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Ѹˤ affect, attract, celebrate, dedicate, indicate, relate ʤɥޥϤư줬¿¸ߤ롥촴 /t/ ĤθϥƥβʬŵŪʸ -ātusˤͳ褹뤬Ѹؼޤݤˤ /t/ ޤΤư촴Ȳᤵ줿طʤˤϡƻ줫ưؤʻž (conversion) ѸˤƹŪǤäȤͿƤȸ롥ηаޤˤĤƤϡ#438. ƻӵ餫ưؤž ([2010-07-09-1]) #1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]) εǴñ˿줿̤Ǥ롥
ơΤ褦ʸ췲ΰˤϡѸˤƸˡǤϤ뤬ΤޤʬȤѤΤ롥㤨Сcreate, dedicate, frustrate ϡΤޤޤη֤ǡ§Ūʲʬ created, dedicated, frustrated ƱβʬȤѤ뤳Ȥ롥ˡȤƤϸŪѸѸǤϡưˤƸƱβʬ§Ū -ed ¤ǹԤƤڡ켣 (206--08) ϡѸˤ -ed ȥ٤ Reuter (45, 89) ˤʲΥǡǺܤʤ顤촴 /t/ ǽưˤĤƤϤषΤۤޤ줿ȤŦƤ롥
| /t/ ǽ | /t/ ǽʤ | ||||
| {-ed} | {-ø} | {-ed} | {-ø} | ||
| 13--14 | Chaucer | 55 | 58 | 19 | 9 |
| Wyclif | 17 | 26 | 3 | 0 | |
| Trevisa | 15 | 62 | 2 | 1 | |
| Gower | 3 | 29 | 2 | 9 | |
| 15 | Lydgate | 13 | 116 | 7 | 1 |
| Tr. Palladius | 5 | 70 | 3 | 7 | |
| Tr. Higden | ˤ | ۤȤ | ٤ | 0 | |
| Tr. Delm | 1 | 44 | 4 | 0 | |
| Capgrave | 9 | 54 | 2 | 0 | |
| Ripley | 0 | 48 | 0 | 0 | |
| Henryson | 3 | 48 | 0 | 0 | |
| Monk of Evesh | 5 | 29 | 1 | 0 | |
| Bk. St. Albans | 11 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |
| Caxton | 165 | 118 | ٤ | 0 | |
ϡޤǤˤ 3pp γƵDz٤äƤ³ǤƤ褦ˡưľˡˤ3ʣ -s εˤĤƤϡ쳰ŪƶȡŪ3ñ -s ȤΩƤ롥ŪԤȤơSmith 롥Smith Shakespeare First Folio оݤȤơ3ʣ -s 100ĤߤĤSmith ϡʬۤʤαƶꤷŪװΤߤǽʬǤǤμݤʸη褯ޤȤޤäƤ (375--76)
I. That, as an historical explanation of the construction discussed, the recourse to the theory of Northumbrian borrowing is both insufficient and unnecessary.
II. That these s-predicates are nothing more than the ordinary third singulars of the present indicative, which, by preponderance of usage, have caused a partial displacement of the distinctively plural forms, the same operation of analogy finding abundant illustrations in the popular speech of to-day.
III. That, in Shakespeare's time, the number and corresponding influence of the third singulars were far greater than now, inasmuch as compound subjects could be followed by singular predicates.
IV. That other apparent anomalies of concord to be found in Shakespeare's syntax,---anomalies that elude the reach of any theory that postulates borrowing,---may also be adequately explained on the principle of the DOMINANT THIRD SINGULAR.
פˡSmith ϡˤ⸽ߤˤ⸫3ñ -s ζŪкͥʤ줬3ʣΰؿȤϼǤ⤤Ƥ롥
Smith εˤ꤬¿1ˡShakespeare ΤߤäƽѸɽ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤȡ2ˡƶˤ NPTR Northern Present Tense Rule; #1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) ) äƤ˽ʬդʧ鷺ˡƱӽƤ뤳ȡʤNPTR ˴ϢڼΤ p. 366 εˤˡ3ˡSmith ˸¤ʤƶȤΩƤꡤξԤȤͭȤ븫βǽӽƤ뤳ȡ
12ˤĤƤϡSmith 100ǯʾθŤǤ뤳ȤطƤ롥Τ褦ŦǤΤϡθ带椬ʤǤڵȤ⤤롥3ˤĤƤϡʤθƤʤƶˤϤ줾ζߤȼߤ뤬ξԤͻ¤ǤʤȤͳϤʤ褦˻פ롥
#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) εǤߤ褦 McIntosh θ NPTR Ūȵڤ뤷 Smith λŦ붦ŪǸŪװ⤽ȤϤ롥װ궯ѤƤ뤫ȤܤζϤ줫Τߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤϤʤΩȤƤϡ#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) 褦ˡ3ʣ -s ˤĤƤѲ "multiple causation" Ȥ
Smith, C. Alphonso. "Shakespeare's Present Indicative S-Endings with Plural Subjects: A Study in the Grammar of the First Folio." Publications of the Modern Language Association 11 (1896): 363--76.
McIntosh, Angus. "Present Indicative Plural Forms in the Later Middle English of the North Midlands." Middle English Studies Presented to Norman Davis. Ed. Douglas Gray and E. G. Stanley. Oxford: OUP, 1983. 235--44.
#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1]) εäεǤϡѲưθ촴 rhyme ιִˤ첻û첻ˡܻ /d, t/ פǤ {-ed} դȡűѸ줫Ѹˤη̡߷ʬ٤ƱȤʤäƤޤä
ºݤΤȤ嵭βˤˤϼ㴳οʤĤ롥ꤵƤ벻ΤæŻҲ (degemination) ѸǤβȤȤ館ˤƤ⡤ΩϢ첻æŻҲȤϸűѸʳΤȹͤʤФʤʤȤεѸˤ̵ѲѤư췲Τ٤ƤεűѸˤޤ̤櫓ǤϤʤ㤨 hit (< OE hyttan), knit (< OE cnyttan), shut (< OE scyttan), set (< OE settan), wed (< OE weddian) ʤɤϸűѸ̤뤳ȤǤƤ⡤cast, cost, cut, fit, hurt, put, split, spread ʤɤϽФѸʹߤμѸ줢뤤¤Ǥ롥ޤ bid, burst, let, shed, slit ʤɤ϶ѲưǤ˼ѲΤΥߥȾ嵭ꤵ벻ΥߥȤɤΤ褦˴ؤäƤ뤫ʬʤűѸμѲư˳μ¤ˤ̤뤳ȤΤǤʤưˤĤƤ⡤set shut ξƱͤˡˤŬѤ뤳ȤϤǤΤ
षΤ褦ưϡ촴 rhyme ̤ƤȤǡŪˡʡ̵ѲѤư set shut ȶŪ˴ϢŤ졤 (analogy) ˤä̵ѲѤѤ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤѸˤˤƶѲư ѲưȤήʶܹԡˤϰŪǤꡤѤκǤȤƤФиڤ뤬̤μѲư ̵ѲưȤѤή⡤ŪǤϤ졤Τ褦¸ߤȹͤΤǤϤʤ̵ѲѤưξʤȤϡʲѲη̤ȤƤǤϤʤŪѤη̤Ȥªɬפ褦˻פ롥Τ褦˹ͤƤȤˡJespersen (28) ƱݤεҤĤ "this group" ȤϸűѸ˵̵ѲѤư췲ؤ
Even verbs originally strong or reduplicative, or of foreign origin, have been drawn into this group: bid, burst, slit; let, shed; cost.
ưζܹԤˤĤƤϡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) γƵȡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) ³3ñ -th -s ѲˤĤƼ夲ƤѲ⤿餷װˤĤƤϽ⤬Ƥ롥ޤ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤ3ʣˤƤʿŪ -th -s ѲäƤ餷ڵꡤ2Ĥ߹äƤȤ롥
ǤϡűѸľˡߤο;θȤ -es ѤƤꡤ -eþ Ȥϰ褷ƤäơѸʹߡȤ櫓ѸǤ -th -s ѲαƶȤ⤬Ť餢롥ǡˤƤǧ줿2ñ -es(t) /s/ 3ñθˤڤΤǤϤʤȤ롤ѥǤ⤢롥¾be ư is αƶȤ⡤Ѳʤɤ⤢뤬Ϥ礯
ʶȤʤǡJespersen (17--18) ϲδָΨŸ롥ˤֺǾϤˡ§ ('law of least effort') ȸƤ褤
In my view we have here an instance of 'Efficiency': s was in these frequent forms substituted for þ because it was more easily articulated in all kinds of combinations. If we look through the consonants found as the most important elements of flexions in a great many languages we shall see that t, d, n, s, r occur much more frequently than any other consonant: they have been instinctively preferred for that use on account of the ease with which they are joined to other sounds; now, as a matter of fact, þ represents, even to those familiar with the sound from their childhood, greater difficulty in immediate close connexion with other consonants than s. In ON, too, þ was discarded in the personal endings of the verb. If this is the reason we understand how s came to be in these forms substituted for th more or less sporadically and spontaneously in various parts of England in the ME period; it must have originated in colloquial speech, whence it was used here and there by some poets, while other writers in their style stuck to the traditional th (-eth, -ith, -yth), thus Caxton and prose writers until the 16th century.
"Efficiency" Ȥϸο (progress) ˤ̤롥̯ʸJespersen ˡ¤ Jespersen ŪȸJespersen ŪȤϲˤĤƤϡ#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) Ȥ줿[s] [θ] ˤĤƤϡ#842. th-sound Ϥޤȯ ([2011-08-17-1]) ȡ#1248. s th Ĵκ ([2012-09-26-1]) ɤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
ε#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1]) ǻȤ Kytö (115) ϡ17ɾԤľܰѤʤ顤17Ⱦˤ -eth ֤줿Ǥ -s ȤȯƤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Contemporary commentators' statements, and verse rhymes, indicate that the -S and -TH endings were pronounced identically from the early 17th century on. Richard Hodges (1643) listed different spellings given for the same pronunciation: for example, clause, claweth, claws; Hodges also pointed out in 1649 that "howesoever wee write them thus, leadeth it, maketh it, noteth it, we say lead's it, make's it, note's it" (cited in Jespersen, 1942: 19--20).
Kytö (132 fn. 10) ǤϡHodges θǤǤȯҲ𤵤Ƥ롥
In the third (and final) edition of his guide (1653: 63--64), Hodges elaborated on his statement: "howsoever wee write many words as if they were two syllables, yet wee doo commonly pronounce them as if they were but one, as for example, these three words, leadeth, noteth, taketh, we doo commonly pronounce them thus, leads, notes, takes, and so all other words of this kind."
17ˤϰŪ <-eth> /-s/ ȤȯƤȤϡ/θ/ /s/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤǤȤĤޤƤ䤿ˤȤäƤϡ츫ۤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤϡäդǤѲԤդǤѲɤĤƤʤȤѲΤդ줿1Ĥˤʤ˽դäդ˹碌 <-s> ֤褦ˤʤäֻȯɤĤˤ¿ʤȤֺäȤȤǤ롥ܸɽ줫ʤŤ鸽夫ʤŤؤȲޤǤƻΤ٤С<-eth> <-s> ؤֻѲϤष®äȸۤɤǤ롥
ʤJespersen (20) ˤȡĶ٤ư hath, doth, saith ˤĤƤϡ<-th> 18ȾФޤ̤˸줿Ȥ
ɽʸȯȤЪΥˤĤƤ spelling_pronunciation_gap ¿εǼ夲ƤȤ櫓#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1]) ȡ#62. ʤ֤ȯЪΥƤ椯Τ ([2009-06-28-2]) εȤ줿
Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.
Hodges, Richard. A Special Help to Orthographie; Or, the True Writing of English. London: Printed for Richard Cotes, 1643.
Hodges, Richard. The Plainest Directions for the True-Writing of English, That Ever was Hitherto Publisht. London: Printed by Wm. Du-gard, 1649.
Hodges, Richard. Most Plain Directions for True-Writing: In Particular for Such English Words as are Alike in Sound, and Unlike Both in Their Signification and Writing. London: Printed by W. D. for Rich. Hodges., 1653. (Reprinted in R. C. Alston, ed. English Linguistics 1500--1800. nr 118. Menston: Scholar Press, 1968; Microfiche ed. 1991)
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
ư3ʣˤĤơ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1])#1687. Ѹ3ʣ -s (4) ([2013-12-09-1])#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ǰäƤ3ñˤˤĤƤϤޤ夲Ƥʤäͽۤ褦ˡ3ñΤۤʤǤꡤȤ櫓ɤǸűѸ -th ΤѸ -s 褦ˤʤäаޤˤĤƤϡ¿ФƤ롥
ѸξΤˤФа礤˽ФΤϡ1611ǯ The Authorised Version (The King James Version [KJV]ˤǤŪ -th ݤƤ뤬Ʊ Shakespeare Ǥ -th -s ߤƤȤȤΤȤϡ17ޤǤ˸ǤϤǤ -th -s ؤѲٿʤǤݼŪνդˤϤ줬ȿǤʤäΤȲᤵƤ롥
ơ礦Ʊ˱Ѹ줬ΦذܿϤƤǤϡλǤ˻ϤޤäƤ -th -s ѲΤθΥ塼ϡꥹѸȥꥫѸȤǰۤʤäϤäΤKytö ϡ16--17ΥꥹѸ쥳ѥȡ17ΥꥫѸ쥳ѥѤơ䤤ؤ͡ʸŪҲŪʥѥꤷӤƤ뤬Ūˤ1Ĥηǧ줿17ξߤ¤ꡤ-s ؤѲϥꥫѸΤۤꥹѸ®˿ʤǤΤǤ롥Kytö (120) ˤɽ
| British English | American English | ||||||
| -S | -TH | Total | -S | -TH | Total | ||
| 1500--1570 | 15 (3%) | 446 | 461 | - | |||
| 1570--1640 | 101 (18%) | 459 | 560 | 1620--1670 | 339 (51%) | 322 | 661 |
| 1640--1710 | 445 (76%) | 140 | 585 | 1670--1720 | 642 (82%) | 138 | 780 |
Contrary to what has usually been attributed to the phenomenon of colonial lag, the subsequent rate of change was more rapid in the colonies. By and large, the colonists' writings seem to reflect the spoken language of the period more faithfully than do the writings of their contemporaries in Britain. In this respect, speaker innovation, rather than conservative tendencies, guided the development.
˽ colonial_lag γƵǤ褦ˡܤˤäƥꥫѸ줬ꥹѸʤǤ뤳Ȥ⤢٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ѽ⤢̣ǤݼŪǤꡤ̣ǤϳŪǤ롥 Kytö η϶ä٤ΤǤϤʤꥹܹˤƸ夹Ǥ˻ϤޤäƤѲꥫϤäˤɤΤ褦˿ʹԤ1ĤλȤưյ롥
Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.
Ѹˤϡset -- set -- set, put -- put -- put, let -- let -- let ʤ̵ѲѤư줬Ĥ¸ߤ롥ޤ Quirk et al. (3.17) ˵Ƥ̵ѲѤưΰߤƤߤ褦ɽ "R" "regular" ɽ魯
| V/V-ed | COMMENTS |
|---|---|
| bet | BrE also R: betted |
| bid | 'make an offer (to by)' etc. (But in the sense of 'say a greeting' or 'give an order', the forms bid ? bad(e) ? bidden may also be used in rather archaic style: 'Do as you are bid(den).') Also OUTBID, UNDERBID. |
| burst | Also nonstandard BUST, with alternative R V-ed form busted |
| cast | Also BROADCAST, FORECAST, MISCAST, OVERCAST, RECAST, TELECAST (sometimes also R) |
| cost | COST = 'estimate the cost of' is R |
| cut | |
| fit | R <in BrE> |
| hit | |
| hurt | |
| knit | Usually R: knitted |
| let | |
| put /ʊ/ | But PUT(T) /pʌt/ in golf is R: putted |
| quit | Also R: quitted |
| rid | Also R: ridded |
| set | Also BESET, RESET, UPSET, OFFSET, INSET |
| shed | Also R <rare> = 'put in a shed' |
| shit | <Not in polite use>; V-ed1 sometimes shat |
| shred | Usually R: shreaded |
| shut | |
| slit | |
| split | |
| spread /e/ | |
| sweat /e/ | Also R: sweated |
| thrust | |
| wed | Also R: wedded |
| wet | Also R: wetted |
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1]) ˰³⤦1ȤʸηޤεǤҤ٤褦ˡӸؤ̤ȤηޤƱͤˡʸؤ̤ȤƤʸηޤ⡤ĤβǤ롥ڤǹդƤʬʤɤϤ뤬ü˸äƤޤСԤοޤȤȤˤʤ롥äơޤΤ褦ʤΤʣ٤ɬפ롥ϡ (232--34) ˤ1ȤηޤȤ롥ʲ4Ĥη̤Ƥ롥ǯϻŪʤΤǤ롥
(1) ץȾݷʸɽȤȯŸ

(2) ݷʸݷ¸

(3) ܸʸη

(4) 쥢ξݷʸη

ζͺԡˡظؤؤֿͤΤˡ١ۼҡ1986ǯ
ɸϡ#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) Ǥñ˿줿Ϥ⤦ܤ夲ܤΤϡľˡ3;ñߤθȡʿ;ΤʤʣߤθǤ롥
ѸΰŪʬˤĤƤϡ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) #1812. 6ñѰۤǸѸ ([2014-04-13-1]) Ȥ줿ľˡ߷ưθȤϡѸ礭3ʬ뤳ȤǤ롥 "the Chester-Wash line" ¦ (North)ʣ -eth ħȤ (South)δ֤˰֤ (Midland) Ǥ롥θˤĤƤϤ줾1ĤΥѥȤƤޤȤ뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) ˤ褦ˡưȤŪʴط˱2ĤΥѥब̤롥쵬§ "Northern Personal Pronoun Rule" 뤤 "Northern Present Tense Rule" ʰʲ NPTR άˤȤΤƤꡤMcIntosh (237) ˤСΤ褦꼰롥
Expressed in somewhat simplified fashion, the rule operating north of the Chester-Wash line is that a plural form -es is required unless the verb has a personal pronoun subject immediately preceding or following it. When the verb has such a subject, the ending required is the reduced -e or zero (-ø) form.
McIntosh (238) ˤNPTR αդѸ3ΥѥȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) North (north of the Chester-Wash line)
i) subject not a personal pronoun in contact with verb
| North: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -es | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| North: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -e, -ø (-en) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| Midland | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en, -e (-ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| South | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en (-e, -ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
#47. ͭʤŪʤmyself himself ([2009-06-14-1]) ǺƵ̾ -self ν֤εõäεΤȤϰۤʤ⤤Ĥ롥Ĵ٤ȤŤʸǸߤϤɤΤ褦ɾƤΤ狼ʤȸбɽͿƤΤǤϤʤȤ⤬äȸαѸؤαƶƤ Preusler (187) ΰѤ롥
Im Altenglischen und noch überwiegend bei Shakespeare und in den heutigen Mundarten dient das einfache Personalpronomen als Reflexiv. Daneben kommt schon altenglisch Versärkung mit self vor, doch erst seit der ersten Hälfte des 13. Jh.s das Possessiv mit self. --- Das Kymrische kennt seit alters beides, my hun ich selbst neben fy hun mein selbst. Die Neigung zum Possessiv ist hier so stark, daß es sich in allen Personen durchgesetzt hat. --- Die Pluralformen zeigen auch den Plural von hun: ein hunain wir selbst usw.; im Englischen treten die Pluralformen erst seit der Mitte des 16. Jh.s auf.
Ǥϡ1, 2;Τ myself, yourself ʤɤ°ʷͳ뤫⤷ʤhimself ʤɤͿʷͥȤʤäаޤʤޤǸʬǽҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡѸʣˤ -(e)s yourselves themselves ФΤ16ˤƤ˥ȸδͿäȲꤹΤǤСʤλޤDZƶٱ䤷ΤȤ䤬롥εϡȸƶμꤶ¿ιܤ˶̤ꤲƤ뵿Ǥ롥
ܿȤ쳰ŪװǤϤʤŪɽŪȤƤϡmē selfum -> mī self -> myself βּ岽⤬롥رѸ츻ŵ٤ self ιѤ褦
OE self ̾ŪƻȤ̾̾źƤ롤ƻѲǤäȤͿʡгʤۼˤο;̾줬ƵŪѤȤźơhim selfum Τ褦ʷ뤳Ȥ¿ä12Cˤʤ self- θϡ餯ȴ褦ˤʤä̡æη䤬 HIMSELF Τ褦˰ˤʤꡤ God self ȤäȤ God himself Ȥ褦ˤʤä mē selfum, þē selfum ȯޤä mī self, þī self Ȥʤꡤ self ̾ȴ mi self, þi self (MYSELF, THYSELF) ȹͤ롥ʣ -selves (cf. OE wē selfe we ourselves) ȤʤΤ⡤self ̤̾Τ褦Ѳ褦ˤʤä̤Ǥ롥
Preusler, Walther. "Keltischer Einfluß im Englischen." Indogermanische Forschungen 56 (1938): 178--91.
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
AAVE (African American Vernacular English) Ǥϡľˡư3ñʤ餺Ȥ -s դȤ롥츫ȡɤο;ΤǤǤ -s դդʤäʤΤǡ˸ۤɤҸϤȤ櫓ҲŪʴ¿ʤƤ褦-s νиͽۤ뤳ȤȤAAVE ȤѼKΤǤϤʤϰԻԤˤäƤۤʤ뤷Ŀͺ礭ȤȤ롥
AAVE θ߷ -s ϡɸѸȰۤʤʬۤȤǡѼħŤܤ1ĤȤܤƤŪʴϡ -s ʬۤεδؿȤʤ뤬ϤȤʤ AAVE εɤˤ뤫ȤŪľ뤹롥AAVE ε creolist Anglicist ϤĤȤΤƤ뤬߷ -s ⡤ݱʤˤΤʤذޤ뤳Ȥˤʤäcreolist ϡAAVE ľˡߤưδϥ쥪벽ͳ褹̵ɸѸεϤΰϤˤ -s Фɬװʾ˸Ȥ꽤 (hypercorrection) 롥Anglicist ϡ-s 餫ʬۤǤĥꥹͳѼ郎ʣΤͤȹͤ롥Anglicist ϡɬ⸽β꽤βǽꤹ櫓ǤϤʤʳ˥쥪벽ꤷʤ
Ϥ˾ܤʤ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1])#1687. Ѹ3ʣ -s (4) ([2013-12-09-1]) Ǽ夲ƤĴƤ椯ʤǡAAVE -s ˴ؤ1Ĥʸˤɤ夤 Schneider Τ Anglicist Ǥ롥γ˿ϼʬ (104)
Apparently, the early American settlers brought to the New World linguistic subsystems which, as far as subject-verb concord is concerned, were characterized by two opposing dialectal tendencies, the originally northern British one using -s freely with all verbs, and a southern one favoring the zero morph. In America, the mixing of settlers from different areas resulted in the blended linguistic concord (or rather nonconcord) system, which is characterized by the variable but frequent use of the -s suffix . . ., which was transmitted by the white masters, family members, and overseers to their black slaves in direct language contact . . . .
ˤϡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) #1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) Ǽ夲褦 dialect mixture Ȥͤ롥βǽϽʬˤȻפϤȽϤˤĤƾܺ٤˽Ҥ٤ƤʤΤϤȤʤѼ郎ʤΤǤäꤷҤ뤳ȤϡŪˤä˸ǤʣѼޤˤȤˤʤ롤ˤʤȤǤϡϤʤ褦˻פ롥
ޤ"the originally northern British one using -s freely with all verbs" ȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬 "freely" ŬڤǤϤʤˤ -s ʬۤˤϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) Ǹ褦쵬§ѤƤꡤ褷ƼͳʬۤǤϤʤä
ˡSchneider 19ȾФλ AAVE ˤĤƤϤۤȤɵҤƤ餺õʸȤƤϡ夤Ȥ虜ʤ
嵭 Anglicist β⤬줿Ȥdialect mixture ιͤѤʤȤȤˤϤʤʤषƸŪʼҲؾǤ AAVE εȡѸ3ʣ -s εͿƤǽͤȤ̣ǡȯŪǤϤ롥
Schneider, Edgar W. "The Origin of the Verbal -s in Black English." American Speech 58 (1983): 99--113.
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1]) εǡե٥åȤˤƤϻ߷ (376) ˤޤȤƤֱѸ쥢ե٥åȤȯãάפͤˤơ⤦1ĤΥե٥åȷޤηޤƱ褦ˡʸηޤ⸦Ԥˤäƺۤʤ뤳Ȥ¿Τǡ͡ʤΤ٤ɬפ롥
ʲοޤåȳ硥ľȯãδطȯãط˵;ϤΤ뤳Ȥ

ʸ (writing) ηޤɤݤˤϡ²ʤɸ줽Τ (speech) ηޤɤȤϰۤʤɬפǤ롥ޤspeech ηޤκˤϡǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤֲѲ㳰ʤפθ§롥ˤĴﴱؤդ줿ʲȯãȤͤꡤΩĸ¤ˤơޤϲʳŪʰ̣ġʸηޤκˤϡָ§פΤϤʤ㤨ɮȼؤդ줿μȯãȤΤɤޤǹͤ뤫Ǥ롥ɮˤǤȤĽǤо夫鲼ظǤȤ餫θϤΤȻפ뤬Ѳˤ褦ʸ̩뤳ȤϤǤʤ
2ܤˡ#748. ä ([2011-05-15-1]) ޤ ##748,849,1001,1665 εˤƤ褦ˡäաʲˤȽաʸˤˤϳơ롥ϻ֤ȶ֤˸ꤵ뤬ʸϤĶۤ롥ʸϡѤ亮ʤɤ̤ơ֤ȶ֤Ķơ춦ƱΤ̤θ춦ƱΤؤŤƤ椯Ȥ⤺äưפǤꡤˤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ʸǤ륢ե٥åȤϡäŬѤǤŪäƤˡγڡȱۤƤȤǤ롥ǡʸη뤤ʸȯãŤϡʹ֤߽Фƻ䵻ѤΤ˶ᤤʸȤμȯãꤵ뤬¾ʸαƶˤѲꤵ롥
3ܤˡ˴ŤطϲѲΤߤ˿Ф褤ʸȤ櫓ʸˤƤϡȤΤۤˡб벻ǤȤࡤʤʸؼԤζͺ (223) ȤΡʸμפιθɬפȤʤ롥ȼΩȯã뤳ȤѤ뤳ȤǤŪפɽ魯ޤϡξ⡤䤳ԳΤˤʤ餶ʤ
ӸؤʿŪʸؤȤΤͤ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ뤬ľ˸뤳ʿԴطϡ¤ϸǤϤʤʸؤˤϡȼβ٤꤬ꡤȼˡԤ߽ФʤФʤʤ
߷ ˧ͺԡˡؼѸ졦١ұѸʸꡡ8ҡ2006ǯ
ζͺԡˡظؤؤֿͤΤˡ١ۼҡ1986ǯ
߷ΡǤɤѸˡ٤Ͽ (195--96) ˡطΥ֥ȤؤΥܤäƤΤǡʲ˥ȤȤȤĥĤƤ
Anglo-Saxon Bible: űѸ줿ΥƥȤΡʤȯӾˡ
StudyLight.org: إٰʹߤ40ĶΥƥȤ
Bible Study Tools.com: ΤۤʩʤɤƥȽޤޤʸǤ롥
oremus Bible Browser: إॺ١ؿɸ٤ʤɤΥƥȽ
BibleGateway.com: 40ĶΥƥȤޤѸʳϥ磻ԥѸƤ롥
Schoenberg Center for electronic Text & Image: ƹΥڥ˥ؿۤ Schoenberg Center for Electronic Text & Image Υȡ1611ǯ˴Ԥ줿إॺ٤β뤳ȤǤ롥
Bible: King James Version: إॺ٤ˤĤƤޤޤʸǤ롥
Bible Search: ꥫΥȡƹϤƥȽ
The Holy Bible --- Bible in Basic English: إ١åå٤ΥƥȽ
ۤˡ#1429. Ѹˤ˴Ϣ BL μ ([2013-03-26-1]) ڤӡ#1847. BL ȤDZǤѸܤβ ([2014-05-18-1]) Υ⻲Ȥ줿طΤΤƷǤƤ
Cotton MS Nero D IV, Lindisfarne Gospels
Cotton MS Claudius B IV, Old English Hexateuch (imperfect)
The Lindisfarne Gospels: ܲܤäɤ륵ӥ⤢ꡥ
William Tyndale's New Testament: ܲ
King James Bible: ܲܤäɤ륵ӥ⤢ꡥ
Bible in Basic English: #1705. Basic English ǽ줿ä ([2013-12-27-1]) ⻲ȡ
߷ ⡡ǤɤѸˡ١罤۽Ź2013ǯ
ε#1846. Pearl Υ֡ ([2014-05-17-1]) ܤ˴ؤ륪饤õƤǡBritish Library Digitised Manuscripts Search our Catalogue Archives and Manuscripts ˹ԤäؿΤѸμܲƤߤȡ⤳ƤΤȯ롥
BL ˤ⤦1ĤκǿμܲؤΥȤƤϡBL Medieval and Earlier Digitised Manuscripts Master List 10.04.13. (XLS) ͭΥ顤Ȥ櫓ѸμܤȤƽפȻפΤؤΥȴФΤǡʲˤޤȤƤ
Add MS 40165 A, Cyprian epistles and Old English Martyrology fragments
Add MS 59678, Sir Thomas Malory, Le Morte Darthur
Add MS 60577, Miscellany of verse and prose (the 'Winchester Anthology')
Add MS 61823, The Book of Margery Kempe
Arundel MS 57, Michael of Northgate, Ayenbite of Inwyt
Cotton MS Claudius B IV, Old English Hexateuch (imperfect)
Cotton MS Cleopatra C VI, Ancrene Riwle; songs and prayers; a leaf from a Book of Hours
Cotton MS Nero D IV, Lindisfarne Gospels
Cotton MS Vespasian A I, The Vespasian Psalter
Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, Augustine of Hippo, Soliloquia; Marvels of the East; Beowulf; Judith, etc.
Harley MS 2253, Miscellany of English, French, and Latin works ('The Harley Lyrics')
Harley MS 4866, Thomas Hoccleve, The Regiment of Princes
Harley MS 7334, Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales
Royal MS 14 C IX, Ranulph Higden's Polychronicon
Royal MS 7 D X, The Prayerbook of Princess Elizabeth
ϡ#1429. Ѹˤ˴Ϣ BL μ ([2013-03-26-1])#1431. Gelderen αѸ˳Υ ([2013-03-28-1])#1293. Sir Orfeo δϢȡ ([2012-11-10-1])#744. Auchinleck MS ν ([2011-05-11-1]) ˤĥäƤΤǡ碌ƻȤ줿
ʸ Pearl Andrew and Waldron ǤɤǤ롥Cleanness, patience, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ȤȤ̵̾λͤˤä14Ⱦǽ줿ʤǤ롥 British Library MS Cotton Nero A.x ˤΤ߸¸̾ʤ
ܤʤɴϢ¿뤳ȤǤ뤬ʲǤϼȤƥ־ΥإĥäƤ
[ Żҥƥ ]
Corpus of Middle English Prose and Verse ꡤ1953ǯ (Pearl. Ed. E. V. Gordon. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953) ˴Ť Digitised Text of Pearl ǽ
TEAMS: Middle English Texts Υƥ Pearl by Robbins Library Digital Projects ǤϡʸȤȤ˸դƤ롥Pearl: Introduction ΥڡǤϡȥȴϢ롥
Pearl by Bill Stanton ǤϡȥΤۤʸȸѸŻҥƥȤǤ롥
[ ܲ ]
The Cotton Nero A.x Project ΥȤ Browse the Manuscript Images ꡤPearl Manuscript βեDZ뤳ȤǤ롥
[ Ϣ ]
Entry for "Pearl" in Middle English Compendium HyperBibliography
ˤ Cotton Nero A.x. Project ꡤWeb Resources for Pearl-poet Study: A Vetted Selection Ȥͭѡ
Pearl (poem) by Wikipedia Ǥϡ郎Ωġ
Ǹˡ饤 MED ѤơPearl ΰѤޤȥؤΥֹ¤٤ƤΤǡƥȤɤߤʤθȤƻȤ롥A Pearl Glossary Derived from MED Entries ꥢ
Andrew, Malcolm and Ronald Waldron, eds. The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript. 3rd ed. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2002.
#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1]) ȡ#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2013-01-22-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ
[2009-09-08-1]εǤϡեǥǥߡΩƸ줬塹ȿޤ줿ΤФꥹǤϥǥߡΩλߤԤ˽äȤŪаޤˤꡤѸ줬̱ŪʡɾΤȵMillar (81) ϤΤ褦ˤϹͤƤʤ
. . . the academy was not founded. Johnson's triumphant celebration of English 'liberty' a generation or so later must be interpreted as an explanation of this failure. Yet when we look deeper into the ideologies framing English 'liberty', it quickly becomes apparent that the similarities between French-language and English-language ideologies during this era are greater than their differences. The language was in the hands of a Latinate and generally leisured elite.
̤βսǡMillar (107--08) ϼΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
While the English-speaking world does not have the overt linguistic ideologies which the French-speaking world has, ideology has played and plays a significant part in the ways the English language is perceived by native speakers. These perceptions have changed over the years, due to social changes, but a centralised, non-dialectal, variety lies at its heart. Although ideological differences exist between those countries following the American model and those essentially following the British (or 'Commonwealth'), equivalent at the heart of both lies the social and linguistic power of the lower middle class, expressed through the maintenance of 'uniformity'. Again, the difference between these views and those found in France is not great.
¿ζȤˤơɸಽޤƤȡƤ¦ɸŪѼ¾줬ްƤȤϻ¤Ǥ롥ɸָ륤ǥȤǤϡΤ˥ե⥤ꥹѤʤäƳԤϰۤʤäƤեǤϥǥߡȤŪʵؤƳꥹǤϼԻȤʸˡȤʤɤμ͡ٻ徺ָİ罰ƳȤ㤤Ǥ롥μƳԤ⡤ȤιȤɸ˴ؤ¾Ūǥ϶ͭƤΥǥϡϹŪʤΤä˥եѸ줬ݲƤ椯ˤĤơƸŪʿ̡Ūʰ̣礤ӤӤ褦ˤʤä
˾ޤݤˤ餺˽ȤȤϸ¤ǤꡤѸۤŪ˶ʸ줬̱ŪǤȤȤ
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
#583. ɥĸ켰̾ƬʸѤϱѸˤ⤢ä ([2010-12-01-1]) ˤ褦ˡAddison, Dryden, Swift ʤɤγ17--18ˤϡ̾θƬʸϤäνμݤϥɤȤʤ̾ʸ뤳Ȥä̾ǤвǤʸȤHorobin (157) ˤСδظˤϿβäȤ
The convention seems to have been for a writer to leave the business of spelling to the compositors who were responsible for setting the type for printed texts. This practice led to the introduction of a distinctive feature of punctuation found in this period: the capitalization of nouns. This practice has its origins in an author's wish to stress certain important nouns within a piece of writing. Because ultimate authority for spelling and punctuation lay with compositors, who were often unable to distinguish capital letters from regular ones in current handwriting, they adopted a policy of capitalization of nouns by default.
#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1]) εǻȤ (45--46) ϡȼԤˤƤƥȤνǽ˱ƶڤܤƤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
줿ƥȤǤϡǽΥǤʬŪˡǽΥǤϤۤȤɤäѤ黺ȵФƽɬϤ⤿ʤ¤Ϥ椨ˡʬܤ줿ΤɤȤϡʬǽΤȤ̤ܤˤƤ봶ΤǤ롥줿ΤФƤ븢Ҥγˤ롥
θ塤̾θƬϤ٤ʸȤˡδĹ³Ĥɸಽ뤳ȤϤʤäդɸಽˤ뿢ȤŪˤդƤɬפʤǶθǤϰȼԤνɸಽؤδͿ⾮˸Ѥ뷹ǧ뤬δͿΤΤǧƤ櫓ǤϤʤβϴְ㤤ʤäϢơcat:printing standardisation ΤĤεȤ줿
ѸǤǤڤˤʤä̾ʸδϥɥĸǤɸಽƤ롥ϥɥĸˤˤϰŤǯ8 Oslo ؤdz줿 ICHL 21 (International Conference on Historical Linguistics) ˻äޤˡɥĸˤ뤳ζˡȯŸˤĤƤθȯɽꡤ̣İ긵˻ĤäƤˤȡɥĸǤ16--17ˤδȯŸǽ餫餹٤Ƥ̾줬ʸ줿櫓ǤϤʤ[+animal] ΰ̣̾줫Ϥޤꡤ[+agentive], [+material] ʤɤνǿʹԤȤŪˤ⡤ȤƤΤۤŪȤƤ̾ʸᤫäȤֻѲóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ˽ΤȴؿΤФƤ롥
ˤʸȾʸζ̤ȯˤĤƤϡ#1309. ʸȾʸ ([2012-11-26-1]) ȡ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
١롦 衡ʸȥߥ˥١ҡʸ˥ӡ1988ǯ
#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1]) ϡޤϤäƲƤʤѸˤǤ롥QŪˤϡҲŪƶϤΤ London 濴Ȥ륤ѲȯϤȤʤꡤʤɼդŤƤϤѸǤϤषդθबعߤƤȤ㤬¿
ФơMillar Samuels ήεǽŪΩ줫顤"conservative radicalism" ȤͿƤ롥ȤƼ夲ƤѲϡ3;ʣ̾ they ˤűѸ hīe ִȡͤȲꤵƤ롤³ though ˤ þeah ִӻؼ those ˤ tho ִ
The issue with ambiguity between the third person singular and plural forms was also sorted through the borrowing of Northern usage, although on this occasion through what had been an actual Norse borrowing (although it would be very unlikely that southern speakers would have been aware of the new form's provenance --- if they cared): they. Interestingly, the subject form came south earlier than the oblique them and possessive their. Chaucer, for instance, uses the first but not the other two, where he retains native <h> forms. This type of usage represents what I have termed conservative radicalism (Millar 2000; in particular pp. 63--4). Northern forms are employed to sort out issues in more prestigious dialects, but only in 'small homeopathic doses'. The problem (if that is the right word) is that the injection of linguistically radical material into a more conservative framework tends to encourage more radical importations. Thus them and their(s) entered written London dialect (and therefore Standard English) in the generation after Chaucer's death, possibly because hem was too close to him and hare to her. If the 'northern' forms had not been available, everyone would probably have 'soldiered on', however.
Moreover, the borrowing of they meant that the descendant of Old English þeah 'although' was often its homophone. Since both of these are function words, native speakers must have felt uncomfortable with using both, meaning that the northern (in origin Norse) conjunction though was brought into southern systems. This borrowing led to a further ambiguity, since the plural of that in southern England was tho, which was now often homophonous with though. A new plural --- those --- was therefore created. Samuels (1989a) demonstrates these problems can be traced back to northern England and were spread by 'capillary motion' to more southern areas. These changes are part of a much larger set, all of which suggest that northern influence, particularly at a subconscious or covert level, was always present on the edges of more southerly dialects and may have assumed a role as a 'fix' to sort out ambiguity created by change.
Millar Conservative radicalism ̾ΤȤDz⤷ƤηϤ˼ޤƤᥫ˥ϡƵǽŪȤ뤬Υᥫ˥बѤȤơܿ (dialect contact) ȽѰ۷ (variants) ζ¸äȤפǤ롥ܿ (contact) η̤ȤƷ֤Ѱ (variation) εޤ졤ηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ˤꡤ֤Ѥ줿ΤǤ롥ˤϡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ѳ3 contact, variation, systemic regulation ФäƤ롥Millar conservative radicalism Ȥͤϡ츫ԲĻĤؤθѲŤȤˡӤŪͿƤ褦˻פ롥
they though Ѳ˴ؤ̤ȤƤϡ#975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1]) ȡ#713. "though" "they" Ʊ۵ ([2011-04-10-1]) ȡ
ʤMillar (119--20) ϡ3;νñ̾ she ˤűѸ hēo ִˤ conservative radicalism Ʊ褦ŬѤǤȹͤƤ褦she ˤĤƤϡ#792. she --- Ǥ٤ι⤤츻Ծܤθ ([2011-06-28-1]), #793. she --- 奤ˤ۷ʬۡ ([2011-06-29-1])#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1])#974. 3;̾μʷ˺Ѥ۲([2011-12-27-1]) ȡ
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
3֤ε#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#1840. ڥ١Υ쥪줬ü˾ʤΤϤʤ ([2014-05-11-1]), #1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) ޤᡤܥ֥Ǥ creole ˴ؤ¿äƤäѸ줬쥪줫ݤ˴ؤơ#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1])#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) ([2012-09-28-1])#1251. Ѹ쥪طʡ ([2012-09-29-1])#1681. Ѹ "creole" ǤϤʤ "creoloid" ([2013-12-03-1]) ΰϢεƤĤޤȤϥ쥪ȤϲȤ˹Ԥ夯
(126--27) ˤС쥪ϡŪˡʤŪʸ칽¤εҤˤä뤳ȤϤǤˡҲˤäƵꤵ٤оݤǤ롥
쥪ȤϡȬΥ衼åѤο̱ϻۤΤȤǡ絬ȤȯŸˤä̤ƳԲķȤʤꡤˤäƥ衼åѸμؤηѾΤѲҲƤ礫ҲΤʤޤ줿ΤȤǤ롥쥪벽ϡ̱ϻۼԤΤȤФΤޤޤʼŪѼ褿줬ήǿȤˤĤ뤳ȤζŪС֤蘆פȤˤäơ濴ŪǥȤܿ˼졤ҤƤϤŪѼμΩҤΤ롥
äơ쥪ϡ쥪ˤƤϤޤꡤ⤹٤ƤΥ쥪ˤƤϤޤ褦ʸͭι¤ŪħäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ衼åѤθΤŪѼĻȤСؽԤΤָסʰײ줿Ѽʤɡˤϡ쥪Ȼƹ¤ηʤƤ뤱ɤ⡤ȤäơѼ쥪ȸƤ֤ȤϤǤʤ쥪켫Τ衼åѸθṮ̌ŪѼ狼ޤƤȤФǤꡤ衼åѵ¿ʸˡŪŪħޤޤʤݤäƤΤ顤ʤǤ롥äơ쥪벽ҤҲŪҲŪۤˤϤߤʤħʤΤǤꡤ줬ۤȤΰ̣ǤΥ쥪ʤǤϤθͭĤΤǤ롥쥪줬ޤʤä̱Ϥʤ¿뤳ȤǤʤʥ塼Фɥߥ˥¹ʤɤΥڥ̱ϤΤ褦ˡ˥쥪벽äƤ⤪ϤʤäΤˡʿ̱ϼҲνʳʤ³Ȥˤͭλ𤫤顤衼åѸ줬쥪߽Фˤʤä̱Ϥ뤳ȤϡΤȤ餫ˤʤ롥
ϡ쥪ȤѸϡŪ˰٤ʷˤؤͭ̾˶ᤤΤǤꡤ˶̤Ūħˤäݤ줿̾ǤϤʤȸäƤ롥̾ȤѤ뤳Ȥϼθ줬롤ȡξΩĤȤСѸϥ쥪줫Ȥ褦䤤⡤ܼ鸫ľʤФʤʤ
١롦 ë ɧ إ쥪١ҡʸ˥ӡ2000ǯ
ꥫΤͱѸȸƤФƤѸѼϡؽŪˤ African American Vernacular English (AAVE) ȸƤФƤ롥AAVE εäƤϥ쥪쵯 (creolist hypothesis) ȥꥹѼﵯ (Anglicist hypothesis) ԤΩƤꡤꥫѸ˴ؤȤʤäƤ롥ɤδ֤ǤξȤ߹碌ŪʸٻƤ褦η夤ƤʤȤäƤ褤AAVE ȤεγפˤĤƤϡTrudgill (51--60) դȤ줿ޤLanguage Varieties African American Vernacular English ⻲ͤޤǤˡ
ε#1840. ڥ١Υ쥪줬ü˾ʤΤϤʤ ([2014-05-11-1]) ǡ̱Ϥˤ homestead stage plantation stage ζ̤Υ쥪벽βǽؤƤȤҲ𤷤βϡAAVE ѸȥեꥫȤ쥪ͳ褷Ȥ creolist hypothesis ȴؤMufwene, Salikolo S. (The Ecology of Language Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.) δŸƤ롥Mufwene ϡʣθѼ郎ԤƤ뿢̱ϼҲˤƤϡǽο̱Ԥ (founders) ΤˤкǽαƶϤΤ뿢̱ԤνĤѼ郎ͥȤʤȤ founder principle "founders" ȤϡҲ濴ˤäƥԥ˥ȤƵǽȤɤȤʤäƤƶϤݻȤ뽸ĤǤ롥
ơ̱ˤ homestead stage ˤƤϡfounders Ȥϥ衼åѸɸѼäͤǤꡤplantation stage ˤƤϡͤ衼åѸؤɸѼäķιͤǤ롥founder principle ˤСԤʳĹĹۤɥ쥪벽졤դ˸ԤʳĹĹۤɥ쥪벽¥ʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥δ顤caribbean γƵˤƤ褦ˡֳϰǤϸ¤߱Ѹ١Υ쥪줬ȯǡڤǤAAVEޤѸѼˤƥ쥪ŪǤŪȤܤͤ롥ȤΤϡºݤ˥ֳϰǤ plantation stage ĹäΤФơڤǤ homestead stage ĹäMillar (166) ϡMufwene ε⤷ʸϤǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Returning to African American Vernacular English, Mufwene essentially suggests that the plantation environments so crucial to the development of English creoles in the Caribbean were a relatively late feature in the history of African settlement in North America. On plantations, speakers of mainstream Englishes rarely interacted regularly with the slave population, meaning that new varieties of a creole type could develop unchecked. But for a large part of the seventeenth century (and into the eighteenth century in many places), African slaves in North America did not live on large plantations, growing cotton, tobacco or rice, depending on where the plantation was situated. Instead, most lived in much close proximity to their owners and, crucially, indentured servants, essentially temporary slaves of European --- normally English-speaking --- origin, on a much smaller farm. While there might be a number of slaves on the larger farms, the numerical preponderance of Africans associated with later plantations was nowhere in evidence. Mufwene terms this period the homestead stage.
This close proximity did not necessarily make the slaves' lives easier than they were later, but it did make it possible for Africans to learn the dominant language directly and continuously from native speakers in a way which fundamentally differs from the situation in which Africans found themselves in the large Caribbean plantations, where mainstream varieties of English were normally in short supply. It is likely, of course, that the primary influence on the evolving English of Africans during this period was not the language of the prosperous but rather of those with whom they had most contact; in particular, perhaps, the English of the indentured servants.
founder principle ϡ쥪벽Τߤʤ餺ܿ˴ؤˤؤ벾ȤƤԤǤܿˤĤƤϡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
쥪츦ˤ1Ĥ礭椬롥ڥϱѸ졤ե졤ݥȥ졤¤ֿ̱ϻۤڥ١Υ쥪줬۾˾ʤȤ¤ˤ뤬#1531. pidgin creole ʬۡ ([2013-07-06-1]) Ǥ3ġ (31) 7ĤȤƤ롥ˤ衤ڥ̱ϻۤȤƤʤ餷ƤˤͤȡԻĤʤ餤ˤΥ쥪Ωʤ㤨СƱѥ˥硼ˤäơϥˤϥե쥯쥪뤬뤬ɥߥ˥¹ˤϥڥ쥯쥪Ϥʤޥ˱Ѹ쥯쥪뤬뤬塼Фˤϥڥ쥯쥪Ϥʤ
ϡǯ쥪븦ˤƶ̤褦ˤʤäƤҲ (homestead) ʳȥץơҲ (plantation) ʳȤκˤ롥ե̱Ϥˤ륯쥪ȯŸˤĤƼҲؤͤ (89--90) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ǽʳˤơϼͤβͽĤΤʤˤäȤ߹ޤƤΤǡ줿ͤȤܿĤƥեؤȤʳˤʤȡͤ¿ιȤΤˤϤϤܿʤʤäǹ줿μܤȤʤäΤϡϤե줽ΤΤǤϤʤʬζ鷸ǤķǤä쥪äȤСեˤʤȤʤȤФǤä
Ū˽פʤΤǤ롥餯ˤƤեФ뼫ΩβϤޤäΤǤ롥θ콬Υȥƥͤ濴ŪѼ˸ƤǤϤʤ쥪Τ켫ζŪѼɸȤƤϤ餫뤳ȤȤʤä⡤ʬȯäͤȯäоȤ뤳Ȥ⡤ˤϼͤȶˤȤޤĶʤ֥סˤΤʤ餹쥪ȯäˤҤƤ뤳ȤǤʤä
ɤ⡤̻ŪˤߤƤⶦŪˤߤƤ⡤̩ʰ̣Ǥ䤬ä櫓ǤϤʤȤΤϡ̻ŪˤߤС̱ϤϾҲץơҲؤȤ礸˰ܹԤƤäΤǤꡤץơϡ־פ˶ष櫓ǤϤʤäǤ롥ޤŪˤߤСƤؤԤϤäƤˤȤäƤϼʬȯäե줽ΤΤоȤ뵡ϤäˤʤäȤϤҲǤץơҲǤ⡤濴ˤϥեῴŪʥǥ뤬¸ߤĤŤǤ롥
Ǥϡڥ쥯쥪˴ؤŪˤСڥ¾ο̱ϻ۹⡤̱ϤζڤؤƤȤȤϤ롥ϡ쥪ȯŸϤˤϤʤäǤȤԽʬǤ롥 (96) ϡɥߥ˥¹䥭塼ФΤ褦ʥڥ̱ϤǤϡҲץơҲؤΰܹԤλ٤äȤǤȤƤ롥
쥪벽ʤäΤϡĤˤƤϡҲĹ³Τǡ֥ɥߥ˥פ֥塼פΥڥǤϤˤ衤Ȥ⤫ڥ줬̱Τˤ錄λ֤äǤȡĤޤꡤǤϡץơҲ˰ܹԤʳ줬̤Ƴơ쥪벽β뤳ȤʤäΤǤ롥
ο̱ϤǤϡ17--18ĹҲ³ͿͿäΤϤ褦䤯19ΤȤä
̱ϤˤҲ¤ΰ㤤줫 heteronomous Ѽ郎ʬΤ뤤ϴ줫 autonomous ʥ쥪줬ȯΤȤϡꥫˤͱѸ (African American Vernacular English) εˤѤ줦롥ˤĤƤϡεǡ
١롦 ë ɧ إ쥪١ҡʸ˥ӡ2000ǯ
Ѹˤʸˡñ㲽 (simplification) ˤǤȸ뤳Ȥ롥űѸ줫Ѹˤʣʶ (inflection) פʸˡ (grammatical gender) 졤Τ˸줬ñ㲽褦ˤߤ롥ޤפˤĤƤϡ#928. ޤ neutralization simplification ([2011-11-11-1]) 2β̤Ƴ
ñ㲽ȤѸϡԥ䥯쥪벽ʸ̮ǤѽФ롥줬ԥ䥯쥪ؿܤƤݤŵŪ˴ѻʸˡѲϡñ㲽ȤħŤ롤ȸ롥
ˤñ㲽ȤǰˤȤ館ˤβäñ㤢뤤ʣȤߤʤˤĤơŪ˹դʤǤ롥áʸˡѤˤäñ㡦ʣδϡʤ⤷ȤƤ˰ۤʤ#293. ٤¬뤫 ([2010-02-14-1]) Ǥ褦ˡˤɤνŤߤͿ٤Ȥ⤢롥ޤǽŪΩ줫顤 functional_load entropy ¬뤳ȤǤȤƤ⡤ϸ; (redundancy) ĤΤǤϤʤäȤ롥ˡñ㲽ȤϸѲħȤ館뤿βʳŪѸǤϤʤѲȷӤĤɾޤѸǤϤʤȤ̤ʤʴϢơ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) ȡˡ
(57) ϡ쥪ˤߤȤ롤̣ΤʤΡñ㲽פˤĤơ3ĤιͤҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
(A) ֺǾסβϡϡڥ륻ˤäƺ줿ڥ륻ϡ쥪ΤʤˡʤˤȤäƤ礫ʤħΤߤʤǾηϤߤ
(B) ֺŬס̡ॹ쥦ǡˤȤäơ֥쥪ˤǤɽϺŬ֤ˤס
(C) Ωסλϥ㡼ɥˤä줿㡼ɥϡ⡼ꥷ㥹ξ硤Ϥ¸ߤƤηϡʥե졤ޥ졤Хȥˤޤ˰ۼǤäˡηϤḺäȹͤ
ϡγǰۣǤȤơñ㲽פȤѸ줽ΤΤ˵褷Ƥ롥ե١Ȥ˥쥪줫ζŪѤѤ褦 (57--58) εϡܼĤƤȻפ
ñ㲽ȤǰΤΤǤϤʤȤХ˥쥪 mon zanfan ̤錄ΤɤͤȤɽϡե mon enfant ñ錄λҡͤ mes enfants ʣ錄λҶͤȤĤη뤳ȤǤ롥ߤơ˥ñʣȤ̤ʤ顤եñȤʤ뤫⤷ʤ̤̤ߤСƱͳ顤쥪ɽϤäȤޤ顤äƤñפǤϤʤȤ⤤ºݡñפȤΰ̣ϡʣŪǤϤʤפȤ⡤ס֤ޤǤʤפȤ⤤ΤǤ롥ˤ褯Ĵ٤ʤС˥ϡϤäꤵɬפȤʣɽ魯ȤǤ뤳Ȥ˵Ĥλˤ mon bane zanfan ʻλҶˤΤ褦ˡbane Ȥʣɽ魯ƻѤơͤ顤쥪ȥեΤϡˤϡäѤäȤФǤ륯쥪줬ƥȤǤ礭ʾƤ뤳Ȥˤ롥ƤФ餯δ֤ɤ٤ꤵˤȤvey mon zanfan! ̤λҤߤƤͤ͡Ȥ褦ΤȤ虜虜ɤ⤬ͤʣϤäꤵɬפϤʤ¾ǡեǤϡʣ᤹ˤϡƤξ硤̾ηŪɸǤϤʤɸˤäƤ롥顤쥪ǽηϤȤΩƤʤʤСƱˡɽˤĤ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥̤βȤФäˤʤ
οˤĤƤεƤȡ˥쥪пäƤ뤫顤եäʣȤȤˤʤ¡˥쥪ǤϡǤĤǰĤˤʤäƤΡܡʤɡˤФ̤Τᤸ뤷롥ֻΡĤΡܡפˤĤƤϡmon bane zyé ȤȤϤǤmon dé zyé ȤʤФʤʤƱͤˡֻΡ̰ĤΡܡפȤȤϡmon koté d zyé Ȥkoté d dé ϡпѤ̤Τᤸ뤷Ǥ롥äơmon bane soulie ϡηؤȤǤʤΤǤ롥
Τ褦ʻ𤬤뤫顤ñ㲽פȤȤФϻȤʤˤȤϤʤθˤϡ̥쥪äΤȤߤͿͼŪʥ˥奢뤷ǽŪ¤Ū˰ۤʤӤƤʾ塤Ū˲ˤϡޤ̩礭ޤǤ롥ֺƹ¤פȤäۤäȤֺƹ¤פȤΤۤäΩŪǤ뤷¾¿Ѹñ㲽ǾŬˤȤȤʤꡤ餫ˤ褦ȤƤ빽¤ŪʤθиܤȽǤʤȤ롥
κǽΰѤˤ륤ڥ륻θѤˤĤƤϡ#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) ॹ쥦ˤĤƤϡ#1074. Hjelmslev θء ([2012-04-05-1]) ȡ
١롦 ë ɧ إ쥪١ҡʸ˥ӡ2000ǯ
#1606. Ѹ캹̡ѸƸ ([2013-09-19-1]) #1607. Ѹ춵Ū¦̡ ([2013-09-20-1]) ۤ linguistic_imperialism γƵǡȽˤ夲ƤȤȤθȤϡդǤäդǤ쥽塼Ū langage ؤΤȹͤ뤬γǰ langage Ȥϰۤʤ뼡ˤʸηϤˤѤǤΤǤϤʤѸȤΤΤʤСե٥åʤΤ⤢ϤǤϤʤ
ޤǥΤĤ̤ơʸȸϤˤҲŪʵˤܤƤΡʸˡ٤ɤߡѶŪʸΩΤäǯեꥫ¿ʸޤƤ⤷ǡ (199--201) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ĤϤäꤷƤΤϡǯեꥫǤΤ褦¿ʸޤ줿Τϡեꥫ줿ŪˤȤȤǡȾϥඵ俢̱ϲη̡ʬθ⥢ӥե졤Ѹ졤ݥȥƱ褦ʸĤȤǤ롤ȸؼ뤳ȤŪǤäȹͤ롥եꥫν̱ʸȤǰȼΤǤϤʤ¾ʸѤ뤫路ΤǤ롥ΰ̣ǥ֥åեꥫθ줬ȤȤǽƤȤ¤Ϥ褯ͤɬפ롥ĤޤȼʸФȤߤطʤ˥ʥʥꥺ̱²ȤСեꥫˤƤϵҴŪ˸ƥͥäƤȤȤǤϤʤʰߤ˥ǥӥåɡӡϥˤϷ٤ꡤʸäʤɽä뤳Ȥ˾ޤȤƤˡեꥫȤʳϰδ֤ǧϴطξʸ˸Ƥȸ٤ʤΤǤ롥äüŪˤСϤȼ˺äʸͥäƤȤΤǤϤʤ褬Ȥʸ⤢ꡤեꥫξϤιȤǤ롥ϤȼʸȤߤäΤϲ俢̱ϲǥեꥫʸޤ줿̤եꥫˤȤäƤκβϤɤʸȤƺѤ뤫ȤȤäκݥͥƤȤϴط¸ߤǧ줿ΤǤϤʤ֤ϤˡפǤ褦ˡե٥åȤʸȤФΤΤǤϤʤѼԤ10Ͱʾ夤Τϻ¤ȤƤ⡤եꥫξƤΤϡ˺ʸʤɽ褦ȤȤޤͤΤϥǤȤȡ˼ϤǸ륢ӥƱǡ˿¿륢ե٥åȤΤǤϤΤϥǤȤȤǤ롥Ƹ岸ŪȻפ뤳εؾλۤϡФưäƤ븢ϤθǤ뤳ȤѤϤʤΤǤ롥
ʸθϤˤĤϤƤ⤦1Ĥβս꤬ (238--39)
ݥߥܸʸιùʸƤɽɽʸʤɤ褦ˡʸʪΤǤϤʤǼʤɤβפϿˡã¸뤤Ͻʪ̾ȸӤ˹Ȥä䡤ˤꤤ䵷ȤԤȤäṲ̄ƤĤޤʸȸϤ̩ܤʴطˤΤǤ롥
ҲؼԤǸؼԤǤ⤢äޥ륻롦ϡְŪˤäơʸȸƤ٤ΤϤɤԻԤޤƤ뤬ԻԤˤ͢ȤäкѳưʣǤƱˡԻԤοʹִطʣʤȤװǤפȽƤ롥ʸԻŪפĤȤŦϽפǡȤΤϸϤޤΤϤԻԤʤΤǤ롥οʤΤϡʸȯʳǤϤޤǹȱĤθˤƼŪʵǽôΤǡΡݤȤäҲ仺äƵϿ褦ˤʤΤϤäȸΤȤ˲ʤȤȤǤ롥ʸȸϤδطˤϤ˻۳μҲŪϰ̤Ȥ꤬ä롥㤨ܸʸˤĤƣʡ͡ǥܸʸ;ˤʣǡʻ֤פ롥ܸʸ̱ڤ찮ȤȤäƤȹͤͳϤˤפȤƤΤɽ̤븫Ǥ롥ܸʸγ餫鳰˽ФʤäΤϡɤ߽ʣȤȤ⤢ƱʸλĸϤꤷ褦Ȥտޤθȸ뤳ȤǤ뤫Ǥ롥פʤΤϡܸʸݷʸȤäȯʸ¿ʻ֤פȤȤϡøˤǤȤȤǤꡤˤʸΤΤγ˽°ΤǤȤǤ롥ƱˡʸθϤäƤΤϤؤᤳ졤άˤʸ̱粽䡤ˤڤפĤʤä˰㤤ʤȹͤΤǤ롥
ΤȤϤʤˤ4000ǯθʸ˸¤äȤǤϤʤǤʸ˴ؤ硤ɽ̾ñ˹ɽΤ褦˸뤬¤Ϥʳΰտޤ뤳Ȥϸƨʤ㤨е쥽ܤϢˮθФФʳŪ˥ʸǹԤΤϥεŪɽǤꡤδάʤΤ餫ʸ̱粽ȤŪˤ˴ŤΤǤ롥߳ƹǥʤǤ륢եꥫϵ콡θ줬ģѸȤ¿뤬ϸϸष褦ȤСֿŪװտޤθǤ롥פʸܽǽҤ٤褦Ūͻоݤˤʤ뤬Ʊ˼ҲŪͻоݤˤʤΤǤ롥ʸϽޤϤԻȤ뤿˺Ф졤ʳǤϸϤôΤž뤬ϺǤ⤢٤ޤǸ뤳ȤǤ롥
ʸؼԤϡ̤˴ƽʸˡ٤νʸ (4) ǡ¿ʸɬʤƤ롥嵭ΰѤɤȤǤϡɬǼ䤹ΤǤϤʤ
ȤˡȾɤĤĤꡤܤϤޤޤȹݲɤĤĤ롥Τߤʤ餺桦̱²ʸʸΤɬפФãϡ٤ޤǤϲʳصѤƤ뤫⤷ʤƥӤʸʹǤΡˡ¿ǽŪץʥѥˡ夵˲ɤǤɤ굡ʤɤʤɡʸȤƤʸ켫Ȥؤ֤Ȥ줾ۤʤʸ̱²֤븰ǤϤʤΤˤϡ¿춵ȤȤ¿ʸ餬ɬפǤꡤйŪʡȼɱưʤ٤ǤϤʤ
륤 ʸ Ρ ʸˡ١Ͻн˼1998ǯ
른塦 ʸ ƽⶶ ʸˡ١ϸҡ1990ǯ
#1832. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (1) ([2014-05-03-1]) εǡꥷե٥å (Greek alphabet) ΰޥե٥å (Roman alphabet) ٤ȡʸˤƼ㴳ΰ㤤뤬ΰ㤤ظˤɤΤ褦ʻ𤬤äΤ
ޤҤ٤ƤȡɽʸηϤ̤θذܿŬѤȤˤϡޤä¿βѤä롥Ȥ櫓ηϤäȤ褯ȿǤ륢ե٥åȤΤ褦ʲʸǤСʤǤ롥ޤäƱηϤäƤˤϤʤȤäƤ褯¸ʸåȤܿȤˤϡɬĤʸβ롥ǡʸ˳ƤꡤʸϤФʤɤμʤ֤롥ʸˤݼŪ¦̤⤢ꡤʸ礭Ѳ褦ʻ֤ˤϻʤȤ¿ե٥åȻˤߤƤ⡤褽20?40ʸϰϤ˼ޤäƤ褦Ǥ롥ꥷʸȥꥢʸȥե٥åȤŤƤ椯Ǥ¿βѤܼŪѤ뤬ʸŤˤƤ̤˴ѻ뤳ȤǤ롥
˶˰ܤˤ륮ꥷե٥åȤϰǤϤʤ¿ŪѼ郎¸ߤϡ奮ꥷäդ¿¿ͤʬƤΤȸƱ롥褯褦ˡ奮ꥷϽԻԤΩȼħȤΥޤȤоŪȤ߽ФȤϤʤääդʸηϤ⡤Ω̵طǤϤʤäդˤĤƤϡ#1454. ꥷɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-20-1]) ǿ줿ΤǷ֤ʤե٥åȤѼˤĤƤϡ٤ʬह4ब̤줿ɥĤγؼ Kirchhoff ˤʬǡϿޤ4οɤʬƤʬۤȤˤʤߡ줾쿧̾ǸƾΤ봷롥Green, Red, Dark blue, Light blue 4Ѽ
(1) Green alphabet ϡCrete ٤硹ǹԤ줿Ѽǡե˥ե٥å (Phoenician alphabet) ؤɲʸ¾Ѽˤ릵ˤ礤ƤΤħǤ롥
(2) Red alphabet ϡEuboea Laconia ǹԤ줿Ѽǡ [ph], [kh] ɲʸäޤϦä [ks] βɽ路Euboea ԻԤ̾ä Chalcis 뤤ѼȸƤФ롥
(3) Dark blue alphabet ϡIonia, Corinth, Rhodes ǹԤ줿Ѽǡ [ph], [kh], [ps] ɲʸä [ps] ϡRed alphabet Φ [kh] Ȳۤʤ뤳ȤաIonia 뤤ѼȸƤФ롥
(4) Light blue alphabet ϡAttica ǹԤ줿ѼǤ롥 [ph], [kh] ɲäIonia ΰȤäƤ褤ɸŪѼȤʤä
2Ĥ̤СEuboea Chalcis 濴Ȥ Ionia Miletus 濴Ȥʬե˥ξͤä塤 Chalcis Miletus ȤʤꡤξԻԤϾŪ̱ŪƸäChalcis ϥȥ饭䥤ꥢ˿̱ơȥꥢͳǥƥե٥åȤMiletus Ϲ˿̱ŵꥷե٥åȤΩ˥ʸʤɤΥϥե٥åȤȯŸ¥
ޥե٥åȤȥꥷե٥åȤμ㴳ΰ㤤ϡȤȤʤѼΰ㤤˵ȤȤ狼ʸǤ <C> <><D> <>, <L> <><X> <><S> <> λΰ㤤ޤҤΤ褦 <> β [ks] [kh] ΰ㤤 <> β [h] [eː] ΰ㤤ϡʾλˤ롥
ͤޤǤ˸奮ꥷϿޤǤƤ

ʾ塤 (57--60) Comrie et al. (183--87) ȤƼɮ *
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
Comrie, Bernard, Stephen Matthews, and Maria Polinsky, eds. The Atlas of Languages. Rev. ed. New York: Facts on File, 2003.
ε#1835. viz. ([2014-05-06-1]) ˰³Ѹ namely ɤ߲ viz. ˤĤơϡʸΩ줫롥
Ѹˤ viz. ɽιǤǤ3ʸʾάɽ魯 period ˤϡʤ餤⥢ե٥åʸʡɽʸˤǤ롥ġʸǹͤƤ⡤3ʸ蘆äΤǹͤƤ⡤ޤ /neɪmli/ ȯȤʤ<viz.> ϤˤɽŪǤ롥̣ˤĤƤƱͤˡ̤ġ˹ͤƤΤǹͤƤ⡤ȤƤ֤ʤפΰ̣⤫Ӿ夬äƤʤ<viz.> ϤˤɽŪǤ롥ĤޤꡤѸ <viz.> ϡ츻Ǥƥ videlicet ۵ޤʾ̾ϲ̣⼨ʤ
ˤ⤫餺<viz.> ϱѸ namely ƱǤȤơѸѼԤΰռΤʤǤ̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ롥С<viz.> ϡ3ʸΤȤƤ namely ɽ줷Ƥ롥<viz.> ֻϡɽ (phonographic) Ǥɽ (ideographic) Ǥʤɽ (logographic) εǽ̤ƤΤǤꡤѸȤС<viz.> ؤƤΤϡnamely Ȥ (signe) ǽ (signifiant) Ǥ국 (signifié) Ǥʤnamely Ȥ椽ΤΤǤ롤ȤȤˤʤ롥ηӤĤǤ뤫顤ѸѼԤϡ <viz.> = namely δطŵʤФʤʤ<viz.> ΤĤɽ쵡ǽϡ#1042. Ѹˤ벻ɤߤȷɤߡ ([2012-03-04-1]) ǵ<e.g.> (for example), <i.e.> (that is) ˤ⸫롥
ǡŵŪɽʸȤȤʤܸˤơӤ㤬ȹͤƤߤƳȸĤʤΤϳΤɽŪǤϤ뤬Ʊɽյǽ̤Τ̤ʸξˤɽǽäƤ롥Ѹ <viz.> ξΤ褦ˡọ̇⼨餷ʤȤŰŪϡʤʤʤ
ƬҤͤäƤäȻפĤΤϻȤ // ɤޤ <ή> Ȥ<ή> <> ⡤ˤϤȤ߹碌 <ή> Τ⡤ʤ // ȯȤʤֲȤäƤϤפΰ̣碌Ȥʤ<ή> ɽŪǤɽŪǤʤ֤פɽ줷ƤΤǤ롥<viz.> <ή> ͣκۤϡԤιǤǤ륢ե٥åʸܼŪɽŪǤΤФơԤιǤǤܼŪɽ졦ɽŪǤȤɽΤȤƤϷɤΤȤɽŪɽŪǤꡤȯƤ뵡ǽϤäѤɽ쵡ǽǤǤƱ
츫ȡήС ɽϻϡɽ쵡ǽʡɽɽդɽˤιƤ줽<> /䤭/<> /ߤ/<> /Τ/<> /ߤ/ ʤɤǤϡȤ߹碌̣碌ƤޤäƤʤŪˡˡ<viz.> = namely νɽ쵡ǽˤãƤʤषѸϥե٥åȤȤɽʸηϤ١֤ƤǤ뤫餳<viz.> = namely Τ褦ˤơǤϤ뤬ɽ쵡ǽΤ⤷ʤʸδϡε϶̣
ʤ<ή> // ȷɤΤϡʲθλˤΤȤΤǤʡسظָܸ츻ŵ٤ˡ
ι¹ФήפȤ٤ȤäơФήפȸäƤޤäʹͧβѤήˤǤʤФǤϸʤפȸäƤ餫ȡ¹ϡήˤΤϼǤꡤФȤΤϻǤפȸäƸƨ줿Ȥθλ֤ˤޤĤפɾήСפλƤ줿Ȥ⤬롥
εǤϡ̤ܸüԤθλΤʤ뤤ʤä˰ռˡ<ή> = // δطλƤ뤳ȤȤλռƤС<ή> ˴Ūʤⲿ餫ɽյǽäƤȼĥǤ뤫⤷ʤǤ롥
ʸɽ쵡ǽˤĤƤϡ#1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1])#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])#1655. ɤΤܤɤΤ ([2013-11-07-1])#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1]) ȡ
viz. "namely" ʤʤˤΰդɽ魯ǡ/vɪz/ ɤޤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬̤ namely /ˈneɪmli/ ȯ롥äѤդ˸ΤǡξάȹͤƤ褤ȤηϡѸǤޤˤΤ褦ȯ뤳ȤϤ뤬 videlicet /vɪˈdɛləsɪt/ Ȥǡϥƥǡ֤ʤȡפ̣ vidēlicet ͳ褹롥Υƥ켫Τϡvidēre licet (it is permitted to see) ȤɽΤĤŤޤäΤǤ롥OED ˤȡѸǤνФ videlicet 1464ǯά viz. a1540ǯǤ롥
viz. θѸˤĤƤߤ褦Ȥ櫓ꥹѸηĥäդˤơΤܤꡤꤹΤѤ롥
four major colleges of surgery, viz. London, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Dublin
We both shared the same ambition, viz, to make a lot of money and to retire at 40.
The school offers two modules in Teaching English as a Foreign Language, viz. Principles and Methods of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics.
Ϣơƥ scīre licet (it is permitted to know) ΤĤŤޤä scilicet /ˈsɪləˌsɛt/ Ȥά scil. sc. ⡤ѸǤ褽Ʊ̣Ѥ롥
ˤƤ⡤videlicet viz. άΤϤʤƥμܤǤϡ<z> ʸϡ-et, -(b)us, -m ʤɤξάȤư̤ѤƤǡ<z> = <et> ȸΩơɽ <vi(delic)z> ȤĤŤΤǤ롥Ťϡ<vidz.>, <vidzt>, <vz.> ʤɤȤɽ줿ƥǤ et "and" ̣ΤǤ <z> ά¿Ѥ졤űѸѸμܤǤ⤽ޤͤ and θʤ뤤Ϥβˤäˤ˸줿ºݤ <z> λϸߤΤΤȤϰۤʤꡤ <7> ˻ <⁊ > Ȥ (Unicode ⁊) ǡε Tironian et ȸƤФ줿ޤΥɮԤǤä Marcus Tullius Tiro ͰƤ®ƥ (Tironian notes, or notae Tironianae) Ѥ줿®1ĤǤ롥줬˻ <z> ֤褦ˤʤäIrish Scottish Gaelic Ǥϸߤ Tironian et Ѥ뤬ѸǤ viz. ˤΤʺפĤΤߤǤ롥
֡ե٥åȤ濴ʸ˽椷Ƥʸ˴Ϣ뵭ϡgrammatology, graphemics, grapheme, alphabet, runic, writing ʤɤǽƤ濴ŪʵȴФȡ㤨мΤ褦ʤΤä
(1) #41. ʸˤ ([2009-06-08-1])
(2) #751. ϵ46ǯΤߤΤʤǤοȸ ([2011-05-18-1])
(3) #1368. Fennell ǡѸάǯɽ ([2013-01-24-1])
(4) #1544. εȿʲǯɽ ([2013-07-19-1])
(5) #423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])
(6) #490. ե٥åȤε North Semitic ̤롩 ([2010-08-30-1])
(7) #1006. 롼ʸѼ ([2012-01-28-1])
(8) #1005. ʿ̾ˤǸŤΡ֤ϲΡפȯ줿 ([2012-01-27-1])
(9) #422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1])
(10) #1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])
ϡ (241--42) ˤʸάǯɽǤ褦(1)--(4) ʤɤεǷǤǯɽȤǯ㴳ۤʤȤ⤢뤬Ȥ櫓ˤʸΩǯꤹ뤳ȤκϴƤ٤
30000ǯ α 4000ǯ ʸˤڴ˽ʸ 3300ǯ ݥߥdzʸ 3100ǯ ץʸΩ 2700ǯ ܸʸΩ 2500ǯ ܸʸʸˤȤä 2300ǯ ήǡָʸפ 2200ǯ ץ롦ʥθʸʸ 2000ǯ μԥʹߡݥߥǤϥåɸ줬̸ȤƻѤ 1600ǯ ʥʸ 泤ʸAΩ 1300ǯ 饹ʸꥢˤΥåʸ ǹùʸΩ 1000ǯ ե˥ʸΩ Ʊʸťإ֥饤ʸΩ 8 ꥷʸȥꥢʸꥢʸΩ 6 Ω 3 ƥʸ֥顼եʸΩ 2 إ֥饤ʸΩ 1--1 Ǵ 1 ǸŤΥ롼ʸʸ 3 ץʸޥʸΩ 4 īȾ ץʸΩ ʸӥʸΩ 5 ܤ补ʸΩ ˥ʸ른ʸΩ 7 ٥åʸΩ 8 ʡʸΩ 9 饴ʸΩʤθ奭ʸȤʤ 11 ͥѡʸΩ
ǸŤʸȯ뤳ȤϤǤʤʤ̤ȯʸ̲äƤʸν줿椨˱ʱ˼줷ޤäΤ¿ (23) ϡܸʸθԡޥꡦǥμεҤƤ롥
֤椨ʸϾΤɤޤ줿ʤɤΤϤʤȤǤ롥ҲħŪʪĤİϢʪŪĤȤΤӡɽ롤äҲ¤ʸиϤɤˤ⤢ΤǤ롥ĤμҲŪΡƶɲˤȤ¸ǽΡǴڰʳΤΡˤȻפ
̤ʸȤȤˡ˸뤳ȤΤʤ¿ʸ˻פڤʤ
륤 ʸ Ρ ʸˡ١Ͻн˼1998ǯ
ε#1832. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (1) ([2014-05-03-1]) ˰³ࡦե٥åȤѤʸ̾ΤˤĤơΰɽκǸ˼"alpha", "beta", "gamma" ʤɤ̾Τϡ 츻ԾܤäƱꤵƤʤΤ⤢뤬ࡦե٥åȤ̣ͭñ˵ĤȰ̤˿Ƥ롥
ʥʸ (Proto-Sinaitic) 顤ե˥ʸ (Phoenician) ޤƼΥࡦե٥åȡ줫奮ꥷʸؤȻѲɤäƤȡϢ³褯ĤΤθʥʸʳǤϤޤʸȤά˶ᤤʥʸ1ϡΤˡֵ(aleph) ƬΤ褦ˤߤάǤꡤ줬ѲФƥꥷե٥åȤΦؤȯŸ2ϡֲȡ(bet) ˸ʤʤǡ줬˦ؤȯŸΤ褦ˤơʸ϶ŪʥΤݷʸüȯΥΤɽ魯ñǸƾΤ졤Ƭβ˻ä
ࡦե٥åȤεϤƤʾΤ褦Τ¤1930ǯθȾʹߤ˰ФƤμԤ1 Hans Bauer ϡ̾ΤδطϸդǤƤ롥 (40--41) Ѥ롥
ˤС奻൭賨ɽ路ƤȤ졤‘āleph ϵƬbēth ϲȤηȤ褦ˡ٤ƤεϤʪηƤȹͤƤ롥εϡ貴γʸǤ뤫 ‘āleph ᤹̿̾٤ǤʤǤդ˺Ѥ椬η˻Ƥ뤿ˡˤʤäƥץȤΥեˡθŬѤ ‘āleph ʲˤȸƤޤǤΤȤǤ롥ξ粿֤̾ϿդǤ롥λƸѡABCܡפʤɤϡ㤨СO Orange ǤäS Swan Ǥä B Butterfly ǤäפʤɤȤˡʸηȤʸǻϤޤʪηȤˤäơʸε롥ξO Olive ǤäS Serpent ǤäB Bee ǤäפȤƤˤޤʤʸ̾ϡ롼ʸʤɤ̾Ʊͤˡñ˵ؤΤդ mnemonic name Ǥ롥
ǤϤ뤬mnemonic name ٻؼԤ¿褦Τ˦θֲȡפ˸뤫ȤСϤʤϤʤ뤫餽ƤȤΤȤ⤷ʤ
ˤ "alpha", "beta" ʤɤθƾΤϥꥷե٥åȤؼѤ졤ƥФơѸؤ alphabet ȤȤƼޤ줿ʤ顤alphabet Ȥͳϡalpha + beta Ǥ (Gk alphábētos, LL alphabētum, ME alphabete) ѸǤνФ Polychronicon (?a1425) ʸηϤκǽοʸäʸ켰ɽ魯 alphabet Τۤ롼ʸ fuþarkʡ#1006. 롼ʸѼ ([2012-01-28-1]) ȡˤܸΡ֤ϡפ⤢ʡ#1008. ֤ϡפ ABC ([2012-01-30-1]) ȡˡ
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
ޤGreek alphabet 24ΰǤ褦ճΤˤΤʤѸǤȯץå̾ΤỌ̇̄ˤĤƤϡ (22) ȥ (116--19) Ȥ
| ʸ | ʸ | ̾ | Ѹ̾ | Ѹȯ | ̾ | ̣ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | ե | alpha | /ˈælfə/ | aleph | "ox" | ||
| 2 | ١ | beta | /ˈbeɪtə, ˈbiːtə/ | bet | "house" | ||
| 3 | gamma | /ˈgæmə/ | gaml | "camel" | |||
| 4 | ǥ륿 | delta | /ˈdɛltə/ | delt | "door" | ||
| 5 | ץ | epsilon | /ˈɛpsəˌlɑn/ | hé | ? | ||
| 6 | zeta | /ˈzeɪtə, ˈziːtə/ | zai | "weapon"? | |||
| 7 | eta | /ˈeɪtə, ˈiːtə/ | hét | "fence"? | |||
| 8 | ơ | theta | /ˈθeɪtə, ˈθiːtə/ | tét | ? | ||
| 9 | iota | /aɪˈoʊtə/ | yod | "hand" | |||
| 10 | å | kappa | /ˈkæpə/ | kaf | "bend hand" | ||
| 11 | lambda | /ˈlæmdə/ | lamd | "ox-goad"; "rod of teacher" | |||
| 12 | ߥ塼 | mu | /mjuː/ | mém | "water" | ||
| 13 | ˥塼 | nu | /njuː/ | nun | "fish"; "serpent" | ||
| 14 | xi | /(k)saɪ, (g)zaɪ/ | |||||
| 15 | ߥ | omicron | /ˈɑməˌkrɑn/ | ‘ain | "eye" | ||
| 16 | ѥ | pi | /paɪ/ | ||||
| 17 | rho | /roʊ/ | rosh | "head" | |||
| 18 | , ς | sigma | /ˈsɪgmə/ | ||||
| 19 | tau | /taʊ/ | tau | "mark" | |||
| 20 | ץ | upsilon | /ˈjuːpsəˌlɑn/ | wau | "peg", "hook" | ||
| 21 | ե | phi | /faɪ/ | pé | "mouth" | ||
| 22 | chi | /kaɪ/ | |||||
| 23 | ץ | psi | /(p)saɪ/ | ||||
| 24 | ᥬ | omega | /ˌoʊˈmeɪgə, ˌoʊˈmiːgə/ |
εǡޥե٥åȤΤĤʸ̾ΤˤĤˤʺε#1830. Y ̾Ρ ([2014-05-01-1]) ȡˤȡˡġʸˤĤƸ٤ȤϤ뤬ϻҲ˴ؤ濴äʤʲ (83--85) ˰͵롥
ѸΥե٥å26ʸΤ첻 <a, e, i, o, u> 21ҲǤ롥Ҳ̾ΤϤĤ㳰λҲβ [iː] ³륰롼 (Class I) ȡ[ɛ] Ԥ륰롼 (Class II) Ȥʬ롥
Class I: <b, c, d, g, p, t, v, z>
Class II<f, l, m, n, s, x>
ʬۤˤϡŪʲȤ櫓ҲˤĤƤϥƥʤʸˤ̤äƥȥꥢˤβռɬפ롥Class I κǽ6ϥƥ [b, k, d, g, p, t] б롥줾˸³Ĺ첻 [iː] ϡ[eː] 첻ܤˤꡤ夲Ф̤Ǥ롥Class II λҲϥƥη³뤤ʣҲ [f, l, m, n, s, ks] б롥Class I <v> <z> ǤϤʤ餯 [ɛv], [ɛz] ȸƤǤޤȡб̵Ҳ <f> [ɛf], <s> [ɛs] ȯ̤ĤˤʤȤͳäΤǤϤʤ
ĴŪ Class I II ʬۤ褦ȤȡΤ褦ˤʤ桤p. 84ˡ
ҲʸˤĤơ³ˤ e Ԥˤ e ³ݤϡIsaac Taylor 褦ˡŪį뤳ȤǤ褦㤨Сfe ef Ȥ䤵eb be Ȥ䤵Ϸ³ȯݤˤȯﴱϴˤĺ줺©ϳ졤äơҲʹ첻̵ռ˺롥ˤꡤfe ã˼ºݾ ef 롥ȿơξˤĺϴǤꡤƳԤʤռŪϤʤ첻롥ˤꡤb e Ԥ뤳Ȥ餫ϤɬפȤ뤬b ϡe ˸³뤳Ȥʤȯ뤳ȤϤǤʤСֺǾϤˡ§ ('law of least effort') 첻³Ԥ˸³뤳Ȥ᤹롥ơξ硤Ǥưפ첻Ū e Ǥ롥
̣ǤϤ롥Ϣơ#1141. ʤ mama papa ʤΤ (2) ([2012-06-11-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
<j> ̾ [ʤeɪ] ˤĤƤϡ#1828. j ʸȲбˤĤƺˬ ([2014-04-29-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤɤʤ <k> ̾ [keɪ] ˤʤäΤȤ뤬[keɪ] ΤϤʤ첻ȼäƤΤϡ#1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1]) Ǽ褦ˡȥꥢƥˤ [k] ɽ³첻˱ <c>, <k>, <qu> δ֤ѰۤƤȤƶƤ롥[i, e] ʤ첻³Ȥˤ <c> Ф졤[a] 첻³Ȥˤ <k> Ф졤[u, o] ʤɸ첻³Ȥˤ <q> Ф줿ηϱѸޤνˤ¿쾯ʤѤƤꡤѸγʸθƾΤˤŪȿǤƤ롥ʤ<c> = [siː] ϥƥ <c> = [keː] ȯŸ<k> = [keɪ] ϥƥ <k> = [kaː] ȯŸ<q> = [kjuː] ϥƥ <q> = [kuː] ȯŸ첻֤ˤ [k] > [s] βȯãˤĤƤϡƥ줫ťեФƱѸ⤽αƶä[kj] > [tj] > [ʧ] > [ʦ] > [s] ηϩɤä
Ǹ <r> ̾ [ɑː] (AmE [ɑr]) ˤĤơ[r] Ϸ³Ȥ Class II °ƤꡤƥǤϾʤȤ4ʹߤ [ɛr] Τ褦ɤޤƤѸ [er] > [ar] Ѳ sterre > star, ferre > far ʤ¿θΤȼäơʸɤߤ [ar] ؤѲʴϢơ#179. person parson ([2009-10-23-1]) ȡ#186. clerk cleric ([2009-10-30-1]) ȡˡθ塤18ޤǤ [ar] > [ær] > [æːr] > [ɑː] ȵ§Ѳơߤ˻桤pp. 157--58ˡ
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
#1825. <F> εȯŸ ([2014-04-26-1]) εǿ줿褦ˡ <F>, <U>, <V>, <W>, <Y> Ϥ٤ƥࡦե٥åȤ wāu ˵ĻʸǤ롥ƥ줫Ѹޤ¿θǤϡ<y> Ϥ줬ɽ魯椨 <i> ȷӤĤ뤳Ȥ¿षŪˤ <u> ȱ郎<Y> <U> ᤷʸǤ뤳Ȥϡꥷե٥åȤ20 upsilon ʸʸԤǤ뤳Ȥ⸫Ƽ뤳ȤǤ뤷űѸ <u> = /u/ 饦Ȳ߿첻 /y/ ɽ魯Τ <y> äƤȤΤ롥űѸǤϡ/y/ α߿ /i/ Ȥʤäᡤ<y> Ϥष <i> ȷӤĤ褦ˤʤä
<Y> <U> ζᤵ⤦1ĤϡY ̾ΤΤʤ˱Ƥ뤫⤷ʤѸ Y [waɪ] ȸƤФͳˤĤϤʤJespersen ˤС <Y> λ <U> β <I> äǤȤȴط롥[uiː] [wiː] Ȥʤꡤ첻ܤˤ [waɪ] ѲȤ桤pp. 183--84ˡ
OED ˤȡʸȯˤĤƤκǽθڤϡ1200ǯ˽줿 Ormulum l. 4320 ˤ IESOYS 5ʸܤξ˸ ƿı Ǥ롥1513ǯˤϡG. Douglas Virgil Æneid vii. Prol. 120 ˡ"Palamedes byrdis crouping in the sky, Fleand on randoune schapin lik ane Y." Ȥߤ롥ޤ16ȾˤϡΤʵҤߤ롥
1573 J. Baret Aluearie, Y hath bene taken for a greeke vowel among our latin Grammarians a great while, which me thinke if we marke well we shall finde to be rather a diphthong: for it appeareth to be compounded of u and i, which both spelled togither soundeth as we write Wy.
1580 W. Bullokar Bk. Amendm. Orthogr. 8 The olde name of :y: (which is wy).
ϢơH ̾ΤˤĤƤϡ#488. ȯɤΰ ([2010-08-28-1]) J ̾ΤˤĤƤϡ#1828. j ʸȲбˤĤƺˬ ([2014-04-29-1]) Z ̾ΤˤĤƤϡ#964. z ʸȯ (1) ([2011-12-17-1]) ӡ#965. z ʸȯ (2) ([2011-12-18-1]) ȡ
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
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