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Ϣơˡʸȿˡ٤ȤƤ롥 (52)ϡ5ĤʸΤ2ġ濴Ȥȥɤ濴ȤоŪˤɤäƤȤŦƤ롥ǤϿλϹˤΤ줬ʤ졤ˤ礭ʱƶäǤϤषϰ褴Ȥ˽Τ¿ͲƤäȤ¤
ϹϽŪȿķϽФǤʤʾ̹դΤߤʤ餺ùʸʸؤ俽ؤȯŸƤĹŪʬΤʤ¿ͲĤĤäνΤ줷ΤǤ䤹̳Ѥޤ줿
Ϲˤϡθ夵ʤΤѲʸȼʤˤޤݤ졤̤νΤδսҲؤڤƤƤʤǡִפƤäϥ֥եߡʸȤʤ顤Τ褦ŪβǤνΤߤʤäɤ濴Ȥפˤơ˰ۤʤΤϰ褴ȤʬΩΤȤϹоȤʤ
ȥɤʸΤ˴ؤ뺹ۤˤĤơ (53--54) ϡʸ줿Ѥ̵ͭȤ˵Ƥ褦ϡ줵줿ʸζϤŪݥƥ˵դƤݤȤ㤤ˤᤤ褦˻פ롥
άˤƤϡսˤߤ줿ƱʸȤƤΡֲڡפΤʤˤŨñ̡ˡ״֤Ρפ濴Ȥδ֤δطΥϼ졤ڤȰФδط˴äֲڰѡפ夷Ƥä⡤ƱʸǤʬֲפ濴ʤɤǤϡƱʸǤδ֤δط˴ؿ椷ʸΤȤδطˤĤƤηŪѤƤ뤫ˤߤΤȤϡоŪǤä
ơʸȿˡʸˡפΥå١Ǽҡ2018ǯ
Ҳ𤷤ơˡʸȿˡ٤ꡤɸˤĤơ̾ʸʸȤڤäƤڤʤطˤǧƤꡤͭʸҲϤʤʸҲפȤƤ褦˻פ롥֤ȤƤΡ̵ʸҲϤʤʸҲפȤϾΩĤΤ
(27) ϡ̵ʸҲФͭʸҲ̤ͥϵʤȤĤĤ⡤̵ʸҲʸŪʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤĥƤ롥
ȯŸϡĻŪ夹ΤȤƤʸäȤޤäۤʤʳ뤳ȤȤʤ롥
ʸͭȤ⡤ʤ٤ʸʸĤ夲뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥γʹʰϡֿפΥǤ롥
ڥ롼濴˥꤫饨ɥˤޤdzȤߤʥޥԥΤ褦ԻԤ¤Ĥο͡ϡɽ魯סʤַʸפͭƤĻŪ夹ΤȤƤηŪʸĤȤϤĤˤʤä褦Ǥ롥
ֵפǸȤС桼饷dzФߤͷ̱Ǥ롥ʸļդνʸĹ餯ͷ̱⡤ȥ륳ϤȬʸͰƤޤǡʸ⤿ʤä
ޤʥۤͤ⡤ˤʸ⤿컰ȾäƤ褦䤯٥åʸ١Ȥѥʸȡʸ١ȤȤʸĤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥Ȥ⤹ʸ⤿Ȥ⡤ҳƥΤ褦ʡΤݻ뤳ȤǤΤϳΤǤ롥
ά
ʸΤȤʾ̤Ѥ褦ˤʤäҲʸνʬˤơ̡ͥפ褦ˤʤäƤäȤ⵿ʤǤ桼饷ˤ꽻Ū̱ȰưŪͷ̱ϴطǽŪˤԤ̤ͥ˵뤷ޤˤäȤߤƤ褤Ǥ
ʸϤͭʸҲʸŪͥμĥˤ뤬Ϥष̵ʸҲɬʸŪǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤμĥΤۤ˴ؿä̵ʸҲȰǤäƤ⡤¤ϤʥꤽǤ롥˴ؤƤϡʲεǤƤΤǤȤ
#1277. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ ([2012-10-25-1])
#2618. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ (2) ([2016-06-27-1])
#2447. οʸηϤο ([2016-01-08-1])
#3118. ̵ʸҲ˽ҡ ([2017-11-09-1])
#3486. ͭʸȯʤäȤƤġġ ([2018-11-12-1])
ơʸȿˡʸˡפΥå١Ǽҡ2018ǯ
ǯǤ줿ơˡʸȿˡʸˡפΥå٤ϡʸδߤˤ̻ˤǤ롥ܤζϤʶڤ̤äˤǤ롥ʸ졤ȿȤˤäƽƤꡤˤΩ줫ɷ٤Ǥ롥
ܽ˵Ҥϡ5ĤʸŪȯŸŤƤ롥5ĤʸȤϲ1ϤꡤפʬȴФ (19--20)
άͣΥХ롦ƥबݤľȤ٤ȬǯΩäƤߤȡֵפΥեꥫ衼åѤΡֻΦפˤϡޤĤʸʸȤƤʸ¸Ƥ
ʤء֥ƥʸס֥ꥷʸססִסƾҤλͤĤʸƤܤĤġեꥫ衼åѤλΦˤޤäƹ֥ӥʸפθޤĤǤ롥ֿפ̥ꥫξΦϻܤοͤνΦȤ٤ȥꥢΦϡκޤǤˤϡͤο̱ϤȤʤƥʸΰȲƤ
ǡֵפΡֻΦʸϡʸȤƤȤ館ʤСƥʸꥹȶꥷʸ첤ҥɥʩ쥢ʩƥӥʸϥȤƤȤ館褦ơơʸΩơʸˤ붦̤θŵ졤ʸʸȤ˶פʸ졦ʸθѤʸä
ʤꥹȶǤϥƥ졤첤Ǥϥꥷȶ졤ҥɥʩǤϡҥɥˤ륵åȤʩˤѡ졤쥢ʩǤϴʸƥˤƤϥӥ줬ơʸǶͭ줿ŵ졤ʸ졦ʸǤä
5Ĥʸγơϰ衦ʸδط̩ܤǤ롥Ƥߴط˵դƤ줿ǡܽϤФ餷 *
ܥ֥Ǥ⡤ʸˡ硤ʤɤˤĤ¿εƤȤ櫓ʲεȤ줿
#41. ʸˤ ([2009-06-08-1])
#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1])
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])
#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])
#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])
#1853. ʸη (2) ([2014-05-24-1])
#2398. ʸη (3) ([2015-11-20-1])
#2416. ʸη (4) ([2015-12-08-1])
#2399. ݷʸǯɽ ([2015-11-21-1])
#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])
#2414. ʸǯɽʥӥǡˡ ([2015-12-06-1])
#2344. ɽʸɽʸɽʸ ([2015-09-27-1])
#2386. ܸʸˡʸԡˡ ([2015-11-08-1])
#2387. ܸʸˡʶԡˡ ([2015-11-09-1])
#2389. ʸηϤεȯã (1) ([2015-11-11-1])
#2390. ʸηϤεȯã (2) ([2015-11-12-1])
#2577. ʸηϤ˴ؤҲŪװ ([2016-05-17-1])
#2494. ȥꥨʸΤĤʤϤ뤫 ([2016-02-24-1])
ơʸȿˡʸˡפΥå١Ǽҡ2018ǯ
եˤǤϤʤΤΡѸˤ겼뤿ˤȤեˤμۤȤȤǡʤ̴ؿƤ롥 Perret (179--81) եˤǯɽ "Chronologie" Ǥ褦åιԤϡŪǯ塦ҤȤ̣Ǥ롥
[ Préhistoire des langues du monde ]
Il y a 4 ou 5 millions d'années: apparition de l'australopithèque en Afrique.
Il y a 1,6 million d'années: homo erectus colonise l'Eurpope et l'Asie.
Il y a 850 000 ans: premiers hominidés en Europe.
Avant - 100 000: Homo sapiens en Europe (Neandertal) et en Asie (Solo).
- 100 000: un petit groupd d'Homo sapiens vivant en Afrique (ou au Moyen-Orient) se met en marche et recolonise la planète. Les autres Homo sapiens se seraient éteints. (Hypothèse de certains généticiens, les équipes de Cavalli-Sforza et de Langaney, dite thèse du «goulot d'étranglement»).
- 40 000: première apparition du langage?
[ Préhistoire des Indo-Européens ]
- 10000: civilisation magdalénienne en Dordogne. Premier homme en Amérique.
- 7000: les premières langues indo-européennes naissent en Anatolie (hypothèse Renfrew).
Entre - 65000 et - 5500: les Indo-Européens commencent leur migration par vagues (hypothèse Renfrew).
- 4500: les Indo-Européens occupent l'ouest de l'Europe (hypothèse Renfrew).
- 4000 ou - 3000: les Indo-Européens commencent à se disperser (hypothèse dominante).
- 3500: civilisation dite des Kourganes (tumuluss funéraires), débuts de son expansion.
- 3000: écriture cunéiforme en Perse, écriture en Inde. Première domestication du cheval en Russie? (- 2000, premières représentations de cavaliers).
[ Préhistoire du français ]
- 4000 ou - 3000: la civilisation des constructeurs de mégalithes apparaît en Bretagne.
- 3000: la présence des Celtes est attestée en Bohème et Bavière.
- 2500: début de l'emploi du bronze.
- 600: premiers témoignages sur les Ligure et les Ibères.
- 600: des marins phocéens s'installent sur la cõte méditerranéenne.
- 500: une invasion celte (précédée d'infiltrations?): les Gaulois.
[ Histoire du français ]
- 1500: conquête de la Provence par les Romains et infiltrations dans la région narbonnaise.
- 59 à - 51: conquête de la Gaule par les Romains.
212: édit de Caracalla accordant la citoyenneté à tous les hommes libres de l'Empire.
257: incursions d'Alamans et de Francs jusqu'en Italie et Espagne.
275: invasion générale de la Gaule par les Germains.
312: Constantin fait du christianisme la religion officielle de l'Empire.
Vers 400: traduction en latin de la Bible (la Vulgate) par saint Jérôme.
450--650: émigration celte en Bretagne (à partir de Grande-Bretagne): réimplantation du celte en Bretagne.
476: prise de Rome et destitution de l'empereur d'Occident.
486--534: les Francs occupent la totalité du territoire de la Galue (496, Clovis adopted le christianisme).
750--780: le latin cesse d'être compris par les auditoires populaires dans le nord du pays.
800: sacre de Charlemagne.
813: concile de Tours: les sermons doivent être faits dans les langues vernaculaires.
814: mort de Charlemagne.
842: les Serments de Strasbourg, premier document officiel en proto-français.
800 à 900: incursions des Vikings.
800--850: on cesse de comprendre le latin en pays de langues d'oc.
880: Cantilène de sainte Eulalie, première elaboration littéraire en proto-français.
911: les Vikings sédentarisés en Normandie.
957: Hugues Capet, premier roi de France à ignorer le germanique.
1063: conquête de l'Italie du Sud et de la Sicile par des Normands.
1066: bataille de Hastings: une dynastie normande s'installe en Angleterre où on parlera français jusqu'à la guerre de Cent Ans.
1086: la Chanson de Roland.
1099: prise de Jérusalem par les croisés: début d'une présence du français et du provençal en Moyen-Orient.
1252: fondation de la Sorbonne (enseignement en latin).
1254: dernière croisade.
1260: Brunetto Latini, florentin, compose son Trésor en français.
1265: Charles d'Anjou se fait couronner roi des deux Siciles, on parlera français à la cour de Naples jusqu'au XIVe siècle.
1271: réunion du Comté de Toulouse, de langue d'oc, au royaume de France.
1476--1482: Louis XI rattache la Bourgogne, la Picardie, l'Artois, le Maine, l'Anjou et la Provence au royaume de France.
1477: l'imprimerie. Accélération de la standardisation et de l'oficialisation du français, premières «inventions» orthographiques.
1515: le Consistori del Gai Saber devient Collège de rhétorique: fin de la littérature officielle de langue d'oc.
1523--1541: instauration du français dans le culte protestant.
1529: fondation du Collège de France (rares enseignements en fançais).
1530: Esclarcissment de la langue française, de Palsgrave, la plus connue des grammaires du français qui parassient à l'époque en Angleterre.
1534: Jacques Cartier prent possession du Canada au nom du roi de France.
1539: ordonnace de Villers-Cotterêts, le français devient langue officielle.
1552: la Bretagne est rattachée au royaume de France.
1559: la Lorraine est rattachée au royaume de France.
1600: la Cour quitte les bords de Loire pour Parsi.
1635: Richelieu officialise l'Académie française.
1637: Descartes écrit en français Le Discours de la méthode.
1647: Remarques sur la langue française de Vaugelas: la norme de la Cour prise comme modèle du bon usage.
1660: Grammaire raisonnée de Port-Royal.
1680: première traduction catholique de la Bible en français.
1685: révocation de l'édit de Nantes: un million de protestants quittent la France pour les pays protestants d'Europe, mais aussi pour l'Afrique et l'Amérique.
1694: première parution du Dictionnaire de l'Académie.
1700: début d'un véritable enseignement élémentaire sans latin, avec les frères des écoles chrétiennes de Jean-Baptiste de la Salle.
1714: traité de Rastadt, le français se substitue au latin comme languge de la diplomatie en Europe.
1730: traité d'Utrecht: la France perd l'Acadie.
1739: mise en place d'un enseignment entièrement en français dans le collège de Sorèze (Tarn).
1757: apparition des premiers textes en créole.
1762: explusion des jésuites, fervents partisans dans leur collèges de l'enseignement entièrement en latin; une réorganisation des collèges fait plus de place au français.
1763: traité de Paris, la France perd son empire colonial: le Canada, les Indes, cinq îles des Antilles, le Sénégal et la Lousinane.
1783: la France recouvre le Sénégal, la Lousiane et trois Antilles.
1787: W. Jones reconnaît l'existence d'une famille de langues regroupant latin, grec, persan, langues germaniques, langues celte et sanscrit.
1794: rapport Barrère sur les idiomes suspect (8 pluviôse an II); rapport Grégoire sur l'utilité de détruire les patois (16 prairial an II).
1794--1795: la Républic s'aliène les sympathies par des lois interdisant l'usage de toute autre langue que le français dans les pays occupée.
1797: tentative d'introduire le français dans le culte (abbé Grégoire).
1803: Bonaparte vend la Louisiane aux Anglais.
1817: la France administre le Sénégal.
1827: Préface de Cromwell, V. Hugo, revendication de tous les registres lexicaux pour la langue littéraire.
1830: début de la conquête de l'Algérie.
1835: la sixième édition du Dictionnaire de l'Académie accepte enfin la graphie -ais, -ait pour les imparfiat.
1879: invention du phonographe.
1881: Camille Sée crée un enseignment public à l'usage des jeunes fille.
1882: lois Jules Ferry: enseignement primaire obligatoire, laïquie et gratuie (en français).
1885: l'administration du Congo (dit ensuite de Belge) est confiée au roi des Belges.
1901: arrêté proposant une certaine tolérance dans les règles orthographiques du français.
1902: l'enseignement secondaire moderne sans latin ni grec est reconnu comme égal à la filière classique.
1902--1907: publication de l'Atlas linguistique de la France par régions de Gilliéron et Edmont.
1950: autorisation de soutenir des thèses en français.
1919: traité de Versalles, le français perd son statue de langue unique de la diplomatic en Europe.
1921: début de la diffusion de la radio.
1935: invention de la télévision.
1951: loi Deixiome permet l'enseignement de certaines langues régionales dans le second cycle.
1954--1962: les anciennes colonies de la France deviennent des états indépendents.
1962--1965: concile de Vatican II: la célébration do la messe, principal office du culte catholique, ne se fait plus en latin.
1987: un créole devient langue officielle en Haïti.
1990: un «rapport sur les rectifications de l'orthographe» propose la régularisation des pluriels de mots composés et la suppression de l'accent circonflexe.
1994: première création d'un organism de soutien à la francophonie.
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
ѸŵŪʷƻ졦ˤϡ顦ӵ顦Ǿζ̤롥ܸΡӡפֵפȤѸˤϡѸ "comparison", "degree", "gradation" ʤɤб뤬⤽⤳ϸŪˤɤΤ褦 (category) ʤΤBussmann Ѹ켭ŵꡤޤ "degree" ιܤߤƤߤ褦
degree (also comparison, gradation)
All constructions which express a comparison properly fall under the category of degree; it generally refers to a morphological category of adjectives and adverbs that indicates a comparative degree or comparison to some quantity. There are three levels of degree: (a) positive, or basic level of degree: The hamburgers tasted good; 'b) comparative, which marks an inequality of two states of affairs relative to a certain characteristic: The steaks were better than the hamburgers; (c) superlative, which marks the highest degree of some quantity: The potato salad was the best of all; (d) cf. elative (absolute superlative), which marks a very high degree of some property without comparison to some other state of affairs: The performance was most impressive . . . .
Degree is not grammaticalized in all languages through the use of systematic morphological changes; where such formal means are not present, lexical paraphrases are used to mark gradation. In modern Indo-European languages, degree is expressed either (a) synthetically by means of suffixation (new : newer : (the) newest); (b) analytically by means of particles (anxious : more/most anxious); or (c) through suppletion . . . , i.e. the use of different word stems: good : better : (the) best.
Ʊͤ "gradation" ȤܤƤߤ褦
gradation
Semantic category which indicates various degrees (i.e. gradation) of a property or state of affairs. The most important means of gradation are the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and some (deadjectival) adverbs. In addition, varying degrees of some property can also be expressed lexically, e.g. especially/really quick, quick as lightning, quicker and quicker.
ˤ褦 "degree" "gradation" ְ̣ƤǤ뤳ȤϤ狼롥ѸΤߤʤ餺ܸǤ֤ɤס֤äɤסֺǤɤסֺɡפʤɤɽ͡ѰդƤꡤӡפֵפ뵡ǽ̤Ƥ뤫̸ŪˤϤ줬˷֡ŪʡʸˡƤǤ⤢ȤȤˤϤʤʤäƤޤСޤްǤʸˡʡʸˡޤˤƤΤʸˡƤȤǧƤ뤬ܸǤäʸˡƤȤꤵƤʤȤΤȤǤ롥
ġʸˡƤϡ̸ŪŪ褯ߤΤ⤢СǤʤΤ⤢롥ʸˡƤȤϡ̣Ǹ̸ˤեȤ٤ΤǤ롥θˤĤƤϡ#2853. ˤȿʹ֤ʬե ([2017-02-17-1]) Ϥ fetishism γƵȤ줿
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
Ρ#3828. ؿեˡ٤ܼ ([2019-10-20-1]) ˰³Ʊδ (177--79) ˤ֥եάǯɽפǤꥹˤǯɽˤĤƤϡ#3478. ؿ⥤ꥹˡ٤ǯɽ ([2018-11-04-1])#3479. ؿ⡡ꥹβ٤ǯɽ ([2018-11-05-1])#3487. ʪ졡ꥹˡʾ岼ˡ٤ǯɽ ([2018-11-13-1])#3497. إꥹ10֡٤ǯɽ ([2018-11-23-1]) ȡ
| 9 | ȿ͡ꥢذܽ |
| BC121 | ꥢ |
| BC52 | 롤ꥢڤ |
| 372 | ȥΥޥƥ̥ޥƥƻΩ |
| 418 | ²ơ꽻 |
| 476 | ˴ |
| 486 | 諒襤ī |
| 496 | ȥӥå襤ȥå˲ |
| 575 | ȥʶ쥴ꥦإեͤˡ |
| 732 | ȥ롦ݥƥ֤襤롦ޥƥ롤Ϥ |
| 751 | ԥԥ3ʾԥԥˡī |
| 800 | ĥ쥪3ޡ˥״ |
| 843 | λʬ |
| 987 | ѥ桼ڡե¨̡ڡīϤޤ (--1328) |
| 1154 | ꡦץͥåȡɲ¨̡ʥإ2ˡ塼Ω |
| 1190 | եå23˽ȯ |
| 1202 | եå2ѲΦ |
| 1209 | ĥΥƥ3ʩΥɤ⡤ӥスϤޤ |
| 1214 | ̤֡襤 |
| 1226 | 륤9¨̡칡֥塦ɡƥ (--34) |
| 1229 | ȥ롼ӥス |
| 1248 | 륤96˻ |
| 1270 | 륤97˽ȯƥ˥» |
| 1302 | եå4ǽѥˤƾ |
| 1303 | ʡ˻ĥܥ˥եƥ8ʰ |
| 1305 | եå4ܥɡʶĤΩʥ5 |
| 1307 | եå4ƥץ뵳İ |
| 1309 | ĥ5ģ˥˰ܤ |
| 1328 | 4סڡī䡥եå6¨̡īγ (--1589) |
| 1337 | ɴǯϤޤ |
| 1348 | ¤եڤή |
| 1358 | ƥ̡ޥ륻Υѥ̿ |
| 1415 | Ѳإ5Υޥǥ˾Φ (8.12) 襤 (10.25) |
| 1420 | ȥ |
| 1429 | ̡륯쥢7״ |
| 1431 | ̡륯з |
| 1453 | ƥ襤ɴǯ轪λ |
| 1477 | ֥르˥Ϳʸࡤ֥르˥Τ |
| 1494 | 8ꥢؿꥢϤޤ (--1559) |
| 1516 | ܥ˥ |
| 1525 | ѥ襤ե1κ |
| 1530 | ե1ΩĤ |
| 1534 | ʸץƥȤؤư |
| 1539 | 롦ȥ첦ᡥʸˤեѡĢκ̳Ť |
| 1559 | ȡ֥쥸ꥢ轪λ2 |
| 1562 | ǥץƥȤԻϤޤ (--98) |
| 1572 | ХƥߤεԻ |
| 1576 | ꡤȥåƱʥˤ |
| 1589 | 3Żī䡥4¨̡֥ܥīϤޤ (--1792) |
| 1593 | 4ɥˤǥȥå˲ |
| 1594 | 4ȥΤ |
| 1598 | ʥȲ |
| 1604 | ݡåˡǯǤλʧ˸ǧ |
| 1624 | ꥷ塼˽Ǥ |
| 1629 | 쥹ᡤץƥȤå |
| 1630 | ֵ줿Ԥסޥꡦɡǥ |
| 1635 | եǯ˻ |
| 1639 | Υޥǥȿ˪֥˥塦ԥޡˤ |
| 1648 | եɤȯ (--53) |
| 1659 | ԥ͡ |
| 1661 | ޥס륤14 |
| 1665 | ١롤̳Ƥ˽Ǥ |
| 1667 | ѥ˷ٻƿ֡եɥϤޤ (--68) |
| 1672 | Ϥޤ (--78) |
| 1685 | ʥȲѻ |
| 1688 | ֥륯ƱϤޤ (--97) ̱ʼƳ |
| 1695 | ԥʿƬǡƳ |
| 1701 | ڥѾϤޤ (--13) |
| 1710 | ǥʽʬΰǡƳ |
| 1715 | 륤14ס륤15¨̡쥢 |
| 1720 | ֥Υƥþ |
| 1733 | ݡɷѾϤޤ (--35) |
| 1740 | ȥꥢѾϤޤ (--48) |
| 1756 | ǯϤޤ (--63) |
| 1771 | ˡסˤˡ |
| 1775 | ʴ |
| 1786 | ̡ʬоݤȤ뿷Ǥ |
| 1789 | ̱IJΩ (6.17)ѻ (8.4) (8.26)륵Կ (10.5) |
| 1790 | ̱ˡ |
| 1791 | ̻ (6.20)1791ǯˡ (9.3) |
| 1792 | ȥꥢ۹ (4.20)810ʲߡˡߤ襤 (9.20)γ (9.21) |
| 1793 | 륤16跺 (1.21)Ⱥۡǹˡ (9.29) |
| 1794 | ƥߥɡȿư (7.27)ɼ |
| 1796 | ʥݥ쥪ꥢ |
| 1799 | ֥18Υǥʥݥ쥪 |
| 1800 | եΩ |
| 1804 | ʥݥ쥪ˡŵ̱ˡŵˡʥݥ쥪¨ |
| 1806 | ٥ļΦ |
| 1814 | ʥݥ쥪̡ء륤18ѥ˵ |
| 1815 | ʥݥ쥪ɴŷ |
| 1824 | 륤18ס10¨ |
| 1830 | ̿륤եå¨̡ʼγϡ |
| 1847 | ǽΡֲױ |
| 1848 | ̿ȯ (2.23)Ω륤ʥݥ쥪Τ (12.10) |
| 1852 | 륤ʥݥ쥪¨̡ (--70) |
| 1855 | 1ѥ (--56) |
| 1870 | ʩȯ |
| 1871 | ѥꡦߥ塼 |
| 1881--82 | 塼롦եˡꡥ̵̳ |
| 1884 | ǥå륽ˡꡥϫƯȹˡ |
| 1889 | ֡ |
| 1898 | 顤ֻƳ |
| 1901 | ˡ |
| 1905 | ʬΥˡȿΩ |
| 1914 | 켡ȯ |
| 1918 | ԥ˥οϢ緳ȥɥĤȤεﶨ |
| 1919 | 륵Ĵ |
| 1924 | եϢǧ |
| 1928 | å֥ꥢʥѥ |
| 1933 | ʶͻˡιޤ |
| 1936 | ֥̱Ω |
| 1939 | ȯ |
| 1940 | ѥ (6.14)Ω (7.10)ˡ (10.3) |
| 1943 | ࡼ쥸ɾIJ (CNR) Υ쥸 |
| 1944 | ѥ (8.25)ɥΩ (9.9) |
| 1945 | ؿͻ |
| 1947 | ޡ롦ץ˻ |
| 1954 | ǥӥա (5.7) ȥʥűࡥ른ꥢϤޤ (11.1) |
| 1957 | 衼åѷкѶƱ (EEC) Ĵ |
| 1958 | 른ꥢǥȷȿ (5.13)ɥΩ (6.1)ϡɥ롤Τ (12.21) |
| 1962 | ꡥ른ꥢ轪 |
| 1966 | եNATO ηæ |
| 1967 | 衼åѶƱ (EC) Ω |
| 1968 | 5̿ |
| 1969 | ɥ롤ΤǤ (4.28) ݥԥɥΤ |
| 1974 | ǥΤ |
| 1981 | ߥåƥΤ |
| 1986 | 饯˽Ǥݳ¸ʥӥΩ |
| 1992 | 衼åϢʥޡȥҥȾˤĴ |
| 1993 | EU Ω |
| 1995 | 饯Τ |
| 1999 | EU ñ̲ߡ֥桼Ƴ |
| 2003 | 饯ȿСʼ |
| 2005 | ̱ɼ EU ˡݡѥٳ˽ư |
| 2007 | 륳Τ |
| 2012 | ɡΤ |
轵112ڡˤ15:15?18:30ˡī㡼ɶˤֱѸˤȸ츻5ꥹȶꤹֱԤʤޤؿΤϡꤪߤݤϰʲ̤Ǥ
6ʹߡѸüԤǤͤϥꥹȶ졤Φʸαƶ礤ˤ餵뤳ȤˤʤޤŪʱƶѸϥƥȤ̤ܿ2Ĥη̤иޤ(1) κѤ (2) ꥹȶѸ濴ȤƥñμѤǤϡΥɤȱѸˤꤹ뤳ȤˤʤǤϡΥꥹȶαѸ˾ΰյˤĤơۤƱܤˤʩܸŪյȤӡоȤʤ顤¿Ū˵Ƥޤ
碌ơѸˤˤˤͽǤ
ʲͽΤˡϢäĤҲ𤷤Ƥޤ
#2485. ʸȽ ([2016-02-15-1])
#3193. űѸμפʽǯɽ ([2018-01-23-1])
#3038. űѸ쥢ե٥åȤ27ʸ ([2017-08-21-1])
#3199. ֺ¡֥ڥǤɤѸˡפ2ֱѸΥե٥åɽ --- űѸΥڥס ([2018-01-29-1])
#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1])
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])
#3787. 650ǯդȤ롤ΥƥѸü ([2019-09-09-1])
#3790. 650ǯΥƥѸΰ ([2019-09-12-1])
#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1])
#1439. ͳ褹ɽ ([2013-04-05-1])
#296. 轡ѸܸͿŪƶ ([2010-02-17-1])
#1869. ܸˤʩá ([2014-06-09-1])
#3382. ͤסޥꥢִѲסѥ饤ֶ˳ڡפ ([2018-07-31-1])
#1427. פʱ˴ؤǯɽ ([2013-03-24-1])
#1709. ױǯɽ ([2013-12-31-1])
#3806. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ4֥ޥ̱²ưפΤ ([2019-09-28-1]) ǰ⤷ī㡼ɶֺ1020ˤ˽ޤͽ1012ڡˤǤ19ˤޤˡ3ȤȤˡޤỲüԤȳȯʸήλ֤ĤȤǤޤ
ֺ¤Ѥ饤ɻ֤ƤޤͳˤȤʲˡ饤ɤγƥڡؤΥŽäƤޤ
1. Ѹˤȸ츻4 ֥ޥ̱²ư
2. 4ޥ̱²ư
3. ܼ
4. 1. ޥ̱²ưȥ
5. ޥɤȥޥ̱²
6. ֥͡פȤï
7. ֥ɡס֥åס֥פ̾
8. 2. űѸθ
9. űѸθħ
10. ʣ (compounding) (derivation)
11. Ūʣ (kenning)
12. 3. ˻ĤűѸθŪ仺
13. űѸäǹ줿Ѹʸ
14. ʣ (disguised compound)
15. ޤȤ
16. ʸ
17. 䡧Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 449ǯε
5ιֺ¡֥ꥹȶפϡ112ڡˤ15:15?18:30ͽꤵƤޤؿΤϡꤪߤ
ѸˤμȤˤƿҤͤ줿䡥ޤľ塥Τ
ޤѸŪˤ뤳ȤϡűѸѸǤϡŪʻȤǤΡִ (article) ̤ȯãäȤȤǤthe a(n) ȤǺऽΤΤϸűѸ줫餢äΤǤ줾츽괧괧ȤƤѤƤޤǤĤޤꡤűѸˤ the a(n) ȤñΤͤϳΤˤɤ⡤Ϥޤ̾ź٤ɬܤιܤȤơϳƤʤäȤȤǤ
ȤȤϡ䤿Ȥʬ˶ϫƤ븽ѸΡִפȤܤϡѸˤߤΤʤǡ˳ƤΤȤȤˤʤޤϱѸˤκǽ餫餢ä櫓ǤϤʤޤλ¤Ƥɬפޤ
ʤΤˤΤʤdzƤȤΤϡʤˤѸ˸¤ޤ⤽Ѹޤ衼åѤ饤ɤ˵ڤ¿θΥ롼ĤǤĸˤϴϤޤǤ²°ŵꥷ졤˥졤ɸȤ̤θϤᡤޥɡޥɡȸɤνХ륫ϢǤⴧ줬ߤ뤳Ȥ顤ˤβǴȯãƤȤ狼ޤʡ#2855. νˤ봧ʬ (1) ([2017-02-19-1]) ȡˡ
ޤ²ΥνܤƤߤƤ⡤ȤܤϤ˳ǧޤΤȤƤϾɤǤϤޤˡŪˤϥ衼åѡեꥫʿΤʤɤˤкߤƤ褦ǡؤΩ줫϶̣ȤʤäƤޤ
ơѸäᤷޤ礦űѸˤⴧμȤʤΤϤäˤ衤ʤθ夽줬δŪʵǽȯã뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ礦1ĤˤϡѸ줬Ѹʹߤ˸경ƤȤ¤طƤ褦˻פޤ#2856. νˤ봧ʬ (2) ([2017-02-20-1]) ǤҤ٤褦ˡָ礬ޤäƤǤϰŪ̾ŪǤ֤ѤꡦɸΤˡȤʤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤פΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
ꡦȤϡɽλؤƤΤʸ̮äʹˤȤäƴΤ̤Τꤵ뤫ʤȤä̤ΤȤǤäŵŪʥѥϡǤȤǤäʤ鿷ƳƤȤΤǤΤ褦ʾή¤ (information_structure) ȸƤФޤϾ¤ɸ뤿μʤäƤȹͤޤ䴧⤽Τ褦ʼʤθȤʤޤ礬ͳǤСǤƬˤäƤꡤǤ֤ʤɤˡѤǤǤ礦cf. #3211. ù¤ ([2018-02-10-1])ˡμͳ٤㤯ʤ̤μʤʤɬפƤޤѸѸˤƸμͳ٤äƤä̡¤ɸ뤿οƻȤơǺȤƼˤä the a(n) ʤɤѤΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
1Ĥβˤޤɸμ˥ХƤ櫓ǤϤʤʤɤȤǤ
ȯ˴ؤΰϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) ȤƤϢơѸˤˤθ경ˤĤơ#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1])#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1])#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])
űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥñˤĤơʲεǼ夲Ƥ
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])
#1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ ([2014-07-05-1])
#3787. 650ǯդȤ롤ΥƥѸü ([2019-09-09-1])
#3790. 650ǯΥƥѸΰ ([2019-09-12-1])
#3829. 650ǯʸΥƥѸΰ ([2019-10-21-1])
ΥƥѸ˴ؤ1ĤϡΤξʤ̿θ줬Τ˸Ѹˤߤ뤬ϸűѸĤäƤΤʤΤ뤤ϰѤ줿Τ˺ƼѤ줿ΤʤΤȤȤˤƥ츻ȤƤ϶̤ǤȤϤǤ뤫⤷ʤԤǤиűѸμѸȤƱѸˤѤˤĹȤˤʤ뤷ԤǤѸѸŪѸȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹˤ̤ƾ˥ƥܿƤȤ𤬤ꡤФФΥȽǤȸȤǸۤʤäƤʤɤμ꤬꤬СƼѤǧ뤳ȤǤȤϤˤΤ褦ʼ꤬꤬櫓Ǥʤ
Ȥ櫓650ǯʸθűѸΥƥѸ˴ؤơȽǤΩġε ([2019-10-21-1]) į褦ˡŪʥ쥸äƤʤäȤܤʸäʤʤ¿³ǤϤʤκƼѤǤϤʤȵ롥
Durkin (131) ϡ650ǯΥƥѸˤĤơޤ³ĤäƤǽι⤤ΤΤ褦˰Ƥ롥
abbot; alms; anthem; ass; belt; bin; bishop; box; butter; candle; chalk; cheap; cheese; chervil; chest; cock; cockle (plant name); copper; coulter; cowl; cup; devil; dight; dish; fennel; fever; fork; fuller; inch; kiln; kipper; kirtle; kitchen; line; mallow; mass (= Eucharist); mat; (perhaps) mattock; mile; mill; minster; mint (for coinage); mint (plant name); -monger; monk; mortar; neep (and hence turnip); nun; pail; pall (noun); pan (if borrowed); pear; (probably) peel; pepper; pilch (noun); pile (= stake); pillow; pin; to pine; pipe; pit; pitch (dark substance); (perhaps) to pluck; (perhaps) plum; (perhaps) plume; poppy; post; (perhaps) pot; pound; priest; punt; purple; radish; relic; sack; Saturday; seine; shambles; shrine; shrive (and shrift, Shrove Tuesday); sickle; (perhaps) silk; sock; sponge; (perhaps) stop; street; strop (and hence strap); tile; toll; trivet; trout; tun; to turn; turtle-dove; wall; wine
ΥꥹȤˡǽ㤯ʤ뤬³ȹͤΤȤƼɲäƤ (131)
anchor; angel; antiphon; arch-; ark; beet and beetroot; capon; cat; crisp; drake (= dragon, not duck); fan; Latin; lave; master; mussel; (wine-)must; pea; pine (the tree); plant; to plant; port; provost; psalm; scuttle; table; also (where the re-borrowing would be from early Scandinavian) kettle
³ơ650ǯʸΥƥѸˤĤơޤ³ǤȺäƤ뾯θΤ褦˵Ƥ (132)
aloe; cook; cope (= garment); noon; pole; pope; school; (if borrowed) fiddle; (in some of these cases re-borrowing in very early Middle English could also be possible)
ơ夯ʤ뤬650ǯʸΥƥѸȤƸޤ³βǽΤΤϼ̤ (132)
altar; canker; cap; clerk; comet; creed; deacon; false; flank; hyssop; lily; martyr; myrrh; to offer; palm (tree); paradise; passion; peony; pigment; prior; purse; rose; sabbath; savine; sot; to spend; stole; verse; also (where the re-borrowing would be from early Scandinavian) cole
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
#3790. 650ǯΥƥѸΰ ([2019-09-12-1]) ³ȿФ650ǯְʸפΥƥѸDurkin (116--19) 褦ΰȰۤʤŪǤϤʤޤǰΤʤΤա
650ǯȰʸμѸηˤĤӤȡԤϳ䡦ȷӤĤäΩĤȤ狼#3787. 650ǯդȤ롤ΥƥѸü ([2019-09-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
[ Religion and the Church ]
acolitus 'acolyte' [L acoluthus, acolitus]
altare, alter 'altar' [L altare]
apostrata 'apostate' [L apostata]
apostol 'apostle' [L apostrolus]
canon 'canon, rule of the Church; canon, cleric living under a canonical rule' [L canon]
capitol 'chapter, section; chapter, assembly' [L capitulum]
clauster 'monastic cell, cloister, monastery' [L claustrum]
cleric, also '(earlier) clīroc 'clerk, clergyman' [L clericus]
crēda, crēdo 'creed' [L credo]
crisma 'holy oil, chrism; white cloth or garment of the newly baptized; chrismatory or pyx' [L chrisma]
crismal 'chrism cloth' [L chrismalis]
crūc 'cross' [L cruc-, crux]
culpa 'fault, sin' [L culpa]
decan 'person who supervises a group of (originally) ten monks or nuns, a dean' [L decanus]
dēmōn 'devil, demon' [L aemon]
dīacon 'deacon' [L diaconus]
discipul 'disciple; follower; pupil' [L discipulus]
eretic 'heretic' [L haereticus]
graþul 'gradual (antiphon sung between the Epistle and the Gospel at Mass)' [L graduale]
īdol 'idol' [L idolum]
lētanīa 'litany' [L letania]
martir, martyr 'martyr' [L martyr]
noctern 'nocturn, night office' [L nocturna]
nōn 'ninth hour (approximately 3 p.m.); office said at this time' [L nona (hora)]
organ 'canticle, song, melody; musical instrument, especially a wind instrument'
orgel- (in orgeldrēam 'instrumental music') [L organum]
pāpa 'pope' [L papa]
paradīs 'paradise, Garden of Eden, heaven' [L paradisus]
passion 'story of the Passion of Christ' [L passion-, passio]
prīm 'early morning office of the Church' [L prima]
prior 'superior office of a religious house or order, prior' [L prior]
sabat 'sabbath' [L sabbata]
sācerd 'priest; priestess' [L sacerdos]
salm, psalm, sealm 'psalm, sacred song' [L psalma]
saltere, sealtere 'psalter, also type of stringed instrument' [L psalterium]
sanct 'holy person, saint' [L sanctus]
stōl, stōle 'long outer garment; ecclesiastical vestment' [L stola]
tempel 'temple' [L templum]
[ Learning and scholarship ]
accent 'diacritic mark' [L accentus]
bærbære 'barbarous, foreign' [L barbarus]
biblioþēce, bibliþēca 'library' [L bibliotheca]
cālend 'first day of the month; (in poetry) month' [L calendae]
cærte, carte '(leaf or sheet of) vellum; piece of writing, document, charter' [L charta, carta]
centaur 'centaur' [L centaurus]
circul 'circle, cycle' [L circulums]
comēta 'comet' [L cometa]
coorte, coorta 'cohort' [L cohort-, cohors]
cranic 'chronicle' [L chronicon or chronica]
cristalla, cristallum 'crystal; ice' [L crystallum]
epistol, epistola, pistol 'letter' [L epistola, epistula]
fers, uers 'verse, line of poetry, passage, versicle' [L versus]
gīgant 'giant' [L gigant- gigas]
grād 'step; degree' [L gradus]
grammatic-cræft 'grammar' [L grammatica]
legie 'legion' [L legio]
meter 'metre' [L metrum]
nōt 'note, mark' [L nota]
nōtere 'scribe, writer' [L notarius]
part 'part (of speech)' [L part-, pars]
philosoph 'philosopher' [L philosophus]
punct 'quarter of an hour' [L punctum]
tītul 'title, superscription' [L titulus]
þēater 'theatre' [L theatrum]
[ Plants, fruit, and products of plants ]
alwe 'aloe' [L aloe]
balsam, balzam 'balsam, balm' [L balsamum]
berbēne 'vervain, verbena' [L verbena]
cāl, cāul, cāwel (or cawel) 'cabbage' [L caulis]
calcatrippe 'caltrops, or another thorny or spiky plant' [L calcatrippa]
ceder 'cedar' [L cedrus]
coliandre, coriandre 'coriander' [L coliandrum, coriandrum]
cucumer 'cucumber' [L cucumer-, cucumis]
cypressus 'cypress' [L cypressus]
fēferfuge (or feferfuge), fēferfugie (or feferfugie) 'feverfew' [L febrifugia, with substitution of Old English fēfer or fefer for the first element]
laur, lāwer 'laurel, bay, laver' [L laurus]
lilie 'lily' [L lilium]
mōr- (in mōrberie, mōrbēam) 'mulberry' [L morus]
murre 'myrrh' [L murra, murrha, mytrrha]
nard 'spikenard (name of a plant and of ointment made from it)' [L nardus]
palm, palma, pælm 'palm (tree)' [L palma]
peonie 'peony' [L paeonia]
peruince, perfince 'periwinkle' [L pervinca]
petersilie 'parsley' [L ptetrosilenum, petrosilium, petresilium]
polente (or perhaps polenta) 'parched corn' [L polenta]
pyretre 'pellitory' (a plant) [L pyrethrum]
rōse (or rose) 'rose' [L rosa]
rōsmarīm, rōsmarīnum 'rosemary' [L rosmarinum]
safine 'savine (type of plant)' [L sabina]
salfie, sealfie 'sage' [L salvia]
spīce, spīca 'aromatic herb, spice, spikenard' [L spica]
stōr 'incense, frankincense' [probably L storax]
sycomer 'sycamore' [L sycomorus]
ysope 'hyssop' [L hyssopus]
[ Animals ]
aspide 'asp, viper' [L aspid-, aspis]
basilisca 'basilisk' [L basiliscus]
camel, camell 'camel' [L camelus]
*delfīn 'dolphin' [L delfin]
fenix 'phoenic; (in one example) kind of tree' [L phoenix]
lēo 'lion' [L leo]
lopust 'locust' [L locusta]
loppestre, lopystre 'lobster' [probably L locusta]
pndher 'panther' [L panther]
pard 'panther, leopard' [L pardus]
pellican 'name of a bird of the wilderness' [L pellicanus]
tiger 'tiger' [L tigris]
ultur 'vulture' [L vultur]
[ Medicine ]
ātrum, atrum, attrum 'black vitriol; atrament; blackness' [L atramentum]
cancer 'ulcerous sore' [L cancer]
flanc 'flank' [L *flancum]
mamme 'teat' [L mamma]
pigment 'drug' [L pigmentum]
plaster 'plaster (medical dressing), plaster (building material)' [L plastrum, emplastrum]
sċrofell 'scrofula' [L scrofula]
tyriaca 'antidote to poison' [L tiriaca, theriaca]
[ Tools and implements ]
pāl 'stake, stave, post, pole; spade' [L palus]
(perhaps) paper '(probably) wick' [L papirus, papyrus]
pīc 'spike, pick, pike' [perhals L *pic-]
press 'press (specifically clothes-press)' [L pressa or French presse]
[ Building and construction; settlements ]
castel, cæstel 'village, small town; (in late manuscripts) castle' [L castellum]
foss 'ditch' [L fossa]
marman-, marmel- (in marmanstān, marmelstān 'marble' [L marmor]
[ Receptacles ]
purs, burse 'purse' [L bursa]
[ Money; units of measurement ]
cubit 'cubit, measure of length' [L cubitum]
mancus 'a money of account equivalent to thirty pence, a weight equivalent to thirty pence' [L mancus]
talente 'talent (as unit of weight or of money)' [L talentum]
[ Clothing ]
cæppe, also (in cantel-cāp 'cloak worn by a cantor') cāp 'cloak, hood, cap' (with uncertain relationship to cōp in the same meaning) [L cappa]
tuniċe, tuneċe 'undergarment, tunic, coat, toga' [L tunica]
[ Roles, ranks, and occupations (non-religious or not specifically religious) ]
centur, centurio, centurius 'centurion' [L centurion-, centurio]
cōc 'cook' [L *cocus, coquus]
consul 'consul' [L consul]
fiþela 'fiddler' (also fiþelere 'fiddler', fiþelestre '(female) fiddler') [probably L vitula]
[ Warfare ]
mīlite 'soldiers' [L milites, plural of miles]
[ Verbs ]
acordan 'to reconcile' [perhaps L accordare, although more likely a post-Conquest borrowing from French]
acūsan 'to accuse (someone)' [L accusare]
ġebrēfan 'to set down briefly in writing' [L breviare]
dēclīnian 'to decline or inflect' [L declinare]
offrian 'to offer, sacrifice' [L offerre]
*platian 'to make or beat into thin plates' (implied by platung 'metal plate' and ġeplatod and aplatod 'beaten into thin plates') [L plata, noun]
predician 'to preach' [L predicare, praedicare]
prōfian 'to assume to be, to take for' [L probare]
rabbian 'to rage' [L rabiare]
salletan 'to sing psalms, to play on the harp' [L psallere]
sċrūtnian, sċrūdnian 'to examine' [L scrutinare]
*spendan 'to spend' (recorded in Old English only in the derivatives spendung, aspendan, forspendan) [L expendere]
studdian 'to look after, be careful for' [L studere]
temprian 'to modify; to cure, heal; to control' [L temperare]
tonian 'to thunder' [L tonare]
[ Adjectives ]
fals 'false' [L falsus]
mechanisċ 'mechanical' [L mechanicus]
[ Miscellaneous ]
fals 'fraud, trickery' [L falsum]
rocc (only in stānrocc) 'cliff or crag' [L rocca]
sott 'fool', also adjective 'foolish' [L sottus]
tabele, tabul, tabule 'tablet, board; writing tablet; gaming table' [L tabula]
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
Ѹˤؤ־ǴŪǤϤ뤬˽פʬ1Ĥ˥եˤ롥ϡįƤdzڤؿեˡ٤ܼƤʤߤ˥ꥹˤܼˤĤƤϡ#3430. ʪ졡ꥹˡʾ岼ˡ٤ܼ ([2018-09-17-1]) ȡܼ (toc) εƤ
ε ([2019-10-18-1]) ˰³lexical set ȤѸˤĤơSwann et al. Ѹ켭ŵˤȡ̤ꡥ
lexical set A means of enabling comparisons of the vowels of different dialects without having to use any particular dialect as a norm. A lexical set is a group of words whose vowels are uniformly pronounced within a given dialect. Thus bath, brass, ask, dance, sample, calf form a lexical set whose vowel is uniformly [ɑː] in the south of England and uniformly [æː] in most US dialects of English. The phonetician J. C. Wells specified standard lexical sets, each having a keyword intended to be unmistakable, irrespective of the dialect in which it occurs (see Wells, 1982). The above set is thus referred to as 'the BATH vowel'. Wells specified twenty-four such keywords, since modified slightly by Foulkes and Docherty (1999) on the basis of their study of urban British dialects.
1ʸˤ褦ˡlexical set ȤǰζߤϡŪ˼夲ơִפȤƿɬפʤˤ롥ñ췲ޤŪˤȤ館ҴŪ֤Ӥǽʤ餷ƤǤ줿ǰǤ롥ѸΤǡ'BATH' ŵȤ롤첻ޤñ췲פưפ˸褦ˤʤä
Swann, Joan, Ana Deumert, Theresa Lillis, and Rajend Mesthrie, eds. A Dictionary of Sociolinguistics. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 2004.
ءءʬˤפʳǰѸȤơlexical set ȤΤ롥#3505. THOUGHT-NORTH-FORCE Merger ([2018-12-01-1]) ʤɤǿƤȰäƤȤϤʤäΤǡƳ褦Trudgill Ѹ켭ŵѤ롥
lexical set A set of lexical items --- words --- which have something in common. In discussions of English accents, this 'something' will most usually be a vowel, or a vowel in a certain phonological context. We may therefore talk abut the English 'lexical set of bath', meaning words such as bath, path, pass, last, laugh, daft where an original short a occurs before a front voiceless fricative /f/, /θ/ or /s/. The point of talking about this lexical set, rather than a particular vowel, is that in different accents of English these words have different vowels: /æ/ in the north of England and most of North America, /aː/ in the south of England, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
̻Ūˤϡ벻ѲФФ褦ˡꤵ줿ĶˤƤΤ䡤뤤Ϥ¾ͳñ췲Τߤˡ줬ñ췲¾ΤΤȶ̤ĤĤޤȤƸƤӤǤ롥ŪˤϡΤ褦ʲѲѼƤʤѼӡоȤݤˡܤ٤췲ȤƼ夲ȤǤ롥
פˡѲεˤϸä̤äΤȤ¤ǧǡƱ褦˿äʤ뤤ϿäƤñ췲«ͤȤñ췲ñ̤ "lexical set" ȸƤ֤櫓ȤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΤ褦ñ̾Ĥǡ¼ŪʤΤȤ館줿褦ʵ뤫ԻĤѸȤΤϤ֤ǤʤȤ˴ΤȤʤˡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
[2019-10-07-1]εǼ夲ˤĤơĴ٤ƤߤѸ줫Ѹˤơưʲˤ첻ʻˤˤ͡ʤΤǧ줿褦ä <a> <o> ֤줿ΤˤĤơûäΤĹäΤȤ꤬ʸɸŪ quoth /kwoʊθ/ ĹפǤˡ
ˤĤ Dobson (II 339) äƤߤ1ȡ
It is commonly assumed, as by Sweet, New English Grammar, §1473, that ME quod and quoth are both weak-stressed forms with rounding of ME ă; but they should be distinguished. Quod, which occurs as early as Ancrene Wisse and its group, undoubtedly has ME ŏ < ME ă rounded under weak stress (though its final d is more simply explained from the OE plural stem than, with Sweet, as a special weak-stressed development of OE þ. Quoth, on the other hand, is not a blend-form with a ModE spelling-pronunciation, as Sweet thinks; the various ModE forms (see §421 below) suggest strongly that the vowel descends from ME, which is to be explained from ON á in the p.t.pl. kváðum. Significantly the ME quoþ form first appears in the plural quoðen in the East Anglian Genesis and Exodus (c. 1250), and next in Cursor Mundi.
ΰѤʤ˲᤹ȡ̤Ȥʤ롥Ѹ衤ñ˴ؤûĹξ¸Ƥ줬ͳ褹ȤϡԤˤĤƤϸűѸ1û첻 (cf. cwæþ) ǤꡤԤˤĤƤϸťΥɸ kváðum Ǥ롥Ҳʻˤ th d ȤˤĤƤ⡤Dobson ͡ʰ۷֤κ硦ƱϡŪʷ³ԤϸűѸ1ͳ褷Ԥ2ͳ褹ˤȤƲᤷȤΩΤ褦
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957.
#37. ֥ƥؿ5̱²θȤαѸؤαƶ ([2009-06-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ1066ǯޤǤΡ֥ꥹˡפˤƤϡʤȤ5ΰ̱²褬äƤ롥ȿ͡͡͡ǡ͡ΥޥͤǤ롥ơظˤäϡȸ졤ƥ졤Ѹ졤ťΥɸ졤ΥޥեǤ롥ꥹˡѸˤȾϡν̱²줬ʤʣʪȤäƤ褤ꥹˤԤǤ (17) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ȴΥޥޤǤΡ֥ꥹˤħŤȤư̱²ܿ뤳ȤǤ롥餿̱²褷ݤˤάưʤ롥θλȤƤϡ轻̱²餿̱²夫ۤƤŪطȤȤˡŪ轻̱Ȥνʬ䶦¸طߤ줿֥ޥ֥ƥåס֥֥ƥåס֥ǡ˥åס֥ΥޥȤˡξδطƤ뤳Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥
̱²οϡƻΥ֥ƥ̱²礭Ѳ餿ʸ¤⡤ܽƤ̱²¸ߤ̤ˤƤϸʤ̱²Ѳϡ佡ޤ礭ʼҲŪžǽäƤޤ٤Ƥ̱²γưäơ֥ꥹפΩΤǤꡤ̱²ưΤߤפǤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ
Ѥˤ轻̱²餿̱²夫ۤƤŪطפֽĻפȤߤʤŪ轻̱Ȥνʬ䶦¸طפֲפȤߤʤСꥹˤϡ͡ʼλǿ줿ʪȤơϤۤܤΤޤޤ˱ѸˤˤƤϤޤ褦˻פ롥
ĻȲ߹礤ɽ魯֥ޥ֥ƥåפʤɤʣŪѸեŸѸͿƤߤ
| ʳ | ̤Ѹ | ĹŸƤߤѸ |
| 1 | ʥ֥ƥå | British (language) |
| 2 | ޥ֥ƥå | Roman-British (language) |
| 3 | ֥ƥå | Anglo-Roman-British (language) |
| 4 | ǡ˥å | Danish-Anglo-Roman-British (language) |
| 5 | Υޥ | Norman-Danish-Anglo-Roman-British (language) |
show 濴Ūʸϡָ롤פűѸǤϴŪˡָ ̣Hall θűѸ켭 scēawian ߤȡ"look, gaze, see, behold, observe; inspect, examine, scrutinize; have respect to,look favourably on; look out, look for, choose; decree, grant" ʤɤ줬ͿƤ롥Ǹ "decree, grant" ˤϸθε̣ⴶ뤬űѸμ礿̣ϡָפä
줬ѸˤơָפָפʤɡưŪʸ (passive) Ūʸ (causative) ȯŸƤָ͡סָ͡סָʪפȤưΰ̣˴ؤ뻲Ϳ (participants) 3ԤȤ (voice) 괬ѲȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤬ʤΤ褦ȯŸ뤳ȤˤʤäΤϤ褯ʬäƤʤ캬ϰĸˤΤܤꡤޥǤ⤹٤ơָפ̣ƤΤǡѸǤȯŸȼΤΤǤ롥OED show, v. ˡηˤĤƲ⤬롥
In all the continental West Germanic languages the verb has the meaning 'to look at' (compare sense 1), and the complex sense development shown in English, in particular the development of the causative sense 'to cause to be seen' (which may be considered the core meaning of all the later sense branches), is unparalleled. Evidence for this development in Old English is comparatively late (none of the later sense branches is attested before the first half of the 12th cent.); however, similar uses are attested earlier (albeit rarely) for the Old English prefixed form gescēawian, especially in the phrase āre gescēawian to show respect or favour (compare quot. OE at sense 26a(a)), but also in senses 'to present, exhibit' (one isolated and disputed attestation; compare sense 3a) and 'to grant, award' (compare sense 18). The details of the semantic development are not entirely clear; perhaps from 'to look at' to 'to cause to be looked at or seen' (compare branch II.), 'to present, exhibit, display' (compare branches II. and IV.), 'to make known formally', 'to grant, award' (compare branch III.), although all of the latter senses could alternatively show a development via sense 2 ('to look for, seek out, to choose, select'). Compare also quot. OE at showing n. 2a, but it is uncertain whether this can be taken as implying earlier currency of sense 24.
Ѥˤ⤢̤ꡤűѸˤָ롨Ϳפϳ̵ǤϤʤOED 餤ĤäƤߤȡǡǤ롥
[OE Genesis A (1931) 1581 Þær he freondlice on his agenum fæder are ne wolde gesceawian.]
lOE Extracts from Gospels: John (Vesp. D.xiv) xiv. 9 in R. D.-N. Warner Early Eng. Homilies (1917) 77 Se mann þe me gesicð, he gesicð eac minne Fæder. Hwu segst þu, Sceawe us þone Fæder?
lOE Anglo-Saxon Chron. (Laud) anno 1048 Þa..sceawede him mann v nihta grið ut of lande to farenne.
ѸˤʤȡMED sheuen v.(1) ̤ꡤΡָפθĤĤġָפθäƤ롥Ѹ줫ϵäƤ褦
˽פưʤˡ̣ѲθΤꤿȤǤ롥ʤߤˡshow ϡ̣ǤʤڥȯѤˤĤƤŪ˶̣ѲФƤưʲεȡ
#1415. shew show (1) ([2013-03-12-1])
#1416. shew show (2) ([2013-03-13-1])
#1716. shew show (3) ([2014-01-07-1])
#1806. ARCHER shew show ([2014-04-07-1])
#1727. /ju:/ ε ([2014-01-18-1])
#3385. Ѹ˼嶯ܹԤư ([2018-08-03-1])
Hall, John R. C. A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Rev. ed. by Herbert T. Merritt. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 1996. 1896.
1012ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ11ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ8Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤ bus, bull, busy, bury 첻ϸߤ˰ۤʤΤפǤ
Ѹϥڥȯδطȥ졼ȤǤϤʤȤޤϤȤ櫓첻ˤĤƤϤޤޤȤСmat mate ǤƱ <a> ΥڥѤƤʤ顤Ԥ /æ/Ԥ /eɪ/ ȯ褦ˡ1ĤΥڥФ2ĤȯбƤϤˤޤդƱȯǤۤʤ륹ڥ֤뤳Ȥϡmeat, meet, mete ʤɤƱָפФ狼ޤ
εǤ <u> 첻ܤ줬ɤ첻б뤫ͤƤߤޤŪˤ bus /bʌs/, bull /bʊl/, busy /ˈbɪzi/, bury /ˈbɛri/ ȤñˤȤꡤˤƤΤ褦ʡԿԤʡץڥȯбƤƤޤäΤѸˤδ⤷ޤˤ褦ˡָߤΥڥϡۤʤ˰ۤʤװѤ³ŪƤ̤λѡפǤطʤˤϡäȶäͳޤڤߤ

ϢܵȴϢơܥ֥ΰʲε⤴
#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1])
#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1])
#570. bury 첻ʬۡ ([2010-11-18-1])
#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1])
#563. Chaucer merry ([2010-11-11-1])
δ졡ֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ8ʤ bus, bull, busy, bury 첻Ϥ줾ۤʤΤסرѸ춵2019ǯ11桤罤۽Ź2019ǯ101262--63ǡ
ѸˤˤơѸƱޥ췲λǤ Old Saxon ¸ߴǤϤʤε#3819. եå粦ˤ륤ɤγò ([2019-10-11-1]) ǿ줿եå粦ζפ˺ݤơJohn Ȥ̾θťͤ亴̳ƤȤϿ롥ޤGenesis B ȤΤűѻˤϡ9 Old Saxon 줿1ޤޤƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥
Genesis B ˤϡhearra (lord), sima (chain), landscipe (region), heodæg (today) ޤྯ Old Saxon ͳ褹Ȥܤ줬ǧ롥˼ѤʤäȤǤϡѸ˾ΰյϾȤ虜ʤɬפȤФȤñ¿줫ڤȤȯãѸλŪħűѸˤǤ˸ƤȤȤõƤƤ褤 (Crystal 27)
̤ˡѸˤˤơְŪ״طᤤޥ췲μѸ¿ϤʤŪطᤤΤǤС¤θܿ¿äϤǤϤʤ뤬ǤʤȤСʹϡ˥ɥĸ줫μѸϡ#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1])#2621. ɥĸαѸؤܳŪ19 ([2016-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡΤȤƤΩʤʤεϤDZѸ˱ƶͿȤΤϡեޥ줯餤Ͻ줫θŪƶˤĤƤϡ#149. եޥȱѸˡ ([2009-09-23-1])#2645. 줫Ѥ줿ߤΤñ ([2016-07-24-1])#2646. Ѹ˴ؤס ([2016-07-25-1])#3435. ѸˤˤϽ줫αƶϲᾮɾƤ ([2018-09-22-1])#3436. ɤӤȤܿˡ ([2018-09-23-1]) Ȥ줿
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.
ε#3819. եå粦ˤ륤ɤγò ([2019-10-11-1]) ˤ褦ˡ9ȾΥեå粦λʺ߰871--99ǯˤޤǤˡɤΡʥƥˤ˳ϤäǤޤäƤ8ˤϡȤ櫓 Northumbria Bede Alcuin ʤɤؼԤڽФɤγؽѤϥ衼åΤ˰ҸäƤΤεǰѤեå粦ľθűѸʸϤʬ̤ꡤ1Ⱦۤɸˤϡò٤ŪؤĤƤ
ͳ1ĤϡνǤ롥793ǯ Lindisfarne ⤵ư衤9ˤơɤǤϼܤ餫˸ɤδ¸μܤ¿üƤޤΦݴɤ줿ܤ⤢äȤƤۤɤοǤϤʤܤʤСɤγΤȤƳؤ֤ȤϤǤʤƥϤݻ뤳ȤǤʤäΤȤƳबΤ̵̤Ȥä
⤦1ĤͳϡνˡɤƬǾΦήФƤޤäȤȤ롥ٳ Alcuin (c732--804) ޡ˥ɮƬȤƻŤ٤ΦȯäƤޤȡNorthumbria γˤϤäȿ줿1ͤνʪήФˤä礭ʥ⤿餵ȤΤϡźοͻ
褽Ʊ塤ɽпȤǥޥͤ۶ Boniface (680?--754?) Τ뵮ȤȤ˥ɥĤؤȯäƤޤä̡Southumbria γؽѿϤäǤ8ˡdzηƤΤǤ롥إȤ㤭̤˪ΤäȤˤʤ롥
եå粦ˤ Cura Pastoralis (or Pastoral Care) θűѸ893ǯˤνʸˡ9ȾΥɤˤơνˤ䤬षƤޤäȤòͭ̾1롥եåɤϤʸŪæ٤פԤʤ̤1ۤɸ˸졤10ȾΥ٥ͥǥȲ (the Benedictine Reform) ʸݤؤȤĤʤäƤäΰ̣ǤϡʸˡʸػŪ˽פ1ǤȤ롥ʸϤ顤Ȥ櫓褯ΤƤʬűѸ츶ʸǰѤ褦 (Mitchell and Robinson 204--05) եå粦ܵäƤ롥
Ælfred kyning hāteð grētan Wǣrferð biscep his wordum luflīce ond frēondlīce; ond ðē cȳðan hāte ðæt mē cōm swīðe oft on gemynd, hwelce wiotan iū wǣron giond Angelcynn . . . ond hū man ūtanbordes wīsdōm ond lāre hieder on lond sōhte; ond hū wē hīe nū sceoldon ūte begietan, gif wē hīe habban sceoldon. Swǣ clǣne hīo wæs oðfeallenu on Angelcynne ðæt swīðe fēawa wǣron behionan Humbre ðe hiora ðēninga cūðen understondan on Englisc oððe furðum ān ǣrendgewrit of Lǣdene on Englisc āreccean; ond ic wēne ðætte nōht monige begiondan Humbre nǣren. Swǣ fēawa hiora wǣron ðæt ic furðum ānne ānlēpne ne mæg geðencean be sūðan Temese ðā ðā ic tō rīce fēng. Gode ælmihtegum sīe ðonc ðætte wē nū ǣnigne onstal habbð lārēowa.
Crystal (13) ꡤβսФ븽ͿƤ
King Alfred sends his greetings to Bishop Werferth in his own words, in love and friendship . . . . I want to let you know that it has often occurred to me to think what wise men there once were throughout England . . . and how people once used to come here from abroad in search of wisdom and learning --- and how nowadays we would have to get it abroad (if we were to have it at all). Learning had so declined in England that there were very few people this side of the Humber who could understand their service-books in English, let alone translate a letter out of Latin into English --- and I don't imagine there were many north of the Humber, either. There were so few of them that I cannot think of even a single one south of the Thames at the time when I came to the throne. Thanks be to almighty God that we now have any supply of teachers.
Mitchell, Bruce and Fred C. Robinson. A Guide to Old English. 5th ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 1992.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.
#3801. gan ˤߤűѸäηŪʡ ([2019-09-23-1]) ǤϡȤƸűѸ (derivative) ιߤűѸäηŪʤϡʣ (compound) ˤäưؤ褯롥ʣȤϡΩ2İʾñĤʤ碌ƿ1ĤñäΤǡѸǤ girlfriend convenience store ʤɤǤߤΥפñǤ롥
äơѸǤʣ (compounding) ȤϤ˳ƤΤűѸǤϤγޤŷ̡ŷ̵˥Ǥ餢롥ʣγǤΰ̣ΤäƤСĤʤ碌ʣ켫Τΰ̣⤪褽ưפǤ뤳Ȥ顤"self-explaining compounds" ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Crystal (22) ꡤűѸ줫ΡּʣפĤƤߤ褦
gōdspel < gōd 'good' + spel 'tidings': gospel
sunnandæg < sunnan 'sun's' + dæg 'day': Sunday
stæfcræft < stæf 'letters' + cræft 'crat': grammar
mynstermann < mynster 'monastery' + mann 'man': monk
frumweorc < frum 'beginning' + weorc 'work': creation
eorþcræft < eorþ 'earth' + cræft 'craft': geometry
rōdfæstnian < rōd 'cross' + fæstnian 'fasten': crucify
dægred < dæg 'day' + red 'red': dawn
lēohtfæt < lēoht 'light' + fæt 'vessel': lamp
tīdymbwlātend < tīd 'time' + ymb 'about' + wlātend 'gaze': astronomer
ּΡפȤäƤ٤κϤꡤǸ tīdymbwlātend ʤɤ˼ɤϵ路ޤŪѷˤμ٤줿ʣ (disguised_compound) ʤΤ⤢СƼ뤳ȤʸṲ̄ʥʥ̤ФŪʣ (kenning) ʤΤ⤢ʳơ#260. ([2010-01-12-1])#472. kenning ([2010-08-12-1]) ȡˡּʣפȤääǤαԤȤ⤤٤ΤǤϤּʣפϡűѸθˤΩäħ1ĤȤäƤ褤
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.
#1783. whole <w> ([2014-03-15-1])#3275. ա wassail ([2018-04-15-1]) εǿ줿褦ˡhail, hale, heal, holy, whole, wassail ʤɤƱ캬̤롤ߤ˸츻Ū˴Ϣ췲Ǥ롥űѸ hāl ʴʡʡʡˤطäȸƤߤ褦
ޤűѸ hāl ľܤλ¹hale whole Ǥ롥Ԥϡ켫ΤΤȤʤä wholesome, wholesale, wholly ʤɤƤ롥
̾դűѸ hǣlþ ϡߤñ health, healthy, healthful Ƥ롥
ư hǣlan heal, healer ޤټդ Hælend ϡֵߺѼԡ䤹͡ˡפ̣פʸűѸñä
ƻղä hālig holy, holiness, holiday Ƥ롥hālig ˤƺ줿ư hālgian ϡhallow, Halloween Ƥ롥
űѸ hāl бťΥɸƱ heill αƶǡhail, hail from, hail fellow, wassail ʤɤѸѤ褦ˤʤä
űѸθ˭Ọ̇̄ѲѰ̣ۤ臘ˤϡäƤĤñ췲Ȥʾ塤Crystal (22) ꡥ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.
ε#3815. quoth 첻 ([2019-10-07-1]) ǡ̯ʿư quoth Ҳ𤷤quoth he Ȥ礬ޤäƴȤƵǽ褦ˤʤä quotha /ˈkwoʊθə/ ʤ롤äѤʸ¸ߤ롥ϤŤᤫɽѤθǷΤѤ졤֤줿ޤäۤȤˡեեפۤɤ̣롥
OED quotha, int. ˤȡФϼΤ褦?1520ȤʤäƤ롥
?1520 J. Rastell Nature .iiii. Element sig. Bvjv Thre course dysshes qd a.
Τ褦ˡѸǤ qd a qda ʤɤȾάɽƤ褦Ūʸ̤ḽ夫⤦Ƥ
1698 Unnatural Mother iv. 33 Hei, hei! handsom, kether! sure somebody has been rouling him in the rice.
1720 W. Congreve Love for Love v. i. 115 Sleep quotha! No, why you would not sleep o'your wedding night!
1884 R. Browning Mihrab Shah in Ferishtah's Fancies 99 Attributes, quotha? Here's poor flesh and blood.
1997 T. Pynchon Mason & Dixon 507 It's Emerson and that lot. Ragged children. Swarms, quotha.
quoth he Ȥ礬ɸ (discourse_marker) ؤȼѲ (subjectification) Ȥơ˸Ūˤ⤷ȥԥåǤ롥
#2130. "I wonder," said John, "whether I can borrow your bicycle." ([2015-02-25-1])#2158. "I wonder," said John, "whether I can borrow your bicycle." (2) ([2015-03-25-1]) Ǿ줿quoth /kwoʊθ/ ϡ?ȸäפ̣ʸǤ롥1;ñ3;ñľˡΤߤǡʤɤʳη֤¸ߤʤ̯ưǤ롥űѸѸǤϤŪĹ٤ưǤꡤűѸ쥦ȥǤ϶Ѳ5ưȤơ4 cweðan -- cwæþ -- cwǣdon -- cweden äʡ#3812. was were δط ([2019-10-04-1]) ȡˡ
ȥ cweðan θ촴첻ȤȡθβѲˤ queath ʤɤȤʤϤǤꡤºݤˤη֤16ޤѤƤθѤȤʤäʤ bequeath ʰǾˤȡˡäơߤ quoth θ촴첻 cweðan μβѲη̤ȤϹͤʤ
OED quoth, v. queath, v. ȤƤߤȡo 첻ϡNorthumbrian ʤȥˤ߿첻Ʊΰ۷ͳ褹ȤΤȤطʤˤʣʲѲѤƯƤ褦OED ϡquoth, v. βǼ3Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
(i) levelling of the rounded vowel resulting from combinative back mutation in Northumbrian Old English (see discussion at queath v.); (ii) rounding of Middle English short a (of the 1st and 3rd singular past indicative) after w; (iii) borrowing of the vowel (represented by Middle English long open ō) of the early Scandinavian plural past indicative forms (compare Old Icelandic kváðum (1st plural past indicative)); both short and long realizations are recorded by 17th-cent. orthoepists (see E. J. Dobson Eng. Pronunc. 1500--1700 (ed. 2, 1968) II. §§339, 421).
Ѹˤ۷ˤĤƤ MED quēthen v. ⻲ȡڥȤ hwat ʤ̯ʤΡMED "reverse spelling" ȤƤˤ⸫Ĥꡤ̣Ԥʤ
ۤʤ̱²֤Ѥե (lingua_franca) ΤȤĶ̱² (langue véhiculaire) ȾΤ뤳Ȥ롥̱²˸ͭθǤĴַ (langue grégaire) ФơŪܤƤϤƤƱäƤʤ춦Ʊδ֤ãΤѤƤפǤĴѸǤʥp. 33ˡ¾θƾΤȤƤϡ#1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ ([2012-04-03-1]) Ѥ褦ˡ²ݸפȤѸ⤢롥
Ķ̱²˴ؤϡlingua_franca γƵ䡤Ȥ櫓#1788. Ķ̱²νиȳ˴Ϳװ ([2014-03-20-1])#1789. ɥͥθѸĶ̱² ([2014-03-21-1]) Ǽ夲ƤĶ̱²줬¿ʬۤ塤ҲŪ䤬ƤȸޤΤϡեꥫǤ롥줾Ѥϰ͡ӥ졤ո졤ХХ졤졤ϥ졤졤졤и졤եեǸ졤졤ޥи졤졤ȥи졤и졤֥ɥ졤졤ϥ졤졤ޥ졤Ǹ졤졤ҥ졤˥졤ʸ졤ĥʸ졤եʥʤ¿뤳ȤǤʵܡġp. 700) *
ܡ (706--07) ϡեꥫθ̤ϡĶ̱²ˤäƤȼĥƤ롥եꥫʣʸ˼ȯŪн褷Ƥˤϡ콡ǤϤʤ̱ϻȼȯŸƤĶ̱²ΩӤΤȡϥեꥫΤߤʤ餺¿ͲФ1ĤƤȤʤäƤ褦ˤפ롥
Х벽ƸιˤäƤ⡤Ķ̱²פޤơեꥫ̱²ϡؤȾ˾ڤƤǤƱˡ֥ʥꥢԥסʥʥꥢѸΤȡǤˡ쥪벽ƤˤŵȤơѸե⡤ääդΥ٥ǡեꥫھ˺դƤȤθ줬ֿ졦⳰ʸϡեꥫͤ¿Τʤδطӡ䤬ͻ¤Ƥ˰㤤ʤ
ۼʸ̵ͻ¤뤳ȤǽŪǤϤʤषξԤδ֤ܤʬĴƤȤڤǤΥեꥫϡޤޤʸϤʼ¸ȤʤäƤ롥ʸŪλȤΤʤء٤Ƥ̱²̱²ʸۼ褦ΩƤ٤ǤλȤǺǤڤʤȤϡ줬Υ˥֤뤫ȤǤ롥եꥫͤλȤΥ˥֤ΤǤСμʸŪϡ褷ƥեꥫº»ʤΤȤϤʤʤǤΰ̣Ǥ⡤̱²졤櫓ƤĶ̱²פ礭
եꥫνϡͭ˰衤Φ˽Ǥʤ̱²εŤʸ仺ǤꡤƤ͡ˤȤäƤϡ衤¸ΤΤʤΤΤǤϤʤʸ챧ȤϡեꥫʸŪɬȸ٤Ǥ
륤 Ķ̱²١ҡʸ˥ӡ1996ǯ
ԡˡؿեꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ
#3805. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 3Ǥ Part I ֱѸˡפܼ ([2019-09-27-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Crystal The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 3ǡˤ1 (2--3) Ǥϡ"Modelling English" ꤷܽι˴ؤܤƤ롥ԤĹǯݤäƤѤɽǤꡤѸѤΥåǤ⤢롥ˤС20ȾФޤǤθؤĬήȡʹߤΥȥɤ̸Ĥ˰ĤĤ⡤ξԤͻ礷褦ȤߤȤʤäƤ롥Ԥ䡼̥좤ƤȤꡤѸΡֹ¤ (Structure) ȡˡ (Use) Ȥξ¦̤Τ뤳ȤϡȤ
Crystal ιŪ˼С̤Ǥ롥
Modelling English
Structure
Event
Text
Core
Grammar
Lexicon
Transmission
Phonology
Graphology
Sign
Use
Temporal variation
Long term
Short term
Regional variation
Personal variation
Social variation
褯ͤ줿Ǥϼʤ褦ˤפΥǥˤȡѸˤϡֱѸλѤˤּѰۡפȤˤʤ뤬ˤϰ´롥Ѹ˾θѲϡΤ˶ŪʳǰǤֹ¤פˤƤȤ館Τ⤷ʤȤäơֻѡפ˴ޤΤȤϻפʤֻѡפ°ΤȤơϰѰۡסָĿѰۡסּҲѰۡפƱˡֻѰۡפߤȤΤϡŪˤʬʤǤʤΤ˼ΰۤʤѰۤǤ롥üԸĿͤΰǵѲ "Short term" ΤġȾ̻ŪȾжŪĤ뤳ȤǡֻѡפȡѰۡפ˰Ĥ褦ȤΤˤ錄 "Long term" ȤˤĤơֻѡפѰۡפͤΤ϶줷ȤΤΨľʰݤ
³2ϡֱѸˡפäܽŸܳŪ˻Ϥޤ뤳Ȥͤȡ"Structure", "Use" ¤ǡñ "History" ֤Ф褤褦˻פΤʱѸˤ칶Ԥܡˡ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.
Ѹˤ be ư줬ŪˤüưǤ뤳ȤˤĤơŪʴ#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) Dz⤷üŪˤС4Ĥΰۤʤ캬ʤӤȤȤ
be ưζΤʤǤܤȡw- ǻϤޤ֤Ƥ롥ľˡˤƤϿ;Ρˤä was were ̤졤³ˡʸߤβˡˤˤƤѤ were Ȥʤ롥űѸǤϡΤߤʤ餺߷ wes, wesað wesanʬ wesende ʤɤѤ줿ϸ˿षƤޤä̿βФȤƤϡ#3275. ա wassail ([2018-04-15-1]) ȡˡ
ơwas were 2ĤζϡűѸ줫鸽Ѹ˻ޤǡ;ΡˡˤäƻȤʬʤƤȤˤʤ뤬ʤ s r ǻҲۤʤäƤΤ¤ϡϱѸˤǤϤ褯ΤƤ Verner's Law (verners_law) rhotacism ΤޤΤǤ롥/s/ ϡͭ˰Ϥޤ줿ĶǤͭ /z/ Ȥʤꡤľ˶ʤĶǤ /r/ ؤѲΤǤʳפϡ#36. rhotacism ([2009-06-03-1]) ȡˡ
was, were ǤȤʤ wesan (to live, remain) ȤưϡŪ˶Ѳ5ưȤʬव뤬ϡָפ̣űѸιٸ cweðan Ʊ롥Ԥ4 cweðan -- cwæþ 1-- cwǣdon 2 -- cweden ʲʬˤȤʤ褦ˡԤ wesan -- wæs 1-- wǣron 2ˤȤʤʲʬϷ»Hogg and Fulk 246)
ݥȤϡűѸľˡޤˤƤϿ;Ρˤä wæs, wǣre, wǣron Ȥʬ졤s r ¸Ƥ³ˡޤˤƤϿ;ΤǤꡤñʤ wæreʣʤ wæren Ȥ褦 r ʤäǤ롥ľˡ³ˡ̯ʺۤߤˤޤǶƤꡤʤ *If I WAS a bird ǤϤʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤȤȤˤʤʡ#2601. ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤ ([2016-06-10-1]) ȡˡ
ߤСۤܤ٤ƤưǤϷŪʶ̤Ƥޤäľˡ³ˡޤˡָˡ̤ƤΤϡbe ưˤΤĤƤ was were λҲΰ㤤椨ʤΤǤ롥űѸ Verner's Law rhotacism ȤäȤѲΤΤʤ뵻Ȥ櫓
ʤ嵭狼Ȥꡤbe ưϤĤƤ12ζ̤ĤͣưǤ롥䡤sing βȤơեޥˤ sang ȸʤ饤եޥˤ sung ȸѸüԤΤäƤ뤬Ϥ̣Ǥ12ʸűѸȤ̤ΤǤϤ뤬˶̤ƤȤʤʤʡ#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1]) ȡˡ
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
θεեꥫˤȤȤϡ¿θؼԤǧƤȤǤ롥ȤкΥեꥫθʬۤ˴ؿͯƤ櫓ǤĹˤͭƤ뤫餳ʤΤԳΤʤȤ¿եꥫθʬۤˤĤ绨ĤˤޤȤƤߤ褦
#3290. եꥫθѸ ([2018-04-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡߤΥեꥫǤ2θ줬äƤꡤ¿⤤ʡ#3807. եꥫˤ¿ (1) ([2019-09-29-1])#3808. եꥫˤ¿ (2) ([2019-09-30-1]) ȡˡեꥫäƤϡ褽 Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Sahara, Khoisan 3²Τ줫°뤬ߤδطʬäƤʤФ꤫¾Τʤ²ȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫̤ܤǤ롥ؼԤΤʤˤϡˤ2Ĥθ쥰롼פꡤ1Ĥϥեꥫθ췲⤦1ĤϤʳΤ٤ƤȤԤ⤢ۤɤ (Comrie 74)
եꥫǹԤʤƤ4Ĥθ²Ҳ𤷤Ƥܡ (689) Υեꥫθ²ʬۿޤˤȡΤۤȤɤΥꥢϡNiger-Kordofanian ²νˤäƤ롥Bantu Ϥޤ¿θ줬°1ǯˤϡʬۤեꥫ˸ꤵƤ褦θ塤س礷Ȥ롥 *
Niger-Kordofanian ²ŪʳεȤʤäΤȤ˹ʬۤƤ Khoisan ²νǤ롥ɽŪʸ Namibia ι16ͤüԤȤ Khoekhoe (or Damara) Ʊ²¾θϿषƤƤ롥Ǥ (click) Τ²
եꥫǡ¾θ²˼Ϥޤ褦ˤҤäʬۤƤΤϡNilo-Sahara ²νǤ롥ŤʬۤϤۤ礭ѲƤʤȤ롥Songhai, Saharan, Chari-Nile ʤɤޤޤ뤬ߤ˸ŪˤۤɶϤʤ
̥եꥫƤΤϡArabian ɽ Afro-Asiatic ²Ǥ롥̤̾ꥢʤ餯ϥ衼åѤˤνȴطƤꡤŪˤפʸ¿ޤࡥ
4Ĥθ²ôˤĤƤϡ1ǯʳǤȤܤĤǧ롥Niger-Kordofanian ² West Africans ȤĤˡKhoisan ²Nilo-Saharan ²Afro-Asiatic ²Ϥ줾 Bushmen, Nilotics, North Africans ȤĤбȤ롥դˡĤƥեꥫ˵サƤߡб²¸ߤǧʤĤȤƤ Pygmies 롥ϡˤβǡեꥫ礷 Niger-Kordofanian ² Bantu Ͻݤ߹ޤ졤夷Ĥĸ˻äƤ롥
Comrie, Bernard, Stephen Matthews, and Maria Polinsky, eds. The Atlas of Languages. Rev. ed. New York: Facts on File, 2003.
ԡˡؿեꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ
ܥ֥ǤϡȤδطˤƿͼ (race) ɤȤ館뤫ˤĤơ#1871. ȿͼ ([2014-06-11-1])#3599. ȿͼ (2) ([2019-03-05-1])#3706. ̱²ȿͼ ([2019-06-20-1]) εǹͤƤܡġԡˡؿեꥫˡǡ٤ɤߤʤ顤ƿͼȤϲʪŪʺϤΤμҲŪʰ̣ŤϲʤɤؤֵäϢ1 (33--34)
ͤȤСȩȱӤ̤졤ɡȸĿʹ֤Ʊ֥ͥɿͼפ°ȤϤ¿ʤΤɡɡʤɤͼ֤ѰȾ֥ͥɿͼǥСƤ뤷ؤ⤯餻Υ̥ͤޥͤ⡤Ĺ㤤֥ԥߡפƱ֥ͥɡפʤΤǤ롥ޤο⡤Ǥʤ㡤֡˶ᤤΤޤǡ礭ѰۺƤ롥ʤΤ褦¿ΤΰĤ䤨뺮ˤ롥⤽ͼϡ䤿Ƥۤɸ̩ΤʶäʹֽĤǤϤʤĤƤϿʹ֤ŪħȤʬह뤳Ȥʳؤ̾ΤȤƤ夬äξ硤֡ʤɤοȤƤʹ֤οŪꤹΰҤΤʤȩο̤˼ФϡʳŪʤȤۼʼҲŪĿͰŪǤꡤŪǤ뤳Ȥ顤ȩο˿ʹ֤ʬ褦ȤʪŪǰȤƤοͼϡβʳؤΤʤǤͭꤵ졤ҲʸŪ뤤кŪǰȤǧƤ롥äʪŪʡּΡפΤ褦˸ͼϡĤΤȤŪνи٤ˤäߤ˶̤롤ҤΥסȤƤΥҥȤΥ롼פˤʤƤΥ롼פϡ䤨ϤΥ롼פȸήߤѲ³Ƥ롥եꥫξ硤ܿȸήĹ֤ƤƳȯ˹Ԥ줿η̡ߤΡ֥ͥɡפ¿ĤƤΤǤ롥
ֿͼפϡʪŪդ뤫Τ褦ʶäƤ뤬¤ΤȤҲŪʹʪǤȤȤʳǰѸǤ롥եꥫˤͼ¿ʿŪ˹ͤ롤եꥫθ¿ˤĤƤϡ#3807. եꥫˤ¿ (1) ([2019-09-29-1])#3808. եꥫˤ¿ (2) ([2019-09-30-1]) ȡ
ԡˡؿեꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ
The Guardian ˤơѸä3ع¤˴ؤɸεƤʵˡ *
Ѹä3ع¤ˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) 䤽ĥäεǤȲ⤷ƤΤǡǾܤ֤ȤϤʤפΤ߽Ҥ٤ƤȡѸä3ʤΥԥߥåɤƤꡤ̤ˤϺDzؤ˱Ѹ줬ؤ˥եѸ줬Ǿؤ˥ƥѸ줬ޤäƤ롥Ūʸܿΰ仺ǤȤȤˡΥɼҲˤƱѸüԡեüԡƥüԤγơʤҲؤ°ƤǤФǤ⤢롥ñ㲽ƤСؤؤ˸äơ"those who work" or "workers", "those who fight" or "clerks", "those who pray" or "the powerful"ȤĤ°ƤȤȤˤʤ롥
ɸεƤϡŪʳضʬˤĤơEUΥæʤɤäʬǤƤ븽奤ꥹҲˤбʪȤݤǤꡤˤȺDzؤ "workers" ȤΤѤʤؤ "the middle class" ˡǾؤ "the clerkly class" бȤ"the clerkly class" ˴ޤޤΤϡ"academics, thinktankers, lawyers, writers, many artists, scientists, journalists and students, some comedians and politicians, even some entrepreneurs, as well as actual clerics --- anyone whose sense of self depends on an abstract frame of reference" ȤȤ餷
νϡμҲءμҲءѸθóؤʿʤӡȤʿˤŦʤ鸽奤ꥹҲɾƤꡤƤϸŪȤϡ餫ŪǤ롥ä3ع¤ˤĤ1ĽפʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥"[French and Latin] seeped into what we call English and made themselves at home, giving the language its fantastical redundancy, creating something half-Germanic, half-Romance. Trilinguality was internalised." ȤȤȤϼҲŪʸݤǤ diglossia ˤ岼طˤựŪ register ξ岼طؤȡָⲽפΤȤΤĹ餯ռʤΤǤä "internalised" ȽҤ٤Ƥ븽ݤζŪʥץΤꤿΤǤ롥
̤ǤϤ뤬ϢʲΤ褦ʵǰäƤΤǡȤ
#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1])
#1491. diglossia borrowing δط ([2013-05-27-1])
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])
#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1])
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