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2019-10-31 Thu

#3839. ʸ줷ȡʸ¿Ͳ [writing][history]

Ϣơˡʸȿˡ٤򻲾ȤƤ롥 (52)ϡ5ĤʸΤ2ġ濴Ȥȥɤ濴ȤоŪˤ򤿤ɤäƤȤŦƤ롥ǤϿλϹˤΤ줬ʤ졤ˤ礭ʱƶäǤϤषϰ褴Ȥ˽Τ¿ͲƤäȤ¤

ϹϽŪȿķϽФǤʤʾ̹դΤߤʤ餺ùʸʸؤ俽ؤȯŸƤĹŪʬΤʤ¿ͲĤĤäνΤ줷ΤǤ񤭤䤹̳Ѥޤ줿
Ϲˤϡθ夵ʤΤѲʸȼʤˤޤݤ졤̤νΤδսҲؤڤƤƤʤǡִפƤäϥ֥եߡʸ򵯸Ȥʤ顤Τ褦ŪβǤνΤߤʤäɤ濴Ȥפˤơ˰ۤʤΤϰ褴ȤʬΩΤȤϹоȤʤ


ȥɤʸΤ˴ؤ뺹ۤˤĤơ (53--54) ϡʸ줿Ѥ̵ͭȤ˵Ƥ褦ϡ줵줿ʸζϤŪݥƥ󥷥˵դƤݤȤ㤤ˤᤤ褦˻פ롥

άˤƤϡսˤߤ줿ƱʸȤƤΡֲڡפΤʤˤŨñ̡ˡ״֤Ρפ濴Ȥδ֤δطΥ᡼ϼ졤ڤȰФδط˴ä򤪤ֲڰѡפ夷Ƥä⡤ƱʸǤʬֲפ濴ʤɤǤϡƱʸǤδ֤δط˴ؿ椷ʸΤȤδطˤĤƤηŪѤƤ뤫ˤߤΤȤϡоŪǤä


ơʸȿˡʸˡפΥå١Ǽҡ2018ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-30 Wed

#3838. ʸͭȤ⡤ʤ٤ʸʸĤ夲뤳Ȥϲǽ [writing][history][medium]

Ҳ𤷤ơˡʸȿˡ٤ꡤɸˤĤơ̾ʸʸȤڤäƤڤʤطˤǧƤꡤͭʸҲϤʤʸҲפȤƤ褦˻פ롥΢֤ȤƤΡ̵ʸҲϤʤʸҲפȤϾΩĤΤ
(27) ϡ̵ʸҲФͭʸҲ̤ͥϵʤȤĤĤ⡤̵ʸҲ񤬾ʸŪʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤĥƤ롥

ȯŸϡĻŪ夹ΤȤƤʸäȤޤäۤʤʳ뤳ȤȤʤ롥
ʸͭȤ⡤ʤ٤ʸʸĤ夲뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥γʹʰϡֿפΥǤ롥
ڥ롼濴˥꤫饨ɥˤޤdzȤߤʥޥԥΤ褦ԻԤ¤Ĥ󥫤ο͡ϡɽ魯סʤַʸפͭƤĻŪ夹ΤȤƤηŪʸĤȤϤĤˤʤä褦Ǥ롥
ֵפǸȤС桼饷dzФߤͷ̱Ǥ롥ʸļդνʸĹ餯ͷ̱⡤ȥ륳ϤȬʸͰƤޤǡʸ⤿ʤä
ޤʥ󥴥ۤ󥴥ͤ⡤ˤʸ⤿컰ȾäƤ褦䤯٥åʸ١Ȥѥʸȡʸ١ȤȤʸĤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥Ȥ⤹ʸ⤿Ȥ⡤ҳ񤽤ƥ󥴥Τ褦ʡΤݻ뤳ȤǤΤϳΤǤ롥

ά

ʸΤȤʾ̤Ѥ褦ˤʤäҲ񤬡ʸνʬˤơ̡ͥפ褦ˤʤäƤäȤ⵿ʤǤ桼饷ˤ꽻Ū̱ȰưŪͷ̱ϴطǽŪˤԤ̤ͥ˵뤷ޤˤäȤߤƤ褤Ǥ


ʸϤͭʸҲʸŪͥμĥˤ뤬Ϥष̵ʸҲɬʸŪǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ΢μĥΤۤ˴ؿä̵ʸҲȰǤäƤ⡤¤ϤʥꤽǤ롥˴ؤƤϡʲεǤ⿨ƤΤǤȤ

#1277. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ ([2012-10-25-1])
#2618. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ (2) ([2016-06-27-1])
#2447. οʸηϤο ([2016-01-08-1])
#3118. ̵ʸҲ˽ҡ ([2017-11-09-1])
#3486. ͭʸȯʤäȤƤġġ ([2018-11-12-1])

ơʸȿˡʸˡפΥå١Ǽҡ2018ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-13-1]

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2019-10-29 Tue

#3837. ơˡʸȿˡ --- 5ĤʸȯŸ [writing][grammatology][religion][review][history]

ǯǤ줿ơˡʸȿˡʸˡפΥå٤ϡʸδߤˤ̻ˤǤ롥ܤζϤʶڤ̤äˤǤ롥ʸ졤ȿȤˤäƽ񤫤ƤꡤˤΩ줫ɷ٤๥Ǥ롥
ܽ˵Ҥϡ5ĤʸŪȯŸ𼴤ŤƤ롥5ĤʸȤϲ1ϤꡤפʬȴФ (19--20)

άͣΥХ롦ƥबݤľȤ٤ȬǯΩäƤߤȡֵפΥեꥫ衼åѤΡֻΦפˤϡޤĤʸʸȤƤʸ¸Ƥ
ʤء֥ƥʸס֥ꥷʸססִסƾҤλͤĤʸƤܤĤġեꥫ衼åѤλΦˤޤäƹ֥ӥʸפθޤĤǤ롥ֿפ̥ꥫξΦϻܤοͤνΦȤ٤ȥꥢΦϡκޤǤˤϡͤο̱ϤȤʤƥʸΰȲƤ
ǡֵפΡֻΦʸϡʸȤƤȤ館ʤСƥʸꥹȶꥷʸ첤ҥɥʩ쥢ʩƥӥʸϥȤƤȤ館褦ơơʸΩơʸˤ붦̤θŵ졤ʸʸȤ˶פʸ졦ʸθѤʸä󶡤
ʤꥹȶǤϥƥ졤첤Ǥϥꥷȶ񥹥졤ҥɥʩǤϡҥɥˤ륵󥹥åȤʩˤѡ졤쥢ʩǤϴʸƥˤƤϥӥ줬ơʸǶͭ줿ŵ졤ʸ졦ʸǤä


5Ĥʸγơϰ衦ʸδط̩ܤǤ롥Ƥߴط˵դƤ줿ǡܽϤФ餷  *
ܥ֥Ǥ⡤ʸˡ硤ʤɤˤĤ¿εƤȤ櫓ʲε򻲾Ȥ줿

#41. ʸˤ ([2009-06-08-1])
#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1])
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])
#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])
#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])
#1853. ʸη (2) ([2014-05-24-1])
#2398. ʸη (3) ([2015-11-20-1])
#2416. ʸη (4) ([2015-12-08-1])
#2399. ݷʸǯɽ ([2015-11-21-1])
#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])
#2414. ʸǯɽʥӥ󥽥ǡˡ ([2015-12-06-1])
#2344. ɽʸɽʸɽʸ ([2015-09-27-1])
#2386. ܸʸˡʸԡˡ ([2015-11-08-1])
#2387. ܸʸˡʶԡˡ ([2015-11-09-1])
#2389. ʸηϤεȯã (1) ([2015-11-11-1])
#2390. ʸηϤεȯã (2) ([2015-11-12-1])
#2577. ʸηϤ˴ؤҲŪװ ([2016-05-17-1])
#2494. ȥꥨʸΤĤʤϤ뤫 ([2016-02-24-1])

ơʸȿˡʸˡפΥå١Ǽҡ2018ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-01-26-1]

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2019-10-28 Mon

#3836. ե󥹸ˤǯɽ [timeline][hfl][french][anthropology][indo-european][hfl]

ե󥹸ˤǤϤʤΤΡѸˤ򷡤겼򤹤뤿ˤȤե󥹸ˤμۤȤȤǡʤ̴ؿ󤻤Ƥ롥 Perret (179--81) ե󥹸ˤǯɽ "Chronologie" Ǥ褦åιԤϡŪǯ塦ҤȤ̣Ǥ롥

[ Préhistoire des langues du monde ]

Il y a 4 ou 5 millions d'années: apparition de l'australopithèque en Afrique.
Il y a 1,6 million d'années: homo erectus colonise l'Eurpope et l'Asie.
Il y a 850 000 ans: premiers hominidés en Europe.
Avant - 100 000: Homo sapiens en Europe (Neandertal) et en Asie (Solo).
- 100 000: un petit groupd d'Homo sapiens vivant en Afrique (ou au Moyen-Orient) se met en marche et recolonise la planète. Les autres Homo sapiens se seraient éteints. (Hypothèse de certains généticiens, les équipes de Cavalli-Sforza et de Langaney, dite thèse du «goulot d'étranglement»).
- 40 000: première apparition du langage?

[ Préhistoire des Indo-Européens ]

- 10000: civilisation magdalénienne en Dordogne. Premier homme en Amérique.
- 7000: les premières langues indo-européennes naissent en Anatolie (hypothèse Renfrew).
Entre - 65000 et - 5500: les Indo-Européens commencent leur migration par vagues (hypothèse Renfrew).
- 4500: les Indo-Européens occupent l'ouest de l'Europe (hypothèse Renfrew).
- 4000 ou - 3000: les Indo-Européens commencent à se disperser (hypothèse dominante).
- 3500: civilisation dite des Kourganes (tumuluss funéraires), débuts de son expansion.
- 3000: écriture cunéiforme en Perse, écriture en Inde. Première domestication du cheval en Russie? (- 2000, premières représentations de cavaliers).

[ Préhistoire du français ]

- 4000 ou - 3000: la civilisation des constructeurs de mégalithes apparaît en Bretagne.
- 3000: la présence des Celtes est attestée en Bohème et Bavière.
- 2500: début de l'emploi du bronze.
- 600: premiers témoignages sur les Ligure et les Ibères.
- 600: des marins phocéens s'installent sur la cõte méditerranéenne.
- 500: une invasion celte (précédée d'infiltrations?): les Gaulois.

[ Histoire du français ]

- 1500: conquête de la Provence par les Romains et infiltrations dans la région narbonnaise.
- 59 à - 51: conquête de la Gaule par les Romains.
212: édit de Caracalla accordant la citoyenneté à tous les hommes libres de l'Empire.
257: incursions d'Alamans et de Francs jusqu'en Italie et Espagne.
275: invasion générale de la Gaule par les Germains.
312: Constantin fait du christianisme la religion officielle de l'Empire.
Vers 400: traduction en latin de la Bible (la Vulgate) par saint Jérôme.
450--650: émigration celte en Bretagne (à partir de Grande-Bretagne): réimplantation du celte en Bretagne.
476: prise de Rome et destitution de l'empereur d'Occident.
486--534: les Francs occupent la totalité du territoire de la Galue (496, Clovis adopted le christianisme).
750--780: le latin cesse d'être compris par les auditoires populaires dans le nord du pays.
800: sacre de Charlemagne.
813: concile de Tours: les sermons doivent être faits dans les langues vernaculaires.
814: mort de Charlemagne.
842: les Serments de Strasbourg, premier document officiel en proto-français.
800 à 900: incursions des Vikings.
800--850: on cesse de comprendre le latin en pays de langues d'oc.
880: Cantilène de sainte Eulalie, première elaboration littéraire en proto-français.
911: les Vikings sédentarisés en Normandie.
957: Hugues Capet, premier roi de France à ignorer le germanique.
1063: conquête de l'Italie du Sud et de la Sicile par des Normands.
1066: bataille de Hastings: une dynastie normande s'installe en Angleterre où on parlera français jusqu'à la guerre de Cent Ans.
1086: la Chanson de Roland.
1099: prise de Jérusalem par les croisés: début d'une présence du français et du provençal en Moyen-Orient.
1252: fondation de la Sorbonne (enseignement en latin).
1254: dernière croisade.
1260: Brunetto Latini, florentin, compose son Trésor en français.
1265: Charles d'Anjou se fait couronner roi des deux Siciles, on parlera français à la cour de Naples jusqu'au XIVe siècle.
1271: réunion du Comté de Toulouse, de langue d'oc, au royaume de France.
1476--1482: Louis XI rattache la Bourgogne, la Picardie, l'Artois, le Maine, l'Anjou et la Provence au royaume de France.
1477: l'imprimerie. Accélération de la standardisation et de l'oficialisation du français, premières «inventions» orthographiques.
1515: le Consistori del Gai Saber devient Collège de rhétorique: fin de la littérature officielle de langue d'oc.
1523--1541: instauration du français dans le culte protestant.
1529: fondation du Collège de France (rares enseignements en fançais).
1530: Esclarcissment de la langue française, de Palsgrave, la plus connue des grammaires du français qui parassient à l'époque en Angleterre.
1534: Jacques Cartier prent possession du Canada au nom du roi de France.
1539: ordonnace de Villers-Cotterêts, le français devient langue officielle.
1552: la Bretagne est rattachée au royaume de France.
1559: la Lorraine est rattachée au royaume de France.
1600: la Cour quitte les bords de Loire pour Parsi.
1635: Richelieu officialise l'Académie française.
1637: Descartes écrit en français Le Discours de la méthode.
1647: Remarques sur la langue française de Vaugelas: la norme de la Cour prise comme modèle du bon usage.
1660: Grammaire raisonnée de Port-Royal.
1680: première traduction catholique de la Bible en français.
1685: révocation de l'édit de Nantes: un million de protestants quittent la France pour les pays protestants d'Europe, mais aussi pour l'Afrique et l'Amérique.
1694: première parution du Dictionnaire de l'Académie.
1700: début d'un véritable enseignement élémentaire sans latin, avec les frères des écoles chrétiennes de Jean-Baptiste de la Salle.
1714: traité de Rastadt, le français se substitue au latin comme languge de la diplomatie en Europe.
1730: traité d'Utrecht: la France perd l'Acadie.
1739: mise en place d'un enseignment entièrement en français dans le collège de Sorèze (Tarn).
1757: apparition des premiers textes en créole.
1762: explusion des jésuites, fervents partisans dans leur collèges de l'enseignement entièrement en latin; une réorganisation des collèges fait plus de place au français.
1763: traité de Paris, la France perd son empire colonial: le Canada, les Indes, cinq îles des Antilles, le Sénégal et la Lousinane.
1783: la France recouvre le Sénégal, la Lousiane et trois Antilles.
1787: W. Jones reconnaît l'existence d'une famille de langues regroupant latin, grec, persan, langues germaniques, langues celte et sanscrit.
1794: rapport Barrère sur les idiomes suspect (8 pluviôse an II); rapport Grégoire sur l'utilité de détruire les patois (16 prairial an II).
1794--1795: la Républic s'aliène les sympathies par des lois interdisant l'usage de toute autre langue que le français dans les pays occupée.
1797: tentative d'introduire le français dans le culte (abbé Grégoire).
1803: Bonaparte vend la Louisiane aux Anglais.
1817: la France administre le Sénégal.
1827: Préface de Cromwell, V. Hugo, revendication de tous les registres lexicaux pour la langue littéraire.
1830: début de la conquête de l'Algérie.
1835: la sixième édition du Dictionnaire de l'Académie accepte enfin la graphie -ais, -ait pour les imparfiat.
1879: invention du phonographe.
1881: Camille Sée crée un enseignment public à l'usage des jeunes fille.
1882: lois Jules Ferry: enseignement primaire obligatoire, laïquie et gratuie (en français).
1885: l'administration du Congo (dit ensuite de Belge) est confiée au roi des Belges.
1901: arrêté proposant une certaine tolérance dans les règles orthographiques du français.
1902: l'enseignement secondaire moderne sans latin ni grec est reconnu comme égal à la filière classique.
1902--1907: publication de l'Atlas linguistique de la France par régions de Gilliéron et Edmont.
1950: autorisation de soutenir des thèses en français.
1919: traité de Versalles, le français perd son statue de langue unique de la diplomatic en Europe.
1921: début de la diffusion de la radio.
1935: invention de la télévision.
1951: loi Deixiome permet l'enseignement de certaines langues régionales dans le second cycle.
1954--1962: les anciennes colonies de la France deviennent des états indépendents.
1962--1965: concile de Vatican II: la célébration do la messe, principal office du culte catholique, ne se fait plus en latin.
1987: un créole devient langue officielle en Haïti.
1990: un «rapport sur les rectifications de l'orthographe» propose la régularisation des pluriels de mots composés et la suppression de l'accent circonflexe.
1994: première création d'un organism de soutien à la francophonie.

Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-09-29-1]

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2019-10-27 Sun

#3835. ƻʤɤΡӡפֵפȤƤˤĤ [comparison][adjective][adverb][category][terminology][fetishism]

ѸŵŪʷƻ졦ˤϡ顦ӵ顦Ǿζ̤롥ܸΡӡפֵפȤѸˤϡѸ "comparison", "degree", "gradation" ʤɤб뤬⤽⤳ϸŪˤɤΤ褦 (category) ʤΤBussmann Ѹ켭ŵꡤޤ "degree" ιܤߤƤߤ褦

degree (also comparison, gradation)
All constructions which express a comparison properly fall under the category of degree; it generally refers to a morphological category of adjectives and adverbs that indicates a comparative degree or comparison to some quantity. There are three levels of degree: (a) positive, or basic level of degree: The hamburgers tasted good; 'b) comparative, which marks an inequality of two states of affairs relative to a certain characteristic: The steaks were better than the hamburgers; (c) superlative, which marks the highest degree of some quantity: The potato salad was the best of all; (d) cf. elative (absolute superlative), which marks a very high degree of some property without comparison to some other state of affairs: The performance was most impressive . . . .
   Degree is not grammaticalized in all languages through the use of systematic morphological changes; where such formal means are not present, lexical paraphrases are used to mark gradation. In modern Indo-European languages, degree is expressed either (a) synthetically by means of suffixation (new : newer : (the) newest); (b) analytically by means of particles (anxious : more/most anxious); or (c) through suppletion . . . , i.e. the use of different word stems: good : better : (the) best.


Ʊͤ "gradation" ȤܤƤߤ褦

gradation
Semantic category which indicates various degrees (i.e. gradation) of a property or state of affairs. The most important means of gradation are the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and some (deadjectival) adverbs. In addition, varying degrees of some property can also be expressed lexically, e.g. especially/really quick, quick as lightning, quicker and quicker.


ˤ褦 "degree" "gradation" ְ̣ƤǤ뤳ȤϤ狼롥ѸΤߤʤ餺ܸǤ֤ɤס֤äɤסֺǤɤסֺɡפʤɤɽ͡ѰդƤꡤӡפֵפ뵡ǽ̤Ƥ뤫̸ŪˤϤ줬˷֡ŪʡʸˡƤǤ⤢ȤȤˤϤʤʤäƤޤСޤްǤʸˡʡʸˡޤˤƤΤʸˡƤȤǧƤ뤬ܸǤäʸˡƤȤꤵƤʤȤΤȤǤ롥
ġʸˡƤϡ̸ŪŪ褯ߤΤ⤢СǤʤΤ⤢롥ʸˡƤȤϡ̣Ǹ̸ˤեȤ٤ΤǤ롥θˤĤƤϡ#2853. ˤȿʹ֤ʬե ([2017-02-17-1]) Ϥ fetishism γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿

Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-26 Sat

#3834. ؿե󥹤ˡ٤ǯɽ [timeline][history]

Ρ#3828. ؿե󥹤ˡ٤ܼ ([2019-10-20-1]) ˰³Ʊδ (177--79) ˤ֥ե󥹻άǯɽפǤꥹˤǯɽˤĤƤϡ#3478. ؿ⥤ꥹˡ٤ǯɽ ([2018-11-04-1])#3479. ؿ⡡ꥹβ٤ǯɽ ([2018-11-05-1])#3487. ʪ졡ꥹˡʾ岼ˡ٤ǯɽ ([2018-11-13-1])#3497. إꥹ10֡٤ǯɽ ([2018-11-23-1]) 򻲾ȡ

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1190եå23󽽻˽ȯ
1202եå2ѲΦ׼
1209ĥΥƥ3ʩΥɤ򹶷⡤ӥスϤޤ
1214̤֡襤
1226륤9¨̡칡֥󥷥塦ɡƥ (--34)
1229ȥ롼ӥス
1248륤96󽽻˻
1270륤97󽽻˽ȯƥ˥»
1302եå4ǽѥˤƾ
1303ʡ˻ĥܥ˥եƥ8ʰ
1305եå4ܥɡʶ򶵹ĤΩʥ5
1307եå4ƥץ뵳İ
1309ĥ5ģ򥢥˥˰ܤ
13284סڡī䡥եå6¨̡īγ (--1589)
1337ɴǯϤޤ
1348¤եڤή
1358ƥ̡ޥ륻Υѥ̿
1415Ѳإ5Υޥǥ˾Φ (8.12) 󥯡襤 (10.25)
1420ȥ
1429̡륯쥢7󥹤״
1431̡륯з
1453ƥ襤ɴǯ轪λ
1477֥르˥Ϳʸࡤ֥르˥Τ
14948ꥢؿꥢϤޤ (--1559)
1516ܥ˥
1525ѥ襤ե󥽥1κ
1530ե󥽥1ΩĤ
1534ʸץƥȤؤư
1539롦ȥ첦ᡥʸˤե󥹸ѡĢκ̳Ť
1559ȡ֥쥸󡤥ꥢ轪λ2
1562ǥץƥȤԻϤޤ (--98)
1572󡦥ХƥߤεԻ
1576ꡤȥåƱʥ꡼ˤ
15893Żī䡥4¨̡֥ܥīϤޤ (--1792)
15934󡦥ɥˤǥȥå˲
15944ȥ񲦡Τ
1598ʥȲ
1604ݡåˡǯǤλʧ˸ǧ
1624ꥷ塼˽Ǥ
1629쥹ᡤץƥȤå
1630ֵ줿Ԥסޥꡦɡǥ
1635ե󥹡ǯ˻
1639Υޥǥȿ˪֥˥塦ԥ­ޡˤ
1648եɤȯ (--53)
1659ԥ͡
1661ޥס륤14򳫻
1665١롤̳Ƥ˽Ǥ
1667ѥ˷ٻƿ֡եɥϤޤ (--68)
1672Ϥޤ (--78)
1685ʥȲѻ
1688֥륯ƱϤޤ (--97) ̱ʼƳ
1695ԥʿƬǡƳ
1701ڥѾϤޤ (--13)
1710ǥʽʬΰǡƳ
1715륤14ס륤15¨̡쥢
1720֥Υƥþ
1733ݡɷѾϤޤ (--35)
1740ȥꥢѾϤޤ (--48)
1756ǯϤޤ (--63)
1771ˡסˤˡ
1775ʴ
1786̡ʬоݤȤ뿷Ǥ
1789̱IJΩ (6.17)ѻ (8.4)͸ (8.26)륵Կ (10.5)
1790̱ˡ
1791̻ (6.20)1791ǯˡ (9.3)
1792ȥꥢ۹ (4.20)810ʲߡˡߤ襤 (9.20)γ (9.21)
1793륤16跺 (1.21)Ⱥۡǹˡ (9.29)
1794ƥߥɡȿư (7.27)ɼ
1796ʥݥ쥪󡤥ꥢ
1799֥᡼18Υǥʥݥ쥪򾸰
1800ե󥹶Ω
1804ʥݥ쥪ˡŵ̱ˡŵˡʥݥ쥪󡤹¨
1806٥ļΦ
1814ʥݥ쥪󡤹̡ء륤18ѥ˵
1815ʥݥ쥪ɴŷ
1824륤18ס10¨
1830̿륤եå¨̡ʼγϡ
1847ǽΡֲױ
1848̿ȯ (2.23)Ω륤ʥݥ쥪Τ (12.10)
1852륤ʥݥ쥪󡤹¨̡ (--70)
18551ѥ񳫺 (--56)
1870ʩȯ
1871ѥꡦߥ塼
1881--82塼롦ե꡼ˡꡥ̵̳
1884ǥå륽ˡꡥϫƯȹˡ
1889֡󥸥
1898顤ֻƳ
1901ˡ
1905ʬΥˡȿΩ
1914켡ȯ
1918ԥ˥οϢ緳ȥɥĤȤεﶨ
1919륵Ĵ
1924ե󥹡Ϣǧ
1928å֥ꥢʥѥ
1933󥹥ʶͻˡι⶯ޤ
1936֥̱Ω
1939ȯ
1940ѥ (6.14)Ω (7.10)ˡ (10.3)
1943󡦥ࡼ󡤥쥸ɾIJ (CNR) Υ쥸󥹤
1944ѥ (8.25)ɥ׻Ω (9.9)
1945ؿͻ
1947ޡ롦ץ˻
1954ǥ󡦥ӥ󡦥ա (5.7) ȥʥűࡥ른ꥢϤޤ (11.1)
1957衼åѷкѶƱ (EEC) Ĵ
1958른ꥢǥȷȿ (5.13)ɥΩ (6.1)޶ϡɥ롤Τ (12.21)
1962ꡥ른ꥢ轪
1966ե󥹡NATO ηæ
1967衼åѶƱ (EC) Ω
19685̿
1969ɥ롤ΤǤ (4.28) ݥԥɥΤ
1974ǥΤ
1981ߥåƥΤ
1986饯˽Ǥݳ׶¸ʥӥΩ
1992衼åϢʥޡȥҥȾˤĴ
1993EU Ω
1995饯Τ
1999EU ñ̲ߡ֥桼Ƴ
2003饯ȿСʼ
2005̱ɼ EU ˡݡѥٳ˽ư
2007륳Τ
2012ɡΤ


ؿե󥹤ˡ俷ǡϽн˼ҡ2016ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-25 Fri

#3833. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ5֥ꥹȶפΤ [asacul][notice][christianity][anglo-saxon][link]

轵112ڡˤ15:15?18:30ˡī㡼󥿡ɶˤֱѸˤȸ츻5ꥹȶꤹֱԤʤޤؿΤϡꤪߤݤϰʲ̤Ǥ

6ʹߡѸüԤǤ󥰥ͤϥꥹȶ졤Φʸαƶ礤ˤ餵뤳ȤˤʤޤŪʱƶѸϥƥȤ̤ܿ2Ĥη̤иޤ(1) ޻κѤ (2) ꥹȶѸ濴ȤƥñμѤǤϡΥ󥰥ɤȱѸˤꤹ뤳ȤˤʤǤϡΥꥹȶαѸ˾ΰյˤĤơۤƱܤˤʩܸŪյȤӡоȤʤ顤¿Ū˵Ƥޤ


碌ơѸˤˤˤ⿨ͽǤ
ʲͽΤˡϢ򰷤ä򤤤ĤҲ𤷤Ƥޤ

#2485. ʸȽ ([2016-02-15-1])
#3193. űѸμפʽǯɽ ([2018-01-23-1])
#3038. űѸ쥢ե٥åȤ27ʸ ([2017-08-21-1])
#3199. ֺ¡֥ڥ󥰤ǤɤѸˡפ2ֱѸΥե٥åɽ --- űѸΥڥ󥰡ס ([2018-01-29-1])
#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1])
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])
#3787. 650ǯդ򶭤Ȥ롤ΥƥѸü ([2019-09-09-1])
#3790. 650ǯΥƥѸΰ ([2019-09-12-1])
#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1])
#1439. ͳ褹ɽ ([2013-04-05-1])
#296. 轡ѸܸͿŪƶ ([2010-02-17-1])
#1869. ܸˤʩá ([2014-06-09-1])
#3382. ͤסޥꥢִѲסѥ饤ֶ˳ڡפ󥸥 ([2018-07-31-1])
#1427. פʱ˴ؤǯɽ ([2013-03-24-1])
#1709. ױǯɽ ([2013-12-31-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2019-11-06-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-24 Thu

#3832. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ4֥ޥ̱²ưפ򽪤ޤ [asacul][notice][slide][link][anglo-saxon]

#3806. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ4֥ޥ̱²ưפΤ ([2019-09-28-1]) ǰ⤷ī㡼󥿡ɶֺ1020ˤ˽ޤͽ1012ڡˤǤ19ˤޤˡ3ȤȤˡޤỲüԤȳȯʸήλ֤ĤȤǤޤ
ֺ¤Ѥ饤ɻ֤ƤޤͳˤȤʲˡ饤ɤγƥڡؤΥ󥯤ŽäƤޤ

1. Ѹˤȸ츻4 ֥ޥ̱²ư
2. 4󡡥ޥ̱²ư
3. ܼ
4. 1. ޥ̱²ưȥ󥰥
5. ޥɤȥޥ̱²
6. ֥󥰥͡פȤï
7. ֥󥰥ɡס֥󥰥åס֥󥰥פ̾
8. 2. űѸθ
9. űѸθħ
10. ʣ (compounding) (derivation)
11. Ūʣ (kenning)
12. 3. ˻ĤűѸθŪ仺
13. űѸäǹ줿Ѹʸ
14. ʣ (disguised compound)
15. ޤȤ
16. ʸ
17. 䡧Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 449ǯε

5ιֺ¡֥ꥹȶפϡ112ڡˤ15:15?18:30ͽꤵƤޤؿΤϡꤪߤ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-12-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-23 Wed

#3831. ʤѸˤϴ줬ΤǤ [article][sobokunagimon][typology][linguistic_area][geolinguistics][information_structure][word_order][syntax][definiteness]

ѸˤμȤˤƿҤͤ줿䡥ޤľ塥Τ񤷤
ޤѸŪˤ뤳ȤϡűѸѸǤϡŪʻȤǤΡִ (article) ̤ȯãäȤȤǤthe a(n) ȤǺऽΤΤϸűѸ줫餢äΤǤ줾츽괧괧ȤƤѤƤޤǤĤޤꡤűѸˤ the a(n) ȤñΤͤϳΤˤɤ⡤Ϥޤ̾ź٤ɬܤιܤȤơϳƤʤäȤȤǤ
ȤȤϡ䤿Ȥʬ˶ϫƤ븽ѸΡִפȤܤϡѸˤߤΤʤǡ˳ƤΤȤȤˤʤޤϱѸˤκǽ餫餢ä櫓ǤϤʤޤλ¤򲡤Ƥɬפޤ
ʤΤˤΤʤdzƤȤΤϡʤˤѸ˸¤ޤ󡥤⤽Ѹޤ᤿衼åѤ饤ɤ˵ڤ¿θΥ롼ĤǤĸˤϴϤޤǤ²°ŵꥷ졤˥졤ɸȤ̤θϤᡤޥ󥹸ɡޥɡȸɤνХ륫ϢǤⴧ줬ߤ뤳Ȥ顤ˤβǴȯãƤȤ狼ޤʡ#2855. νˤ봧ʬ (1) ([2017-02-19-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ޤ²ΥνܤƤߤƤ⡤ȤܤϤ˳ǧޤΤȤƤϾɤǤϤޤˡŪˤϥ衼åѡեꥫʿΤʤɤˤкߤƤ褦ǡ෿ؤΩ줫϶̣ȤʤäƤޤ
ơѸäᤷޤ礦űѸˤⴧμȤʤΤϤäˤ衤ʤθ夽줬δŪʵǽȯã뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ礦1ĤˤϡѸ줬Ѹʹߤ˸경ƤȤ¤طƤ褦˻פޤ#2856. νˤ봧ʬ (2) ([2017-02-20-1]) ǤҤ٤褦ˡָ礬ޤäƤǤϰŪ̾ŪǤ֤ѤꡦɸΤ񤷤ˡȤʤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤פΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
ꡦȤϡɽλؤƤΤʸ̮äʹˤȤäƴΤ̤Τꤵ뤫ʤȤä̤ΤȤǤäŵŪʥѥϡǤ򥢥󥫡ȤǤäʤ鿷ƳƤȤΤǤΤ褦ʾή¤ (information_structure) ȸƤФޤϾ¤ɸ뤿μʤäƤȹͤޤ䴧⤽Τ褦ʼʤθȤʤޤ礬ͳǤСǤƬˤäƤꡤǤ֤ʤɤˡѤǤǤ礦cf. #3211. ù¤ ([2018-02-10-1])ˡμͳ٤㤯ʤ̤μʤʤɬפƤޤѸѸˤƸμͳ٤򼺤äƤä̡¤ɸ뤿οƻȤơǺȤƼˤä the a(n) ʤɤѤΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
1Ĥβˤޤɸμ˥ХƤ櫓ǤϤʤʤɤȤǤ
ȯ˴ؤΰϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) 򻲾ȤƤϢơѸˤˤθ경ˤĤơ#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1])#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1])#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-22 Tue

#3830. űѸΥƥѸϸޤ³ݤ [lexicology][latin][loan_word][oe][borrowing]

űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥñˤĤơʲεǼ夲Ƥ

#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])
#1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ෿ ([2014-07-05-1])
#3787. 650ǯդ򶭤Ȥ롤ΥƥѸü ([2019-09-09-1])
#3790. 650ǯΥƥѸΰ ([2019-09-12-1])
#3829. 650ǯʸΥƥѸΰ ([2019-10-21-1])

ΥƥѸ˴ؤ1ĤϡΤξʤ̿θ줬Τ˸Ѹˤߤ뤬ϸűѸĤäƤΤʤΤ뤤ϰѤ줿Τ˺ƼѤ줿ΤʤΤȤȤˤƥ츻ȤƤ϶̤ǤȤϤǤ뤫⤷ʤԤǤиűѸμѸȤƱѸˤѤˤĹȤˤʤ뤷ԤǤѸѸŪѸȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹˤ̤ƾ˥ƥܿƤȤ𤬤ꡤФФΥȽǤ񤷤ȸȤǸۤʤäƤʤɤμ꤬꤬СƼѤǧ뤳ȤǤȤϤˤΤ褦ʼ꤬꤬櫓Ǥʤ
Ȥ櫓650ǯʸθűѸΥƥѸ˴ؤơȽǤ񤷤Ωġε ([2019-10-21-1]) į᤿褦ˡŪʥ쥸äƤʤäȤܤʸäʤʤ¿³ǤϤʤκƼѤǤϤʤȵ롥
Durkin (131) ϡ650ǯΥƥѸˤĤơޤ³ĤäƤǽι⤤Τ򼡤Τ褦˰Ƥ롥

abbot; alms; anthem; ass; belt; bin; bishop; box; butter; candle; chalk; cheap; cheese; chervil; chest; cock; cockle (plant name); copper; coulter; cowl; cup; devil; dight; dish; fennel; fever; fork; fuller; inch; kiln; kipper; kirtle; kitchen; line; mallow; mass (= Eucharist); mat; (perhaps) mattock; mile; mill; minster; mint (for coinage); mint (plant name); -monger; monk; mortar; neep (and hence turnip); nun; pail; pall (noun); pan (if borrowed); pear; (probably) peel; pepper; pilch (noun); pile (= stake); pillow; pin; to pine; pipe; pit; pitch (dark substance); (perhaps) to pluck; (perhaps) plum; (perhaps) plume; poppy; post; (perhaps) pot; pound; priest; punt; purple; radish; relic; sack; Saturday; seine; shambles; shrine; shrive (and shrift, Shrove Tuesday); sickle; (perhaps) silk; sock; sponge; (perhaps) stop; street; strop (and hence strap); tile; toll; trivet; trout; tun; to turn; turtle-dove; wall; wine


ΥꥹȤˡǽ㤯ʤ뤬³ȹͤΤȤƼɲäƤ (131)

anchor; angel; antiphon; arch-; ark; beet and beetroot; capon; cat; crisp; drake (= dragon, not duck); fan; Latin; lave; master; mussel; (wine-)must; pea; pine (the tree); plant; to plant; port; provost; psalm; scuttle; table; also (where the re-borrowing would be from early Scandinavian) kettle


³ơ650ǯʸΥƥѸˤĤơޤ³ǤȺäƤ뾯θ򼡤Τ褦˵󤲤Ƥ (132)

aloe; cook; cope (= garment); noon; pole; pope; school; (if borrowed) fiddle; (in some of these cases re-borrowing in very early Middle English could also be possible)


ơ򤬤夯ʤ뤬650ǯʸΥƥѸȤƸޤ³βǽΤΤϼ̤ (132)

altar; canker; cap; clerk; comet; creed; deacon; false; flank; hyssop; lily; martyr; myrrh; to offer; palm (tree); paradise; passion; peony; pigment; prior; purse; rose; sabbath; savine; sot; to spend; stole; verse; also (where the re-borrowing would be from early Scandinavian) cole


Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-07-21-1] [2021-08-03-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-21 Mon

#3829. 650ǯʸΥƥѸΰ [lexicology][latin][loan_word][oe][borrowing]

#3790. 650ǯΥƥѸΰ ([2019-09-12-1]) ³ȿФ650ǯְʸפΥƥѸDurkin (116--19) 󤷤褦ΰȰۤʤŪǤϤʤޤǰ򼨤ΤʤΤա
650ǯȰʸμѸηˤĤӤȡԤϳ䡦ȷӤĤäΩĤȤ狼#3787. 650ǯդ򶭤Ȥ롤ΥƥѸü ([2019-09-09-1]) ⻲ȡ

[ Religion and the Church ]

acolitus 'acolyte' [L acoluthus, acolitus]
altare, alter 'altar' [L altare]
apostrata 'apostate' [L apostata]
apostol 'apostle' [L apostrolus]
canon 'canon, rule of the Church; canon, cleric living under a canonical rule' [L canon]
capitol 'chapter, section; chapter, assembly' [L capitulum]
clauster 'monastic cell, cloister, monastery' [L claustrum]
cleric, also '(earlier) clīroc 'clerk, clergyman' [L clericus]
crēda, crēdo 'creed' [L credo]
crisma 'holy oil, chrism; white cloth or garment of the newly baptized; chrismatory or pyx' [L chrisma]
crismal 'chrism cloth' [L chrismalis]
crūc 'cross' [L cruc-, crux]
culpa 'fault, sin' [L culpa]
decan 'person who supervises a group of (originally) ten monks or nuns, a dean' [L decanus]
dēmōn 'devil, demon' [L aemon]
dīacon 'deacon' [L diaconus]
discipul 'disciple; follower; pupil' [L discipulus]
eretic 'heretic' [L haereticus]
graþul 'gradual (antiphon sung between the Epistle and the Gospel at Mass)' [L graduale]
īdol 'idol' [L idolum]
lētanīa 'litany' [L letania]
martir, martyr 'martyr' [L martyr]
noctern 'nocturn, night office' [L nocturna]
nōn 'ninth hour (approximately 3 p.m.); office said at this time' [L nona (hora)]
organ 'canticle, song, melody; musical instrument, especially a wind instrument'
orgel- (in orgeldrēam 'instrumental music') [L organum]
pāpa 'pope' [L papa]
paradīs 'paradise, Garden of Eden, heaven' [L paradisus]
passion 'story of the Passion of Christ' [L passion-, passio]
prīm 'early morning office of the Church' [L prima]
prior 'superior office of a religious house or order, prior' [L prior]
sabat 'sabbath' [L sabbata]
sācerd 'priest; priestess' [L sacerdos]
salm, psalm, sealm 'psalm, sacred song' [L psalma]
saltere, sealtere 'psalter, also type of stringed instrument' [L psalterium]
sanct 'holy person, saint' [L sanctus]
stōl, stōle 'long outer garment; ecclesiastical vestment' [L stola]
tempel 'temple' [L templum]

[ Learning and scholarship ]

accent 'diacritic mark' [L accentus]
bærbære 'barbarous, foreign' [L barbarus]
biblioþēce, bibliþēca 'library' [L bibliotheca]
cālend 'first day of the month; (in poetry) month' [L calendae]
cærte, carte '(leaf or sheet of) vellum; piece of writing, document, charter' [L charta, carta]
centaur 'centaur' [L centaurus]
circul 'circle, cycle' [L circulums]
comēta 'comet' [L cometa]
coorte, coorta 'cohort' [L cohort-, cohors]
cranic 'chronicle' [L chronicon or chronica]
cristalla, cristallum 'crystal; ice' [L crystallum]
epistol, epistola, pistol 'letter' [L epistola, epistula]
fers, uers 'verse, line of poetry, passage, versicle' [L versus]
gīgant 'giant' [L gigant- gigas]
grād 'step; degree' [L gradus]
grammatic-cræft 'grammar' [L grammatica]
legie 'legion' [L legio]
meter 'metre' [L metrum]
nōt 'note, mark' [L nota]
nōtere 'scribe, writer' [L notarius]
part 'part (of speech)' [L part-, pars]
philosoph 'philosopher' [L philosophus]
punct 'quarter of an hour' [L punctum]
tītul 'title, superscription' [L titulus]
þēater 'theatre' [L theatrum]

[ Plants, fruit, and products of plants ]

alwe 'aloe' [L aloe]
balsam, balzam 'balsam, balm' [L balsamum]
berbēne 'vervain, verbena' [L verbena]
cāl, cāul, cāwel (or cawel) 'cabbage' [L caulis]
calcatrippe 'caltrops, or another thorny or spiky plant' [L calcatrippa]
ceder 'cedar' [L cedrus]
coliandre, coriandre 'coriander' [L coliandrum, coriandrum]
cucumer 'cucumber' [L cucumer-, cucumis]
cypressus 'cypress' [L cypressus]
fēferfuge (or feferfuge), fēferfugie (or feferfugie) 'feverfew' [L febrifugia, with substitution of Old English fēfer or fefer for the first element]
laur, lāwer 'laurel, bay, laver' [L laurus]
lilie 'lily' [L lilium]
mōr- (in mōrberie, mōrbēam) 'mulberry' [L morus]
murre 'myrrh' [L murra, murrha, mytrrha]
nard 'spikenard (name of a plant and of ointment made from it)' [L nardus]
palm, palma, pælm 'palm (tree)' [L palma]
peonie 'peony' [L paeonia]
peruince, perfince 'periwinkle' [L pervinca]
petersilie 'parsley' [L ptetrosilenum, petrosilium, petresilium]
polente (or perhaps polenta) 'parched corn' [L polenta]
pyretre 'pellitory' (a plant) [L pyrethrum]
rōse (or rose) 'rose' [L rosa]
rōsmarīm, rōsmarīnum 'rosemary' [L rosmarinum]
safine 'savine (type of plant)' [L sabina]
salfie, sealfie 'sage' [L salvia]
spīce, spīca 'aromatic herb, spice, spikenard' [L spica]
stōr 'incense, frankincense' [probably L storax]
sycomer 'sycamore' [L sycomorus]
ysope 'hyssop' [L hyssopus]

[ Animals ]

aspide 'asp, viper' [L aspid-, aspis]
basilisca 'basilisk' [L basiliscus]
camel, camell 'camel' [L camelus]
*delfīn 'dolphin' [L delfin]
fenix 'phoenic; (in one example) kind of tree' [L phoenix]
lēo 'lion' [L leo]
lopust 'locust' [L locusta]
loppestre, lopystre 'lobster' [probably L locusta]
pndher 'panther' [L panther]
pard 'panther, leopard' [L pardus]
pellican 'name of a bird of the wilderness' [L pellicanus]
tiger 'tiger' [L tigris]
ultur 'vulture' [L vultur]

[ Medicine ]

ātrum, atrum, attrum 'black vitriol; atrament; blackness' [L atramentum]
cancer 'ulcerous sore' [L cancer]
flanc 'flank' [L *flancum]
mamme 'teat' [L mamma]
pigment 'drug' [L pigmentum]
plaster 'plaster (medical dressing), plaster (building material)' [L plastrum, emplastrum]
sċrofell 'scrofula' [L scrofula]
tyriaca 'antidote to poison' [L tiriaca, theriaca]

[ Tools and implements ]

pāl 'stake, stave, post, pole; spade' [L palus]
(perhaps) paper '(probably) wick' [L papirus, papyrus]
pīc 'spike, pick, pike' [perhals L *pic-]
press 'press (specifically clothes-press)' [L pressa or French presse]

[ Building and construction; settlements ]

castel, cæstel 'village, small town; (in late manuscripts) castle' [L castellum]
foss 'ditch' [L fossa]
marman-, marmel- (in marmanstān, marmelstān 'marble' [L marmor]

[ Receptacles ]

purs, burse 'purse' [L bursa]

[ Money; units of measurement ]

cubit 'cubit, measure of length' [L cubitum]
mancus 'a money of account equivalent to thirty pence, a weight equivalent to thirty pence' [L mancus]
talente 'talent (as unit of weight or of money)' [L talentum]

[ Clothing ]

cæppe, also (in cantel-cāp 'cloak worn by a cantor') cāp 'cloak, hood, cap' (with uncertain relationship to cōp in the same meaning) [L cappa]
tuniċe, tuneċe 'undergarment, tunic, coat, toga' [L tunica]

[ Roles, ranks, and occupations (non-religious or not specifically religious) ]

centur, centurio, centurius 'centurion' [L centurion-, centurio]
cōc 'cook' [L *cocus, coquus]
consul 'consul' [L consul]
fiþela 'fiddler' (also fiþelere 'fiddler', fiþelestre '(female) fiddler') [probably L vitula]

[ Warfare ]

mīlite 'soldiers' [L milites, plural of miles]

[ Verbs ]

acordan 'to reconcile' [perhaps L accordare, although more likely a post-Conquest borrowing from French]
acūsan 'to accuse (someone)' [L accusare]
ġebrēfan 'to set down briefly in writing' [L breviare]
dēclīnian 'to decline or inflect' [L declinare]
offrian 'to offer, sacrifice' [L offerre]
*platian 'to make or beat into thin plates' (implied by platung 'metal plate' and ġeplatod and aplatod 'beaten into thin plates') [L plata, noun]
predician 'to preach' [L predicare, praedicare]
prōfian 'to assume to be, to take for' [L probare]
rabbian 'to rage' [L rabiare]
salletan 'to sing psalms, to play on the harp' [L psallere]
sċrūtnian, sċrūdnian 'to examine' [L scrutinare]
*spendan 'to spend' (recorded in Old English only in the derivatives spendung, aspendan, forspendan) [L expendere]
studdian 'to look after, be careful for' [L studere]
temprian 'to modify; to cure, heal; to control' [L temperare]
tonian 'to thunder' [L tonare]

[ Adjectives ]

fals 'false' [L falsus]
mechanisċ 'mechanical' [L mechanicus]

[ Miscellaneous ]

fals 'fraud, trickery' [L falsum]
rocc (only in stānrocc) 'cliff or crag' [L rocca]
sott 'fool', also adjective 'foolish' [L sottus]
tabele, tabul, tabule 'tablet, board; writing tablet; gaming table' [L tabula]

Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-07-21-1] [2019-10-22-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-20 Sun

#3828. ؿե󥹤ˡ٤ܼ [toc][hfl][french][history]

Ѹˤؤ־ǴŪǤϤ뤬˽פʬ1Ĥ˥ե󥹻ˤ롥ϡ޲įƤdzڤؿե󥹤ˡ٤ܼ󤲤Ƥʤߤ˥ꥹˤܼˤĤƤϡ#3430. ʪ졡ꥹˡʾ岼ˡ٤ܼ ([2018-09-17-1]) 򻲾ȡܼ꡼ (toc) εƤ



1ϡޤȥե󥯲
1. ޥ󡦥ꥢ
2. ե󥯲
3. ꥢȥꥹȶ
2ϡڡīΩ
1. ְŹ
2. ڡīΩ
3ϡե󥹲ȯŸ
1. եå
2. 륤
3. եå׻ȥ޶ĤȤ襤
4. ҲѲ
5. ꥹȶ̥å
4ϡɴǯȥī
1. ɴǯ
2. Ȥؤư
3. δ
5ϡͥ󥹲
1. ꥢ
2. ͥ
3. פȥե
6ϡȥ֥ܥīΩ
1.
2. ֥ܥīΩ
3.
7ϡвε
1. 륤컰ȼ縢
2. 륤
3. եв
3. αɸ
8ϡȬʸ
1. 륤륤ϻ
2. ػ
3. ʸ
9ϡե󥹳̿ȥʥݥ쥪
1. ե󥹳̿
2. ʥݥ쥪
3. ե󥹳̿ι¤
4. ̿ΰ仺
10ϡΥե
1. Ų
2. 
3. ̿
4.
5. Ȳȥ֥른λ
6. ̱
11ϡ軰Ω
1. ѥꡦߥ塼軰Ω
2. ե󥹤ˤ̱Ȥη
3. ˡʬΥˡ
12ϡΥե
1. 켡ξ׷
2. ȿ̱
3. ȥ쥸
4. Υե
5. ư
6. Υե
7. ե󥹤ηи



ؿե󥹤ˡ俷ǡϽн˼ҡ2016ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-14-1] [2019-10-26-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-19 Sat

#3827. lexical set (2) [terminology][lexicology][vowel][sound_change][phonetics][dialectology][lexical_set]

ε ([2019-10-18-1]) ˰³lexical set ȤѸˤĤơSwann et al. Ѹ켭ŵˤȡ̤ꡥ

lexical set A means of enabling comparisons of the vowels of different dialects without having to use any particular dialect as a norm. A lexical set is a group of words whose vowels are uniformly pronounced within a given dialect. Thus bath, brass, ask, dance, sample, calf form a lexical set whose vowel is uniformly [ɑː] in the south of England and uniformly [æː] in most US dialects of English. The phonetician J. C. Wells specified standard lexical sets, each having a keyword intended to be unmistakable, irrespective of the dialect in which it occurs (see Wells, 1982). The above set is thus referred to as 'the BATH vowel'. Wells specified twenty-four such keywords, since modified slightly by Foulkes and Docherty (1999) on the basis of their study of urban British dialects.


1ʸˤ褦ˡlexical set ȤǰζߤϡŪ˼夲ơִפȤƿɬפʤˤ롥ñ췲򤢤ޤŪˤȤ館ҴŪ֤Ӥǽʤ餷ƤǤ줿ǰǤ롥ѸΤǡ'BATH' ŵȤ롤첻ޤñ췲פưפ˸褦ˤʤä

Swann, Joan, Ana Deumert, Theresa Lillis, and Rajend Mesthrie, eds. A Dictionary of Sociolinguistics. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 2004.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-18 Fri

#3826. lexical set (1) [terminology][lexicology][vowel][sound_change][phonetics][dialectology][lexical_set]

ءءʬˤפʳǰѸȤơlexical set ȤΤ롥#3505. THOUGHT-NORTH-FORCE Merger ([2018-12-01-1]) ʤɤǿƤȰäƤȤϤʤäΤǡƳ褦Trudgill Ѹ켭ŵѤ롥

lexical set A set of lexical items --- words --- which have something in common. In discussions of English accents, this 'something' will most usually be a vowel, or a vowel in a certain phonological context. We may therefore talk abut the English 'lexical set of bath', meaning words such as bath, path, pass, last, laugh, daft where an original short a occurs before a front voiceless fricative /f/, /θ/ or /s/. The point of talking about this lexical set, rather than a particular vowel, is that in different accents of English these words have different vowels: /æ/ in the north of England and most of North America, /aː/ in the south of England, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.


̻Ūˤϡ벻ѲФФ褦ˡꤵ줿ĶˤƤΤ䡤뤤Ϥ¾ͳñ췲Τߤˡ줬ñ췲򡤤¾ΤΤȶ̤ĤĤޤȤƸƤӤǤ롥ŪˤϡΤ褦ʲѲѼƤʤѼӡоȤݤˡܤ٤췲ȤƼ夲ȤǤ롥
פˡѲεˤϸä̤äΤȤ¤ǧ᤿ǡƱ褦˿äʤ뤤ϿäƤñ췲«ͤȤñ췲ñ̤ "lexical set" ȸƤ֤櫓ȤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΤ褦ñ̾Ĥǡ¼ŪʤΤȤ館줿褦ʵ뤫Ի׵ĤѸȤΤϤ֤ǤʤȤ˴ΤȤʤˡ

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-10-19-1]

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2019-10-17 Thu

#3825. quoth 첻 (2) [vowel][verb][preterite][old_norse][phonetics][sound_change][analogy][inflection][spelling_pronunciation]

[2019-10-07-1]εǼ夲ˤĤơĴ٤ƤߤѸ줫Ѹˤơưʲˤ첻ʻˤˤ͡ʤΤǧ줿褦ä <a> <o> ֤줿ΤˤĤơûäΤĹäΤȤ꤬ʸɸŪ quoth /kwoʊθ/ ĹפǤˡ
ˤĤ Dobson (II 339) äƤߤ1򻲾ȡ

It is commonly assumed, as by Sweet, New English Grammar, §1473, that ME quod and quoth are both weak-stressed forms with rounding of ME ă; but they should be distinguished. Quod, which occurs as early as Ancrene Wisse and its group, undoubtedly has ME ŏ < ME ă rounded under weak stress (though its final d is more simply explained from the OE plural stem than, with Sweet, as a special weak-stressed development of OE þ. Quoth, on the other hand, is not a blend-form with a ModE spelling-pronunciation, as Sweet thinks; the various ModE forms (see §421 below) suggest strongly that the vowel descends from ME long_o_with_polish_hook.png, which is to be explained from ON á in the p.t.pl. kváðum. Significantly the ME quoþ form first appears in the plural quoðen in the East Anglian Genesis and Exodus (c. 1250), and next in Cursor Mundi.


ΰѤʤ˲᤹ȡ̤Ȥʤ롥Ѹ衤ñ˴ؤûĹξ¸Ƥ줬ͳ褹ȤϡԤˤĤƤϸűѸ1û첻 (cf. cwæþ) ǤꡤԤˤĤƤϸťΥɸ kváðum Ǥ롥Ҳʻˤ th d ȤˤĤƤ⡤Dobson ͡ʰ۷֤κ硦ƱϡŪʷ³ԤϸűѸ1ͳ褷Ԥ2ͳ褹ˤȤƲᤷȤΩΤ褦

Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-16 Wed

#3824. ꥹˡѸˤϽ̱²줬夲Ƥʪ [history][hel_education][contact]

#37. ֥ƥؿ5̱²θȤαѸؤαƶ ([2009-06-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ1066ǯޤǤΡ֥ꥹˡפˤƤϡʤȤ5ΰ̱²褬äƤ롥ȿ͡޿͡󥰥͡ǡ͡ΥޥͤǤ롥ơظˤäϡȸ졤ƥ졤Ѹ졤ťΥɸ졤Υޥ󡦥ե󥹸Ǥ롥ꥹˡѸˤȾϡν̱²줬ʤʣʪȤäƤ褤ꥹˤԤǤ (17) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ȴΥޥޤǤΡ֥ꥹ׻ˤħŤȤư̱²ܿ򤢤뤳ȤǤ롥餿̱²褷ݤˤάưʤ롥θλȤƤϡ轻̱²򤢤餿̱²夫ۤƤŪطȤȤˡŪ轻̱Ȥνʬ䶦¸طߤ줿֥ޥ֥ƥåס֥󥰥֥ƥåס֥󥰥ǡ˥åס֥󥰥ΥޥȤˡξδطƤ뤳Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥
̱²οϡƻΥ֥ƥ̱²礭Ѳ餿ʸ¤⡤ܽƤ̱²¸ߤ̤ˤƤϸʤ̱²Ѳϡ佡ޤ礭ʼҲŪžǽäƤޤ٤Ƥ̱²γưäơ֥ꥹפΩΤǤꡤ̱²ưΤߤפǤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ


Ѥˤ轻̱²򤢤餿̱²夫ۤƤŪطפֽĻפȤߤʤŪ轻̱Ȥνʬ䶦¸طפֲפȤߤʤСꥹˤϡ͡ʼλǿ줿ʪȤơϤۤܤΤޤޤ˱ѸˤˤƤϤޤ褦˻פ롥
ĻȲ߹礤ɽ魯֥ޥ֥ƥåפʤɤʣŪѸ򡤥եŸѸͿƤߤ

ʳ̤ѸĹŸƤߤѸ
1ʥ֥ƥåBritish (language)
2ޥ֥ƥåRoman-British (language)
3󥰥֥ƥåAnglo-Roman-British (language)
4󥰥ǡ˥åDanish-Anglo-Roman-British (language)
5󥰥ΥޥNorman-Danish-Anglo-Roman-British (language)


ѸˤλϤޤ3ʳʹߤȤȤˤʤ뤬˺ƤϤξˤ˿夲ƤäΤȤߤʤСѸϾʤѤäƤ "Norman-Danish-Anglo-Roman British language" ȸƤ֤٤ʪȤ

̭ϡإꥹ٤Ωסإꥹˡ ̭ԡˡǼҡ1998ǯ16--53ǡ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-15 Tue

#3823. show θΰ̣ϡָפǤϤʤָ [verb][semantic_change][causative][passive][voice]

show 濴Ūʸϡָ롤פűѸǤϴŪˡָ ̣Hall θűѸ켭 scēawian ߤȡ"look, gaze, see, behold, observe; inspect, examine, scrutinize; have respect to,look favourably on; look out, look for, choose; decree, grant" ʤɤ줬ͿƤ롥Ǹ "decree, grant" ˤϸθε̣ⴶ뤬űѸμ礿̣ϡָפä
줬ѸˤơָפָפʤɡưŪʸ (passive) Ūʸ (causative) ȯŸƤָ͡סָ͡סָʪפȤưΰ̣˴ؤ뻲Ϳ (participants) 3ԤȤ (voice) 괬ѲȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤬ʤΤ褦ȯŸ뤳ȤˤʤäΤϤ褯ʬäƤʤ캬ϰĸˤΤܤꡤޥǤ⤹٤ơָפ̣ƤΤǡѸǤȯŸȼΤΤǤ롥OED show, v. ˡηˤĤƲ⤬롥

In all the continental West Germanic languages the verb has the meaning 'to look at' (compare sense 1), and the complex sense development shown in English, in particular the development of the causative sense 'to cause to be seen' (which may be considered the core meaning of all the later sense branches), is unparalleled. Evidence for this development in Old English is comparatively late (none of the later sense branches is attested before the first half of the 12th cent.); however, similar uses are attested earlier (albeit rarely) for the Old English prefixed form gescēawian, especially in the phrase āre gescēawian to show respect or favour (compare quot. OE at sense 26a(a)), but also in senses 'to present, exhibit' (one isolated and disputed attestation; compare sense 3a) and 'to grant, award' (compare sense 18). The details of the semantic development are not entirely clear; perhaps from 'to look at' to 'to cause to be looked at or seen' (compare branch II.), 'to present, exhibit, display' (compare branches II. and IV.), 'to make known formally', 'to grant, award' (compare branch III.), although all of the latter senses could alternatively show a development via sense 2 ('to look for, seek out, to choose, select'). Compare also quot. OE at showing n. 2a, but it is uncertain whether this can be taken as implying earlier currency of sense 24.


Ѥˤ⤢̤ꡤűѸˤָ롨Ϳפϳ̵ǤϤʤOED 餤ĤäƤߤȡǡǤ롥

[OE Genesis A (1931) 1581 Þær he freondlice on his agenum fæder are ne wolde gesceawian.]
lOE Extracts from Gospels: John (Vesp. D.xiv) xiv. 9 in R. D.-N. Warner Early Eng. Homilies (1917) 77 Se mann þe me gesicð, he gesicð eac minne Fæder. Hwu segst þu, Sceawe us þone Fæder?
lOE Anglo-Saxon Chron. (Laud) anno 1048 Þa..sceawede him mann v nihta grið ut of lande to farenne.


ѸˤʤȡMED sheuen v.(1) ̤ꡤΡָפθĤĤġָפθ⹭äƤ롥Ѹ줫ϵ󤬤äƤ褦
˽פưʤˡ̣ѲθΤꤿȤǤ롥ʤߤˡshow ϡ̣Ǥʤڥ󥰡ȯѤˤĤƤŪ˶̣ѲФƤưʲε򻲾ȡ

#1415. shew show (1) ([2013-03-12-1])
#1416. shew show (2) ([2013-03-13-1])
#1716. shew show (3) ([2014-01-07-1])
#1806. ARCHER shew show ([2014-04-07-1])
#1727. /ju:/ ε ([2014-01-18-1])
#3385. Ѹ˼嶯ܹԤư ([2018-08-03-1])

Hall, John R. C. A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Rev. ed. by Herbert T. Merritt. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 1996. 1896.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-14 Mon

#3822. رѸ춵٤Ϣ8֤ʤ bus, bull, busy, bury 첻ϸߤ˰ۤʤΤ [rensai][notice][vowel][spelling][spelling_pronunciation_gap][me_dialect][sound_change][phonetics][standardisation][sobokunagimon][link]

1012ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ11ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ8Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤ bus, bull, busy, bury 첻ϸߤ˰ۤʤΤפǤ
Ѹϥڥ󥰤ȯδطȥ졼ȤǤϤʤȤޤϤȤ櫓첻ˤĤƤϤޤޤȤСmat mate ǤƱ <a> Υڥ󥰤ѤƤʤ顤Ԥ /æ/Ԥ /eɪ/ ȯ褦ˡ1ĤΥڥ󥰤Ф2ĤȯбƤϤˤޤդƱȯǤۤʤ륹ڥ󥰤֤뤳Ȥϡmeat, meet, mete ʤɤƱָפФ狼ޤ
εǤ <u> 첻ܤ줬ɤ첻б뤫ͤƤߤޤŪˤ bus /bʌs/, bull /bʊl/, busy /ˈbɪzi/, bury /ˈbɛri/ ȤñˤȤꡤˤƤΤ褦ʡԿԤʡץڥ󥰤ȯбƤƤޤäΤ򡤱Ѹˤδ⤷ޤˤ񤤤褦ˡָߤΥڥ󥰤ϡۤʤ˰ۤʤװѤ³ŪƤ̤λѡפǤطʤˤϡäȶäͳޤ򤭤򤪳ڤߤ

رѸ춵2019ǯ11



ϢܵȴϢơܥ֥ΰʲε⤴

#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1])
#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1])
#570. bury 첻ʬۡ ([2010-11-18-1])
#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1])
#563. Chaucer merry ([2010-11-11-1])

δ졡ֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ8󡡤ʤ bus, bull, busy, bury 첻Ϥ줾ۤʤΤסرѸ춵2019ǯ11桤罤۽Ź2019ǯ101262--63ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-12-03-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-13 Sun

#3821. Old Saxon μѸ [loan_word][borrowing][lexicology][old_saxon][germanic][dutch][flemish][german][oe][germanic]

ѸˤˤơѸƱޥ췲λǤ Old Saxon ¸ߴǤϤʤε#3819. եå粦ˤ륤󥰥ɤγò ([2019-10-11-1]) ǿ줿եå粦ζפ˺ݤơJohn Ȥ̾θťͤ亴̳ƤȤϿ롥ޤGenesis B ȤΤűѻˤϡ9 Old Saxon 줿1᤬ޤޤƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥
Genesis B ˤϡhearra (lord), sima (chain), landscipe (region), heodæg (today) ޤྯ Old Saxon ͳ褹Ȥܤ줬ǧ롥˼ѤʤäȤǤϡѸ˾ΰյϾȤ虜ʤɬפȤФȤñ¿줫ڤȤȯãѸλŪħűѸˤǤ˸ƤȤȤõƤƤ褤 (Crystal 27)
̤ˡѸˤˤơְŪ״طᤤޥ췲μѸ¿ϤʤŪطᤤΤǤС¤θܿ¿äϤǤϤʤ뤬ǤʤȤСʹϡ˥ɥĸ줫μѸϡ#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1])#2621. ɥĸαѸؤܳŪ׸19 ([2016-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡΤȤƤΩʤʤεϤDZѸ˱ƶͿȤΤϡեޥ줯餤Ͻ줫θŪƶˤĤƤϡ#149. եޥȱѸˡ ([2009-09-23-1])#2645. 줫Ѥ줿ߤΤñ ([2016-07-24-1])#2646. Ѹ˴ؤס ([2016-07-25-1])#3435. ѸˤˤϽ줫αƶϲᾮɾƤ ([2018-09-22-1])#3436. 󥰥ɤӤȤܿˡ ([2018-09-23-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-07-21-1]

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2019-10-12 Sat

#3820. ʤեå粦λޤǤ˳䤬षƤޤäΤ [history][oe][alfred][anglo-saxon]

ε#3819. եå粦ˤ륤󥰥ɤγò ([2019-10-11-1]) ˤ褦ˡ9ȾΥեå粦λʺ߰871--99ǯˤޤǤˡ󥰥ɤΡʥƥˤ˳ϤäǤޤäƤ8ˤϡȤ櫓 Northumbria Bede Alcuin ʤɤؼԤڽФ󥰥ɤγؽѤϥ衼åΤ˰ҸäƤΤεǰѤեå粦ľθűѸʸϤʬ̤ꡤ1Ⱦۤɸˤϡò٤ŪؤĤƤ
ͳ1Ĥϡ󥰤νǤ롥793ǯ Lindisfarne ⤵ư衤9ˤơ󥰥ɤǤϼܤ餫˸󥰥ɤδ¸μܤ¿üƤޤΦ񤷤ݴɤ줿ܤ⤢äȤƤۤɤοǤϤʤܤʤС󥰥ɤγΤȤƳؤ֤ȤϤǤʤƥϤݻ뤳ȤǤʤäΤȤƳबΤ̵̤Ȥä
⤦1Ĥͳϡ󥰤νˡ󥰥ɤƬǾΦήФƤޤäȤȤ롥ٳ Alcuin (c732--804) ޡ˥ɮƬȤƻŤ٤ΦȯäƤޤȡNorthumbria γˤϤäȿ줿1ͤν׿ʪήФˤä礭ʥ᡼⤿餵ȤΤϡźοͻ
褽Ʊ塤󥰥ɽпȤǥޥͤ۶ Boniface (680?--754?) Τ뵮ȤȤ˥ɥĤؤȯäƤޤä̡Southumbria γؽѿϤäǤ8ˡ󥰥dzηƤΤǤ롥إ󥰽Ȥ㤭̤˪ΤäȤˤʤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-13-1]

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2019-10-11 Fri

#3819. եå粦ˤ륤󥰥ɤγò [popular_passage][oe][alfred][anglo-saxon]

եå粦ˤ Cura Pastoralis (or Pastoral Care) θűѸ893ǯˤνʸˡ9ȾΥ󥰥ɤˤơ󥰤νˤ䤬षƤޤäȤòͭ̾1᤬롥եåɤϤʸŪæ٤פԤʤ̤1ۤɸ˸졤10ȾΥ٥ͥǥȲ (the Benedictine Reform) ʸݤؤȤĤʤäƤäΰ̣ǤϡʸˡʸػŪ˽פ1ǤȤ롥ʸϤ顤Ȥ櫓褯ΤƤʬűѸ츶ʸǰѤ褦 (Mitchell and Robinson 204--05) եå粦ܵäƤ롥

Ælfred kyning hāteð grētan Wǣrferð biscep his wordum luflīce ond frēondlīce; ond ðē cȳðan hāte ðæt mē cōm swīðe oft on gemynd, hwelce wiotan iū wǣron giond Angelcynn . . . ond hū man ūtanbordes wīsdōm ond lāre hieder on lond sōhte; ond hū wē hīe nū sceoldon ūte begietan, gif wē hīe habban sceoldon. Swǣ clǣne hīo wæs oðfeallenu on Angelcynne ðæt swīðe fēawa wǣron behionan Humbre ðe hiora ðēninga cūðen understondan on Englisc oððe furðum ān ǣrendgewrit of Lǣdene on Englisc āreccean; ond ic wēne ðætte nōht monige begiondan Humbre nǣren. Swǣ fēawa hiora wǣron ðæt ic furðum ānne ānlēpne ne mæg geðencean be sūðan Temese ðā ðā ic tō rīce fēng. Gode ælmihtegum sīe ðonc ðætte wē nū ǣnigne onstal habbð lārēowa.


Crystal (13) ꡤβսФ븽ͿƤ

King Alfred sends his greetings to Bishop Werferth in his own words, in love and friendship . . . . I want to let you know that it has often occurred to me to think what wise men there once were throughout England . . . and how people once used to come here from abroad in search of wisdom and learning --- and how nowadays we would have to get it abroad (if we were to have it at all). Learning had so declined in England that there were very few people this side of the Humber who could understand their service-books in English, let alone translate a letter out of Latin into English --- and I don't imagine there were many north of the Humber, either. There were so few of them that I cannot think of even a single one south of the Thames at the time when I came to the throne. Thanks be to almighty God that we now have any supply of teachers.


Mitchell, Bruce and Fred C. Robinson. A Guide to Old English. 5th ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 1992.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-10-13-1] [2019-10-12-1]

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2019-10-10 Thu

#3818. űѸˤּʣ [lexicology][word_formation][oe][kenning][compound][disguised_compound]

#3801. gan ˤߤűѸäηŪʡ ([2019-09-23-1]) ǤϡȤƸűѸ (derivative) ιߤűѸäηŪʤϡʣ (compound) ˤäưؤ褯롥ʣȤϡΩ2İʾñĤʤ碌ƿ1ĤñäΤǡѸǤ girlfriend convenience store ʤɤǤߤΥפñǤ롥
äơѸǤʣ (compounding) ȤϤ˳ƤΤűѸǤϤγޤŷ̡ŷ̵˥Ǥ餢롥ʣγǤΰ̣ΤäƤСĤʤ碌ʣ켫Τΰ̣⤪褽ưפǤ뤳Ȥ顤"self-explaining compounds" ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Crystal (22) ꡤűѸ줫Ρּʣפ򤤤Ĥ󤲤Ƥߤ褦

gōdspel < gōd 'good' + spel 'tidings': gospel
sunnandæg < sunnan 'sun's' + dæg 'day': Sunday
stæfcræft < stæf 'letters' + cræft 'crat': grammar
mynstermann < mynster 'monastery' + mann 'man': monk
frumweorc < frum 'beginning' + weorc 'work': creation
eorþcræft < eorþ 'earth' + cræft 'craft': geometry
rōdfæstnian < rōd 'cross' + fæstnian 'fasten': crucify
dægred < dæg 'day' + red 'red': dawn
lēohtfæt < lēoht 'light' + fæt 'vessel': lamp
tīdymbwlātend < tīd 'time' + ymb 'about' + wlātend 'gaze': astronomer


ּΡפȤäƤ٤κϤꡤǸ tīdymbwlātend ʤɤ˼ɤϵ路ޤŪѷˤμ٤줿ʣ (disguised_compound) ʤΤ⤢СƼ뤳ȤʸṲ̄ʥʥ̤ФŪʣ (kenning) ʤΤ⤢ʳơ#260. ([2010-01-12-1])#472. kenning ([2010-08-12-1]) 򻲾ȡˡּʣפȤääǤαԤȤ⤤٤ΤǤϤּʣפϡűѸθˤΩäħ1ĤȤäƤ褤

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-04-01-1]

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2019-10-09 Wed

#3817. hale θ캬ͥåȥ [etymology][oe][word_family][lexicology][old_norse][word_formation][affixation][derivation][cognate]

#1783. whole <w> ([2014-03-15-1])#3275. ա wassail ([2018-04-15-1]) εǿ줿褦ˡhail, hale, heal, holy, whole, wassail ʤɤƱ캬̤롤ߤ˸츻Ū˴Ϣ췲Ǥ롥űѸ hāl ʴʡʡ򹯤ʡˤط򤶤äȸƤߤ褦
ޤűѸ hāl ľܤλ¹hale whole Ǥ롥Ԥϡ켫ΤΤȤʤä wholesome, wholesale, wholly ʤɤƤ롥
̾դűѸ hǣlþ ϡߤñ health, healthy, healthful Ƥ롥
ư hǣlan heal, healer ޤ԰ټդ Hælend ϡֵߺѼԡ䤹͡ˡפ̣פʸűѸñä
ƻղä hālig holy, holiness, holiday Ƥ롥hālig 򸵤ˤƺ줿ư hālgian ϡhallow, Halloween Ƥ롥
űѸ hāl бťΥɸƱ heill αƶǡhail, hail from, hail fellow, wassail ʤɤѸѤ褦ˤʤä
űѸθ˭Ọ̇̄ѲѰ̣ۤ臘ˤϡäƤĤñ췲Ȥʾ塤Crystal (22) ꡥ

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-07-14-1] [2020-03-22-1]

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2019-10-08 Tue

#3816. quotha [etymology][interjection][verb][comment_clause][subjectification][discourse_marker]

ε#3815. quoth 첻 ([2019-10-07-1]) ǡ̯ʿ򼨤ư quoth Ҳ𤷤quoth he Ȥ礬ޤäƴȤƵǽ褦ˤʤä quotha /ˈkwoʊθə/ ʤ롤äѤʸ¸ߤ롥ϤŤᤫɽѤθǷΤ򤳤Ѥ졤֤줿ޤäۤȤˡեե󡪡פۤɤ̣롥
OED quotha, int. ˤȡФϼΤ褦?1520ȤʤäƤ롥

?1520 J. Rastell Nature .iiii. Element sig. Bvjv Thre course dysshes qd a.


Τ褦ˡѸǤ qd a qda ʤɤȾάɽƤ褦Ūʸ̤ḽ夫򡤤⤦󤲤Ƥ

1698 Unnatural Mother iv. 33 Hei, hei! handsom, kether! sure somebody has been rouling him in the rice.
1720 W. Congreve Love for Love v. i. 115 Sleep quotha! No, why you would not sleep o'your wedding night!
1884 R. Browning Mihrab Shah in Ferishtah's Fancies 99 Attributes, quotha? Here's poor flesh and blood.
1997 T. Pynchon Mason & Dixon 507 It's Emerson and that lot. Ragged children. Swarms, quotha.


quoth he Ȥ礬ɸ (discourse_marker) ؤȼѲ (subjectification) Ȥơ˸Ūˤ⤷ȥԥåǤ롥

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2019-10-07 Mon

#3815. quoth [vowel][verb][preterite][verners_law][phonetics][sound_change][analogy][inflection][old_norse]

#2130. "I wonder," said John, "whether I can borrow your bicycle." ([2015-02-25-1])#2158. "I wonder," said John, "whether I can borrow your bicycle." (2) ([2015-03-25-1]) Ǿ줿quoth /kwoʊθ/ ϡ?ȸäפ̣ʸǤ롥1;ñ3;ñľˡΤߤǡʤɤʳη֤¸ߤʤ̯ưǤ롥űѸѸǤϤŪĹ٤ưǤꡤűѸ쥦ȥǤ϶Ѳ5ưȤơ4׷ cweðan -- cwæþ -- cwǣdon -- cweden äʡ#3812. was were δط ([2019-10-04-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ȥ cweðan θ촴첻ȤȡθβѲˤ queath ʤɤȤʤϤǤꡤºݤˤη֤16ޤѤƤθѤȤʤäʤ bequeath ʰǾˤ򻲾ȡˡäơߤ quoth θ촴첻 cweðan μβѲη̤ȤϹͤʤ
OED quoth, v. queath, v. 򻲾ȤƤߤȡo 첻ϡNorthumbrian ʤ󥦥ȥˤ߿첻򼨤Ʊΰ۷ͳ褹ȤΤȤطʤˤʣʲѲѤƯƤ褦OED ϡquoth, v. βǼ3Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥

(i) levelling of the rounded vowel resulting from combinative back mutation in Northumbrian Old English (see discussion at queath v.); (ii) rounding of Middle English short a (of the 1st and 3rd singular past indicative) after w; (iii) borrowing of the vowel (represented by Middle English long open ō) of the early Scandinavian plural past indicative forms (compare Old Icelandic kváðum (1st plural past indicative)); both short and long realizations are recorded by 17th-cent. orthoepists (see E. J. Dobson Eng. Pronunc. 1500--1700 (ed. 2, 1968) II. §§339, 421).


Ѹˤ۷ˤĤƤ MED quēthen v. ⻲ȡڥ󥰤Ȥ hwat ʤ̯ʤΡMED "reverse spelling" ȤƤˤ⸫Ĥꡤ̣Ԥʤ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-10-17-1] [2019-10-08-1]

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2019-10-06 Sun

#3814. եꥫ͡Ķ̱² [africa][lingua_franca][terminology][world_languages][map][bilingualism]

ۤʤ̱²֤Ѥ󥬡ե (lingua_franca) ΤȤĶ̱² (langue véhiculaire) ȾΤ뤳Ȥ롥̱²˸ͭθǤĴַ (langue grégaire) ФơŪܤƤϤƤƱäƤʤ춦Ʊδ֤ãΤѤƤפǤĴѸǤʥp. 33ˡ¾θƾΤȤƤϡ#1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ ([2012-04-03-1]) Ѥ褦ˡ²ݸפȤѸ⤢롥
Ķ̱²˴ؤϡlingua_franca γƵ䡤Ȥ櫓#1788. Ķ̱²νиȳ˴Ϳװ ([2014-03-20-1])#1789. ɥͥθѸĶ̱² ([2014-03-21-1]) Ǽ夲ƤĶ̱²줬¿ʬۤ塤ҲŪ䤬ƤȸޤΤϡեꥫǤ롥줾Ѥϰ͸͡ӥ졤ո졤ХХ졤󥬥졤ϥ졤졤졤и졤եեǸ졤󥴸졤ޥи졤󥬥졤ȥи졤и졤֥ɥ졤졤ϥ졤졤ޥ꡼졤Ǹ졤졤ҥ졤˥󥸥졤ʸ졤ĥʸ졤եʥʤ¿뤳ȤǤʵܡġp. 700)   *
ܡ (706--07) ϡեꥫθ̤ϡĶ̱²ˤäƤȼĥƤ롥եꥫʣʸ˼ȯŪн褷Ƥˤϡ콡ǤϤʤ̱ϻȼȯŸƤĶ̱²ΩӤΤȡϥեꥫΤߤʤ餺¿ͲФ1ĤƤȤʤäƤ褦ˤפ롥

Х벽ƸιˤäƤ⡤Ķ̱²פޤơեꥫ̱²ϡؤȾ˾ڤƤǤƱˡ֥ʥꥢ󡦥ԥסʥʥꥢѸΤȡǤˡ쥪벽ƤˤŵȤơѸե󥹸⡤ääդΥ٥ǡեꥫھ˺դƤȤθ줬ֿ졦⳰ʸϡեꥫͤ¿Τʤδطӡ䤬ͻ¤Ƥ˰㤤ʤ
ۼʸ̵ͻ¤뤳ȤǽŪǤϤʤषξԤδ֤໤ܤʬĴƤȤڤǤΥեꥫϡޤޤʸϤʼ¸ȤʤäƤ롥ʸŪλȤΤʤء٤Ƥ̱²̱²ʸۼ褦ΩƤ٤ǤλȤǺǤڤʤȤϡ줬Υ˥֤򰮤뤫ȤǤ롥եꥫͤλȤΥ˥֤򰮤ΤǤСμʸŪϡ褷ƥեꥫº»ʤΤȤϤʤʤǤΰ̣Ǥ⡤̱²졤櫓ƤĶ̱²פ礭
եꥫνϡͭ˰衤Φ˽Ǥʤ̱²εŤʸ仺ǤꡤƤ͡ˤȤäƤϡ衤¸ΤΤʤΤΤǤϤʤʸ챧򳫤ȤϡեꥫʸŪɬ׷ȸ٤Ǥ


륤᥸󡦥 Ķ̱²١ҡʸ˥ӡ1996ǯ
ԡˡؿ񥢥եꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-07-1]

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2019-10-05 Sat

#3813. Crystal αѸɴʻŵι [review]

#3805. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 3Ǥ Part I ֱѸˡפܼ ([2019-09-27-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Crystal The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 3ǡˤ1 (2--3) Ǥϡ"Modelling English" ꤷܽι˴ؤܤƤ롥ԤĹǯݤäƤѤɽǤꡤѸѤΥå󥹤Ǥ⤢롥ˤС20ȾФޤǤθؤĬήȡʹߤΥȥɤ̸Ĥ˰ĤĤ⡤ξԤͻ礷褦ȤߤȤʤäƤ롥Ԥ䡼̥좤ƤȤꡤѸΡֹ¤ (Structure) ȡˡ (Use) Ȥξ¦̤Τ뤳ȤϡȤ
Crystal ιŪ˼С̤Ǥ롥

Modelling English
Structure
Event
Text
Core
Grammar
Lexicon
Transmission
Phonology
Graphology
Sign
Use
Temporal variation
Long term
Short term
Regional variation
Personal variation
Social variation


褯ͤ줿Ǥϼʤ褦ˤפΥǥˤȡѸˤϡֱѸλѤˤּѰۡפȤˤʤ뤬ˤϰ´롥Ѹ˾θѲϡΤ˶ŪʳǰǤֹ¤פˤƤȤ館Τ񤷤⤷ʤȤäơֻѡפ˴ޤΤȤϻפʤֻѡפ°ΤȤơϰѰۡסָĿѰۡסּҲѰۡפƱˡֻѰۡפߤȤΤϡŪˤʬʤǤʤΤ˼ΰۤʤѰۤǤ롥üԸĿͤΰǵѲ򰷤 "Short term" ΤġȾ̻ŪȾжŪĤ뤳ȤǡֻѡפȡѰۡפ˰Ĥ褦ȤΤˤ錄 "Long term" ȤˤĤơֻѡפѰۡפͤΤ϶줷ȤΤΨľʰݤ
³2ϡֱѸˡפäܽŸܳŪ˻Ϥޤ뤳Ȥͤȡ"Structure", "Use" ¤ǡñ "History" ֤Ф褤褦˻פΤʱѸˤ칶Ԥܡˡ

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-10-04 Fri

#3812. was were δط [be][verb][preterite][subjunctive][inflection][verners_law][rhotacism][subjunctive][sobokunagimon]

Ѹˤ be ư줬ŪˤüưǤ뤳ȤˤĤơŪʴ#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) Dz⤷üŪˤС4Ĥΰۤʤ캬ʤ󤻽ӤȤȤ
be ưζ޷ΤʤǤܤȡw- ǻϤޤ֤Ƥ롥ľˡˤƤϿ;Ρˤä was were ̤졤³ˡʸߤβˡˤˤƤѤ were Ȥʤ롥űѸǤϡΤߤʤ餺߷ wes, wesað wesanʬ wesende ʤɤѤ줿ϸ˿षƤޤä̿βФȤƤϡ#3275. ա wassail ([2018-04-15-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ơwas were 2Ĥζ޷ϡűѸ줫鸽Ѹ˻ޤǡ;ΡˡˤäƻȤʬʤƤȤˤʤ뤬ʤ s r ǻҲۤʤäƤΤ¤ϡϱѸˤǤϤ褯ΤƤ Verner's Law (verners_law) rhotacism ΤޤΤǤ롥/s/ ϡͭ˰Ϥޤ줿ĶǤͭ /z/ Ȥʤꡤľ˶ʤĶǤ /r/ ؤѲΤǤʳפϡ#36. rhotacism ([2009-06-03-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
was, were ǤȤʤ wesan (to live, remain) ȤưϡŪ˶Ѳ5ưȤʬव뤬ϡָפ̣űѸιٸ cweðan Ʊ񤤤򤹤롥Ԥ4׷ cweðan -- cwæþ 1-- cwǣdon 2 -- cweden ʲʬˤȤʤ褦ˡԤ wesan -- wæs 1-- wǣron 2ˤȤʤʲʬϷ»Hogg and Fulk 246)
ݥȤϡűѸľˡޤˤƤϿ;Ρˤä wæs, wǣre, wǣron Ȥʬ졤s r ¸Ƥ³ˡޤˤƤϿ;ΤǤꡤñʤ wæreʣʤ wæren Ȥ褦 r ʤäǤ롥ľˡ³ˡ̯ʺۤߤˤޤǶƤꡤʤ *If I WAS a bird ǤϤʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤȤȤˤʤʡ#2601. ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤ ([2016-06-10-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
΢ߤСۤܤ٤ƤưǤϷŪʶ̤Ƥޤäľˡ³ˡޤˡָˡ׶̤ƤΤϡbe ưˤΤ߻ĤƤ was were λҲΰ㤤椨ʤΤǤ롥űѸ Verner's Law rhotacism ȤäȤѲΤΤʤ뵻Ȥ櫓
ʤ嵭狼Ȥꡤbe ưϤĤƤ12ζ̤ĤͣưǤ롥䡤sing βȤơեޥˤ sang ȸʤ饤եޥˤ sung ȸѸüԤΤäƤ뤬Ϥ̣Ǥ12ʸűѸȤ̤ΤǤϤ뤬˶̤ƤȤʤʤʡ#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ

Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

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2019-10-03 Thu

#3811. եꥫθ²Ƚγ [africa][language_family][map][origin_of_language]

θεեꥫˤȤȤϡ¿θؼԤǧƤȤǤ롥ȤкΥեꥫθʬۤ˴ؿͯƤ櫓ǤĹˤͭƤ뤫餳ʤΤԳΤʤȤ¿եꥫθʬۤˤĤ绨ĤˤޤȤƤߤ褦
#3290. եꥫθѸ ([2018-04-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡߤΥեꥫǤ2θ줬äƤꡤ¿⤤ʡ#3807. եꥫˤ¿ (1) ([2019-09-29-1])#3808. եꥫˤ¿ (2) ([2019-09-30-1]) 򻲾ȡˡեꥫäƤϡ褽 Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Sahara, Khoisan 3²Τ줫°뤬ߤδطʬäƤʤФ꤫¾Τʤ²ȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫̤ܤǤ롥ؼԤΤʤˤϡˤ2Ĥθ쥰롼פꡤ1Ĥϥեꥫθ췲⤦1ĤϤʳΤ٤ƤȤԤ⤢ۤɤ (Comrie 74)
եꥫǹԤʤƤ4Ĥθ²Ҳ𤷤Ƥܡ (689) Υեꥫθ²ʬۿޤˤȡΤۤȤɤΥꥢϡNiger-Kordofanian ²νˤäƤ롥Bantu Ϥޤ¿θ줬°1ǯˤϡʬۤեꥫ˸ꤵƤ褦θ塤س礷Ȥ롥  *
Niger-Kordofanian ²ŪʳεȤʤäΤȤ˹ʬۤƤ Khoisan ²νǤ롥ɽŪʸ Namibia ι16ͤüԤȤ Khoekhoe (or Damara) Ʊ²¾θϿषƤƤ롥Ǥ (click) Τ²
եꥫǡ¾θ²˼Ϥޤ褦ˤҤäʬۤƤΤϡNilo-Sahara ²νǤ롥ŤʬۤϤۤ礭ѲƤʤȤ롥Songhai, Saharan, Chari-Nile ʤɤޤޤ뤬ߤ˸Ūˤۤɶ᤯Ϥʤ
̥եꥫƤΤϡArabian ɽ Afro-Asiatic ²Ǥ롥̤̾ꥢʤ餯ϥ衼åѤˤνȴطƤꡤŪˤפʸ¿ޤࡥ
4Ĥθ²ôˤĤƤϡ1ǯʳǤȤܤĤǧ롥Niger-Kordofanian ² West Africans ȤĤˡKhoisan ²Nilo-Saharan ²Afro-Asiatic ²Ϥ줾 Bushmen, Nilotics, North Africans ȤĤбȤ롥դˡĤƥեꥫ˵サƤߡб²¸ߤǧʤĤȤƤ Pygmies 롥ϡˤβǡեꥫ礷 Niger-Kordofanian ² Bantu Ͻݤ߹ޤ졤夷Ĥĸ˻äƤ롥

Comrie, Bernard, Stephen Matthews, and Maria Polinsky, eds. The Atlas of Languages. Rev. ed. New York: Facts on File, 2003.
ԡˡؿ񥢥եꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-07-1]

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2019-10-02 Wed

#3810. ҲŪʹʪȤƤΡֿͼ [race][terminology][anthropology]

ܥ֥ǤϡȤδطˤƿͼ (race) ɤȤ館뤫ˤĤơ#1871. ȿͼ ([2014-06-11-1])#3599. ȿͼ (2) ([2019-03-05-1])#3706. ̱²ȿͼ ([2019-06-20-1]) εǹͤƤܡġԡˡؿ񥢥եꥫˡǡ٤ɤߤʤ顤ƿͼȤϲʪŪʺϤΤμҲŪʰ̣Ťϲʤɤؤֵ񤬤äϢ1 (33--34)

ͤȤСȩȱӤ̤졤ɡȸĿʹ֤򥤥᡼Ʊ֥ͥɿͼפ°ȤϤ¿ʤΤɡɡʤɤͼ֤ѰȾ֥ͥɿͼǥСƤ뤷ؤ⤯餻Υ̥ͤޥͤ⡤Ĺ㤤֥ԥߡפƱ֥ͥɡפʤΤǤ롥ޤο⡤Ǥʤ㡤֡˶ᤤΤޤǡ礭Ѱۺ򼨤Ƥ롥ʤΤ褦¿ΤΰĤ䤨뺮ˤ롥⤽ͼϡ䤿Ƥۤɸ̩ΤʶäʹֽĤǤϤʤĤƤϿʹ֤ŪħȤʬह뤳Ȥʳؤ̾ΤȤƤ夬äξ硤򡤹֡ʤɤοȤƤʹ֤οŪꤹΰҤΤʤȩο̤˼ФϡʳŪʤȤۼʼҲŪĿͰŪǤꡤŪǤ뤳Ȥ顤ȩο˿ʹ֤ʬ褦ȤʪŪǰȤƤοͼϡβʳؤΤʤǤͭꤵ졤ҲʸŪ뤤кŪǰȤǧƤ롥äʪŪʡּΡפΤ褦˸ͼϡĤΤȤŪνи٤ˤäߤ˶̤롤ҤΥסȤƤΥҥȤΥ롼פˤʤƤΥ롼פϡ䤨ϤΥ롼פȸήߤѲ³Ƥ롥եꥫξ硤ܿȸήĹ֤򤫤ƤƳȯ˹Ԥ줿η̡ߤΡ֥ͥɡפ¿ĤƤΤǤ롥


ֿͼפϡʪŪ΢դ뤫Τ褦ʶäƤ뤬¤ΤȤҲŪʹʪǤȤȤ񤷤ʳǰѸǤ롥եꥫˤͼ¿ʿŪ˹ͤ롤եꥫθ¿ˤĤƤϡ#3807. եꥫˤ¿ (1) ([2019-09-29-1])#3808. եꥫˤ¿ (2) ([2019-09-30-1]) 򻲾ȡ

ԡˡؿ񥢥եꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ

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2019-10-01 Tue

#3809. "Rise up, rebel, revolt --- how the English language betrays class and power" [lexical_stratification][lexicology][register][sociolinguistics][diglossia]

The Guardian ˤơѸä3ع¤˴ؤɸε󤲤Ƥʵˡ  *
Ѹä3ع¤ˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥ󥹴Υƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) 䤽ĥäεǤȲ⤷ƤΤǡǾܤ֤ȤϤʤפΤ߽Ҥ٤ƤȡѸä3ʤΥԥߥåɤƤꡤ̤ˤϺDzؤ˱Ѹ줬ؤ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬Ǿؤ˥ƥѸ줬ޤäƤ롥Ūʸܿΰ仺ǤȤȤˡΥ󥰥ɼҲˤƱѸüԡե󥹸üԡƥüԤγơʤҲؤ°ƤǤФǤ⤢롥ñ㲽ƤСؤؤ˸äơ"those who work" or "workers", "those who fight" or "clerks", "those who pray" or "the powerful"ȤĤ°ƤȤȤˤʤ롥
ɸεƤϡŪʳضʬˤĤơEUΥæʤɤäʬǤƤ븽奤ꥹҲˤбʪȤݤǤꡤˤȺDzؤ "workers" ȤΤѤʤؤ "the middle class" ˡǾؤ "the clerkly class" бȤ"the clerkly class" ˴ޤޤΤϡ"academics, thinktankers, lawyers, writers, many artists, scientists, journalists and students, some comedians and politicians, even some entrepreneurs, as well as actual clerics --- anyone whose sense of self depends on an abstract frame of reference" ȤȤ餷
ν񤭼ϡμҲءμҲءѸθóؤʿʤӡȤʿˤŦʤ鸽奤ꥹҲɾƤꡤƤϸŪȤϡ餫ŪǤ롥ä3ع¤ˤĤ1ĽפʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥"[French and Latin] seeped into what we call English and made themselves at home, giving the language its fantastical redundancy, creating something half-Germanic, half-Romance. Trilinguality was internalised." ȤȤȤϼҲŪʸݤǤ diglossia ˤ岼طˤựŪ register ξ岼طؤȡָⲽפΤȤΤĹ餯ռʤΤǤä "internalised" ȽҤ٤Ƥ븽ݤζŪʥץΤꤿΤǤ롥
̤ǤϤ뤬ϢʲΤ褦ʵǰäƤΤǡȤ

#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1])
#1491. diglossia borrowing δط ([2013-05-27-1])
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸ󥰥ɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])
#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1])

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