon

#1225. ե󥹼Ѹʬۤð [lexicology][statistics][loan_word][french][lexical_stratification]

#845. Ѹθäεȳ ([2011-08-20-1]) #1202. Ѹθäεȳ (2) ([2012-08-11-1]) ǤӤӰäƤ⤦1Ļ褦פ Brinton and Arnovick (298) ˸ĤManfred Scheler ˴Ť Angelika Lutz פѤƤΤǤ롥General Service List (GSL; [2010-03-01-1]ε#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡפۤ##309,612,1103 򻲾ȡˡAdvanced Learners' Dictionary (ALD), Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (SOED) 3θåꥹȤ츻̤ʬष줾γФƤ롥ɽ饰դƤߤ

 SOED (80,096 words)ALD (27,241 words)GSL (3,984 words)
West Germanic22.20%27.43%47.08%
French28.37%35.89%38.00%
Latin28.29%22.05%9.59%
Greek5.32%1.59%0.25%
Other Romance1.86%1.60%0.20%
Celtic0.34%0.25%---
Etymological Breakdown of English Words in Three Word Lists

פΤ⤷ϡ󤫤鱦˸äоݸäʤ褦¤٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ̤θ򤹤Сä٤˸äƲäƤ롥äŪǤФۤɡγ礬⤤ȤϾ嵭βǤ⿨ƤճʤȤ˥ե󥹼ѸˤĤƤƱͤηȤΤˡ󤫤鱦˸äƳ礬ƤΤϡ (West Germanic) Ȳ (French) ΤߤǤ롥ʳθϡष礬äƤ롥
ΤȤ鼨Τϡե󥹼ѤϡƥѤΤ褦ʸŪŪǤФǤϤʤԤԤ˶פܿη̤Ȥơ٤ϴŪǤ⤢ȤȤºݡѸäع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) ˤƥե󥹸ؤôäƤ뤬ʤϰϤ3ؤΤʤǺǤ⹭ؤؤʤƾؤؤ礭Ϥ߽ФƤ롥ե󥹼Ѹʬۤðϡե󥹸ȤܿˤħȴϢƤȹͤ롥
פˤ⤢ꡤˤդפ롥 West Germanic ȤΤʤ˴ޤޤȻפ뤬٤οΤ̲ϼѸϤɤǼޤäƤΤޤεǤϡä˥ƥѸγФե󥹼Ѹγ礬򰮤äƤ뤬[2011-02-09-1][2011-08-23-1]Ǥߤ褦ˡե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̤񤷤츻ȽԳΤ򤳤ǤϤɤƤΤȽߥˤäƿͤϤɤΤ餤ưΤľ Lutz äƤߤɬפ롥

ʸ嵭2012/09/04(Tue) Lutz (147) 򻲾ȤȤ嵭̲ϼѸ˴ؤ뵿ˤĤơ"Other sources of lexical influence have been left out of account here." Ȥäܺ٤ Scheler 򻲾ȤȤΤȤǤ롥

Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Lutz, Angelika. "When did English Begin?" Sounds, Words, Texts and Change. Ed. Teresa Fanego, Belén Méndez-Naya, and Elena Seoane. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2002. 145--71.

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2012-09-02 Sun

#1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ󥹸˶̤Ƥߤܿθ [germanic][inflection][synthesis_to_analysis][contact][danish][afrikaans][bilingualism]

[2011-11-10-1]ε#927. ޥζޤοءפǡO'Neil 򻲾ȤĤġѸ줬ťΥɸܿƶޤñΤƱͤˡΦ󥸥ʥӥ줬ϥɥĸ (Middle Low German) ܿեꥫ󥹸 (Afrikaans) (Dutch) ϥޥ (Low German) ܿơޤñȤ˿줿
ƱݤθڤGörlach (340) ǡ¾θȤǤʤƤǥޡ (Danish) ϡ13--15˶ޤʬ򼺤äλϡǡͤǥޡϥɥĸ2ѼԤȤʤäƤǤ롥ơ2ϡѸȸťΥɸδطäϳͶ̤ޤ礭ۤʤȤطˤä
եꥫ󥹸ˤĤƤϡ1700--1750ǯλˡѸǥޡƱͤʿCape Province ο̱Ԥ35%ϥϡ35%ϥɥķϤǡ͡͡ʶޤκۤ򼨤ʤ⡤ȤʬŪʤ˰¸ưջ̤ޤäƤȤߤ롥
ξˤ⡤Ʊ°2ܿؤäƤꡤξΤΤʼҲŪ岼طΤʤȤ̤Ƥ롥ɸΥޥ3ʿԴطˤ϶ʾΤΤȹͤƤ褵
ʤ쥪ϡѸΤߤʤ餺եꥫ󥹸ˤĤƤ⾧Ƥ褦ơޥ󥹽ˤ⡥Görlach References 򻲾ȡ

O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-04-17-1] [2013-12-03-1]

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2012-09-01 Sat

#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 [creole][pidgin][me][french][old_norse][contact]

ε#1222. ե󥹸줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]) ǻȤ Görlach ʸϡBailey and Maroldt ˤѸϥ쥪ǤפȤʲФȿȤƽ񤫤줿ΤǤ롥ѸϸűѸȸťΥɸ줢뤤ϥե󥹸Ȥκˤäޤ줿Ȥ뤳βϡ쥪Ǥ롥줬Դ֤ǰפʤ¤ꡤӤǤ롥;Ϥʤ餫˥쥪ȤǧƤ줫鸲ħ⤭Ħˤ˴Ťƥ쥪ߤȤΤQŪʼΤ褦˻פ뤬Bailey and Maroldt ǤϡμǰƬ֤Ƥʤ褦˻פ롥
Görlach (341) ϡťΥɸȤκˤѸ쥯쥪򡤼Ǵꤹ롥ŵŪʥ쥪Ȥϰۤʤꡤ(1) ̾ˤȳʤ򼺤äƤ餺(2) ̾ˤƿ򼺤äƤ餺(3) ưˤƿ;θȻɸ򼺤äƤ餺(4) ư֤򼺤äƤ餺(5) ֤Ƥʤ
ˡ餯ԥκǤ⸲ħȤ⤤٤ "the drastic break" (341) ѸˤˤϴѻʤȤSranan Ϥ鷺20ǯۤɤǰꤷ[2010-06-05-1]ε#404. Suriname ˤȸפ򻲾ȡˡΥ쥪ȤäƤ褤ȯλиƤ롥
ťΥɸȤκˤѸ쥯쥪⤬Τ褦˺ʤΤǤ뤫顤ե󥹸ȤΥ쥪䡤Ǥ롥εǤ⾯줿褦ˡGörlach (338) ϡե󥹸αѸؤʸˡŪʱƶϡ쥪βǽˡ⤽⺳٤Ǥ뤳Ȥ򼨺Ƥ롥

Influence of French on inflections and, by and large, on syntactical structures cannot be proved, but appears unlikely from what we know about bilingualism in Middle English times. Middle English is a typical case of a language of low prestige, predominantly used in spoken form and split into a great number of dialects that had to assimilate the cultural (and in this case) mainly lexical impact of the 'high' language.


Τ褦ʹͤ Görlach ˤȤäơѸ᥯쥪ȤϤޤ˼줬ΤβϸߤǤϤۤȤɼƤʤBrinton and Arnovick (297--98) Thomason and Kaufman (309) ƱȽƤ롥Ѹ˸ˤƤ⥯쥪츦ˤƤ⡤ĤλɷȤʤäȤϳΤǤ롥

Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.

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