01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
19ȾС衼åѳƹǤϡӸȯŸȤ˾äơŪ§˴Ť緿Ի褵ƤλطʤΤʤǡꥹǤ A New English Dictionary on a Historical Basis δ褬ϰƤƤ ( see [2010-02-25-1] ) μϡ1933ǯ Supplement Ǥ줿Ȥˡ Oxford English Dictionary ȲΤ뤳ȤˤʤäƱΥ衼åѤμԻįȡʲΥɥĸ졤ե졤μOED ԻԤˤȤäɤĤɤۤΥ饤Хä
The Deutsches Wörterbuch of the Grimm brothers ( = DWB )
Dictionnaire de la langue français of Emile Littré ( = Littré )
The Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal of Matthias de Vries ( = WNT )
Osselton (60) ˤ嵭γƼԻˤޤĤǯǯɽˤޤȤƤߤʲȡˡȴλԻץȤ "Initial impulse" ǯȴνʡȴλˤ1νǯȴνϺǽνǯʡἭǯˤɽ魯ǯǡ¾ϤΥڡHTMLȡ

4٤ȡOED Իδ輫Τ¾μ٤ƤȤʬ롥[2011-01-25-1]εǸΥꥹʸسξ紶ϡ٤줫դ롥ޤϰƤ1ǤޤǤδ֤¾μ٤ĹȤܤͤ롥طʤˤϡԽ紴 Herbert Coleridge, Frederick Furnivall, James Murray ܤޤ뤷夷Իκ𤬤äޤȤΤޤ礵˰ݤŻǤʤäȸƤ褤äΤϡOED δϰƤ鴰ޤפ70ǯȤ֤ϤȤƤĤʤĹΤȻפǤˤϾ夬Τ DWB WNT ˤĤƤ100ǯǤϸʤŪ§˴Ť緿Ի˼֤ΤΤƻפΤä
Osselton, Noel. "Murray and his European Counterparts." Lexicography and the OED : Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 59--76.
Quirk et al. (7.19) ˤȡ̾ʲβʬƻϸ -ed /ɪd/ ȯɲä롥
aged, beloved, crooked, dogged, jagged, learned, naked, ragged, wicked, wretched
aged /ˈeɪdʒɪd/ my aged father Τ褦˸Ū˿ͤǯɽ魯Ȥ the aged Ϸͤפξ˻Ȥ졤ͤηƤǤʤ aged wine ʤɤѤ /ˈeɪdʒd/ ȯˤʤ롥beloved ϡmy beloved son ξˤ /bɪˈlʌvɪd/ She was beloved by everyone. Τ褦ưȤƤʤ /bɪˈlʌvd/ Ȥʤ롥ޤa learned professor ؤʶפ a learned journal ֳؽѻפǤ /ˈlɚːnɪd/ a learned skill ַиˤäƿȤˤĤѡפǤ /lɚːnd/ Ǥ롥ȤʬϤʤʤ
ϡ§ŪʲʬʵڤӲˤθ -ed ϡֻ˼Ƥ̤ꡤ첻ȼäΩȤȯƤ (320--21) ˤСѸǤϼޤä첻 /əd/ ȯƤ첻Ǥ13顤ʳǤ14üƤäθ治 ( syncopation ) ϡ-ed Τߤʤ餺 -es, -eth, -est, -en, -er ʤɤθǤǤѲǤ롥üΤϤäȤǤꡤ15ˤ絬Ϥ˿ʹԤ17ޤ첻ݤ⤢ä
첻ߤޤݤ줿ΤȤƤϡ ( sibilant ) ǽ촴³ ( ex. kisses, houses, edges, hated, ended ) §Ū㳰Ȥ롥¾ˤϡʬƻ -ly ³ assumedly, assuredly, supposedly ʤɤ롥ϡ3ҲϢ³뤿βؤȤǤ
嵭ΥꥹȤ˷Ǥβʬƻ첻ݻ줿ͳϤ褯ʬʤȤ櫓٤⤤췲ǤʤΤǡ٤ϴطʤˡηƻȤƻȤȤꡤbeloved θꡦˡȯΰ㤤⼨ȤꡤˡͿƤȤȤϸǤ롥ˤĤƤϡThe driver is drunk the drunken driver Ӥʤɤͤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
[2010-10-15-1]ε˴ϢơBrewer ʸε OED ΰѿ̤˥ղΤǤä˸äƤսǼǤʲ˼

Brewer (58) ˤȡ(1)--(5) γä OED ԻװˤȤ礭Ȥ롥줾λϰʲ̤Ǥ롥
(1) 1291--1300ǯá1470ǯˤĤƤϤФХƥȤǯ夬ǤꡤΤ褦ʾˤصξüǯꤹȤԽˤäޤäˤλˤĤƤϡRobert of Gloucester (1297ǯ3222) Cursor Mundi (1300ǯ10771 OED ˤѿ2̤κ) 顤ʤ꽸Ū˰ѤޤƤȤ⤢롥
(2) 1391--1400ǯá(1) ƱͤȤͳ˲äTrevisa (1387/98ǯ6750) ̤˼ޤƤȤ𤬤롥
(3) 1521--1530ǯáPalsgrave Lesclarcissement (1530ǯ5418) ̤ΰѤˤꡤȾ롥
(4) 1581--1600ǯáShakespeare (33304) αƶ礭
(5) 1631--1660ǯá餯̿ΥѥեåȤ¿ΰѤƶƤ롥
5äˤĤƤǤԽطʤŪΤäƤȡOED ΰѥǡλȤʾʤȤ⤽λˤѤäƤȻפ⤷补Ϣ뵭ȤƤϰʲȡ
[2010-10-10-1]: #531. OED ΰѥǡѥȤƻȤ뤫
[2010-10-14-1]: #535. OED ΰѥǡѥȤƻȤ뤫 (2)
[2010-10-15-1]: #536. OED ΰѥǡѥȤƻȤ뤫 (3)
Brewer, Charlotte. "OED Sources." Lexicography and the OED: Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 40--58.
[2011-01-26-1], [2011-01-27-1]ε˰³ޥλҲˤĤơѸ첻ؤδädzؤ֤Ȥ1Ĥˡ̵© ( aspiration ) ȼȤȤ롥Ѹ̵ˤ /p/, /t/, /k/ 뤬Τ벻κǽ˸Ȥˤϵ©ȼȯˤĺݻ3ʳ뤬ľȸ³첻ȯȤδ֤û©ʹ롥줬©ȸƤФΤǡpin, tell, come ʤɤϤ줾̩ɽǤ [phɪn], [thɛl], [khʌm] ȵ롥äȤС©ϳ줬㤷Τ /p/, /t/, /k/ Ϸڤ˻[pfh], [tsh], [kxh] ˶ʤ롥ܸǤ϶©ȼʤpin, tell, come ֥ԥס֥ƥס֥פȯȱѸݤʤΤϡ줬ͳǤ롥
㳰ϡ̵ /s/ ԤƤˤϵ©ȼʤȤǤ롥äơspin, stem, skull Ǥ©ϳ줬ʤ©ϡγ٤ƸƵϳȤݤ/s/ ϤȤȸƵϳȼäƤ뤿ˡľǸƵäߤᡤ餿٤餻ϳ餹ȤȤˤǤ롥
Ѹ̵˴ؤ뵤©ȤħϥޥΤƤϤޤ롥ͤȯζϳ줬㤷줬ޥ˻ŪˤҲŪˤƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤ©ٹ礤 /p/ [p] > [ph] > [ɸ] > [f] ȤѲ뤲 /f/ ˰ܹԤꤹΤǤСϤʤ Grimm's Law ( see [2009-08-08-1], grimms_law ) 1ʳǤ롥 Grimm's Law Ǥ /s/ ľȤĶǤ̵©ǤꡤҲܤ֥åƤ (Brinton and Arnovick 132)ޤ/p/ > /pf/ Ѳϸ˲ƹϥޥ ( High Germanic ) Ƥꡤ Second Germanic Consonant Shift ( see [2010-06-06-1] ) ȤΤƤ롥/p/ Τߤʤ餺 /t/, /k/ ƱͤǤ롥
Τ褦˸Ƥȡ̵ε©ޥˤƤ˸ħǤäƸߤǤ⤽Ǥ뤫פ鷺ˤϤʤѸĴؤζռƥե٥åȤ P [piː] Ǥʤ [phiː] ȯȤˤ Grimm's Law ɽ魯ҲܤɤΤ褦˳Ϥ줿ȤǤΤǤ롥
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ε[2011-01-26-1]˰³ޥ줬ҲŪǤ뤳ȤˤĤƤꡥ줿ѥƱͤˡ̾ʥեθؼ Meillet ⡤ޥ졤ä˥եӤʤ饲ޥλҲٻ褦ʤŪˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Ce qui rend les mots latins méconnaissables sous l'aspect qu'ils prennent en français, c'est que les consonnes intervocaliques se sont fortement altérées ou même réduites au point de disparaître; dans fr. feu, on ne reconnaît plus le latin focum; dans père, on ne reconnaît plus le latin patrem; dans mi, on ne reconnaît plus le latin medium. En germanique, il ne s'est rien passé de semblable. Certaines consonnes ont changé d'aspect; mais elles ont subsisté . . . . De là vient que les mots indo-européens sont souvent reconnaissables en germanique jusqu'à présent malgré le nombre et la gravité des changements phonétiques intervenus. (Meillet 54--55)
ƥñ줬եμäƤ볰Ѥ椨ǧǤʤʤäƤΤϡ첻֤λҲ㤷ƤüۤɤޤǤפȤǤ롥ե feu ˤƤϡϤƥ focum ǧǤpère ˤƤϤϤƥ patrem ǧǤʤmi ˤƤϤϤƥ medium ǧǤʤޥǤϡΤ褦ʤȤϤޤäʤäҲˤϳѤѤΤ⤢뤬¸³Ϥάͤ椨ˡޥˤƤϡ¿㤷Ѳ뤲ˤ⤫餺ĸñ줬ФиߤˤޤǧǽʤΤǤ롥
ǽҤ٤Ƥֿ¿㤷ѲפκǤΤϡ Grimm's Law, Verner's Law, Second Germanic Consonant Shift ( see [2009-08-08-1], [2009-08-09-1], [2010-06-06-1] ) Ǥ롥λҲѲФɤפϤʤäʤȤեӤȰۤʤäȤȤˤʤޥϰĸθҲŪ褯ݤäƤʬҲŪǤ롤ȤȤϤǤǤ롥
Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.
ɥĸϻҲ¿ȸ롥[2011-01-13-1]εǸФ륹ƥ쥪פˤȤ˿줿ɥĸȯˤĤƤиΤä guttural ּʡΡ郎줿ΡפȤƤФʹ guttural OALD8 ˤ "(of a sound) made or seeming to be made at the back of the throat"
ҴŪ˲Ūʴϡ줬ҲŪʸȤȤˤϲ̣Τޤ¾θȤŪʰ̣ǤϤ뤬㤨СηϤˤƻҲμब¿ ( phonotactics ) ˤƻҲȤ߹碌˭٤ǡ¤ȯä˺ݤƻҲ٤⤤ʤɤξ郎ͤΤ褦ʴʣθӤСҲŪʸ첻ŪʸȤʬϰǤǤ롥
㤨бѸ٤Ƥäɥĸ Second Germanic Consonant Shift ( see [2010-06-06-1] ) ˤ /pf/, /ts/, /x/ Τ褦˻ ( affricate ) ( fricative ) ηȯãƤꡤ/s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/ Τ褦ʻ ( sibilant ) ˭٤Ǥ롥ҲȤ߹碌 schlecht ְ, Tschechoslovakisch ֥ХΡ, Zweck Ūפʤɤ˳ָ̤긲Ǥ롥
Ѹɥĸ٤ƻҲäƤ櫓ǤϤʤghosts /gəʊsts/, sphinx /sfɪnks/, streets /striːts/ ʤɤϤʤʤ guttural Ǥ¿ñʤ1Ȥ strengths /streŋkθs/ ˻äƤϡ3Ҳ1첻4ҲפȤ guttural Ǥ롥
ɥĸѸ˸¤餺Τ˥ޥϻҲŪǤ롥ȡʤȤեθؼԤɾƤ롥㤨СѥϡΤ褦ʼ˱ѸˤĤơˤŦʤ顤ޥϡֻҲͥϤäȸƤ (p. 70) ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
(1) Ƭ첻ԤΩäƤˡűѸƬƬ˻äƤ
(2) ޥζ ( stress accent ) ϻҲϢ䶯ĤҲϤä⤫Ӿ夬餻롥
(3) ʣҲ ( ex. OE mann, wīfmann, bringann ) ˭٤Ǥ롥
(4) PDE thunder, sound ʤɤ˸褦 /n/ θ /d/ ( insertion ) 롥
(5) ñᲽ˸ѸηΤΤҲΩƤ롥㤨Сڤ ( clipping ) ˤ bus, pop Ф ( blend ) ˤ smog ʤɡ
ɡˤħȤΤϡɡˤȤӤ餷⤫Ӿ夬äƤʤΰ̣ǤϡޥȤؼԤˤ륲ޥɾѸɾȤΤϤФзİͤ롥
ɥ졦ѥ رѸˡ١ҡʸ˥ӡ1980ǯ
[2010-02-25-1]ε OED ץȤˤĤƿ줿Ǥϡ1857ǯλDZѸ¸ߤѸ켭ΤĿܳʼԻưŤȤʤäȤҤ٤Φ衼åѡä˥ɥĤȥեˤʸؤΤᤶޤӤθȡꥹˤ OED Իطʤˤϡꥹʸسξ紶äȸʸؤ̾ڤꤿäΤǤ롥
19˥衼åѤδӸؤ٤ƤΤϼ˥ɥĿͤäκǿӸؤ̤ȿǤơ ( Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm ) 1838ǯ˹ɾ뤳Ȥˤʤɥĸ켭ŵ Deutches Wörterbuch ԻϤƤ11852ǯ˽Ǥ졤32δϤʤ1961ǯΤȡˡեǤ⡤Paul-Émile Littré 1844ǯ˥ե켭ŵ Dictionnaire de la langue française ϤƤ1863--1873ǯˤ4Ǥ줿ˡΦ衼åѤˤ뤳2ĤΰζȤܤˤơꥹʸؤδطԤϴ˾ǤäƤ㤨СThe Philological Society βĹä Richard Morris 1875ǯβĹֱǡ60ǯ֥ꥹΩˤäӸؤοŸˤۤȤɹ뤳ȤǤʤäòƤ롥μĹ̳ Henry Sweet 1877ǯƱͤμݤǥꥹʸؤν٤ͫθ
OED Խ紴 James Murray ⤽Τ褦ʥꥹʸؤξ紶ͭƤΤ®Ͽ٤ȤζոäƤɥĤȥեΰζȤơꥹοϤ괰ǤʤФʤʤȡŪʥ饤Хռdz䤷ƤΦΥ饤ХñɤĤȤΤǤϤʤɤۤȱ˾ƤΤǤ롥ºݡꥹǤ⤽Τ褦ʴԤƤåեؤ Max Müller Ӹؤꥹ˺դ뤳Ȥ˹ɥĿͳؼԡˤϡ1878ǯ OED ԻФǮԤ
In an undertaking of such magnitude, in which one might almost say that the national honour of England is engaged, no effort should be spared to make the work as perfect as possible, and at all events no unworthy rival of the French Dictionary lately published by Littré, or the German Dictionary undertaken by the Brothers Grimm. (qtd in Mugglestone, p. 5)
OED ԻľܥꥹȤŪ˻ͿȤȤϤʤʤȤʸؼԤˤȤäƤ OED ԻϹΰҿȤäΤǤ롥OED Υڡ뤿ӤˡԻԤζ٤䶸Ȥ⤤٤ߤ롥ˤñʤŪʴؿʾβȹͤʤ줬ʤΤȻפȡ⤹롥
Mugglestone, Linda. "'Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest': The New English Dictionary." Lexicography and the OED: Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 1--21.
[2011-01-20-1]εǿ줿褦ˡĸ ( Proto-Indo-European ) ε˴ؤƤϽ⤬ƤƤߤǤϡ饤ʡեΥƥåӤ˱ɤ륬ʸ ( the Kurgan culture ) ô꤬ĸüԤäȤ⤬ŪͥǤ롥ǽˤγΤϹųؼ Gimbutas ǡ1963ǯʸǽΰ衼åѵ˰ۤ饫ԳФƥ볤Ϥ륹ƥåӤθζǤϤʤųؤˤĤƤϤޤ糰ʸɤǤߤݤϰʲ̤Ǥ롥
(1) ӸؾȤơĸθζ Finno-Ugric, Caucasian, Semitic ²ζ٤ˤä˰㤤ʤ
(2) ΤʤǶɤʬۤθȡĸθζŪ¤줿ϰƱꤵ롥
(3) 衼åѤζȲꤷ硤ʬۤ Indic ɤ Tocharian ( see [2009-08-06-1], [2009-08-14-1] ) ΤؤưȤʤ뤬ųŪʾڵϤʤ
(4) Фơ3ǯȾΥ桼饷ƥåӤˤϳȯʸήΤäȤųŪ˳ξڤƤ롥
(5) ˥桼饷ƥåӤ˱ɤ륬ʸ¸ߤ⤫Ӿ夬äƤ롥Kurgan Ȥϥǡ͡ʯ "barrow" ̣롥ʸιųؾκħϡԤڤäͤǤꡤܤ̹ʸ ( the North Pontic culture ) ȤоȤʤ

(6) 륬ʸôĹƬؾ椬⤯㤷äȤ롥3ǯˤϡǤˤĤѼʬƤꡤϤʽĤǵ֤ξȾͷŪĤǤȹͤ롥Ϥʲ²ˤäȿŪʽĤǡ֤äƤꡤ3ǯȾˤϥ衼åѳϤƤϼĤƤä *
That the Kurgan people succeeded in conquering almost two-thirds of the European continent was probably largely due to their social organization and to the possession of vehicles. (827)
(7) 衼åΤ˽ʸͻ礬ꡤϤ͡ʸʬƤä
For about two or three centuries after the Kurgan appearance in Europe, archeology shows a coexistence of different cultural elements, a process of hybridization, a degeneration and a gradual disappearance of local elements. The old cultural patterns tapered off, but the influence of the substratum cultures remained as a strong undercurrent which led to an increased differentiation of the culture and to the formation of a variety of separate groups. (827)
(8) Υ륬ʬôꤳĸζ̤ʤΤǤϤʤ
I would like to see in the expanding Kurgan people the common ancestors of all Indo-European groups that formed in the successive centuries in Europe and the Near East. (829)
ä˽פϡ륬ʸᤤʳʬƤȿꤵƤ뤳ȤǤ롥衼åˤ̹ʸ䥫եʸͻ礷ƤꡤʹߤϤޤޤʸͻ礷ƤɬͤʽĤǤϤʤäȤȤϡӸؾθκƷɤΤ褦˲᤹٤Ȥˤ礭ؤäƤ롥
˰ưͤǤʤʸ---ϲǤʤߤΰ²ˤ⤢ƤϤޤɽǤ롥
There never was a period of "definitive development and of a final linguistic crystallization"---either in prehistoric, or in historic times. All was fluid, all was and still is changing. (833)
Gimbutas, Marija. "Indo-Europeans: Archeological Problems." American Anthropologist 65 (1963): 815--36.
[2010-12-16-1], [2010-12-17-1]εDZѸ츻ؤάˤʳŪʸ츻ؤη¤ Skeat νǤ OED Իοʤ19ȾΤȤǤ롥19˥ɥĤ濴ȯŸӸؤ̤Ϥäȴ褦ˤʤꡤʳŪʸ츻ؤѸˤŬѤ褦ˤʤäλθ츻ؼԤ伭ԻԤˤȤäƤ18θ츻ʼȤǰƬˤäΤ Johnson μˤϤۤȤɻȤʪˤʤʤȹͤ졤OED ԻԤˤȤäƤ¿θ츻μɮϥΥȤȤäƤǤʤä̾ԻȤȤ¿쾯ʤԼβäˤĤĿʤȤǡ ( tradition ) ηѾθƤΤǤ롥OED ϡ츻˸¤ʤ¿dz ( innovation ) θ뤳ȤܻؤƤꡤᤵƤ⤤
OED Խ紴 Murray ϡɤˤ츻ؤ1850ǯ餤˻ϤޤäˤʤȶĴƤꡤԤ Johnson μθ츻 Horne Tooke ůŪ츻ϿѤƤʤäȤ
Though Murray can be seen to concur with Richardson in his statement that 'one does not look in Johnson for Etymology, any more than in 18th c. writers for biology or electricity' (MP/20/12/1906), the speculative etymologies of Horne Tooke were, if anything, still more remote from the philological rigour at which he aimed . . ." (Mugglestone 15)
ΥȤȤ Murray ˤϼ̤äMurray θդѤ褦
'In dealing with any previous etymological treatment of a word, I always go predisposed to find it wrong . . . I fasten on the weakest point, & if that fails, the thing is done; if it stands, try the next.' (Mugglestone 15)
츻ȤȤƤ˵츻ؤ괶ˤĤƤ[2010-08-06-1]εˤMurray 鿦ŪԻԤˤȤäƤ츻ϺʪäOED ¿¦̤DZѸ켭γԤää˸츻ʬˤƺǤⳫԤΥդ路ȡMugglestone ɾƤ롥
If the image of the pioneer engaging with the unknown was one to which Murray had recourse on a number of occasions, it is perhaps nowhere more pertinent than in the etymological explorations of Murray, Bradley, Craigie, and Onions, as they sought to solve the many puzzles of linguistic history which had, hitherto, been left in obscurity. (Mugglestone 15)
Ϳθ츻βˤϾ˿ŤǤʤФʤʤȤפФƱˡOED ԻԤΤߤʤ餺 Skeat ޤѸ츻ؤڤ곫ٳؤФưڷɤǰؤʤ
Mugglestone, Linda. "'Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest': The New English Dictionary." Lexicography and the OED: Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 1--21.
ε[2011-01-21-1]³ԡֻפФ Crystal Ūʸ1998ǯʸơ餬 Cut Speling ( see [2010-12-20-1] ) ʤֻװƤФƤ Christopher Upward ǯƱ English Today ˤȿ깭Upward ϡ1908ǯΩ The Simplified Spelling Society ʸߤ The English Spelling Society ˤζԽĹ̳ȤΤʪǤ롥
ֻͤǤ Upward ˤȤäơCrystal Ρֻפϸ100ǯϿŸʤפȤθϼ줬Upward Ϻ Crystal 5εΤ줾ȿäƤ롥5бơȿ褦
(1) 鵡ؤֻפ˰ߤϲˤ뤷Ūؤֻפ礭ʼҲٲס̹դ̲ߤڤؤˤޤǤˤƤ
(2) פȤΤϾ˺ǽȼΤǤ롥ֻפθ̤ϳؽԤϤȤƶȳˤƤ⸽ϤǤꡤ̤ȤåȤŻ뤹٤Ǥ롥
(3) 20ȾֻפϡʸƳʤɤεŪʲפǤϤʤԵ§ȤǤβʲפήȤʤäƤƤꡤǴˤ䤫ʹդǤƤֻԤΤǰոΰפ뤳ȤϳΤ֤Ǥȹͤ롥
(4) Ե§ֻ¿ο͡¤ "put off" ƤѸֻؤ»ʤä͡ "functionally illiterate" ȥåƥŽƤΤ¤Ǥ (31) Ե§ֻˤ⤫餺ˤʤäȤϡȤäֻפɬפǤʤȤˤϤĤʤʤϤ (32)
(5) Ѹλˤֻפ˱פȤȡ"an international opportunity" (33) Ǥ뤳ȤºŪѶŪǤä⤤Ƥ椱СֻפϹŪˤãɸǤ롥
Crystal 䤫ʡפɽСUpward ϡǮסֻפˤįȡˤظǤΤϡȤϤβٺǮκǤ褦ʵƤʤʤ
;̤ѸؤΥեȤ̾ʤΤ The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language The Oxford Companion to the English Language 롥Ԥ Crystal 路ΤǤꡤԤˤ Upward ƱԽԤ1ͤȤƻͿƤΤ⤷
Upward, Christopher. "In Defence of Spelling Reform." English Today 57 (1999): 31--34.
Crystal, David. "Isaac Pitman: The Linguistic Legacy." English Today 55 (1998): 12--19.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
[2010-12-24-1]εǡֱѸֻפԤͳפͤȤǥ֥쥹Ȥ⤷͡ʸ줿Τξ English Today Ƿ깭줿ֻɤǤߤȯüäΤ Crystal 1998ǯʸǤ롥ǯ1997ǯˡ®ˡ Phonography ߽Фֻױưؤ¡ʤϤĤ Isaac Pitman (1813--97) 100ǯפ줿ΤơCrystal Pitman ζӤɾʸä
ʸǡCrystal Pitman ֻפȤŪФǮդϤλƤ뤬ֻפαưΤΤˤĤƤ䤫٤Ƥ롥[2010-12-24-1]ˤCrystal ֻԤͳȤưʲƤ롥
(a) ǤŪˡȤˤĤƤͤϿˡ˽ˤ
(b) ɽֻ䤷ʤ硤ɤαѸѼȯϤȤƺѤ뤫Ȥ꤬
(c) ֻκˤäƲȤ "communication barrier" ( see [2009-05-13-1] )
(d) ƲԤϼβװƤΤΤȹͤ뤿ᡤԴ֤Ŷפʤ
ʸǤ5ƤꡤΤ嵭βվ2Ͻʣ뤬3ϰۤʤäƤ롥5ʲ˰Ѥ롥
(1) "the lack of any official body capable of acting as a clearing-house for linguistic ideas" (14)
(2) (a) "the 'immense dead weight of vested interest opposition' from those who have already mastered the traditional system, and who publish in it" (14)
(3) (d) "'the great diversity of projects for improving our spelling which are put forward by reformers, who have never agreed on any single scheme'" (14)
(4) "this remarkable growth [of English in the past century] has taken place despite the existence of the irregular spelling system. . . . It has not put people off. . . . but the learners learn on regardless." (17)
(5) "the growth of the language in fact militates against any spelling reform becoming successful. The more international any language becomes, the more difficult it is to achieve agreement about matters of usage . . . [T]he language has become so international that any attempt to control its use would require unprecedented levels of cooperation." (17)
(1)--(3) ϡºݤˤ Pitman The Life of Sir Isaac Pitman 路 Baker pp. 210--11 ǿƤͳȤȤ(4)--(5) Crystal ȤΤΤǤ롥
Crystal αѸѤϻ˸ǧȽ뤳Ȥ뤬ȽԤ㤨 (4) Τ褦夲ƤΤ褦ɾΤ(4) ϡԵ§ֻˤ⤫餺ѸϸˤʤäǤϤʤȤǤ롥
̣ΤϡCrystal ѸɸಽˤΤʤֻפ֤ŤƤ뤯Ǥ롥Ѹθä18ȾФ Dr Johnson μäƤ٤⤿餵줿˵ϱʸˡ Robert Lowth Lindley Murray ˤäƤ褽Ʊ˳Ω줿ȯˤĤƤ⡤ۤƱ John Walker ȯ蘆졤٤ɸಽã줿Ǥϡˡ ( orthography ) ΤǤ롥줬 Pitman 19ֻפ֤줿Ūʸ̮äȡCrystal Ϥ (15) 19ˤϱѸؤϩϤǤ˸Ƥֻפ褽ˡѸ¤ؤȳ礷ƤΤǤ롥̤ȤơȤƤؤӤ䤹뤿ֻפʤ褦Ȥ19Ⱦ鸽줿ϡ¤ˤä줿Ȥ⤤롥
Crystal ֻפؤ䤫ʻϡ Cut Speling ʤֻװƤФƤ Upward ˤȿͶȤˤʤäμݤεǡ
Crystal, David. "Isaac Pitman: The Linguistic Legacy." English Today 55 (1998): 12--19.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 276--77.
Upward, Christopher. "In Defence of Spelling Reform." English Today 57 (1999): 31--34.
ε[2011-01-19-1]³ԡӸػˤˤ衤֥֥ ( Buchenargument ) ȤϲϡˤĤ (pp. 32--36, 60) ˵äƳ⤹롥
19ӸؤȯŸȼäưĸθζõؤǮޤäĸθŪ˺ƷǤȤȤϡθѤ̱²ŪŪ¸ߤȤȤȤ롥Ǥϡΰĸôꤿ̱²θζϤɤäΤ
ͤϼ̤Ǥ롥¿ΰʸڤ졤ߤ˷ŪбƱ ( cognate ) ϡΰĸǻȤƤǽ⤤ФơθˤƱ줬¸ߤʤ褦ʸϡؤʬβƳ줿ǽ⤤¿θˤߤƱΰäƤߤС줬ĸ濴ŪʸäǤꡤĸʸΰָ̤Ƥǽ⤤ä˰ưʪ̾ޤޤƤСŪʬۤĴ٤뤳ȤˤäơĸθζǤ뤫⤷ʤ
Τ褦ʲ˴Ť͡ưʪܤƤ1㤬Υ֥ʤäǽ˥֥ʤ夲Τ L. Geiger (1829--70) ȤůؼԤäGeiger ϥ֥ʤθϤΥץΥХȳ¦Ȥä˸ߤΥɥĤ濴ȤϰȿꤷˤϰϤϤ˸̩ˤʤꡤ衼åѥ֥ʤϤϡ̤ϵ쥱˥ҥ֥륯ʸ˥顼ɡˤϹפ९ߥȾ¦ȸꤵ줿
ʤʣθ줫֥ʤФƵӸӤ뤳ȤˤʤäΤϡɬ⼫ǤϤʤ֥ʤɽ魯Ʊ²ϥɸɤˤϸʤꥷбϻؼоݤ֥ʤΤΤǤϤʤ "edible oak" Ǥ롥ޥɡåɡΦȸ˶̤ʸڤˤ⤽⡤ĸ¸ߤƤϤθθȤƤϾڵ夤ΤǤ롥
֥ʤϤϤθ³ҤΤ褦˥衼åǽǤƤ뤿ˡ2ĤǾħŪʰյդ뤳ȤȤʤä1Ĥϡΰθζ˴ؤ2ĤΩ---ȥ衼å---ǡ֥ʤ衼åٻԤˤäѤ줿ȤǤ롥衼åٻԤˤȤäƤϡ֥ʤθ³ϥऱΤԹ褯ƤΤǤ롥سѤ줿ȤäƤ褤⤦1ĤϡӸŪ꤬ؤäƤ롥ϡ[2009-08-05-1]εǸ褦ˡ¦ centum 롼פ¦ satem 롼פ̤롥ζ̤ /s/ /k/ λҲбˤ뤬ŪʬۤǤФ褽줤ʬƤꡤ֥ʤθ³ǤζȤʤäƤ뤳ȤϡԹ礬褤
Ϥơ֥ʤɽ魯ϰζˤƼϰʾβͤͿ뤳ȤˤʤäŤ˹ͤХ֥ʤܤ٤ΤسˤĬήȤΤ롥֥ˤäƥ衼å夬ꡤؤųؤʬǥ衼å⡤ˤϤŪ˥ɥ⤬иƤ롥ɥĤΰθζϤ䤬ƥɥ̱²ͥȯŸʥؤʤǤ椯ȤˤʤäӸؤ꤬֥ʤäŪѤ줿ΤǤ롥
塤ɥϰҤ֥ʤ̺ ( Lachsargument ) ˤä褷֥ˤĤƤϤǤ˲ΤΤȻפ줿Τ륤ꥹͤΥꥷؼ R. A. Crossland ϥ֥ʤλؼоݤ Fagus silvatica ֥衼åѥ֥ʡפǤʤ Fagus orientalis سĥ뤳ȤǸ³Ŭ礹褦ΤˡˤƤ줬ĶǻؼоݤѲȤȤˤΤǤ[2011-01-02-1]εǤߤꥫˤȡˡޤߤˤ֥ʲʤʬۿޡʲȡˤФ狼褦ˡbeech Ʊ²줬֥ʤ֤ؼƤ褤ȤȤˤʤС֥ʤϤϤθζꤹ븰Ȥʤʤꤨʤˡ֥κδפ롥

ζõޥس̱²Ūʻǡʹ֤Τ֥ʤͭ̾ˤƤΤǤ롥 (p. 60) λŦȤꡤߤǤޤ֤֤ʡפƤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʤߤˡߤǤ M. Gimbutas ˤä줿ΥƥåӤ˱ɤ륬ʸô꤬ĸäƤΤǤϤʤȤ⤬ͭϤǤ롥
廰ذθζõ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1993ǯ
[2010-11-03-1]εǸűѸ bōc "book" ζɽθϡʣμʡгʡʤñ°ʡͿʡˤ i-mutation κѤŵŪʥޥɤ athematic declension Ǥ롥űѸǤϸʣ books हǤϤʤ촴첻ѲȼäƸҲ ( palatalise ) bēċ ʤ֤ѤƤ⤷ˤˤä -s 뤳ȤʤäʤСη֤ *beech ȤƸäƤϤǤ롥
"books" бȤƤ *beech ϳΤ˸ʤäbeech Ȥϡ֥֥ʡסʥ֥ʲʥ֥°ˤΰդǸѸ¸ߤƤ롥beech book Ϸ־夿ޤطƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤ˸츻Ūʴط롥ξ硤ԤԤ줿ȤƤ롥Ĥƥ֥ʤγdz餫ʼĤ˥롼ʸ줿Ȥ顤֥ʤʸܤξħȤʤäΤǤ롥
beech ֥֥ʡפϰĸ *bhāgos ̤롥Ǥη֤ȡGerman Buche ( Old High German buohha ), Dutch beuk ( Middle Dutch boeke ), Old Norse bóc; Latin fāgus; Greek phāgós / phēgós "edible oak"; Old Slavonic buzū "elm" ʤɡ
Ѹ beech beech-tree, beech-wood ʤɤñʣΤۤ첻Ѳ֤ buckwheat ֥Сסʼ郎֥ʤμ¤˻Ƥ뤳Ȥˤ1ǤȤƤǧ롥
ơ beech ϤĤӸؤȤ롥Ӹػ˾̾⤤֥֥ ( Buchenargument ) ϡӸؤΥޥ̱²δħȤƸˤޤǵƤ롥Ρ֥֥פȤϲεǡ
ε[2011-01-17-1] blending ֺסblend ֺסportmanteau word ֤ФפȤäѸҲ𤷤ϱѸˤ blending ̻ŪˤĤƳ⤷Ĥġblend
Ѹˤϡ餫ϤۤȤɤʤChaucer nifle ( nihil + trifle ) "trifle" ȤƵ뤳Ȥ뤬MED θ츻ˤ Anglo-French μѸȤѸʹߤϾĺ줬Ϥᡤ2ΰ̣Ȥεǽ˲äơΡ顦Фʤɤθ̤äΤФƤ롥foolosopher ( fool + philosopher ), balloonacy ( balloon + lunacy ) ʤɤǤ롥Lewis Carroll (1832--98) Ϻεǵ slithy, mimsy Τۤˤ chortle ( chuckle + snort ) galumph ( gallop + triumphant ) ʤɤ߽ФƤꡤޤ portmanteau word ߤοƤȤ롥
ΰ̣ȯΤ20äƤǤ롥ʸʳؤʤɼҲΤ¦̤Ǿ̤ȯŪäȼäơäμפʤ¿ξͤ "densification" Ĭή ( see [2011-01-12-1] ) ˹פ륹ޡȤʸ1ĤäΤǤ롥
嵭ηаޤǡѸˤϤ¿κ줬¸ߤ롥ˤȤޤʤι⤵ȳѤιĤिˡƤߤ褦
| blend | 1st element | 2nd element |
|---|---|---|
| avionics | aviation | electronics |
| brunch | breakfast | lunch |
| docudrama | documentary | drama |
| Ebonics | Ebony | phonics |
| edutainment | education | entertainment |
| electret | electricity | magnet |
| electrocute | electro | execute |
| Eurovision | Euro- | television |
| flush | flash | blush |
| Franglais | Français | Anglais |
| infomercial | information | commercial |
| liger | lion | tiger |
| motel | motor | hotel |
| Oxbridge | Oxford | Cambridge |
| Paralympics | parallel | Olympics |
| podcast | pod | broadcast |
| simulcast | simultaneous | broadcast |
| Singlish | Singapore | English |
| smog | smoke | fog |
| telethon | telephone | marathon |
blend פ blending פȤˤäƺǤ롥Ǥͭ̾ʺ1Ĥ brunch breakfast + lunch ĤŤΤǡ21˰̤ΤǤ롥ʣΤΤ1Ĥʪ˵ͤ।ǡФ ( portmanteau word ) ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿ portmanteau OADL8 ˤ "consisting of a number of different items that are combined into a single thing" ˡ
portmanteau word ȤɽϡLewis Carroll Through the Looking-Glass (1872) 6Ϥ Alice Humpty Dumpty 路Ƥäޤ줿ɽǤ롥Alice ϡιԻĤʻ "JABBERWOCKY" κǽ1 Humpty Dumpty ˼
'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.
Ф Humpty Dumpty ⤷Ƥ椯Τ1ܤ slithy ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
'Well, "slithy" means "lithe and slimy." "Lithe" is the same as "active." You see it's like a portmanteau --- there are two meanings packed up into one word.'
Ʊͤ3ܤ mimsy ˤĤƤ⡤"flimsy and miserable" portmanteau word ȤäƤ롥
Ѹ餷 blending ȤƾΤˤĤƤϡOED ˤȽ Henry Sweet "New English Grammar" (1892) ˸롥
Grammatical and logical anomalies often arise through the blending of two different constructions.
̾ blending Ȥ2ˤռŪ¤ؤ2ΰ̣Ʊ۵ˤä̵ռκ˴Ť needcessity ( need + necessity ) Τ褦ޤߤ롥Ԥ contamination ֺƱפȤƶ̤뤳Ȥ⤢롥
blending ϸΰȤƹΤƤ뤿ˤαǤޤΤƤʤʸˡŪʡֺפθݤ⤢롥"Why did you do that?" "What did you do that for?" "Why did you do that for?" ʤɽɽФꡤ"different from" "other than" 鿷 "different than" ꤹǤ롥ܸΡֲгڤפȡڤäȤפơֲгڤäȤפȤʤΤƱͤǤ롥
Ѹο쥦åˤ Paul McFedries ˤ륵 Word Spy ܤͤ롥1996ǯ衤줬ɲäƤꡤ2750ʾο줬ϿƤ롥ħϡۤȤɤοΤ85%ˤˤĤȽŵͿƤꡤ¿Τ73%ˤϽǯƤ뤳Ȥ
ȤǯεܤΤ2019ĤˤĤƽǯȤ˿夲ƤߤΤդǤ롥Ϣ³50ĶƤΤ1987--2006ǯ20ǯ֤ǡä1990ǯؤ
1962 ( 1) 1963 ( 1) 1964 ( 1) 1970 ( 1) 1972 ( 2) * 1973 ( 3) * 1975 ( 5) ** 1976 ( 8) **** 1977 ( 11) ****** 1978 ( 14) ******* 1979 ( 16) ******** 1980 ( 24) ************* 1981 ( 33) ****************** 1982 ( 32) ***************** 1983 ( 39) ********************* 1984 ( 38) ********************* 1985 ( 54) ****************************** 1986 ( 47) ************************** 1987 ( 59) ******************************** 1988 ( 66) ************************************ 1989 ( 67) ************************************* 1990 ( 77) ****************************************** 1991 ( 78) ******************************************* 1992 ( 83) ********************************************** 1993 ( 72) **************************************** 1994 (100) ******************************************************* 1995 (101) ******************************************************** 1996 (101) ******************************************************** 1997 ( 87) ************************************************ 1998 ( 78) ******************************************* 1999 (109) ************************************************************ 2000 ( 85) *********************************************** 2001 (111) ************************************************************* 2002 ( 87) ************************************************ 2003 ( 66) ************************************ 2004 ( 57) ******************************* 2005 ( 56) ******************************* 2006 ( 61) ********************************** 2007 ( 32) ***************** 2008 ( 33) ****************** 2009 ( 14) ******* 2010 ( 9) *****
ε[2011-01-14-1]ǡThe Brown family of corpora λѤǰƬˡ2Ѽ2ΥӤˤäƴѻ롤ܤٺ˴ؤ Mair (109--12) ˵äƳ⤷ŪʷǤޤȤ褦ȤΤLeech et al. (43) Ǥ롥ǤǰƬˤΤ The Brown family of corpora 4ѥ ( Brown, Frown, LOB, F-LOB ) Ūʥ٥ǤĤͭѤѸƳƤ롥
(a) regionally specific change: Ѽˤ̻Ѳ뤬¾Ѽˤϸʤ硥դˡʤɤΤ褦ѲǤξѼ̻Ѳ regionally general change ȸƤФ롥
(b) convergent change: ξѼǼ«̻ѲƤ硥դˡʬѲƤ divergent change ȸƤФ롥
(c) parallel change: ξѼʿŪ̻ѲƤ硥˵Ƥ contrary change ȸƤФ롥
(d) different rates of change: ξѼƱ̻ѲƤȤƤ⡤Ѳ®٤ۤʤäƤ礬롥®٤褽ƱǤСsimilar rates of change ȸƤФ롥
(e) different starting/ending points: ξѼ̻Ѳγϻ뤤ϽλۤʤäƤ硥褽ƱߥǤСsimilar staring/ending points ȸƤФ.
(f) the follow-my-leader pattern: ξѼʿŪ̻ѲƤ뤬¾ɤƤȹͤ硥(c) β̶ʬȹͤ롥
ȳݤ碌ʣ褹1Ѽ˸ꤷƤ̻Ѳ桤뤤2Ѽ夲ƶŪӤ븦Ǥ齽ʬʣ꤬ΤǤ뤫顤2Ѽ2ΥӤθ椬ʣˤ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫Ǥ
ѸѼ Americanization 1ĤĬήǤȤȡѼ郎 AmE ȤŪˤɤΤ褦̻ѲФƤ뤫ûŪ˴ѻ븦ϤɤɤƤ뤫⤷ʤޤAmE ǤȤΤΤȤ⤷줺塤WSSE ( World Standard Spoken English ) 䥤ɱѸʤ̤Ѽ郎ˤʤäƤ椯Ȥǽ⡤ʤȤʬŪˤǤʤѼαƶϤˤ뤿ˡ"diachronic comparative corpus linguistics"2Ѽ2Ӹ椬ϤäܤƤΤǤϤʤ
Mair, Christian. "Three Changing Patterns of Verb Complementation in Late Modern English: A Real-Time Study Based on Matching Text Corpora." English Language and Linguistics 6 (2002): 105--31.
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
[2010-06-29-1]εǤߤ褦ˡThe Brown family of corpora 4ѥ ( Brown, Frown, LOB, F-LOB ) Ѥ뤳ȤˤäƱѸαѼ֤30ǯ֤ۤɤ̻Ѳ٤뤳ȤǤ롥Τ褦˿ꤹӲǽʣΥѥѤ̻ "diachronic comparative corpus linguistics" (Leech et al. 24) ȸƤФƤꡤߤ30ǯۤɤδֳ֤ѼΥѥ̤ξظäԻƤ椯ΤȻפ롥
ϰѼǯȤ2ĤΥѥˤäܤ٤κˤĤơŪʲʣꤦ롥Brown family ξˤϤɤΤ褦ʲ뤫Mair (109--12) Ƥ2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۡʤ̵ͭˤ ( "typology of contrasts" ) Ѥǰʲ˼"=" Ѳνȯ"+/-" ѲȤ
(1) nothing happening
BrE: = =
AmE: = =
(2) stable regional contrast
BrE: = =
AmE: +/- +/-
(3) parallel diachronic development
BrE: = +/-
AmE: = +/-
(4) convergence: Americanization
BrE: +/- =
AmE: = =
(5) convergence: 'Britishization'
BrE: = =
AmE: +/- =
(6) incipient divergence: British English innovating
BrE: = +/-
AmE: = =
(7) incipient divergence: American English innovating
BrE: = =
AmE: = +/-
(8) random fluctuation
BrE: = +/-
AmE: +/- +/-
(1), (8) ϺǤ¿ѻԤδؿʤʿޤʥפκۡʤηǡˤǤ롥(2) ϳΩ줿ưαƺ㤨 <honour> vs. <honor> ֻ got vs. gotten λѤȤʤ롥(3) Mair ǤϵƤʤ(4) Americanization λ㡤㤨 help 褦ˤʤäƤƤ뷹פ⤫٤뤳ȤǤʤ BrE ǤΤηϤ٤Ƥ Americanization ˵Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤˡ(5) ˤޤ 'Britishization' Ǥ롥㤨 AmE Ǥνưɽ have got to ι BrE ˸ƤǽȵƤ롥(6) ϡBrE prevent "O + from + V-ing" ǤϤʤ "O + V-ing" 褦ˤʤФƤ뷹˵롥(7) ϡAmE begin to Ǥʤ V-ing ٤ޤФƤ뷹Ȥʤ롥
ŪˤϡѲ®٤θʤФʤʤ㤨 (3) Τ褦ξѼƱ̻ѲƤǤ⡤Ѽ֤Ѳ®٤˺з̤ȤʿԤˤϤʤʤ嵭®٤Ȥȡ˺٤ʬɬפˤʤϤǤ롥Τ褦ʣʲϻĤäƤ뤬2Ѽ2Ӥ "diachronic comparative corpus linguistics" ŪȤơ嵭 "typology of contrasts" ͭѤΥݥϡBrE AmE ˤ30ǯۤɤȤû֤̻ѲǤʤʹߤξѼ̻ŪȯãҤǥȤƤͭǤ롥ϡ[2010-10-09-1]εǰäѸ convergence divergence ˤŬѤǤȻפ롥
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Mair, Christian. Three Changing Patterns of Verb Complementation in Late Modern English: A Real-Time Study Based on Matching Text Corpora." English Language and Linguistics'' 6 (2002): 105--31.
եϱѸ˾äȤפʳǤȤäƤǤϤʤѸΤߤʤ餺ѸʹߤˤեϱѸФ礭ʱƶڤܤƤ ( see [2009-08-22-1], [2009-08-19-1] ) եαƶϤϸäμѤȤäľܤθŪƶФǤʤѸɸಽȤȤʤäѸˤƤϡ衼åѤˤե¸ߴϥꥹǤαѸɸಽε˾ʤ̻ɷͿ㤨СJonathan Swift 1712ǯ륢ǥߡΩȤ ( see [2010-12-02-1] ) ϡ˥եΥǥߡ ( l'Academie française ) ΩˤʤäȯۤǤʴϢ뵭Ȥ[2009-09-15-1],[2009-09-08-1]ȡˡ
ե줬ѸüԤˤäƤɤΤ褦˸ƤȤϱѸˤνפʥȥԥåѸüԤ˸¤餺սƥեüԼȤˤäƥե줬ɤΤ褦˸ƤΤȤޤפǤ롥ϡ֥եŪʸǤפȤդ---ؤΩ줫ϡֿáפȤ٤---ɤΤ褦ޤ졤ɤΤ褦˸ߤޤĤäƤΤLodge ˰͵Ƴ⤷
οäߤοƤȤ٤ϥեʸɮ Count Antoine de Rivarol (1753--1801) Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française (1784) ˡͭ̾ "Ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas franais" ʤ餶Υեˤ餺פĤʹߡ19, 20Υեͤ Rivarol ȤۤƱݤθ֤ƤƤꡤեŪǤŪǤȤä⳰˳ΩƤä
óΩطʤˤϤĤμҲŪʻ𤬤äοä줿ǤʤؤäƤäطʤȤƤϡФ륹ƥ쥪Ϳ1ۤ˹äȤ롥ꥢϥڥ椨ˡֲŪʸסڥƮեȷӤĤ֥ޥåʸסɥĤϷפ碌̵ǼʸפȤäΥƥ쥪פǤ롥եϤǤˡŪʸפȤɾäˡΥƥ쥪פʹߤޤޤ夹뤳ȤȤʤä
Υƥ쥪פ̱²Υƥ쥪פƱͤ̾ϳͿΤեϤǤ夷ƤǤϡοäϥեǤɤΤ褦ޤ졤դΤ16Υեˤեɸಽưüȯ롥եɸ뤿˲ǥˤ뤫ȤϤۤǤϤʤä²äե줳äȤȤ졤줳ɸˤդ路ΤȤͤƤΤǤ롥1718ˤʤλפ褹ȡե²θϤ˵ȤϤŪǤϤʤȤ졤˥եߤŪʤȤάإեȤƤ椯18ե̿ˤäƶߤȡեϡȤ̤Ρ̱礹뿷ħ줬ɸեäΤǤ롥ȥǥƥƥΤˡɸե줬Ѥ줿ȤäƤ褤
ʾˤ顤ɸե줬եͤˤäơֹ̱ξħפȤǧƤȡñʤ⥳ߥ˥θǤʾդƤȤʬ롥椬Ρֹ̱ξħפפ⤫٤ʤͤȡեͤΥեؤλפʤƿäؤλפˤޤ˶ͳ褯ʬΤǤϤʤ
Ҥ뤬äƱѸɸಽβߤȥեΤȤϤޤäۤʤäƤ롥ꥹǤϡֱѸᥤꥹ̱ξħפȤռϤäȼ夤
֥եŪʸǤפȤäؤΩ줫Τ뤳Ȥʤʾ˿äޤ칭ޤäƤŪΤ뤳Ȥ̣줬¾ɤΤ褦˸뤫ȤϡطʤȴˤƤʤΤǤ롥
Lodge, Anthony. "French is a Logical Language." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 23--31.
Svartvik and Leech ˤȡѸνʸˡѲϰʲ3ĤηƤȤ (206)
Grammaticalization --- Items of vocabulary are gradually getting subsumed into grammatical forms, a well-known process of language change.
Colloquialization --- The use of written grammar is tending to become more colloquial or informal, more like speech.
Americanization --- The use of grammar in other countries (such as the UK) is tending to follow US usage.
1ܤ grammaticalization ( see [2010-06-18-1] ) ϸѸͭѲʤΥᥫ˥ˤȤ櫓ǤϤʤSvartvik and Leech ϸѸ˸ȹͤƤΤԤǰƬˤϡ㤨[2010-05-31-1]ε[2011-01-11-1]ǿ줿 semi-auxiliaries extension of the progressive Τ
2ܤ colloquialization ϸä̱粽 ( democratization ) ȤϢ뤬ñ˽դäդƱĤĤȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤƱͤˡ3ܤ Americanization ñ BrE AmE ĤĤȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤ2ĤηϳΤʬŪ˽ŤʤäƤꡤ줾켫Ȥñ˵ҤǤʤʣʲǤ롥
ҤԤ1ͤǤ Leech ̤ζԤ路 Leech et al. ΤʤǤϡ⤦1ĤηȤ "densification" (50) 뤤 "the effects of 'information explosion'" (22) ŦƤ롥ˤȡ礷³ǤѥȤ˸Ψ褯첽褦ȤߵޤäƤȤζŪ줬brunch, smog ʤɤ Ф ( blend ) AIDS, NATO ʤɤ Ƭ ( acronym ) New York City Ballet School instructor ʤɤ̾Ϣ
˸ѸνʸˡѲ˴ؤ colloquialization, Americanization, densification ʤɤȤäȤȡʸˡѲȼҲѲشط虜ʤ⤷ҲѲʸˡѲƤȤСϼ¤˶̣衤Τ˼ҲѲѲͶȯȤȤϸξǤäܿܿν¦̤Ѳη⤿餹ȤǤäʼºݤ Americanization ϸԤˡʳμҲѲŪ˸ "the broader changes in the communicative climate of the age" Ūʤ⡤ΤʤǤȤ櫓ŪǤʸˡ˱ƶڤܤȤΤϡ褷ƼΤȤǤϤʤä
Leech et al. ϡҲѲʸˡѲ˵ڤܤƶˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
More often than not there are links between grammatical changes, on the one hand, and social and cultural changes, on the other. Such links may not be as obvious as the links between social change and lexical change, and they are certainly more indirect. Again and again, however, the authors have discovered that, especially when it comes to explaining the spread of innovations through different styles and genres, apparently disparate grammatical 'symptoms' can be traced back to common 'causes' at the discourse level. Exploring the connections between the observed shifts in grammatical usage (the nuts and bolts of the system, as it were) and the broader changes in the communicative climate of the age, which are reflected in the performance data that the corpora are made up of, is a fascinating challenge not only for the linguist. (Leech et al. 22)
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
[2010-05-31-1]εǡָѸ˵äƤѲפվʸˡѲŪʤäơ⤦ܤ٤ܤɲäʲϡLeech et al. ˤ "A consensus list of grammatical topics worth exploring" Ǥ (18--19) ΥꥹȼΤ Barber (130--44) ˴ŤƤΤǤ롥Ĥιܤˤ hellog δϢؤΥĥäƤ
decline of the inflected form whom (see [2011-01-09-1].)
use of less instead of fewer with countable nouns (e.g. less people)
regularization of irregular morphology (e.g. dreamt dreamed) (for octopuses, see [2009-08-26-1], [2010-09-30-1]; for oxes, see [2010-08-22-1])
a tendency towards analytical comparison of disyllabic adjectives (politer, politest more polite, most polite) (see [2010-06-04-1], [2010-07-27-1])
spread of the s-genitive to non-human nouns (the book's cover)
revival of the 'mandative' subjunctive, probably inspired by formal US usage (we demand that she take part in the meeting) (see [2010-03-18-1], [2010-03-19-1], [2010-04-07-1], [2009-08-17-1] )
elimination of shall as a future marker in the first person (see [2010-03-21-1], [2010-07-22-1])
development of new, auxiliary-like uses of certain lexical verbs (e.g. want to wanna --- cf., e.g., the way you look, you wanna see a doctor soon)
further auxiliation of semi-auxiliaries and modal idioms such as be going to ( gonna) or have got to ( gotta) (see [2009-07-01-1])
extension of the progressive to new constructions (especially modal, present perfect and past perfect passive progressives of the type the road would not be being built / has not been being built / had not been being built)
use of like, same as, and immediately as conjunctions
omission of the definite article in combinations of premodifying descriptive noun phrase and proper name (e.g. renowned Nobel laureate Derek Walcott)
increase in the number and types of multi-word verbs (phrasal verbs, have / take / give a + verb)
placement of frequency adverbs before auxiliary verbs (even if no emphasis is intended --- I never have said so)
do-support for have (Have you any money? and No, I haven't any money Do you have / have you got any money? and No, I don't have any money / I haven't got any money)
spread of 'singular' they (Everybody came in their car) to formal and standard usage. ( see [2010-01-27-1] )
¾û (e.g. isn't) áط that طλѡNew York City Ballet School instructor ̾Ϣʤɤä
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Barber, Charles. Linguistic Change in Present-Day English. Edinburgh and London: Oliver and Boyd, 1964.
ǯ⤳λäƤAmerican Dialect Society ˤήԸޤθɽλ2009ǯ[2010-01-14-1]εǾҲ𤷤褦 tweet ޤФ줿2010ǯ app ä
ܤ17դADS ˤȯɽץ쥹 (PDF)Ȥ줿θϰʲ̤Ǥ롥
"app" --- noun, an abbreviated form of application, a software program for a computer or phone operating system
app ܸǤϡ֥ץפȤƤǤ˹ǧΤƤ롥αñ OED ǤϽ1985ǯȤƸФ˺ѤƤꡤ褷ƿǤϤʤǯϥԥ塼Ǥʤ iPhone, iPad ʤɤŻüб륢ץꥱμפapp store ʤ륪饤ŹޤΩĤ褦ˤʤäƤ2ǯ³ITӥϢθ줬ޤȤ¤ˡȤʡITפȤĤƤήԸϤǤ˸Ťˡ
¾ΥΥߥ͡ȸ礴ȤμįƤߤä˥ꥫΡФŪ꤬ʬ롥Wikileaks vuvuzela ǡǤ롥ͥåȴϢǤ褯ȤưȤƤ trend "to exhibit a burst of online buzz" MOST LIKELY TO SUCCEED ǤμޤȤʤäΤʤۤɤȻפ碌롥
ADS Ǥ Word of the Year for 2010 ȹ碌ơޤǤ Name of the Year for 2010 ɼԤʤ줿ԤޤΤϡܥ֥[2010-04-20-1]εǤ줿ɤβл Eyafjalljökul ä
ADS ѰѰĹ Ben Zimmer ϡ[2010-08-11-1]εǾҲ𤷤 Visual Thesaurus ǤԤǤ⤢롥
[2011-01-07-1],[2011-01-08-1]ǡʸˡѲ֤ƽ˿ʹԤΤǤ뤳ȤҤ٤顤ŵŪˤϡʸˡѲδѻϾʤȤˤ錄ĹŪʺȤȤȤˤʤ롥Ĺ֤ˤ錄äʸˡѲεܤܤ˽˼äƤ椯®٤פˤϡΤĤλǿܤ٤Ĵ٤뤳Ȥɬפˤʤ롥ˡѥѤŪʸΰյƤ롥Leech et al. (50) ϡ̻ѲθǤ٤ꤳפǤ⤷Ƥ롥
Theorizing about diachronic changes has focused primarily on the processes whereby new forms are initiated and spread, and until recently has paid comparatively little attention to the processes by which the range and frequency of usage contracts, and eventually disappears from the language. . . . one of the message we wish to convey is that frequency evidence is far more important in tracing diachronic change than has generally been acknowledged in the past.
Leech et al. (8) ˰ѤƤʲ Denison ɾƱͤμݤѲˤĤƽҤ٤Τ¿쾯ʤѲˤƤϤޤֻžԡˡ
Since relatively few categorial losses or innovations have occurred in the last two centuries, syntactic change has more often been statistical in nature, with a given construction occurring throughout the period and either becoming more or less common generally or in particular registers. The overall, rather elusive effect can seem more a matter of stylistic than of syntactic change, so it is useful to be able to track frequencies of occurrence from eModE through to the present day. (Denison 93)
ΰʸνפϡˤѲŪ ( statistical ) ǤƱʸŪ ( stylistic ) Ǥ뤳ȤŦƤǤ롥㤨СѸˤ뵿̾졦ط̾ whom οϡʹʸˡѲȤƤ褯夲뤬 ( case ) ˴ؤŪǤʾˡŪʸŪȤȤ館٤⤷ʤŪפȤΤϡĶˤ whom who ζ̤켫Τ϶Ѹ褢ޤѲƤޤξԤ٤ꡤ̻ѥٹ礤ǧ٤Ǥ롥
ʸŪפȤΤϡդäդ̡ޤƥȤΥˤä whom ٤礭ۤʤ뤫Ǥ롥ʤȤŪʶ̤ˤʤäƤȤϤwhom / who ˤ formality ȤʸŪǤ礭ؤäƤȤȤϡϤ䤳ѲȤȤ館ǤԽʬǤ뤳ȤƤ롥
whom / who ˴ؤʸˡѲˤĤƤ¿Ը椬뤬ȻʸˤĤƤ Leech et al. 1ϡä pp. 1--4, 12--16 ͭѤǤ롥
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Denison, David. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Ed. Suzanne Romaine. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 92--329.
ε[2011-01-07-1] "grammar blindness" ͳͻä (3) ǿ줿Ѳ®٤ˤĤơʸˡʷ֤ˤѲӤƤߤ褦Ѳˤ˻֤ΤΤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥㤨Сͭ̾ʤȤǤ첻1400?1700ǯˤƽ˿ʹԤ ( see [2009-11-18-1] ) ¿ξ硤ѲξﲼǿʹԤΤǡ̤Ȥȱ߳˿ܤΤǤ롥
ǡ֡ѲϲѲۤȤƤʣǤꡤԵ§⤤ޤʣʸˡƥߤ˴ؤ礦ˡ߳ˤϿʤߤˤˡ֡ϲȰۤʤ̣ôäƤ뤿ˡ̣ϢۤȤʣװꡤԵ§Ѳʤ֤ǤСΤۤҤǻ
嵭ޤȤСʸˡѲϲѲ٤ƻ֤ꡤľŪ˿ʹԤ̤Ե§ˤʤ뷹줬ʸˡѲŪ˰ռˤͳ1ĤǤ롥ʾεä˷ѲȲѲοʹԤλκۤˤĤƤϡǤ夲ƤΤǡͤޤǤ˲˰Ѥ롥
Morphological change is likely to diffuse more slowly than phonological change. This is because there are more morphemes than phonemes and there are more morphological environments to work through than phonological ones (Aitchison, "Missing Link" 25).
Another difference is that morphological change usually shows a higher degree of irregularity than phonological change because slower changes are more likely to get involved in unexpected interferences as they proceed. The irregularity of morphological change is due also to the complexities of morphological categories. To take Early Middle English nouns for example, there are intertwined categories such as case, number, gender, and declension type. The complex interdependence of these categories make it difficult for any morphological change to proceed regularly.
Furthermore, morphemes are associated with meanings while phonemes are normally not (phonaesthesia aside, of course). It is no wonder, therefore, that morphology is more subject to semantic association and analogy than phonology.
One final point is that since morphology is more closely related to syntax than phonology, it is more likely to be conditioned by syntactic contexts as well. (Hotta 125)
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Aitchison, Jean. "The Missing Link: The Role of the Lexicon." Historical Linguistics and Philology. Ed. J. Fisiak. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1990. 11--28.
ε[2011-01-06-1]ǡʸˡѲѲѲ٤ƵդˤȤ˿줿ѸˤĤơ "grammar blindness" ͳ͡뤳ȤǤ롥Leech et al. (7--8) 鲿Ŧ褦
(1) ѸΤ褦ʬŪʸˤʸˡѲϡѲΤ褦˶Ūܤ˸ΤǤϤʤѲ乽ʸΰʬϤΤ褦Ūʻ㤬¿"audible/visible" Ǥʤ
(2) ξŪʹʸʬϤϤȤʸˡѲηˤʤȹͤ뤬ȤξŪǤȤȤξζܤۣǤ뤳ȤްդʸˡѲƤ뤫ɤƤʤȤ¿Ȥˤʤ롥
(3) ʸˡѲϡ֤ƽ˿ʹԤΤǤꡤѻԤΰΤǤ鵤դˤΤǤ롥
Strang (60--62) ϡ͡ʸˡؤΰռ㤵Τʸˡλ礱Ƥ뤳Ȥ˵Τ褦Ƥ롥
(4) ʸˡ§ϲ§¿õ§ۤɼǤϤʤ꼰Τäơ⤽ѼԤѰۤѲ˵դλȤȤߤۣǤ롥
(5) ͡ʱѸ variation Ū¸ߤʸˡפǧǽפऽΤΤ¿ͲƤƤꡤʸˡλƤ롥
(6) ͡ϵʸˡˤ1Ĥʸˡפ뤳ȤƤ뤿ˡʸˡФƻʤꡤΤޤޤʸˡʵʸˡˤȤѲؤΰռ㤯ʤ餶ʤ
(7) Ѹذ̤οŸˤ⤫餺ʸˡθϤޤޤŪʳαޤäƤꡤŬڤʻˤǤ롥
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
ʸ嵭2011/01/08(Sat)ʲ Mair ʸ pp. 107--09 "Observing grammatical change in progress" ʤꡤBloomfield Bauer ΰѤʸˡѲδѻǽƤ
Mair, Christian. Three Changing Patterns of Verb Complementation in Late Modern English: A Real-Time Study Based on Matching Text Corpora." English Language and Linguistics'' 6 (2002): 105--31.
Leech et al. 1Ϥ "'grammar blindness' in the recent history of English" (1) ŦƤ롥
Surprising though this may be in view of a vast and growing body of literature on recent and ongoing changes in the language, there is very little we know about grammatical change in written standard English in the twentieth century. (Leech et al. 1)
ǯΥѥȱѸ˸νвˤꤳξϾIJƤƤȻפġʸˡѲλ㸦ĶʸˡѲŪĬήȤ褦ʵŪͤϳΤ˾ʤѸˤǤϡä˸űѸ줫ѸˤƤ synthesis analysis ؤʸˡѲʸˡѲλȤƹ椵Ƥ뤬 ( see synthesis_to_analysis ) ѸˤƤʸˡѲϰϼǤ롥ʴϢȤ[2010-04-01-1]ȡޤѸθѲˤĤƤ[2010-05-31-1]ȡ
ŵŪѸˤ Strang ϡѸȤŤʳαѸȤΤʸˡѲΰ礭ۤʤäƤ¤ŦͳϸѸʸˡѲʤǤϤʤʸˡѲ˵դȤȤǤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
The most promising direction of search for an explanation would seem to lie in the assumption that there is grammatical change in progress at the moment, as in the past, but that we are considerably less perceptive of it than of other kinds of linguistic change. (Strang 59--60)
ʹʸˡѲѲѲ٤ƵդˤθѲǤ뤳Ȥ͡˻ŦƤ롥ǤϡʤʸˡѲϵդΤΤˤĤƤεǡ
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
[2011-01-03-1], [2011-01-04-1]εǡOED äȤʬषƿ夲ȤȤԤʤä褯ͤƤߤȡΤ褦ʺȤϤޤǤˤ͡ĴǷ֤ԤʤäƤȤǤ롥̻ŪøδúȤȤƺ֤ⷫԤʤȤȻפΤǡOED νϷ̤ȤȤ˿夲뤿ΥġäƤȤˤ̾դ "OED Century-by-Century Sorter"
ʲϻˡThe Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM. Version 3.1. Oxford: OUP, 2004. ǤκȤȤƤ롥ۤʤưʤ⤷ʤΤǤ餺
(1) OED ADVANCED SEARCH ˤꡤξ˳åꥹȤϤ롥
(2) Υƥȥܥåˡ(1) θŬˤĤؤʥȥԥꥪ1ʸθ³Ϥ롥㤨 ".alchemy" 줬ФԤȤʤ롥
(3) ƥȥܥåDzԸˡ(1) νϷ̤ݤȥԡŽդ롥OED ǤνϷ̤1̤˼ޤʤˤϼڡ˿ʤѥԡƥȥܥåѤŽդƤ椯ǯ˥ȤƤʤƤġ
(4) ³̤θԤʤˤ (1), (2), (3) κȤ֤ƥȥܥåˤϡŽդƥȤѤƤ椯Ȥˤʤ롥
(5) Go åȡƸ̤ˤĤȤ˥Ȥ줿ɽ롥
ΤᤤΤǡΥƥȥեѰդϡOED ADVANCED SEARCH "language names" ˤ줾 Japanese, Chinese, Malay, Korean, Vietnamese Ƹ̤θåꥹȤ嵭λͤǼΡθ줫μѸȤİΤǤ롥äȤ⡤OED θǽθ³ǡʤολ̥ꥹȤ˺äƤΤǤˤաΡʤ褦ʻͤ§ä˥ƥȤԡơʲΥƥȥܥåŽդGo åɽϤ롥
CGI ץȤ绨ĤʻͤʤΤǡ褽ηΤ뤿ΥġȤƻͤޤǤˡä˰ʲա
ǯ "a1866", "c1629", "15..", "?c1400" ʤɤȤʤäƤϤ줾19, 17, 16, 14ؿʬ
ǯεܤΤʤϰ礷ơ0פȤƿʬ
ʸ嵭2011/04/24(Sun)OED Online Timeline ɽǤϡ٤ղޤǤƤΤǡ CGI Ȥ꤬褤CD-ROMǤ OED ǺȤȤ䡤˺٤塼˥ɬפʾΤ˼
ε[2011-01-03-1]˰³ʳظäʤʬθäν OED Ĵ٤ȤꡥȯŸƤؽʬθäɤΤ褦̻ʬۤƤˤĤơ anatomy math ˵ƥդǼƱˡǡϤˤ褯ȯã music, astronomy, astrology, rhetoric, alchemy γʬˤĤƸäνƤߤdefinitions Ƹʬά "Mus.", "Astr." / "Astron.", "Astrol.", "Rhet.", "Alch." Ǥ롥ʿͥǡϤΥڡHTMLȡ

Ūʬ餷ʳؤθäȯ19ǤϤʤ1416˽ФΥԡƤ롥ˤƤ⡤alchemy 4ʬΥդäۤɤ줤ʿԤƤΤϼŪǤ롥15ˤäǤͳʬϤƤʤʬȯŸˤȤΤʤΤ뤤 OED λȤƤβ餫ħȿǤƤ뤬椨ʤΤalchemy ˴ؤƤѸ줽ΤΤο¿ʤΤϤǤʤ14, 15դ˥ԡƤ롥
OED ʸˤθѤǤȤȤϼˤƤȶŪ˺ȤƤߤƼ´襤ƤηϤʸκǤ롥
ͥʹߡѸˤϲʳظäȯŪä19ϲʳؤȯŸᤶޤӤʳѸ줬и뤳ȤȤʤäˤϡ18Ⱦʪؤǥͤ̾ˡѤ褦ˤʤäȤƶƤ ( see [2010-09-21-1] )
ʳؤνʬȯãȤθäϢưƤȹͤΤǡOED äνлĴ٤ƤޤȤСʬȯŸˤγάĤळȤǤΤǤϤʤȹͤ18ˤǤ˽ʬȯŸƤʬ⤢櫓ǡΤ褦ʬǤ19äŪ˾ϤǤ롥ǡ18ȯŸƤʬäƤ˶ؤȿء19ȯŸʬäƤ벽ؤʪؤܤơOED 餽줾ʬѸäƤߤ
ϡ줾 ADVANCED SEARCH definitions "Anat.", "Math.", "Chem.", "Biol." ޤޤȤƤˤΤǤꡤ̥ꥹȤåϤƤʤƸϽǯˤäȤ˿ʬ"a1866", "c1629", "15.." ʤɤϤ줾19, 17, 16ؿʬޤǯεܤΤʤΤϹθ鳰Ƥ롥Τ褦绨ĤĴʤΤǡޤǻͤޤǤˡʲ̤ɽȥդǤ롥ʿͥǡϤΥڡHTMLȡ

chemistry biology 19˽иäΥԡƤ뤬anatomy math Ϥ줾17, 16˥ԡ롥2ʬϳΤ19ˤ⻳ΤǡʳظäȯȤƤϤޤ뤬ġʬˤäƸηΰۤʤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ϤǤȯŸˤγά褯ΤƤ4ʬ夲OED ˤäƤθǧˤʤ¾ʬƱͤĴܤƤߤȤ⤷̤Ф뤫⤷ʤϢȤơSOED Ѥ1500--1900ǯˤѸäáפˤĤơ[2009-11-16-1]ȡ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 87.
ε[2011-01-01-1]DZѸ rabbit hare ΰ㤤˿줿ξԤʬŪˤ Lagomorpha ֥ܡפ Leporidae ֥ʡפΰۤʤ°°ƤꡤΤ˶̤ΤǤ뤬ѾϺƱƤ롥㤨Сʬ jackrabbit ֥åפ hare Ǥꡤrock hare ֥פ rabbit Ǥ롥ưʪ̾˴ؤƤϡʬؾθ̩ʳ̾ ( scientific name ) ȴŪѤƤ¯̾ ( common name ) ȤΤˤϴˤطˤ̿̾ʬŪ̩礤嵭Τ褦ʤ ( see [2010-09-20-1], [2010-09-21-1] )
Ѹ rabbit hare þ϶̤ƤΤΡʬ塦־ζ̤ȤϴѤˤƤʬȤƤΤ褤⤷ʤξԤζ̤ѤˤΤǤ뤳Ȥդ뵭Ҥ Mencken (139) ˤä
Zoologically speaking, there are no native rabbits in the United States; they are all hares. But hare to an American normally means the so-called Belgian hare, which is not a hare at all, but a true rabbit.
ΤˤȡƤ rabbit ΰ cottontail ֥勵פ롥ä Mencken "there are no native rabbits in the United States" ϴְäƤꡤ;פ˺ȤκΤŪʬ¯̾ȤƤʤΤǤ뤳ȤξںʤΤǤϤʤ
Mencken ¾ˤ⥢ꥫԤ¸¯̾ꥫŬѤȤưʲƤ롤bay ֥åʤ˻ڡˡ, beech ֥֥ʡʤ˻ڡˡ, blackbird ֡ơե९ɥɥ, Աѡեɥ, hemlock ֡ơեɥꡤԱѡեɥ˥, lark ֥ҥХʤ˻Ļˡ, laurel ֥åʤ˻ڡˡ, oriole ֡ơե९ɥɥԱѡե饤, partridge ֥ޥʤ˻Ļˡ, robin ֡ơեޥĥߡԱѡեޥɥ, swallow ֥ĥХʤ˻Ļˡ, walnut ֥ߥΥʤ˻ڡˡס
ĶλʪؼƤ줬ĶǤȻƤ뤬̩ˤϰۤʤʪؼ褦ˤʤȤѲϡɤθˤⵯꤦ뤳Ȥ ( sign ) ؼо ( referent ) ѲȤݤϡľŪʰ̣Ѳ ( semantic change ) λȤϸƤ٤ʤ̤ȤƤϰ̣ѲƱȤȤ館Ƥ롥褯ΤƤСcar ϼ֡פּư֡פؤỌ̇̄ѲФΤ⡤ŪˤϡưϤȯˤȤʤäƻؼоݤŪʼ֤Ūʼ֤ؤѲȤ˵롥ʪȤˡ˲餫Ƥ¸λؼоݤбŬѤ߽ФϫʤȤΤϡΤ˸άǤ롥դˤСΡְ°פˡפ椨 rabbit hare Τ褦ʸ̩礯̤⤹Τ
rabbit hare ζ̤ʬؼԤǤʤ¤ۤɤۤɤǤ褵ȤȤǯ狼ä
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. Abridged ed. New York: Knopf, 1963.
ޤƤǤȤޤǯ hellog ɤDzޤƤ꤬ȤޤǯѸ˴ϢäƤ椯¸Ǥɤꤤޤ
ơǯϴ٤αǯ ( the year of the Rabbit ) ˰ä rabbit hare ˤĤơ礦ǯˤʤΤǥˤȻפäƤΤѸ2ढ rabbit ֥ʥפ hare ֥Υפΰ㤤褯ƤʤäΤĴ٤Ƥߤޤϸܤ顥ʲ Visual Dictionary Online β
hare rabbit Τ礭ȸĹhare ϥ桼饷եꥫ̥ꥫʬۤƤꡤܤǤܽϥޥߥΥƤ٤ hare ʥ˥ۥΥˤǤȤrabbit ϥ衼åѡեꥫꥫʬۤ뤬Υ衼åѻ϶ˤʤä͢Ф졤ȥꥢ˥塼ɤʤɤǤȯƳäȤƤаޤ롥ܤǸ줿̤Υ⡤ɼ rabbit Ǥ롥ĤǤˡˤ⤦1 pika ֥ʥפϥåȤ˻Τʤḁ̇̄ꥫʬۤƤꡤܤǤ̳ƻλӤˡ֥ʥפ©롥
hare rabbit ʪŪʶ̤ʬۤϤ褽ǤȤơ˸츻˰ܤhare ϰ캬 *kas- "grey" ̤Ťǡ2Ҳޥĸ *z ȤơűѸ rhotacism Ф r Ȥꡤhara ʸڤƤ롥Υηƻ leporine ( see [2010-04-18-1] )
rabbit θ츻Ϥ褯ʬäƤʤѸǤ14˽ФƤ ( see "rabet" in MED ) Flemish robbe ֥פλؾեͳäƤȿ¬Ƥ뤬꤫ǤϤʤ
ܸ֤פθ츻ˤϽ⤢뤬ŷ֥פ1ǤΤäơ֥פäȤΤͭϤǤ롥֥פϿȤ롥
ơθ츻ϤޤǡϤȤ⤢졤ǯɤǯǤޤ褦ˡ
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow