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2015-08-31 Mon

#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã [tense][future][auxiliary_verb][category][grammaticalisation][bleaching]

Ѹˤ̤ȯãˤĤơ#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1]) εڤӴŪˡ#2209. ĸˤư̤ޡ ([2015-05-15-1]) εǼ夲will, shall ѤṲ̄ɽޤ졤ijΩȤϡѸˤνװƷ1ĤǤ뤬Ȥδ֤͡ʵ롥ϢơѸ̤¸ߤΤȤʸˡ (category) ˴ؤ礭⤢ꡤɴĤǤ롥
̻ŪķŪʴϡ̤ȤưζޤΤ⺣¸ߤ丽߷ΤˤȤ٤ˤȤ٤٤ʤȤ롥ȤʸˡƤߤ˷ŪӤ뿶񤤤򼨤ʤФʤʤȤޤ꤬櫓ǤʤŪĵǽŪʴ餹СѸ will, shall Ǽ̤ϡʤƤ߻Ӥ1ĤǤȤǧƤ褤褦˹ͤƤ롥°桦 (171) ⼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤꡤѸˤ̤ꤷƤ롥

Ѹˤϸ̤λɽϤʤOE ˤƤϸ߻äɽƤPE Ǥϡshall (should) or will (would) + פη̤ɽȤѤ졤 future tense ȸƤǤ롥shall, will ϸߤǤϤθ򼺤ޤäñ̤ɽΤѤ⤢ΤǡñʤǧᡤȤη future tense ȸƤ֤ȤϺ٤ʤ褬üԤοŪ٤򼨤ΤѤ줿ưǤꡤߤǤ⤷Ф̤ʳΰ̣Ѥ롥


Ǥϡ will, shall ѤṲ̄ȳΩλϤĤʤΤ̤ˤϤ˨ϸűѸˤߤȸ롥will, shall ʸ̮ˤơˡŪʰ̣ᡤñ̤ɽ魯˻äȽǤǤűѸ㤬ʤʤŦƤ (Mustanoja 489) ̣ɺ (bleaching) ιǤꡤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ŵǤ⤢롥κǽϡθԤˤʸ̮̯ȽǤ˰ѤͤƤꡤλҴŪ˷ꤹ뤳ȤưפǤϤʤѸ줫Ǥ顤¿ξ硤ˡŪʰ̣ɤ߼Ȥɤ߼뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥
ѸȡʤȤñ̤θȤ will, shall 㤬Ƥ뤳Ȥ顤褽̻ŪŸϿ䤷̤뤳ȤǤ롥Mustanoja (490) ˤСѸǤ shall Τ̤ۤνưǤꡤwill ϤޤˡŪʰ̣魯¿äʤ will, shall ο;ΤˤȤʬϤȤƸФΤϡ#451. shall will λȤʬ˴ؤ The Wallis Rules ([2010-07-22-1]) ǿ줿褦17ΤȤºݤˤλȤʬٳΩȤ19ʹߤΤȤǤʰ°桦ġp. 171ˡ

° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2015-08-30 Sun

#2316. "English 3.0" by Joe Gilbert [link][internet][medium][netspeak][speed_of_change][language_change]

ǯ11ΤȤˤʤ뤬Joe Gilbert ˤ20ʬΥɥ󥿥꡼ "English 3.0 on Vimeo" 줿饤ǴվޤǤ롥Tom Chatfield, David Crystal, Robert McCrum, Fiona McPherson, Simon Horobin Ȥä̾Ωбؤˤꡤ󥿡ͥåȻαѸθ⤵롥
netspeak ɽ롤󥿡ͥåȾѤαѸäơ֤ˤ͡ʤȤ館롥ѸϤȤŪʸΩĤ嵭νбԤϸ·ơǤϤʤˤˤƤĤλˤ֤ⷫƤѲˤʤȸڤ롥󥿡ͥåȤоˤѲ®ȤȤ䡤#1664. CMC (computer-mediated communication) ([2013-11-16-1]) Τ褦ʿ (medium) ȤϳΤΤ褦ʤȤ˾¾εѳ׿κݤˤ⤪褽ƤȤǤꡤˤȤ鸫̤ǤϤʤȡ
μĥϡ褽4

(1) 󥿡ͥåȤоˤѲ®Ƥ
(2) 󥿡ͥåȱѸ˸άɽˤѸꤶƤ뤬ºݤˤϱѸ򼨤ڵϤʤ
(3) 礭ʵѳ׿λˤϸ䤹ºݤƤ뤳Ȥϡ˿ʼդäȤȤǤꡤѶŪɾ٤
(4) 塤ŪʵϼȡޤĤĤ꼫ͳʸѤȤΤ襤

⤳μĥˤϤܻۤ롥1ĵˤʤΤϡ(1) θѲβ®ȤˤĤƤǤ롥ƱδѻԤȤơŪˤߤƤѸѲ® (speed_of_change) ȤľϤ뤬Ѳ®٤ȤϤ⤽ɤΤ褦˵ҴŪ˷¬ǤΤʤΤ®٤Ȥñ̻դѲ̤ΤȤǤ뤫顤ޤѲ̤¬뤳ȤǤʤФʤʤǤϡѲ̤¬ȤäȤˡ¬оݤϲˤʤΤѸθѲȰˤäƤ⡤ѸȤñ̤ɤɤޤǤʤΤɸѼ˸¤ΤԥޤǴޤΤҲŪƬˤ꤬뤷ޤѲɶäʤΤʤΤʸˡʤΤȤ⤢롥ˡѲ®٤ޤäƤʤɤȷ뤿ˤϡӤΤ˲ΤĤλˤѲ®٤˳ФƤʤФʤʤ
ƱǤ뤫餳ľäƤϤʤȤΤǤСˤѲβ®Ȥ̿ϡ䤹ȤƼƤϤʤʤΤ⤷ʤƱɥ󥿥꡼Ф Wordorigins.org Υӥ塼Ǥ⡤̤γ٤Ѳ®٤ˤĤȽŪ˹ͻƤΤǡȤ줿

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2015-08-29 Sat

#2315. Ф³줬֤ݤѤ that [conjunction][syntax]

ε#2314. °³Ū that ([2015-08-28-1]) ȴϢꡥߤǤϵ뤤ϸˡif, though, when ʤɤν°³ˤäƳ᤬and ʤɤˤ귫֤ˡ2ܤ³Ȥ that ³ѤȤΤ롥OED that, conj. θ8ˤС"8. Used (like French que) as a substitute instead of repeating a previous conjunction, or conjunctive adverb or phrase. Now rare or arch." Ȥ롥ФϡʲΤȤѸκǽǤ롥

c1175 Lamb. Hom. 17 Þenne were þu wel his freond..Gif þu hine iseȝe þet he wulle asottie to þes deofles hond..þet þu hine lettest, and wiðstewest.


MED Ǥ that (conj.) θ 14(a) ˡ˳"Used as substitute for a conj. or conjunctive phrase in preceding subordinate clause such as if, though, whanne, etc.; -- freq. with and or or" 롥Ѹ줫ȤƤϡ㤨 Chaucer 鼡Τ褦ʤΤ롥

(c1380) Chaucer CT.SN. (Manly-Rickert) G.314: Men sholde hym brennen in a fyr so reed If he were founde or that men myghte him spye.
c1450(c1380) Chaucer HF (Benson-Robinson) 1099: Appollo..make hyt sumwhat agreable, Though som vers fayle in a sillable, And that I do no diligence To shewe craft.


äƤ⤳ˡϷߤǤ롥

1535 Bible (Coverdale) Esther ii. C, She must come vnto the kynge nomore, excepte it pleased the kynge, and that he caused her to be called by name.
1600 Shakespeare Merchant of Venice iv. i. 8 Since he stands obdurate, And that no lawfull meanes can carry me out of his enuies reach. [Also 27 other examples.]
1611 Bible (King James) 1 Chron. xiii. 2 If it seeme good vnto you, and that it be of the Lord our God, let vs send abroad vnto our brethren. [ Coverd. Yf..yf...]


ˡˤĤƤϡٹ (448) ָŤˤϡƱζ礬2İʾ³ȤˤϡФФ2ܰʲʸǤϡƱϢ򤯤֤ˡthat ѤפȿƤꡤϤ Shakespeare ʸƤ롥
that ³ŪˡȯãԻ׵ĤǤϤʤεǤߤ褦ˡѸǤ that ϵŪ¾³˸³when that if that ʤɤѤ졤³줬°³Ǥ뤳Ȥ뵡ǽäƤѤν°ޡä櫓Ʊν°᤬֤ݤˤϡ2ܤ³ϵǽŪˤŪˤ̤ʶĴɬפȤʤᡤthat ٤ηڤΤФ줿Τ
OED ˤڤ褦ˡե󥹸 que ƱˡȯãƤꡤ°³ comme, quand, lorsque, puisque, si, comme si, afin que, après que, avant que, bien que, pour que, quoique ʤɤѤȤ̤˸롥ʲʸ򻲾ȡ

Comme il était tard et qu'elle était fatiguée, elle a renoncé à sortir.
Si tu le rencontres et qu'il soit de bonne humeur, annonce-lui cette nouvelle.


ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-08-1]

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2015-08-28 Fri

#2314. °³ȤƤ that [conjunction][syntax][relative_pronoun][interrogative_pronoun][expletive]

Ѹȯãˡ1Ĥˡɸεǽä "expletive that" (or "pleonastic that") 롥Ѥν°ޡȤƵǽ that ˡǤꡤñΤǽ°³ȤƵǽˤղäñΤǤϤΤ褦˵ǽǤʤäֻʤɤղäƤ°³첽ƯäƤŪˤϡafter that, as that, because that, by that, ere that, for that, forto that, if that, lest that, now that, only that, though that, till that, until that, when that, where that, whether that, while that Ǥ롥
űѸǤ⾮ þe б뵡ǽ򼨤Ƥ嵭Τ褦¿θղäȯŪ򼨤ΤϡѸˤ뤽θѤȤ⤤٤ that Ǥ롥MED Ǥϡ¾ˡ that ȶ̤ that (particle) ȤƸФΩƤƤꡤ͡ʼθȷ礷㤬Ӥ󤲤Ƥ롥Ǥ󤲤뤳ȤϤThe Canterbury Tales The General Prologue Ƭ1 "Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote" ˿ƤˤȤɤ᤿
ơ that ȸƤ¿ʬ˸λθƾΤǤ롥if when ʤŪʽ°³˴ؤƤϡղä줿 that ѸǤΤ˵ȤߤʤȤǤŪˤϽ°ޡȤƤ that ղäƤϤƽ°ȤƵǽ褦ˤʤä ere that while that ʤɤˤƤϡ that ϵʤɤǤϤʤŪʵǽ˲̤ƤȤˤʤ롥θ塤ere while ñȤǽ°³ȤѤ褦ˤʤ˵ڤǡthat ȤƺƲᤵ줿ȹͤ٤ߡֻȤη15 in that that βͤĤƤ롥
Ǽ夲ΤϤ (Mustanoja 423--24) 13--15ˤ that طȤ߹蘆äˤ˸롥"what man þat þe wedde schal . . . Loke þu him bowe and love" (Good Wife 23, cited from Mustanoja 193) "Euery wyght wheche þat to rome wente." (Chaucer Troilus & Criseyde ii. Prol. 36, cited from OED) तǤ롥
Ѹˤ뤳ε that ˤĤƤϡMustanoja (192--93, 423--24) ڤ OED that, conj. θ6--7򻲾Ȥ줿

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2015-08-27 Thu

#2313. ;̾ȤƤ thou [personal_pronoun][pragmatics][indefinite_pronoun][pronoun][generic]

#2248. ;̾ȤƤ you ([2015-06-23-1]) Ǽ夲ȴϢơŤ2;ñ̾ thou ΰŪʿͤؼˡȯãΤϤĤȤ夲롥εǤ⿨줿褦ˡOED Ǥ thou ˤĤƤΤ褦ʸʬबʤƤ餺ΤʤȤϸʤMED Ǥ͡ʸ󤵤Ƥ롥ǤŤȤƵ󤲤ƤΤϡűѸȤäƤ褤ʸǤ롥a1150 (OE) Vsp.D.Hom. (Vsp D.14) 3/18: Þonne þu oðerne mann tæle, þonne geðænc þu þæt nan man nis lehterleas.
ۤƱ餤ᤤȤơ?a1160 Peterb. Chron. (LdMisc 636) an. 1137: Hi..brendon alle the tunes ðæt wel þu myhtes faren all a dæis fare sculdest thu neure finden man in tune sittende ne land tiled. 󤲤Ƥ뤬ʸĤƤϡŤʸ Koziol (173) ڤƤ롥

Die Bedeutung des thou in Sprichwörtern und allgemeinen Regeln kommt einem »man« zumindest sehr nahe; es wendet sich nicht an einen bestimmten Menschen, sondern an jeden. Im Neuenglischen ist ja der entsprechende Gebrauch von you (oder they) sehr häufig. Daß früher thou die gleiche allgemeine Bedeutung haben konnte, geht aus Stellen wie der folgenden aus der Sachsenchronik 1137 hervor: hi . . . brendon alle the tunes, đ wel þu myhtes faren al a dæis fare, sculdest thu neure finden man in tune sittende. N. Bøgholm führt außer diesem noch ein Beispiel aus altenglischer Zeit an. Das OED verzeichnet diesen Gebrauch nicht.


ΰѤˤС˸űѸ줫㤬ꤽȤȤ2;̾ؤ̿;ΤؤˡγĥϸŪˤǤϤʤäȤǤϤʤƱĥ˻˵äƤȤǽ餢ʸŪˤϡ㤬Ĥɤʸڤ줿ΤȤȤˤʤ롥ƱˡεȯãϻĤ뤬ߤ̤Ѥ2;̾;Τɽ魯ˡ٤ѤäȤƤűѸ줫ѸˤƤλˤǤ˳ǧ줿Ȥ¤ˡˤĹȸŪΰüߤ뤳ȤǤ롥

H. Koziol, "Die Anredeform bei Chaucer." Englische Studien 75 (1942): 170--74.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-06-24-1]

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2015-08-26 Wed

#2312. Ūɽܻؤֻפ [spelling_reform][spelling_pronunciation_gap][spelling][grapheme][grammatology][alphabet][writing][medium]

Roman alphabet ȤɽʸѤѸˤäơϢʤ³Ƥֻפˤϡ֤ȤȤЪΥƤֻȯδط򡤤̩ʴطؤȲ褦Ȥߤäȸ뤳ȤǤ롥ɸΤ褦ˡ긷̩ʲŪɽؤܶᡤɽƤ褤
ֻפϱѸ "spelling_reform" ȸƤФ뤬reform Ȥˤ "change that is made to a social system, an organization, etc. in order to improve or correct it" (OALD8) Ǥ뤫ָäΤפȤްդĤޤꡤֻפˤǡǤ˴¸ֻηϤָäƤפȤʤȤⲿۤɤްդƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ǤϡʤǸäƤΤۤȤɾ̤ˤΤϡֻɽݤƤʤȤºݤΤȤѸֻϡʲεǤ⸫ƤȤꡤɽŪɽŪˤʤȵ뤳ȤǤΤǤꡤŪɽŪʤϼ夤

#1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1])
#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])
#2043. Ѹֻɽַǡ ([2014-11-30-1])
#2058. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (1) ([2014-12-15-1])
#2059. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (2) ([2014-12-16-1])
#2097. ɽʸƱֻ֡ȯ ([2015-01-23-1])

ɽŪɽȤϡ⤽ʤΤʴŵȤɽŪɽϡۤɰʤΤˤĤơ°桦 (92) λŦŪΤǤ롥

ĤŤɤȤŻϡפˡ֤äȲŪɽؤβɡפȤȤˡۤʤʤǤ˲ŪǤˡǺɤΤΤǤ뤫Ȥȡξ⡤줬쳵ˤ褤Ȥ⤤ʤΤǤ롥äˡ񵭸ʰ켡ŪΰĤȹͤΩ줫餹С񵭸ϸ첻褯ɽƤʤФʤʤʤȤȤʤʤäƤά͡Ѹˤ衤ܸˤ衤ŪɽǤС˺ɤɽˡǤȤͤϽ٤Ǥ롥


ѤǿƤ褦ˡ񵭸ΩȤŪ⡤碌ƹθ٤writing Ȥ medium ΩˤĤƤϡ#1665. äȤФȽ񤭤Ȥ (4) ([2013-11-17-1])#1829. 񤭸եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1]) ʤɤε򻲾Ȥ줿

° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-12-04-1] [2015-09-23-1]

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2015-08-25 Tue

#2311. Tristan da Cunha [enl][world_englishes][map][geography][demography][statistics][lesser-know_varieties]

#2305. Ѹ25Ͽޡ ([2015-08-19-1]) 11ܤȤƵ󤲤Ƥ Tristan da Cunha ˤĤդä롥Tristan da Cunha ϡեꥫꥫΦΤɤ餫Υ줿䳤θ硥եꥫ2400ꥫ3360ΥƤ롥6Ĥξ礫ʤꡤͭ Tristan da Cunha Gough Island 2ĤΤߤǤ롥ηϡ1506ǯ˥ݥȥͤγ Tristão da Cunha ˤäȯ줿17ʹߡ٤ˤ錄ä꽻λߤäԤΤ1816ǯΥꥹַˤΤǤ롥St. Helena ήˤ줿ʥݥ쥪ε߽Ф˻ߤ뤿ʼȤ롥1816ǯ˱ѹΤȤʻ礵줿1817ǯ˷űषʹߤϡ˻ĤäμԤȡˤ衼åѿͤɺήԤ̱͸ΤۤȤɤǤä1886ǯˤ97ͤȤ𤬤롥1938ǯˤ St. Helena ݸΤȤʤä2009ǯˤϰ̤ϲä졤ѹ񳤳 St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ΰȤʤäƤ롥2015ǯߡ͸259ͤǤꡤΤۤȤȤѸȤ ENL ϰǤ롥

Map of Tristan da Cunha

ʲϢ볰󥯤ĥäƤ

Website of the Tristan da Cunha Government and Tristan Association
Wikipedia ˤ Tristan da Cunha ε
BBC ˤ St Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha profiles
CIA: The World Factbook ˤ Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha
Edgar Allan Poe ˤ The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1838) Chapter 15 ˡTristan da Cunha ŪŪʾܤҤ롥

ʤSt. Helena ˤĤƤϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ǤڤƤ롥

ʸ嵭2015/09/01(Tue) McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992. "TRISTAN DA CUNHA" (1056) ι⻲ȡαѸѼϡHighland English ƱħͭȹͤƤ롥

McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-04-22-1]

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2015-08-24 Mon

#2310. 3ñΥ [3sp][3pp][verb][paradigm][conjugation][inflection][contact][do-periphrasis][lmode]

Ѹ˾3ñ -s 3ʣ -s ˤĤơ3sp 3pp ¿εǤ줾ƤǡޤΩʤ3ñΥȤ꤬롥褯ΤƤΤϡ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1])#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1]) Ǽ夲褦 AAVE Ǥ -s æȤݤ뤷󥰥ɤǤ East Anglia ߻Υѥˤƿ;Ρˤ餺¤ߥȤȤ㤬롥
Wright (119) ˤ3ñΥ˴ؤˤγάˤСEast Anglia ˤ3ñΥε15ˤΤܤꡤŪʲˤС¾ο;θΥ3ñŪ˳ĥΤȤ뤬ܿαƶǤϤʤȤ⤢롥16ȾޤǤˤϡNorfolk β²41--77%ȤΨ -th ˥ѤƤȤ𤬤ꡤEast Midland Ϥθ3ñΥ򼨤濴ϤǤ³Ƥ롥Helsinki Corpus ĴˤСŪˤߤ3ñΥ2%Ȥ㤤Ψʤ East Anglia ˸¤餺ʬۤƤΤ¤ǤꡤŤѸʸˤƤޤ˽в񤦤ȤϤ롥
Wright κǿʸϡ19Ⱦ West Oxfordshire пȤΤ뽾ͤˤ򥳡ѥȤĴ21%Ȥͽ۰ʾι⤤Ψ3ñΥѤƤ뤳Ȥͤߤ᤿Wright ϡEast Anglia ȤŪˤΥ줿ϰǡ餯λ˸ꤷơ3ñΥʬۤƤΤǤϤʤȿ¬ޤΰŪʬۤϡľ do ˡ (do-periphrasis) षľɸŪ -s 礷Ƥäޤ˰ܹԴκˤߤ줿ĤʤŪʬۤȷŤ
Wright εϹäƤ뤬ʤȤѸΤϤ¤ꡤ˱͡ʥѥबƤϾäƤäȤϳΤǤꡤ19Ⱦ West Oxfordshire ˸Ū˾嵭Τ褦ʾäȤƤ⡤äˤϤʤ

Wright, Laura. "Some More on the History of Present-Tense -s, do and Zero: West Oxfordshire, 1837." Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics 1.1 (2015): 111--30.

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2015-08-23 Sun

#2309. ưο;θε [category][person][verb][inflection][personal_pronoun][agreement][linguistic_relativism]

ܥ֥Ǥ3ñ -s (3sp) 3ʣ -s (3pp) ۤѸˤˤưο;θ˴ؤ¿夲Ƥ; (person) Ȥʸˡ (category) ¿θ²˳ǧ졤ѸޤˤƤ⸲ƤȤʤäƤ롥⤽ˤƿ;Τưζ޸ˤɸȤεϲäΤο;Τư줬פʤФʤʤȤϤɤ褿Τ
ˤĤơӸؤǤ͡ʵ깭Ƥ褦ʬŪȤ1 Szemerényi (329) ˤС12;θˤĤƤϡб;̾η֤ޤƤȹͤƺ٤ʤȤ

The question of the origin of the personal endings has always aroused much greater interest. Since Bopp's earliest writings, indeed since the eighteenth century, it has been usual to find in the personal endings the personal pronouns. In spite of frequent dissent this theory is universally accepted; it is, however, also valid for the 1st pl., where the original form of the pronoun was *mes . . ., and for the 1st dual, whose ending -we(s) similarly contains the pronoun. And the principle must be expected to operate in the 2nd person also. This is suggest by many other language families. . . .


3;ΤˤĤƤϡ12;ΤƱͤͿ뤳ȤϤǤñˤäƤϻؼ *so/*to ͳ褷ʣˤäƤư̾ȴطʣʻ褹Ȥ (Szemerényi 330) 줬¤ȤȡŤΰĸüԤϡ12;Τʡֿ;ΡפȤߤơ3;Τ;ΡפȤߤƤΤ⤷ʤȿǤƤѡʤȶ޸ʬۡˤϸΰ¿˺פĤƤꡤ޸षѸˤ顤3ñ -s ȤƤäƤ롥
Ǥϡ⤽ˤƿ;ΤȤʸˡƤΤϰ̤ۤƤΤϤʤȤΤϡ¾¿θǤϡ;ΤȤʸˡƤϤ̣⤿ʤ㤨СܸǤϷƻˡˤ;¤ʤɤȤʤ٤ǤꡤƤȤƤο;Τ¸ߴפ;ΤȤѸλؤΤäܶ򤹤СäΤȤƤΡֻפȡäʹƤ֤ʤפȡȤʤꤦ֤ʳפΰڤǺȤ̤븶ˤۤʤʤ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) ѸǤСäʡ1;Ρˡʹʡ2;Ρˡʪݡʡ3;ΡˤȤʬǤ롥餬ŪʹǤΤ3ĤǤȤȤǤСʤ⡤ζʬɤٳΤʸˡƤȤɸ뤫̤ȤơδŪѤ񤷤ƤϤǤ롥ĸϡŪϤäɸ륿פθäΤ
ʤεϡθ (linguistic universal) ȤǤ롥ܸüԤȤƤϡ;ΤȤʸˡƤľŪˤ褯ʬʤΤ¤Ǥ뤫顤 (linguistic_relativism) Ȥ򤷤⤹롥

Szemerényi, Oswald J. L. Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Trans. from Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft. 4th ed. 1990. Oxford: OUP, 1996.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-11-05-1] [2018-10-20-1]

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2015-08-22 Sat

#2308. Ʒϼºߤݤ (3) [reconstruction][comparative_linguistics]

#862. Ʒϼºߤݤ (1) ([2011-09-06-1])#863. Ʒϼºߤݤ (2) ([2011-09-07-1])#2120. ƷϵǤ ([2015-02-15-1]) Ǽ夲ƤƤӡŪ˺Ʒ줿֤ºߤΤȤߤ realist ȡ黻Ȥߤʤ formulist δ֤Ƿ깭ƤůŪϡ餯褵뤳ȤϤʤȻפ롥
ӸؼԤȤϤ줾ȸäƤ˰㤤ʤƻȤǤϤʤΤΡ̤ξΩäƻŻ򤷤Ƥ¿Ρˡ˸ؼԤϡˤĤơɤΤ褦򤷤ƤΤ󥱡Ȥä櫓ǤϤʤŪˤСȤʤ realist ȤäȤŶƤꡤů˼ͤùޤʤȤΤȾǤϤʤΤ褦ʤȤפäƤޤˡMallory and Adams λ褦ɾߤĤΤǡҲ𤷤Ƥ

There are those who argue that we are not really engaged in 'reconstructing' a past language but rather creating abstract formulas that describe the systematic relationship between sounds in the daughter languages. Others argue that our reconstructions are vague approximations of the proto-language; they can never be exact because the proto-language itself should have had different dialects (yet we reconstruct only single proto-forms) and our reconstructions are not set to any specific time. Finally, there are those who have expressed some statistical confidence in the method of reconstruction. Robert Hall, for example, claimed that when examining a test control case, reconstructing proto-Romance from the Romance languages (and obviously knowing beforehand what its ancestor, Latin, looked like), he could reconstruct the phonology at 95 per cent confidence, and the grammar at 80 per cent. Obviously, with the much greater time depth of Proto-Indo-European, we might well wonder how much our confidence is likely to decrease. Most historical linguists today would probably argue that reconstruction results in approximations. A time traveller, armed with this book and seeking to make him- or herself understood would probably engender frequent moments of puzzlement, not a little laughter, but occasional instances of lucidity.


Фºߤȸڤ뺬ϤʤȤäƤäŪ˺ƷΤºߤŪʵȤߤʤΤ⡤ҤͤƤ뵤롥ȤȤǡΰոȤƤϡŪʼº߷Ȥ򤷤ƤΤȤȤ夯ΤȻפ롥ŪȤäƤ⡤ɤ٤ζʤΤۣǤ롥ǡΰѤ̾εäƤ Robert Hall ޥ󥹽ȥƥΥߥ졼ǽФ̤̣95%ʸˡ80%ο٤äơֺƷפǤȤ
Τ褦ʿͤϡ褹Ȥϡष̤߽ФΤǤϤ뤬ǤȾƤֲȤʤŪ realפȤݤФơҴŪ١ʤ1ˤ򼨤ƤƤɾ٤ƷϽ formula ǤϤʤ٤ real 餷Ƥ褤ȹͤ뺬ͿƤ롥

Mallory, J. P. and D. Q. Adams. The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-04-24-1]

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2015-08-21 Fri

#2307. ֻ; (2) [spelling][redundancy][statistics][information_theory][alphabet][final_e][silent_letter]

#2249. ֻ; ([2015-06-24-1]) Ǽ夲ꡥ̤δѸֻ;ͤƤߤ褦
Roman alphabet Τ褦ñʸηϤˤäƤϡ1ʸ1ǤбΤŪ˾ޤŪŪ¾λǡۤϤޤ¸ʤȤäƤ褤¤ۤ11æƤΤǤϡŪˤϤɤٰæƤΤ
ǡ#1159. MRC Psycholinguistic Database Search ([2012-06-29-1]) ѤơʸȲǤбٹ礤򤪤褽¬Ƥߤ뤳ȤǤ롥⤷̤ñʸηϤǤСñֻʸȡȯ벻ǿϰפѸäñˤĤơʸȲǿᡤΤʿͤʤɤͤФСŪʻɸϤֻ;Ū (redundancy) ǤȤȤϤޤǤεͽۤȤǤϤ뤬Ūˡʸвǿϡ2:1 ٤ʤΤ 3:1 ٤ʤΤɤʤΤ
ޤϡMRC Psycholinguistic Database Search ʲΤ褦˸ơñ줴ȤΡʸǿξԤʡ;λɸˤΰSQLʸ where ʲϡӽ뤿ξˡ

select WORD, NLET, NPHON, NLET/NPHON as REDUNDANCY, PHON from mrc2 where NPHON != "00" and WORD != "" and PHON != "";



ΰȤˡƼͤ׻Ф褤ʸȲǿʿͤϡ1.192025 ä0.2ߤˤȤäٿʬۿޤ򼨤

Letter-Phoneme Ratio in Words

ʸ̤ʿͤȤäƤߤȡ̣Ȥ3ʸʲñǤ; 1.166174 ˤȤɤޤꡤΤʿͤ꾮ʤ롥4ʸ7ʸޤǤñǤʿѤ⤤ 1.231737 Ȥͤ򼨤8ʸʾˤʤȺƤ;Ͼʤꡤ1.157689 Ȥʤ롥ʸǿ٤Ĺñ;⤯ûñĹñǤϤषŪ;㤤褦ͳˤĤƤϾܤʬϤƤʤ#1160. MRC Psychological Database Ƽפв ([2012-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡñǺǤ¿8ʸ6ǤǤȤȤ䡤final_e ϤȤۻ (silent_letter) ʬۤȲ餫δط뤫⤷ʤ
ơΤʿ 1.192025 Ǽ;٤ɤ줯餤ΤΤʤΤۤоݤʤΤɾˤˤŪˤۤ 1.0 Ƴȳ֤äƤʤʤȤݤǤ롥ñˤʸȲǤδطϡ#2292. ֻȯϥפǤĤʤ줿2ۤΥܡȡ ([2015-08-06-1]) ȤǤС褯ĥ줿ûΥפǷФ줿طȤ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
οͤˤĤդ٤ϡñˤʸȲǤбĤҤȤľȤ餷碌ƤϤФΤǤϤʤϤäʣбϤξԤδط򡤤줾ĹȤͤȤäΤˤʤȤȤǽŪ˵᤿ֻ;ΤΤǤϤʤ򤢤鼨ɸȤäۤ褤Ǥ⡤ܰ¤Ȥʤˤϰ㤤ʤ

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2015-08-20 Thu

#2306. ʰ鹧ˡرѸγǡ٤ȱѸȽ [review][linguistic_imperialism][hel][hel_education]

6˽Ǥ줿ɸο񤬤褯ɤޤƤ褦Ǥƴ֤ʤ˽ŹʿѤߤˤʤäƤȤɤǤߤǤбѸȽνǤ롥μνʪˤԤΥǥ̤˽ФƤꡤĩȯŪǡǡˤޤɸ崶ĤΤ¿ˤ⤽ο뤬ܼҲαѸˤޤĤ򤦤ޤ󼨤ʤɼԤ褦ȤƤܤͤ롥ԤҤȤǥǤμĥ򹭤뤳Ȥ񤷤Ϫ뤯 (p. 169) ϡƱ͡ˤޤ򴶤ˤϤʤ䡤伫Ȥ⤳ǤϤƱ𤹤ͤǤ롥
ѸεˤϴؿäƤ뤬ˤĤƤϡ§ȤŪʴɬפȻפäƤ롥ͳϡѸ줬ŪˤʤäƤʤȤ館ƤˤΤ϶ʹߤˤˤƤǤꡤλΩäƤ褦ȤƤ⡤򤬼夤Ϥ³ʤȻפرѸγǡ٤ϡܿͤ¿ľŪʱѸѤŦꡤ뤤Ϥ΢򤫤褦ʻ¤˭٤˵󤲡ˤƱѸȽ򷫤깭Ƥ뤬ˤؤθڤϤۤȤɤʤäơȯŪθ̤Ϥ뤫⤷ʤ³Ūʸ̤ϤʤΤǤϤʤȻפ褯ɤޤƤˡǰǤ롥˸ȤƤϤ褤Τ⤷ʤϤѶŪǧᡤɤߤ䤹Ȥ˽ФȤͭյɾ
ܥ֥ǤϡѸ˴Ϣơ#1606. Ѹ캹̡ѸƸ ([2013-09-19-1])#1607. Ѹ춵Ū¦̡ ([2013-09-20-1])#1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ ([2012-04-03-1])#1073. Ѹ줬¾άƤѥ ([2012-04-04-1])#1194. ¼ɤαѸѤȱѸˡ ([2012-08-03-1]) ۤlinguistic_imperialism γƵǿƤϡФơܤޤ᤿ˤơѸˤ⤢ꤨʤȤΩΩäƤ롥ʰμĥ褦ˡܤαѸѤΰŪʥǥեȤֱѸСפǤꡤХ󥹤¦ФäƤȤ¤ʾ塤ХǰƬˡ¦ʸɬפȴ뵡¿ΰ̣Ǥ⡤ˤҤ٤Ȥꡤɤߤ䤹˸򳫤Ȥܽ񤬽Ǥ줿յǧ᤿
ʤѸȽȴϢơѸˤȤʬѸθȱƤ⤫Ӿ夬餻뵮Ťʵ󶡤ƤʬǤ뤳ȤźƤѸθŪѲȸ쳰ŪȯŸؤ֤ȤˤꡤɤѸλ뤤ȿˤѤ䤹Ƥ뤷εݤˤĤƤ⼫ʬʤȽǤ򲼤ȤǤ褦ˤʤ롥

ʰ 鹧رѸγǡ١ĬҡҿĬӡ2015ǯ

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2015-08-19 Wed

#2305. Ѹ25Ͽ [map][link][hel_education]

Ѹˤؤ־ͭѤϿ25ĤǷǺܤƤ륦֥ڡߤĤΤǾҲ𤷤25 maps that explain the English language ǤϡϿޤ޼ɽ魯ȤΤǤѸ˾νפ꤬夲Ƥꡤ줬褽¤٤Ƥ롥25ܤ̾ȴФƤߤ褦

1. Where English comes from
2. Where Indo-European languages are spoken in Europe today
3. The Anglo-Saxon migration
4. The Danelaw
5. The Norman Conquest
6. The Great Vowel Shift
7. The colonization of America
8. Early exploration of Australia
9. Canada
10. English in India
11. Tristan da Cunha
12. Countries with English as the official language
13. Which countries in Europe can speak English
14. Where people read English Wikipedia
15. Where new English words come from
16. How vocabulary changes based on what you're writing
17. Vocabulary of Shakespeare vs. rappers
18. Where English learners speak the language proficiently
19. Scores on the Test of English as a Foreign Language
20. Immigrants to the US are learning English more quickly than previous generations
21. Where Cockneys come from
22. Dialects and accents in Britain
23. North American vowel shift
24. American dialects
25. You guys vs. y'all

ܥ֥Ǥ⤳¿夲ƤΤǡϢ뵭򥭡ɤǸ줿ϿޤɽΤ褦ʻлˤĤƤ⡤ܥ֥ǤѶŪ˷ǺܤƤmap γƵ

Referrer (Inside): [2015-08-25-1]

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2015-08-18 Tue

#2304. űѸ hundseofontig (seventy), hundeahtatig (eighty), etc. (2) [numeral][oe][germanic][bibliography][indo-european][comparative_linguistics]

#2286. űѸ hundseofontig (seventy), hundeahtatig (eighty), etc. ([2015-07-31-1]) ǡ70120ޤǤ10ܿɽˤĤơűѸǤ hund- (hundred) ƬղäȤȤ򸫤طʤˤϡΥޥŪ12ˡȡꥹȶȤȤˤ⤿餵줿ȹͤ10ˡȤξͤȤ𤬤äΤǤϤʤȤ뤬ʤͤꡤξͤޥοηϤˤɤΤ褦ʷ̤ڤܤΤˤĤơŪʤȤ狼ʤ
⤦ܤĴƤߤ褦Ω夬꤫ȤǡˤĤƤʤԸ桤뤤ϾʤȤⲿ餫θڤ뤳ȤΤä줢뤤ϥޥӸؤΩ줫ͤ¿褦ʲϼȤ Hogg and Fulk (189) ˵󤲤Ƥʸ¾񤫤ΤΤޤƤ롥

Bosworth, Joseph, T. Northcote Toller and Alistair Campbell, eds. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Vol. 2: Supplement by T. N. Toller; Vol. 3: Enlarged Addenda and Corrigenda by A. Campbell to the Supplement by T. N. Toller. Oxford: OUP, 1882--98, 1908--21, 1972. (sv hund-)
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Lühr, R. "Die Dekaden '70--120' im Germanischen." Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft 36 (1977). 59--71.
Mengden, F. von. "How Myths Persist: Jacob Grimm, the Long Hundred and Duodecimal Counting." Englische Sprachwissenschaft und Mediävistik: Standpunkte, Perspectiven, neue Wege. Ed. G. Knappe. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2005. 201--21.
Mengden, F. von. "The Peculiarities of the Old English Numeral System." Medieval English and Its Heritage: Structure, Meaning and Mechanisms of Change. Ed. N. Ritt, H. Schendl, C. Dalton-Puffer, and D. Kastovsky. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2006. 125--45.
Mengden, F. von. 2010. Cardinal Numbers: Old English from a Cross-Linguistic Perspective. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. (see pp. 87--94.)
Nielsen, H. F. "The Old English and Germanic Decades." Nordic Conference for English Studies 4. Ed. G. Caie. 2 vols. Copenhagen: Department of English, University of Copenhagen, I, 1990. 105--17.
Voyles, Joseph B. Early Germanic Grammar: Pre-, Proto-, and Post-Germanic Languages. Bingley: Emerald, 2008. (see pp. 245--47.)

Nielsen ʸϡˤ褯ޤȤƤ褦ǤꡤӸؤ Szemerényi Studies in the Indo-European Systems of Numerals (1960) Ǿ˲ŪʸƤȤ
ǤʸʤäΤǡϽ󤲤ˤȤɤƤ

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2015-08-17 Mon

#2303. ѲΥ塼˴ؤ [schedule_of_language_change][language_change][lexical_diffusion][speed_of_change][unidirectionality][methodology][linguistics]

˸ؤ̻ؤʤɸѲ򰷤ΰˤƤ⡤ճʤȤˤλŪ¦̤򰷤ϤۤȯŸƤʤѲʶʤּ˷ѵǤϤ뤬ष椨˻֤ȤȤطʲ졤켫Τؤδؿ餿ʤäΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥󡤸óȻ (lexical_diffusion) Τ褦ʻּŻ뤹ϳȯ줬йƤǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) θѲˤĹ롥ޤ#1872. Constant Rate Hypothesis ([2014-06-12-1]) ʤɤ⡤ѲּˤƹͻƤ롥Ǥ⡤ѲλŪ¦̤ˤĤƤϡޤʬ˿ʤǤȤϸʤ
νפʸơޤȤƤθѲλŪ¦̤ΰڤָѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) ȸƤ֤Ȥˤˤϡactuation, implementation, diffusion ˴ؤ (see #1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1])) 䡤Ѳν® (speed_of_change)ϩ³֡λ˴ؤꡤäˤ餬ɤΤ褦װˤꤵΤȤ䤤ʤɤޤޤƤ롥
Ѥ De Smet (6) ϡѲγȻˤĤŪ˹ͻ˼ָѲΥ塼פν˴ؿ󤻤Ƥ롥

. . . it is important to see that the problem of diachronic diffusion has two sides. On the one hand, we have to explain the phasedness of diffusional change---that is, to explain why diffusional change happens in stages with different environments being affected at different times, and what determines the order in which environments are affected. On the other hand, there is the more intractable question of what drives diffusion---that is, why does diffusion seem to go on and on, and what gives it its unidirectionality?


De Smet λŦ1ϡʤѲγȻʳŪ˿ʹԤʳνƤΤϲʤΤȤΤȤޤȤƤ褤2Ĥϡ⤽ѲγȻưƤΤϲʤΤ˿ʤޤϤϲʤΤȤΤưϤȤäƤ褤 (see #2299. Ȼζư3 ([2015-08-13-1])#2302. ȻŪѲΰ ([2015-08-16-1]))
De Smet ϡʳνȤ̩ܤ˴Ϣϩˤ⿨Ƥ롥"diffusion follows a path of least resistance" (6) ȽҤ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ鼨褦ˡѲηϩװ1ĤȤơŪηϤˤ񹳡ʤ¿ˤǰƬˤƤ뤳ȤϵʤѲΥ塼νˤϡ֤̻֤ΩۤϡꥦΤ褦 "integrated synchrony" ɬפʤΤǤϤʤˤĤƤϡ#2295. Ѳϸξ֤ϳؤǤ ([2015-08-09-1]) ȡĥäε碌ƻȤ줿

De Smet, Hendrik. Spreading Patterns: Diffusional Change in the English System of Complementation. Oxford: OUP, 2013.

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2015-08-16 Sun

#2302. ȻŪѲΰ [lexical_diffusion][language_change][causation][schedule_of_language_change][unidirectionality][drift]

#2299. Ȼζư3 ([2015-08-13-1]) ǰѤ De Smet (3) ϡѲγȻ˷֤2Ĥħ˿Ƥ롥"gradualness" "unidirectionality"

   . . . diffusional changes do have two recurrent characteristics. First, they are gradual and their gradualness is context bound, which means that different environments are affected by change at different times or in a different pace. This context-bound gradualness has been disputed for some changes . . . ; yet in many cases, . . . context-bound gradualness is immediately apparent from the data. While this suggests that gradualness is perhaps more pronounced for some changes than for others, there is no denying that it is a central aspect of some major grammatical developments.
   Second, diffusional changes are unidirectional, in the sense that once an environment has been conquered by change it is not normally yielded back. Unidirectionality here does not mean that diffusion proceeds indefinitely but simply that there is a time window in which distributions can grow continuously, without any serious fallback or fluctuation. This consistency of change sometimes seems natural. For instance, in actualization it might be thought of as a systematic bearing out of the logical consequences of syntactic reanalysis. In grammaticalization, consistent collocational expansion often follows from semantic bleaching. But in other cases, . . . a single straightforward explanation for directionality seems lacking, making the directionality observed all the more mystifying.


De Smet ε󤲤1ĤħѲϴĶȤ˽˳ȻƤȤħϡΤ˼Ƥ褤Aitchison ήˤ "rule generalisation" (95) ˤäơĿʤǤΤŵǤ롥
2ĤħѲΰ (unidirectionality) ˤĤƤϡ٤꤬Ĥ褦˻פ롥ޤDe Smet ѤκǸѲΰ "mystifying" Ǥ뤳ȻŦƤ褦ˡθ餫ˤȤ礭꤬ĤƤ롥ϡSapir drift ήˤͿ "mystical" Ȥɾפ (see #685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]))
ˡѲγȻˤϡܺäƤޤΡ뤤ϰŪǤϤήꡤʤȤ֥졼äꤹ륱뤳ȤǤ롥㤨С伫ȤιԤäѸˤ̾ʣ -s γȻȤǤϡˤưŪй -n δꡤ-s γȻˤϤष֥졼äθ塤-s γȻᤷΤǡǽŪˤϡפȤ뤫⤷ʤŪѲΰƤ褤ΤʤΤƹͤ¥ǤϤ롥
De Smet ⡤Τ褦㳰ˤߤβǽǰƬ֤ʤ顤Ť "unidirectionality" ȤǰƤ褦ǤϤ롥â񤭤1Ĥ "a time window" ¤ϡ줬ԹΤ褹복ǰ֤ʤΤǤϤʤȤפäƤ롥Ǥ -s ǤСȻ˥֥졼ľޤǤ1ĤλȤСΤ˰˿ʤǤ褦ˤߤ롥ޤ֥졼ľ夫⤦1ĤλȤСޤ˿ʤǤ褦ˤߤ롥뤿ˤϡԹ褯ꤹ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ롥

De Smet, Hendrik. Spreading Patterns: Diffusional Change in the English System of Complementation. Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-08-17-1]

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2015-08-15 Sat

#2301. äդȽ񤭸դĤʤڥȥ [pragmatics][methodology][genre][medium][writing][register]

#230. äȤФȽ񤭤ȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1]) ǡKoch and Oesterreicher ͭ̾ʡֶᤤȤСפȡֱ󤤤ȤСפΥǥҲ𤷤ϡѰ (register) ˴Ϣơäդ񤭸դʤɤä (medium) ȡʹˡ󥿥ӥ塼ʤɤäξ (field of discourse) ȤߤˤɤΤ褦ϢưƤ뤫򼨤1ĤΥǥǤʻѰˤĤƤϡ#839. register ([2011-08-14-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ޤ˸ˤڵȴϢơ#2001. ˸ˤǡ ([2014-10-19-1]) Ǥ⡤äΤȾʤ뤤ϥˤδطɽ魯ΤȤơJucker ˤޤ򼨤
Ϥ⤦1ĻѤ Svartvik and Leech (200) ˤ "A spectrum of usage linking speech with writing" Ƴ褦

'Typical speech'
                          Face-to face conversation
                          Telephone conversation
       
                          Personal letters
                          Interviews
                          Spontaneous speeches
       
                          Romantic fiction
                          Prepared speeches (such as lectures)
       
                          Mystery and adventure fiction
                          Professional letters
                          News broadcasts
       
                          Science fiction
                          Newspaper editorials
       
                          Biographies
                          Newspaper reporting
                          Academic writing
       
                          Official documents
'Typical writing'

Koch and Oesterreicher οޤΤ褦2ŪǤʤJucker οޤΤ褦˳ŪǤʤޤñ㤫ĥեåȤϢ³Τɽ魯ޤˤʤΤǡդƲ᤹ɬפ뤬Ȥˤϴؤ
Halliday ؤˤƻѰäΡ졤3ζʬϡ줾줬̤Ϣ³ΤʤƤꡤ⤪ߤʣ˾򤷤Ƥ롥٤ƤޤȤ˿޼褦ȤСŤΥڥȥˤʤ
äդȽ񤭸դꡤΤˤĤƤϡ#748. ä񤭸 ([2011-05-15-1])#849. ä񤭸 (2) ([2011-08-24-1]) #1001. äȤФȽ񤭤Ȥ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])#1665. äȤФȽ񤭤Ȥ (4) ([2013-11-17-1])#1829. 񤭸եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])#1664. CMC (computer-mediated communication) ([2013-11-16-1]) Ϥᡤmedium γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿

Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 144--49.

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2015-08-14 Fri

#2300. ưʻž̾ư [conversion][phrasal_verb][compound][word_formation][diatone][stress][lexical_diffusion]

#1695. ưʻž ([2013-12-17-1]) κǸ˼breakaway, sellout, writeoff ʤɤζư줫ž (verb-particle conversion) ̾ȡincrease, project, record ʤɤưѤ̾Ȥδ֤ˤϡܤ٤롥ϡ̾ưζѥäƤ뤳ȤǤ롥
̾ưˤĤƤϡ#803. ̾ư̻Ū ([2011-07-09-1])#804. ̾ưñ ([2011-07-10-1])#805. 衤̾ưˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ ([2011-07-11-1]) Ϥᡤdiatone γƵˤƤʸȤƤɽƤΤǡ#2. ʾҲ ([2009-05-01-73]) ν򻲾ȡˡverb-particle conversion ˤ̾ưζѥϰäȤϤʤäʻžθǤϡ嵭ζˤĤƤ᤯鵤ŤƤ褦ǡ㤨ܳŪʻžθ路 Biese (246) ϡΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥

It is of interest to note that the structural type so often characteristic of both simple conversion-substantives and verb-adverb combinations converted into nouns is the same, e.g. very often of a form ‿-́ . . .; the simple conv.-subst. showing a light, unstressed first syllable and a heavy, stressed second syllable, while in the adverb groups a (mostly) short verb is followed by an adverb having the main stress of the word-group.


⤷Τϡ2˴ؤơíncrease (n.) vs incréase (v.) Τ褦̾̾졦ưڥǤϥޥ󥹷ϼѸ줬¿ȤȤ⤢ꡤ1᤬̣ηڤƬǡ2᤬̣νŤ캬Ȥ򼨤brékawày (n.) vs brèak awáy (v.) ǤϹդȤʤäƤ뤳ȤäȤ⡤ưѤưϷڤ̣ΤΤ¿Ȥϻ¤̾ưȤ̤ζѥ򼨤Τܤ٤Ǥ롥ϡ̾ưȤΧθݤȤδͿȤϡषʻη˴ؤǤ뤳Ȥ򼨺ΤǤϤʤ
̾ưȤΧϡѸʹߤȯãŪݤưͳ褹̾ưζѥϤ˿ݤȻפ롥
ʻž̤̾ưδطˤĤƤϡǶε#2291. ̾ưžˤȷֲ ([2015-08-05-1]) ǿ줿ΤǻȤ줿

Biese, Y. M. Origin and Development of Conversions in English. Helsinki: Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae, B XLV, 1941.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-05-19-1]

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2015-08-13 Thu

#2299. Ȼζư3 [lexical_diffusion][language_change][causation][analogy][schedule_of_language_change]

ѲγȻ (diffusion) Υᥫ˥ˤĤơŪʴ#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ ([2013-08-16-1])#1642. lexical diffusion 3ĤS ([2013-10-25-1])#1907. ѲΥ塼οǥ ([2014-07-17-1])#2168. Neogrammarian hypothesis lexical diffusion ͻ (2) ([2015-04-04-1]) 濴ˡlexical_diffusion γƵǰäƤ
ȻζưϤǤ뤫Ȥ䤤ФơDenison (58) Ѱ۷ˤ밵ϤȤФƤ뤬De Smet (8) ϼ礿븶ưϤ (analogy) Ǥꡤ2ĤŪϤääƤȹͤƤ롥ޤϤǤѤ鸫Ƥߤ褦

Most innovations in diffusion appear to arise through analogy---that is, as a result of the bearing out of synchronic regularities. There are two reasons analogy can lead to unidirectional diffusion of a pattern. If we assume that analogy is sensitive to frequency, in that analogical pressure grows as the analogical model becomes more frequent, it follows that as diffusion proceeds analogy grows stronger and more and more environments will yield to its pressure. In this sense, diffusion is a self-feeding process, keeping itself going once it has been triggered. . . . But analogy can be self-feeding not only in a quantitative but also in a qualitative way. . . . [D]iffusion can proceed along analogical chains, whereby every actual change reshuffles the cards for any potential change. Because language users are tireless at inferring regularities from usage---and may even not mind some degree of inconsistency---each analogical extension changes the generalizations that are likely to be inferred, opening new horizons to further analogical extension.


ƤƤѰ۷٤Ȥװޤᥫ˥ϡDenison νҤ٤Ѱ۷ˤ밵ϤˤᤤѲγȻϡȤᥫ˥बŪ˺Ѥ뤳ȤˤäƤΤ߶ưƤ櫓ǤϤʤ䤬礿븶ưϤȤʤĤĤ⡤ġѰۤŪǶɽŪϤƯȻηϩפȤͤDe Smet (8) ˤСŪϤ2ढ롥

Nevertheless, it would be simplistic to believe that analogical snowballs and chains operate exclusively on the basis of analogy. I see at least the following two auxiliary factors. First, if linguistic choices are determined by multiple and variable considerations that are weighed against each other, every usage event comes with a unique constellation of factors pulling linguistic choices one way or another. It is therefore inevitable that there are occasional contexts in which language users are strongly compelled to go against the default grammatical regularities of the system. The unusual choices that occasionally arise in this way may help break down resistance to change. Second, the construction from which a new spreading pattern derives usually occurs in a number of different environments. Because of this, the new pattern is present from the very start in a number of different places in the system, having as it were a diffusional headstart that can very quickly lead to the inference of new generalizations.


ŪϤ1ĤϡġѰۤƯװʣ߹礤ΤΤǤ롥ġѰۤȤޤĶǤ1ĤξηϤƤꡤηϤ¾ξηϤȼäƤ롥ηϤΤĤȼϡȤηϤΤİ񹳤ѲθưϤȤʤ2Ĥϡ餫͡ʴĶˤƸȤ¤ΤȤϡʳȻʤǤϤδĶ٤ޤäƤȤȤǤ⤢ꡤȻưϤˤĤʤ2ĤŪϤϡȤ礿ưϤ΢ǻ٤ƤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ

Danison, David. "Log(ist)ic and Simplistic S-Curves." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 54--70.
De Smet, Hendrik. Spreading Patterns: Diffusional Change in the English System of Complementation. Oxford: OUP, 2013.

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2015-08-12 Wed

#2298. Language changes, speaker innovates. [language_change][sociolinguistics][causation][invisible_hand][methodology][contact]

ܥ֥ǤϡѸˤ˴ؤ뵭Ʊ餤Ѳ (language_change) ˴ؤ뵭񤤤ƤѲȤѸ䳵ǰȤƤطʤˤ򤷤ƤʤФʤʤȤ롥ϡѲ (linguistic change) üԺ (speaker-innovation) ζ̤Ǥ (Milroy 77) 줬ѲΤϡüԤո뤫Ǥ롥
üԤոȤäơ줬Ѳľ뤹Ȥϸ¤ʤ٤η֤뤳ȤΤʤˤʤ⤷ʤĿŪѰۤˤȤɤޤ뤫⤷ʤ줬ηϤΤʤ夷춦Ʊ˳ȤäƤϤơѲȤ롥ֽǤСüԺϸѲԤ롥ޤüԺߤθѲϤꤨʤȤȤǤ⤢롥ΤȤϹͤƤߤмǤϤ뤬䤿ϡָѲפݤˡФиηϤΧΤȤưüԤƤɤ롥ռŪˤΤ褦ˡΤäƤΤǤϾʤȻפ뤬ոκμΤüԤǤȤ¤ϡǰƬˤƤɬפ롥
ѲμΤüԤȸΤưפˤؤΤϡѲؤΰܹԤ˴ؤᥫ˥ब褯ƤʤǤ⤢롥Υᥫ˥1ĤȤ (invisible_hand) ƤƤ뤬ޤơθȤäƤ褤
褦ѸηǰȤơüԡʽġˤɤܿƤˤ⤫餺ФСָܿ (language contact) ȤȤ롥ܿȤΤΤ꤬櫓ǤϤʤäƾüܿȤǧοǤ롥
ѲüԺζ̤üԺߤθѲˤĤƤϡʲεˤƤΤǡȤ줿

#546. ѲϸĿͤδ˾̤˿ʤޤʤ ([2010-10-25-1])
#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1])
#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])
#1168. ܿȤüܿǤ ([2012-07-08-1])
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1])
#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1])
#2005. üԺߤθѲؤηپ ([2014-10-23-1])

Milroy, James. "A Social Model for the Interpretation of Language Change." History of Englishes. Ed. Matti Rissanen et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 72--91.

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2015-08-11 Tue

#2297. Ѹ flow ȥƥ fluere [latin][etymology][indo-european][cognate][comparative_linguistics][grimms_law]

ε#2296. flute θ츻ˤĤơ ([2015-08-10-1]) ǥƥư fluere (to flow) ΰ캬 *bhleu- (to swell, well up, overflow) ˿줿ưθ캬Ȥ˥ƥ͡ʸä¿˱ѸؼѤ줿󤲤Сaffluent, confluent, effluent, effluvium, efflux, fluctuate, fluent, fluid, flume, fluor, fluorescent, fluoride, fluoro-, flush, fluvial, flux, influence, influenza, influx, mellifluous, reflux, superfluous
Ʊ캬 *bhleu- ͳ褹Ѹ¸ߤʤޥϤȤƤϸťΥɸͳ bloat (to swell) ѸäƤ롥θθƬҲ b- ʬȤꡤ캬 *bh ϥޥǤϥˡ§ (grimms_law) ˤ b ȤƸ롥Ʊ *bh ϡƥǤϾ˵󤲤¿㤬褦 f ѲƤ롥̤ȤƤߤбѸ b ȥƥ f Ūб뤳ȤˤʤꡤΤȤϡ̤θ캬ˤʤ뤬 bear vs fertile, bloom vs flower, break vs fragile, brother vs fraternal ʤɿ¿󤲤뤳ȤǤ롥
ơ˱Ѹ flow ˤĤƹͤ褦嵭Υƥ fluere Ọ֤̇̄ƤΤǡĤƱȴ㤤Ƥޤ츻Ūˤ̵Ǥ롥Ѹ f ϡˡ§ջСĸ *p ȤƸϤǤꡤԤϥƥؤΤޤ p ȤƼѤ롥ĤޤꡤŪˤϱѸ f ȥƥ p б뤳Ȥˤʤ (e.g. father vs paternal, foot vs pedal, fish vs Pisces) ºݡflow ΰ캬ȤƺƷƤΤ *pleu- (to flow) Ǥ롥
*pleu- 򵯸ȤѸȤƤϡfledge, flee, fleet, fley, flight, float, flood, flow, flutter, fly, fowl ʤɤ󤲤롥ťΥɸͳDZѸäƤΤȤƤϡflit, flotilla 롥¾(flèche, fletcher), flotsam, (flue [flew]), fugleman ʤɤ⥲ޥͳƤñǤ롥
ƥǤϡ캬 *pleu- Ȥˡ㤨 pluere (to rain) ˴Ϣ뤤Ĥθ줬Ѹä (e.g.pluvial, pulmonary) ꥷǤ캬λҲݤäPluto, plut(o)-, plutocracy, pneumonia, pyel(o)- ѸäƤ롥ȸ줫פɽ魯 linn ƱǤ롥
嵭Τ褦ˡѸ flow ȥƥ fluere ϡ줾캬 *pleu- (to flow) *bhleu- (to swell, well up, overflow) ̤ꡤ츻Ūˤ̵Ǥ롥Ūˤξñϰ̣֤Ƥꡤߤ˴طƤϤȻפΤ̵̤ȤǤ롥㤨СȤˡήפ̣ inflow influx 츻Ū̵طȤжäȿиϤ줾 outflow efflux ǤˡűѸǤ⡤ƥ fluere ФȤƤäѤ flōwan (> PDE flow) ƤƤȤ¤ꡤŪξԤӤĤ褦Ȥռä褦˻פ롥
Ӹؤ˴ŤƸ츻ɤäƤȡflow fluere Τ褦ˡߤ˻̣ȷ֤äƤΥڥ¤ϸ츻Ū̵ǤȤ狼äƶä񤬻ޤ롥ŵŪʤΤѸ have ȥƥ habēre ʵڤӥƥбե󥹸 avoirˤǤ롥֤Ƥ뤷ֻäƤפȤ礿ⶦ̤Ǥ뤫ƱȻפ䡤츻Ūˤ̵طǤ롥¾ˤرѸ츻ŵ(pp. 1666--67) Ρֿθ츻ȸθ츻פ򻲾Ȥ줿

߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2020-06-20-1] [2018-04-01-1]

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2015-08-10 Mon

#2296. flute θ츻ˤĤ [etymology][blend][indo-european][cognate]

728դǷǼĤ˼򤤤 flute θ츻ˤĤơĴ٤ƤߤȤ𤷤
͡ʸ츻٤ȤǽŪˤϤ褽츻ԾܤȤ̤˹Ԥ夤̤ԾܤȤƤΤϸҲ /t/ ʬǤꡤƬҲ /fl/ ˴ؤƤϡƥư flāre (to breathe; to blow) 뤤 flagrāre (to flame) θƬҲȸ츻Ū˰פƤꡤ캬 *bhel- (to shine, flash, burn) ̤ȹͤƤ褵ĤޤꡤƬʬ˴ؤ¤ꡤƥ䤽̼줫μѸ flagrant, flame, flamboyant, flamenco, flamingo ʤɤȸ캬ƱȤ롥ѸǤСblow ƱǤ롥ե롼Ȥϡֿ᤯פΤȤȤ
դΤϡΰ캬 *bhel- ϡaffluent, fluent, fluid, influence ʤɤΥƥ캬 fluere (to flow) Ȥľܤˤϴطʤ褦ȤȤǤ롥ϡۤʤ캬 *bhleu- (to swell, well up, overflow) ̤롥2Ĥΰ캬 *bhel- *bhleu- ΤľŪʴطϤʤȤϤäƤ⡤̵طʤΤɤϡӸؤι٤ŪʬʤΤǻˤƧ߹ळȤǤʤʸ츻ˤϸԤԤ cf. դƤˡ
Ǥ flute θƬҲˤĤơäܤ˸Ҳ /t/ ˤĤƸƤߤ褦θϡ̣Ū˹ͤ flageolet ʥե饸åȡⲻνūˤȴطȤȤǧƤ褵flageolet ϡƱڴ̣ťץ󥹸η flaujol ťե󥹸η flageol, flajol ˻ؾĤΤǤ롥ϡťץ󥹸 flaujol ʤɤȯȤơˤ flute Ȥ֤뤫Ǥ롥Oxford Ϥθ츻Ϥ¿μǤϡ̤γڴ lute ʥ塼ȡʤ˻ڴˤθťץ󥹸 laüt źʣȤ *flaujollaüt 줿 (blend) ǤϤʤȤƤʤƤ롥
Ū褯ٻƤ褦ˤߤ뤳κϡBarnhart θ츻ǤŪ˰Ƥʰʲ˰ѡˡüŪˤСե롼Ȥȥ塼ȤϡȤ˳ڴǤ뤳ȰʳζϤʤ츻ŪߤꤹΤ϶ȤոȡΤ˶ʵ⤹롥

flute n. Before 1325 floute the musical instrument; earlier, implied in flouter a flutist (1225, as a surname); borrowed from Old French flaüte, fleüte, from Old Provençal flaüt, of uncertain origin; perhaps an alteration of flaujol (in Old French flajol) FLAGEOLET with some unknown form, but probably not lute as is often suggested, because in particular the lute was a stringed instrument held and played in a different manner that had no suggestion of the flute about it.


ΤȤƤޤȤСflute θҲ /t/ ͳˤĤƤϲȤ⤤ʤƬҲ /fl/ ˤĤƤϡֿ᤯פ̣ƥ flāre ƱǤȸʤήפ̣ƥ fluere ȤƱǤϤʤաˡ

Barnhart, Robert K. and Sol Steimetz, eds. The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology. Bronxville, NY: The H. W. Wilson, 1988.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-08-11-1]

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2015-08-09 Sun

#2295. Ѳϸξ֤ϳؤǤ [linguistics][language_change][diachrony][methodology][variation]

ѲȤ̻ŪѲΤȤǤ뤫顤ϸ츦̻Ǹ椵٤ΤǤ롤ȤΤ̤򤫤⤷ʤ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۤƱ츽ݤΰۤʤ¦̤ǤȤ䡤⤽⥽塼ߤ֤̻֤ζ̤ǤϤʤȤ뤳ȤͤȡѲ̻Ū椢뤤ŪȤư֤Ť뤳Ȥ⵿路ʤäƤ롥
Ѳϡ֤̻֤ζۤ뤤϶ѶŪۣˤ븦ΰǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ϡ֤ϳء뤤ϡ֡פȤɽ򤢤򤱤С֤ϳؤȸƤ֤٤ΤǤ롥ιͤϡϤäɽȤϤʤäܥ֥ǤʲεʤɤˤФƤ

#1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1])
#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1])
#2125. 르󡤥ͥ륲 ([2015-02-20-1])
#2134. Ѳ̷ǤϤʤ ([2015-03-01-1])
#2167. "orderly heterogeneity" diffusion ([2015-04-03-1])
#2197. 塼ζ֤̻֤ǧ ([2015-05-03-1])

־֤ϳءפȤƤθѲΤȤ館ϡʤԤФ󾧤Ƥ褷ư̲ƤȤϸʤ־֤ϳءפΰ⤤ľܤɽƤ Keller (125) Ѥ褦

. . . does a theory of change belong to the field of synchronic or diachronic linguistics? If we look again at the definition by Bally and Sechehaye, we observe that the answer can be either 'both . . . and' or 'neither . . . nor'. Now, if a question admits two contradictory propositions as answers, we can be sure that something is amiss with the concepts involved. In this case the conclusion is inevitable that the concepts 'synchrony' and 'diachrony' are not suitable for dealing with problems of language change. They are basically concepts which belong to a theory of the history of language, not to a theory of change. The concepts 'state (of being)' and 'history' are very different from those of 'stasis' and 'dynamics'. 'The past is the repository of that which has irrevocably happened and been created'; whatever belongs to history is static, but the place of dynamics is the present. A theory of change is not a theory of history, but a theory of the dynamics of a 'state'. An explanation of this type seems able to fulfil the claim for an 'integrated synchrony' made by Coseriu in 1980 in his article 'Vom Primat der Geschichte'. Its task would be to define the manner in which 'the functioning of language coincides with language change'.


Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.

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2015-08-08 Sat

#2294. Ѹ r Ĵ [phonetics][consonant][rhotic]

#2198. 衼åѽ͡ r ([2015-05-04-1]) /r/ ͡ʶŪ¸̻Ūȯã򳵴Ѥ衼åѽΤʤǤ⡤Ѹ /r/ μ¸ϤʤüǤꡤŵŪˤϻܶ᲻ (alveolar approximant) [ɹ] ܶ᲻ (retroflex approximant) [ɻ] ȤĴ롥ŪʸˤСűѸѸǤ /r/ ˤư (coronal trill) [r] ȤƼ¸줿ȤƤ뤬⤷θȤƤ⡤ˤƤθˤˤ [r] ߤüĴؤȯãΤȤʤ롥
Erickson (185) ϡĴؤδ餳ꡤʲȯãƤƤ롥

0. Origin: coronal trill
1. Trill lenites to tap before homorganic consonants
2. Coronals change from dental to alveolar; tongue simultaneously acquires sulcal shape
3. Tap lenites to retroflex approximant before homorganics
4. Approximant articulation generalized to syllable coda
5. Approximant articulation generalized to all positions


ޤޥ /r/ 0 ˼ư [r] äӸŪˤ⡤෿Ūˤ⿮­¬ȤäƤ褵ŵŪʼ¸ϡ΢ʣդ뤨Τä[t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l] ʤɤλѤƱﲻ³ĶǤϡդ뤨ϰ٤ñư [ɾ]ˤȤʤ뷹1ʳˡ
ˡñư˸³ [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l] ʤɤĴ֤ԤؤѲ褬Ԥΰ֤ޤǸह뤳Ȥˤꡤ̤ϥå׷ˤܤ2ʳˡΥå׷幽ˤꡤʳ3μܶ᲻ [ɻ] ؤΰܹԤưפˤʤ롥ѸˤǤС1600ǯˤʳäȤ (Erickson 191)
ʾ /r/ ĴȯãϡƱﲻ³Ķ˸¤Ƥ줬δĶˤȤ4ʳˡ˲ΰ֤ˤ餺̤˳Ȥä5ʳˡ
ѸɸѼǤϡʾȯãʳΤɤǻߤޤäΤ褦Ĵ򼨤Τ⤢Сʬ줷̤ȯã򼨤Τ⤢äޤɸѼˤƤ⡤¸ˤ٤ѰۤϤä嵭ȯãȤƿ뤳ȤˤꡤΡְæפ⤪褽̵ʤǤȤΤ Erickson μĥǤ롥
/r/ ĴȴϢơErickson (184) ޥˤ r ˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ륳ȤҲ𤷤ƤɥĸΤۤ󥰥åȥǤʹ "Northumbrian burr" ȸƤФ r ϡ#1055. uvular r θ춭ۤ ([2012-03-17-1]) Ǹ褦ˡե󥹸줫ŤȤ뤳Ȥ¿ºݤˤŤβǽͤᤤ˥ɥĸ [ʁ] ԤƤȤ⤢ꡤŤǤϤʤȯãȤ⤢褦

Erickson, Blaine. "On the Development of English r." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 183--206.

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2015-08-07 Fri

#2293. Ѹˤ <oo> ɽ蘆첻ûд˲ưŤ [phonetics][vowel][lexical_diffusion][schedule_of_language_change][isochrony][causation]

#2290. ƻޤĹ첻û ([2015-08-04-1]) ǡ<oo>, <ea> ɽ蘆줿Ĺ첻Ѹû夲Ȥ櫓 <oo> ˤĤƤϡ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1])#1353. 첻Ĺû ([2013-01-09-1])#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1])#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1]) ǰäƤ
<oo> ɽ蘆줿 [uː] [ʊ] ؤûϡط뤹٤Ƥθ櫓ǤϤʤPhillips (233) λȤ Mieko Ogura (Historical English Phonology: A Lexical Perspective. Tokyo: Kenkyusha, 1987.) ˤСѸ졤Ȥ櫓16--17줿ڵ˴ŤȡûϺǽ [d] ֤ǡ [v], [t, θ, k] ֤ȤȤ櫓Ҳ [l] θ֤Ǥ䤹äȤ롥ĤޤꡤóȻΤǡĶ˽äơѲ˿ʹԤƤäȤ
ν˴ؤơOgura ϲĶ٤ι⤵ isochrony Ȥ褦ȤPhillips ĴŪʺƤƤ롥⤽ Phillips ϡβѲϡûפȤŪѲȤߤ٤ǤϤʤд˲פȤŪѲȤߤ٤ȼĥ롥ȤΤϡ⤷ʲѲȤƤûǤС̵ [t] ֤Τۤͭ [d] ֤첻Ūûûꤵ뤬ºݤˤϵդνŪд˲ȤȤ館С줬ʤ [d] ֤᤯ΤĴŪǤȤ
ĴؤˤС[l] [d] ˶ޤ줿ĶǤ [u(ː)] [ʊ] ؤдˤ䤹ȤޤĴ˺ݤƤϡ¾λҲξ٤θ㤯ʤ뤳Ȥ¿Ϥд˲䤹Ȥ⤵ (Phillips 237) Ǹˡ[d], [t] Ȥ˴ؤƤϡԤԤдŪ (lax) ǤȤ⤢롥ΤȤơPhillips ϡĴŪʥѥ᡼Ƴ뤳ȤǡθóȻѲΥ塼̵ʤǤȼĥƤ롥
ɬ̤ʵȤϤʤäƤʤ褦ˤפ뤬1ĤθǤϤ[2015-08-04-1]εǤߤ褦ˡŪʻʬŪ˴ޤ᤿ Görlach θˤդʧɬפ롥

Phillips, Betty S. "Lexical Diffusion and Competing Analyses of Sound Change." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 231--43.

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2015-08-06 Thu

#2292. ֻȯϥפǤĤʤ줿2ۤΥܡ [spelling][pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation_gap][medium][writing][spelling_reform][spelling_pronunciation]

ѸֻȯδطҤƤϸˤ񤭸դäդδطˤĤĹ餯ͻƤ뤦ˡƬΤʤɸΥ᡼Ǥޤä

Two-Boat Model of Spelling and Pronunciation


ޤȤȯäաˤֻʽ񤭸աˤ§ȤƤ줾ΩΤǤꡤηϤǤȤȤˤĤƤϡ#1928. Smith ˤ٥γإǥưŪǥ ([2014-08-07-1]) ˤ Transmission 䡤#1665. äȤФȽ񤭤Ȥ (4) ([2013-11-17-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿줾Τ򡤻֤ȤήΩܡȤȤ褦
ơȯֻϳΤ˸§ȤΩƤϤ뤬Ǹߤ˰¸礦ʬ⾯ʤʤΤϻ¤Ǥ롥δˤط2ۤΥܡȤĤʤפɽ롥ʤ٤˿̼ߤʡǤǤפȤΤ褤ΤǤϤʤȻפäƤ롥
ξΤߤ˰¸礦ȤϤŪ¿ΤϡȯֻƳȤطǤ롥ȯäƤƤ⡤֤ȤȤѲƤΤǤ롥ȯΥܡȤϡ¦ˤΤ򤹤뤳ȤǤ롥ֻήδˤ䤫ʥˤäơߤޤäɤưꤹ٤ΡŪȤʤܡȤǤ롥äơ֤ФƤзФĤۤɡξܡȤεΥϳƤǽ⤤2ۤϥפǤĤʤäƤʾ塤Υ줭äƤޤ櫓ǤϤʤĤΥ줺ȤΥǡƱήƤ
ʵˡֻΥܡȤȯΥܡȤȲ¤Ӥˤʤ롤뤤ɤۤȤ餢뤫⤷ʤΤ褦ʻ֤ϼǤϤۤȤɤꤨʤդǤϡʹ֤տŪ˥פûƤäꡤֻΥܡȤȹҤƤʤɤвǽǤ롥ϡֻ (spelling_reform) ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) Τ褦ʥ롥
"Two-Boat Model" ϡɽʸηϤĸˤƤϤ餯ŪƤϤޤäդȽ񤭸դΤϡȾΩʤȾа¸äƤꡤߤ˴Ĥ뤳ȤʤĤΥ줺Ƕ¸ƤΤǤ롥

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2015-08-05 Wed

#2291. ̾ưžˤȷֲ [diatone][conversion][i-mutation][derivation][affixation][prosody][germanic]

Ѹˤӥޥˤˤơ̾ưžˡϤäޤܼź (affixation) ˤ¾ʻˡäűѸǤС̾ lufu (love) ưդ lufian (to love) Ȥ륿פǤ롥Ѹˤ light (n.) lighten (v.) Τ褦ʥڥ졤٤̤Ȥơˡ켫Τϳǧ (cf. #1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1]))
ˡΤ褦źä줿ܼŪ˼岽ĤˤϾüƤޤäΤ롥ϡŪˤߤСʻž (conversion) 뤤ϥ (zero-derivation) ȸƤФΤǤ롥Ѹʹߤ love 1Ǥꡤ̾ưϷֲޤä̤ʤ
ˡźä줿ܼŪפȤǤϥƱܼκפ촴ΰ˴Τ褦˻ĤäƤȤ롥ŵŪʥפ1Ĥϡhouse /haʊs/ (n.) vs house /haʊz/ (v.) Τ褦˸촴Ҳ̵ͭ򼨤ΤǤ롥촴첻Ĺûääơbreath /brɛθ/ (n.) vs breathe /briːð/ (v.) Τ褦Ω򼨤Τ⾯ʤʤ (cf. #2223. ФˤҲ̵ͭ ([2015-05-29-1]), #979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1]))
֤ĤƤܼκספΤ⤦1ĤŵŪʥפϡi-mutation Ǥ롥i-mutation Ȥϡܼ i/j ʤɤ첻ǤȤˡԤ촴첻Ĥꤢ뤤Ϲ⤤֤ش󤻤ŪʲǤ (cf. #157. foot ʣϤʤ feet ([2009-10-01-1])) ܼ˾üƤޤȡ꤬ϸ촴첻ѰۤΤߤȤȤˤʤ롥food (n.) vs feed (v.), tooth (n.) vs teethe (v.) ʤɤ
ʥˤ̾ưβ֤ܴۤ˰פǤ⡤¿ξˡ֤Ѱۤˤʻ줬̤Τ롥diatone γƵǰäƤ̾ưפǤꡤrécord (n.) vs recórd (v.), íncrease (n.) vs incréase (v.) ʤɿ¿¸ߤ (cf. #804. ̾ưñ ([2011-07-10-1]))
ǸƤ褦ˡѸˤӥޥˤˤơܼž촴Ҳ̵ͭΩi-mutation̾ưϡ줾Ūˤ϶̤븽ݤǽŪˤߤʻžȤ̤ͭƤȤ롥ŪˤϴϢΤʤ褦ˤߤ i-mutation ȥ̾ư夬˾塤䴰Ū˵ǽƤȤȤ϶̣˴Ūʰ̴طǤϤűѸ i-mutation षȤȡѸǥ̾ư夬иŪȤʤäȤȤϥ󥯤ƤΤ
ʾƶͿƤ줿ΤϡBiese (250--51) Ǥ롥ʲ˰ѤƤ

[W]e must mention another feature in the development of English sound-changes that was to become important to the process of conversion. In Old English there existed a great number of denominative verbs derived from the corresponding nouns by a suffix causing an i-umlaut, i.e. word-pairs of the following character were very common: scrȳdan?scrūd, hiertan?heorte, rȳman?rūm.
   We may regard this differentiation of nouns and verbs in OE. as a phenomenon on the same lines as the stress-distinction . . . . Now, while in the other Germanic languages the umlaut remained a living featuring principle in the field of word-formation, it soon ceased to be an integral principle of English word-formation. Even in early Middle English the umlaut as a living feature of the language, e.g. as used in forming denominatives from new substantives, had disappeared. Moreover, during the development of English a lot of levelling took place in word-pairs that had originally been distinguished by umlaut. In other cases one of the two words, the subst. or adjective on the other hand or the verb on the other, became obsolete. This feature in the development of the structure of the English language was necessarily very favourable to the spread of the process of forming new words by the method of direct conversion.


Biese, Y. M. Origin and Development of conversions in English. Helsinki: Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae, B XLV, 1941.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-08-14-1]

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2015-08-04 Tue

#2290. ƻޤĹ첻û [final_e][ilame][inflection][vowel][phonetics][pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation_gap][spelling][adjective][afrikaans][syntagma_marking]

<look>, <blood>, <dead>, <heaven>, ʤɤ첻ʬϡ2Ĥ첻֤뤬ȯȤƤϤ줾û첻Ǥ롥ϡѸˤͽ̤ۤ2äΤθ塤û1ȤʤäǤ롥<oo> ֻȯδطӤطʤˤĤƤϡ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1])#1353. 첻Ĺû ([2013-01-09-1])#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1])#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1]) ǿ줿<ea> ˤĤƤϡ#1345. read -- read -- read γѡ ([2013-01-01-1]) Ǵñ˿줿ˤʤΤǡȤƼ夲
Ҥ̤ꡤ<ea> Ĺ첻ɽ路ǤѸˤƤλ3Ҳ֤ûäƤꡤdream / dreamt, leap / leapt, read / read, speed / sped Τ褦첻̤Ω (cf. #1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1])) ޤñҲ֤ˤƤ⡤ѸޤǤˤĤñˤûƤ (ex. breath, dead, dread, heaven, blood, good, cloth) ΰۤʤûβˤĤƤϡ#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1]) #2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1]) ǸȤǤꡤ˲Ūʴ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤä˽Ѹˤûϰθä˸¤ƤȤ𤬤ꡤޤǤ롥
Görlach (71) ϡεˡŪǤϤ뤬˷ŪʴǤ롥

Such short vowels reflecting ME long vowel quantities are most frequent where ME has /ɛː, oː/ before /d, t, θ, v, f/ in monosyllabic words, but even here they occur only in a minority of possible words. It is likely that the short vowel was introduced on the pattern of words in which the occurrence of a short or a long vowel was determined by the type of syllable the vowel appeared in (glad vs. glade). When these words became monosyllabic in all their forms, the conditioning factor was lost and the apparently free variation of short/long spread to cases like (dead). That such processes must have continued for some time is shown by words ending in -ood: early shortened forms (flood) are found side by side with later short forms (good) and those with the long vowel preserved (mood).


Ҳǽñ촴ηƻϡѸޤǡŪʾ˱ơƶ޸ e ݤĤȤä (cf. #532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1])) ޸ e ̵ͭϲṽ¤Ѳ촴첻Ĺûꤷ1Ĥηƻˤ뤳ĹûѰۤǥȤʤäơṽ¤¾δĶˤƤĹûѰۡʤƸûˤ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤȤ Görlach glad vs. glade 󤲤ʤҤ٤ƤΤϡϡ˷ŪʵǽͭƤ޸ -e Ū˾üƤǡεǽ򼺤촴첻Ĺûΰ㤤ˤκפĤΤߤȤʤäƤäȤаޤǤ (cf. #295. black Blake ([2010-02-16-1])) Ϣơ#977. ƻζ޸ο syntagma marking ([2011-12-30-1]) ǿ줿եꥫ󥹸ˤƻ޸Ρʸˡפλ㤬פФ롥

Görlach, Manfred. Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-11-16-1] [2015-08-07-1]

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2015-08-03 Mon

#2289. ̿ʸ˼줬ʤ [imperative][syntax][pragmatics][sociolinguistics][politeness][historical_pragmatics][emode][speech_act]

ɸϡĹ餯ˤʤäƤ뵿Ǥ롥Ѹ̿ʸǤ̾̾ you ά롥ؼоݤΤˤꡤĴΤ you 뤳ȤϤˤ衤ŵŪˤϾάΤ롼Ǥ롥ϸűѸǤѸǤƱ
Ūˤ͡ʹͤ̿ʸǼ̾䤦ȡʿʸȤŪʶ̤ȤȤ뤫⤷ʤϡ̿2;ñľˡ߷Ʊ֤ĤȤȤϢʤűѸǤ2;ñФƤϡ̿ľˡ߷ϰۤʤΤ̤ǤꡤŪ˶̤ƤˡǤϤɤΤ褦˰ƤΤǰʤ顤ϲʹˤΤʤ
Ūʵ⤢㤨С᤹̿оݤ2;ΤǤ뤳ȤϼǤ뤫顤̿ʸˤƼ򸲺߲ɬפʤȤǽ⤷ʤҲδϡ (125) ϡֱѸϼդĤάʤ̿ʸλϾά롥μʤ̿ᤵ줿ͤˤάʸˡϡݥ饤ȥͥȥƥΤȤ褦פȽҤ٤Ƥ롥Ϣơϡ̿ʸʳǤ you ǤϤʤ̿;̾ one ѤϤ뤫ǫǤȤҤ٤Ƥꡤ̿ʸǤμά negative politeness δΤŪʰ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥
ݥ饤ȥͥˤϡѸζŪˤȤɤޤäƤȤߤʤ٤⤷ʤȤΤϡѸǤϡ̾ź̿ʸΤۤǫäȤŦ뤫Fennell (165) ۩". . . in Early Modern English constructions such as Go you, Take thou were possible and appear to have been more polite than imperatives without pronouns."
Ѹ̿Ȥ԰٤˴Ϣݥ饤ȥͥȥƥȤƤϡI pray you, Prithee, I do require that, I do beseech you, so please your lordship, I entreat you, If you will give me leave ʤ͡ʤΤ¸ߤϢʤ please 17ݥ饤ȥͥΰռ͡ȿǤ줿λˡषդ̿ʸΥȥƥ1ĤȤƵǽǽȤȤ϶̣嵭ˤϡ褯Ƥ⸽Ѹμά򶦻ŪˤȤɤޤꡤ̻ŪͭϤ⤿ʤ
ˤĤƤϡͤƤ

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
󡡡ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ

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2015-08-02 Sun

#2288. åԥ󥰥ȤǤΥڥ󥰥ߥ̿ŪȤʤꤦ [sociolinguistics][spelling]

ҲؤˡԾ (linguistic marketplace) Ȥǰ롥Ҳˤơʸ̤˥ͤβԾǤȤͤȷкѤδط̩ܤǤ뤳Ȥϡ䤿褯ΤäƤ롥кѤΡ̲ߡפϱѸɮƬȤ󥬡ե (lingua_franca) Ǥ뤷¿ȤʤͤϻԾͤ⤤Ȥ롥ĶȥޥϸոߤǤжӤ夬ʤɤľܤ˸DzԤȼǤ롥ۤˤ⡤ͥˤơդˤ밧λȤοͤηкϤӤĤƤ뤳Ȥϡ#1623. ͥ¿Ծ --- ޥȥߥμҲء ([2013-10-06-1]) ǸȤǤ롥Τ褦ˡ졤ǽϡѤˤϡԾͤ롥
λԾͤȤ顤̣Ŧ롥־Υåԥ󥰥ȤǤϡڥ󥰤Τľ뤹פǤǤȤȤޤȤˤϴְ㤨ڥ󥰤䤤路ɽƤ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤꡤ㤤ʪҤϥȤˤֻߥˤҴʤΤǤ롥㤤ʪҤϡ꤬ˡ֤ȡ׾䤷Ƥ뤫ʬŪֻΤ¬äƤȤHorobin (4--5) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

. . . there is an economic argument for the importance of correct spelling. Charles Duncombe, an entrepreneur with various online business interests, has suggested that spelling errors on a website can lead directly to a loss of custom, potentially causing online businesses huge losses in revenue (BBC News, 11 July 2011). This is because spelling mistakes are seen by consumers as a warning sign that a website might be fraudulent, leading shoppers to switch to a rival website in preference. Duncombe measured the revenue per visitor to one of his websites, discovering that it doubled once a spelling mistake had been corrected. . . . So the message is clear: good spelling is vital if you want to run a profitable online retail company, or be a successful email spammer.


ȷкѤδطˤĤƤͤ͡뤬#2163. 쥤ǥ ([2015-03-30-1])#2166. argot ʱˤ¾Χ ([2015-04-02-1]) Ǽ夲ΤȤ Irvine ʸ󤲤Ƥ

Irvine, Judith T. "When Talk Isn't Cheap: Language and Political Economy." American Ethnologist 16 (1989): 248--67.
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-02-03-1] [2017-10-07-1]

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2015-08-01 Sat

#2287. chicken, kitten, maiden [suffix][norman_french][etymology][i-mutation][germanic]

ɽ3ϡ -en Ȥؾ (diminutive) 򼨤λؾϡޥĸ *-īnam (neut.) ̤롥äơűѸʸڤ cicen mægden ̾Ǥ롥
chicken β֤ȯãϴˤ餫ˤƤʤޥĸ *kiukīno ̤Ȥ롥촴 *kiuk- ϡ*kuk- 첻αƶ i-mutation ФΤǡθ캬 cock űѸǤ cicen ʤɤȤʸڤ (cf. Du. kuiken, G Küken, ON kjúklingr) æ chike (> PDE chick) ϡ֤Ҥ褳Ҥʡפΰ̣ǡѸ˽Ф롥
kitten ϡťե󥹸 chitoun, cheton (cf. ե󥹸 chaton) Υ󥰥Υޥ *kitoun, *ketun Ѹ˼ѤΤȤ롥Ūˤ -o(u)n Ȥ򼨤ˤƤȤ̵طä17˷ŪˤⵡǽŪˤؾ -en Ʊ
maiden ʲˤϡűѸ mægden ʤɤȤʸڤ롥mægden ѸޤǤ˸æΤ mæide Ǥꡤ줬 maid Ϣʤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸΩĻˤ maid ؤܼźäˤ maiden ȹͤ뤬ºݤ˱Ѹ˾ʸڤϡmaiden Ǥꡤü maid ȤȤǤ롥ξϸߤ˻ޤǡ־פΰ̣äƶ¸Ƥ롥⥲ޥĸ *maȝaðiz ʾˤ̤ꡤϴϢűѸ magð ʾˤƤ롥ˡ־פɽ魯Ѹ may (< OE mǣġ (kinswoman)) Ʊȹͤ졤Ϣη֤Ọ̇̄ʣǤ롥ʤmaid ѸǤϡ̤˻ҡפɽ魯Ȥ⤢ä
-en ˤ¾ˤⵯۤˤ͡ʥפ롥#1471. golden ߽ФѲ ([2013-05-07-1])#1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1])#2221. vixen ν ([2015-05-27-1]) 򻲾ȡ

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