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ε#3593. ˥ȤΤ ([2019-02-27-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡOppenheimer ˤȡΥɡʤȤ櫓ˤ衼åѿͤΰҤѤ͡サƤڵȤˤ衼åѿͤΰҤѤ֥ȷϡ̱餷ԤޥϤθä͡äɤγξڤϤʤβǽǤʤȤΤԤΩ
⤷θ줬Ѹʤ뤤ϾʤȤѸϢʤˤä顤ѸˤϤȤꥲޥ˵Ҥ礭뤳ȤˤʤޤޥɤǤαѸΰ֤Ť⡤ݱʤѹѸεȰ֤Ť˴ؤ Oppenheimer βʹƤߤ뤳Ȥˤ褦 (481--82)
What about the possibility that English was spoken as some form closer to Norse or even a separate Germanic branch in one or both of these two Englands before the Anglo-Saxons arrived? I am sure this will be the most contentious aspect of my argument, but that does not deter me from suggesting it. The various academics I have quoted or cited on this issue are united on one aspect of the oldest recorded English, whether written in runes or Roman script. This is the strong, unexplained Norse influence, both culturally and linguistically, before the Vikings came on the scene. But the evidence against a Dark Ages root of English goes deeper than that. In terms of vocabulary, English is nowhere near any of the West Germanic languages it has traditionally been associated with. It actually roots closer to Scandinavian than to Beowulf, the earliest 'Old English' poem and probably written in the elite court of the Swedish Wuffing dynasty of East Anglia. One study suggests that, on this lexical evidence, English forms a fourth Germanic branch dating 'to before AD 350 and probably after 3600 BC'.
Oppenheimer, Stephen. The Origins of the British. 2006. London: Robinson, 2007.
ε#3592. ʸγȻ migrationism diffusionism ([2019-02-26-1]) νǽҤ٤褦ˡʸϡŪˤ褦˥ˤܽˤΤäΤ (migrationism) 뤤礭ʿ֤ȼʤʿŪŤˤΤäΤ (diffusionism) Ȥ夲褦
Ū migrationism βФơȤưؤΩ줫diffusionism ǤҤȤ Oppenheimer Ҳ𤷤褦Oppenheimer ϡ5Υˤä轻Υȿͤݤ줿Ȥ "wipe-out theory" ٻŪʾڵϤʤȤषä٤Ȥˡ餯д夫鸽ޤǤοǯ֥֡ƥοϡŪˤߤ¤ꡤ礭ưƤʤȤ
ŪˤСɿͤ2/3ϡǽȤ⤿餵⤺äΤʳ褷衼åѿͤΰҤѤǤȤĤ1/3¿ϡ3000--1000ǯۤɤδ֤˼˥ǥʥäƤ衼åѿͤͳ褹롥ơ餯ԤȷϡԤޥϤʸȸä͡бȤơΨϡ5Υ8Υ11ΥΥޥˤää礭ư뤳ȤϤʤϢʤäƤʥɿˤ⤿餷ι5%١ˡ
ΤȤ̣Τϡ褷Ƥ5ϤȤꡤͤƤˡˤäƤϤ3ǯʾ̤äˡǤˡ֥Ȥǡפȡ֥ޥǡפȤʤ͡줾Φ֥ƥʽäƤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤơԤäƤϡαѸȯŸ륲ޥϡʤȤ櫓̥ޥϡˤθäΤǤϤʤȡ
βʤСˤ륱Ȥȥޥζ¸ˤϡ5Υ˻ϤޤΤǤϤʤäȸŤȤȤˤʤ롥5ΥϡǤξԤ¸˴ƤȤءΥää٤νǤꡤˡפȤ褦ʼҲŪưä櫓ǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
βϡʤѸˤ˴ؤƤ⺬Ūʺƹͤ¥Ȥˤʤ⤽֥ƥ轻θ1ĤäȤȤˤʤ뤫
Ϣơ#2353. ʤͤϥɤΤ ([2015-10-06-1])#3094. 449ǯˤ⥲ޥͤϥɤ¸ߤ ([2017-10-16-1])#3113. ͤ˥ɤΤ ([2017-11-04-1]) ʤɤε⻲ȡ
Oppenheimer, Stephen. The Origins of the British. 2006. London: Robinson, 2007.
ĸθϤǯȡĸ줫줬̤سȻƤäȤϡϢưƤ롥ŪƤꡤŪȤʤäƤΡGimbutas ˤ륯륬ʸǤcf. #637. 륬ʸĸ ([2011-01-24-1])ˡ绨ĤˤСĸϵ4000ǯΥƥåӤ˵θ塤ϤؤΰܽˤꡤԤ֤ƤäȤʥꥪǤ롥
Renfrew βϡGimbutas ΤΤȤۤʤ롥ĸβǯۤɸŤʬϤ6000--7500ǯȤߤƤˡϤϥʥȥꥢǤȤơγȻϡˤΤȤϡȯ줿ȵѤȤȤˤޤʸŪŤȹͤƤcf. #1117. ĸθϤ Anatolia ([2012-05-18-1])#1129. ĸʬϵ5800--7800ǯ ([2012-05-30-1])ˡ
2ĤβˤĤγȻͼΩܤȡԤ migrationismԤ diffusionism ΩȤäƤȤߤʤ롥ϡˤ餺ʸγȻˤĤƹͤ2ĤͼǤ롥Oppenheimer (521, 15) ꡤ줾ߤƤ
migrationism
The view that major cultural changes in the past were caused by movements of people from one region to another carrying their culture with them. It has displaced the earlier and more warlike term invasionism, but is itself out of archaeological favour.
diffusionism
Cultural diffusion is the movement of cultural ideas and artefacts among societies . . . . The view that major cultural innovations in the past were initiated at a single time and place (e.g. Egypt), diffusing from one society to all others, is an extreme version of the general diffusionist view --- which is that, in general, diffusion of ideas such as farming is more likely than multiple independent innovations.
γȻͼĤƾ嵭褬ΤƱͤˡΥˤĤƤ褦褬롥Ūˤ롤ˤä轻̱²ȿͤʤܴۤˡ줿ȤäƤˤĤƤεǡ
Oppenheimer, Stephen. The Origins of the British. 2006. London: Robinson, 2007.
ɸȴϢ#2980. 30ǯκǸŤΥۥ⥵ԥ ([2017-06-24-1])#1544. εȿʲǯɽ ([2013-07-19-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥۥ⡦ԥ˺ǤᤤǤͥǥ륿ͤϡϤƸäƤΤɤ
Ȥʤˤϡ(1) ǤǾⵡäƤ뤳ȡ(2) 첻ȯ뤿αưäƤ뤳ȡ2Ĥξ郎ʤФʤʤ2˴ؤơФųŪʾڵȤ͡ʸƤäƤ뤬ʤʤ¬ΰФʤ褦[2013-07-19-1]ǤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ȥ1Ĥθˤʤ
ͥǥ륿ͤϹƬޤ⤤֤ˤȤɤޤäƤꡤư¤Ƥᡤȯ뤳ȤΤǤ벻褬¤ƤȹͤƤ롥ϷͤԤáԤʤɤʣʼҲưųŪʾڵ뤳Ȥ顤Τ褦ʼҲΩɬǤȤƽŪʸ¸ߤȤ롥
(204--05) ⡤嵭ȤãƤ뤬οʲˤĤƤ⿷ʼäƤ롥ۥ⡦ԥȥͥǥ륿ͤξΤȤʤäۥ⡦ϥǥ٥륲ڤӤΤäǽΤ뤵˸Ťۥ⡦쥯ȥӤʤ顤ͥǥ륿ͤθǽϤˤĤƥȤƤ롥
ۥ⡦쥯ȥǤǾη顤֥̤Ǥ褦ˤʤäۥ⡦ϥǥ٥륲ǤФˤʤäͥǥ륿ͤǤǹη꤬ꡤFOXP2 ҤŬפˤʤäդϤʤ긽줿ΤǤϤʤʳŪ˾ȯŸƤΤ
äơͥǥ륿ͤޤääʤäȤϹͤˤдȻޤȤ߹碌äꡤ֤ȶϤƼꤹ뤿ˤϡ٤ϸդä뤳Ȥɬפϥۥ⡦ϥǥ٥륲ˤ뤳Ȥη顤ʤ꼫ͳϽФȹͤ롥
ɤ٤ʸˡȤäդäƤΤϡ狼ʤ餯ܤǵƤ븽ߤΤȤˤĤƤäΤȤˤĤƤϤɤäΤˡȤäơ¤ˤϵƤʤȤޤäΤˡϾħưκǤΤǤ롥ҥȤȥͥǥ륿ͤΤǾħư礭ʺäȤСդˤĤƤƱͤˡ礭ʺäȹͤΤǤ롥ŪʤȡȤСʿ¡פդȤ鷺˹ͤ뤳ȤϤʤͥǥ륿ͤμˤϡֻפפϤäƤ⡤ʿ¡פϤʤäΤǤϤʤ
Ǥοˡ١NHKǡNHKǿӡ2018ǯ
ȤͷӡʸͷˤϡؤθоݤȤƤϾ˥ޥʡϰ̤Ƥʬ̾ޤäƤʤ⤽֤ȤͷӡפŪ̾ΤޤäƤΤɤѸǤ word play, verbal play, speech play, play of language ʤɤ͡ʸ¸ߤ롥
ޤä椵Ƥʤä櫓ǤϤʤؤʸȤδϢǰƤаޤϤ뤷ǯǤϥߥ˥Ūͻ졤ʬȤƤȯŸǽƤǽȤδϢǤܤƤƤ褦
ԡˤΡظλŵ٤Τʤˡ챺ͤˤ֤Ȥͷӡפꤹ1Ϥꡤ̣ɤΥȥ (396) ˤȡȤͷӤδŪħȤưæȵ2Ȥ
ȤͷӤȤϡ˥ߥ˥εϤȴƤȰæŪɤʱĤߤǤ롥ȤͷӤäʸ̮æ뤤ϥåŲƱˤ餵ޤȤξãȤ¿쾯ʤڤƤ롥
ƱˡȤͷӤϡñ礤˲ŪʱĤߤǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤͷӤͤȤȤͷ֡ɤȤǤΤϡ줬˰εפȤ뤫Ǥ롥ơδפᴷ (convention) Ǥ뤬椨ˡȤͷӤϸġθʸ˸ͭη֤ࡥ
ȤͷӤΡȷɤǤ뤳ȤĶơߥ˥̤ȤʤΤϡˤƤǤ롥
ȤͷӤϡãȤ̤θ쥳ߥ˥ȤϰۤʤäƤ뤬Ǥϲɤ٤ɤΤ褦˰ۤʤäƤΤȤʤ롥ŪʴϤȤ굡ǽŪʴɬפ
ѸΤȤͷӤ˴ؤƤϡCrystal αѸ˭٤˵ĤIJ⤷ƤꡤͭѤǤ롥
챺 ֤͡Ȥͷӡסظλŵ١ ʿԡˡīҽŹ2005ǯ396--415ǡ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
ͥΥƥꥷǮ⤫줿Τ褦ʡ֥ (inkhorn_term) ˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ͡˼夲ƤʤȤ櫓#478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ ([2010-08-18-1])#1408. ([2013-03-05-1])#1409. Ĥä졤ä ([2013-03-06-1])#1410. Ƚ ([2013-03-07-1])#2479. ѸθüѤФȿưȤƤθϤɤޤܵä ([2016-02-09-1])#3438. ʤѸΥƥѸΤ ([2018-09-25-1]) ȡˡ
Ʊ夫餷ФȽɤоݤȤƤ Ben Jonson ⡤1601ǯ˽餵줿 The Poetaster ΤʤǥͤƤ롥Crispinus ȤоʪǺޤͿ졤ñǤפȤǤ롥Ǥ줿˥ꥹȤƤȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Johnson 192; ϸѸѸ)
retrograde, reciprocall, incubus, glibbery, lubricall, defunct, magnificate, spurious, snotteries, chilblaind, clumsie, barmy, froth, puffy, inflate, turgidous, ventosity, oblatrant, obcaecate, furibund, fatuate, strenuous, conscious, prorumped, clutch, tropological, anagogical, loquacious, pinnosity, obstupefact
OED Ǥϡpinnosity ٤Ƥñ줬ФȤΩƤƤ롥Τʤˤ Jonson ηǤȤƤʤ1ñޤޤƤ롥Ǥ̤ѤΤ⤢ˤϤ뤬ΤΩ³ǤƤϤʤʤñФǤ롥ŵŪʥΥꥹȤȤƻȤ
Johnson, Keith. The History of Early English: An Activity-Based Approach. Abingdon: Routledge, 2016.
-o ǽû̾줫鵬§Ūʣˡֻ -s Τߤդ pianos פȡ-es Ȥ potatoes פ̤롥
LGSWE (285) ϡLGSWE Corpus ˤäξפʬۤĴξδ֤ɤΤ⤢Τǡ80%ʾΨˤơ줫Υפ˳꿶äꥹȤǤ롥ӡŰʸˡ٤ä * դˤޤĤġʲ褦
pianos : *autos, avocados, casinos, commandos, concertos, discos, *dynamos, embryos, Eskimos, *ghettos, jumbos, kilos, memos, pesos, photos, pianos, portfolios, radios, scenarios, shampoos, solos, stereos, studios, taboos, tacos, tattoos, *torsos, trios, twos, videos, weirdos, zeros, zoos
potatoes : buffaloes, cargoes, echoes, heroes, mangoes, mosquitoes, mottoes, negroes, potatoes, tomatoes, tornadoes, torpedoes, vetoes, volcanoes
С-s Τߤդ pianos פ§Ǥ롥äˡάͳ褹 -o ǶοȤƲää -o -s ʣΤǥեȤǤ롥ޤ첻 oפȤʤˤ⡤ֻԹȻפ뤬-s ΤߤդΤ§Ǥ (e.g. bamboos, cameos, cuckoos, curios, folios, radios, studios, trios)
potatoes פϤɤ餫ȤС㳰פ¦ˤʤ櫓ΥפˤϱѸ첽ٹ礤Ū줬ޤޤΤդפ롥
ޤ-s -es δ֤ɤ̾⾯ʤʤŰʸˡ٤ǤϡȤ banjo(e)s, buffalo(e)s, cargo(e)s, fresco(e)s, ghetto(e)s, grotto(e)s, halo(e)s, mango(e)s, manifesto(e)s, mosquito(e)s, motto(e)s, tornado(e)s, volcano(e)s, zero(e)s Ƥ롥˵ꥹȤȽʣñ⤢뤳Ȥ顤-o ʣäȺ٤ĴСºݤˤϤ˹Ϥɤ줬ѻΤ⤷ʤ
ʤȴϢơñ potato ֤ potatoe ȸäƳФƤꥫ Dan Quayle Υ롤̾Ρpotato פˤĤơHorobin (2--3) 뤤Ϥ (16--17) ȡ1ʸΥڥߥʤǤϤʤˤǡ̿Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤢Ȥä٤Ǥ롥pianos potatoes ȤϷ褷ʤ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
ʴ ۡʲˡ, ܳ, ⾾ʶˡŰʸˡ١ʸҡ2000ǯ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ۥӥˡ δˡإڥαѸˡ١˼2017ǯ
ǶᡤܸǤ⥢ޥͥȤȤɽʹ褦ˤʤäѸ anger management ϡCOBUILD English Dictionary ˤ "a set of guidelines that are designed to help people control their anger." Ȥ롥ϢܤνǤֽ⼪äƤ롥ΤܤäݤΤϿ»ȻפäƤ뤬ʬȤޤȥǤƤ뤫ϤϤʤϤʤܤɤꡤ̤äꤹۤɤǤϤʤΤΡؿϤΤǴˤƥʤĥäƤ顤Francis Bacon (1561--1626) Essays (1597) ڥڥäƤˡܤˤĤơפʸϤĤͤƤߤгΤ Bacon 夲ʥơޤ
Ƥꡤɤ߹̾ʸǤ롥餿 Bacon ʸϤϸʱѸλʸȻפʸϤäɤȤɬפ⤷ʤɤߴʤɤ˺ŬǤ롥ѸŪɤǤѸλʸϤȤ⤷
Of Anger[ | ѥڡ ]
TO SEEK to extinguish anger utterly, is but a bravery of the Stoics. We have better oracles: Be angry, but sin not. Let not the sun go down upon your anger. Anger must be limited and confined, both in race and in time. We will first speak how the natural inclination and habit to be angry, may be attempted and calmed. Secondly, how the particular motions of anger may be repressed, or at least refrained from doing mischief. Thirdly, how to raise anger, or appease anger in another.
For the first; there is no other way but to meditate, and ruminate well upon the effects of anger, how it troubles man's life. And the best time to do this, is to look back upon anger, when the fit is thoroughly over. Seneca saith well, That anger is like ruin, which breaks itself upon that it falls. The Scripture exhorteth us to possess our souls in patience. Whosoever is out of patience, is out of possession of his soul. Men must not turn bees;
. . . animasuque in vulnere ponunt.
Anger is certainly a kind of baseness; as it appears well in the weakness of those subjects in whom it reigns; children, women, old folks, sick folks. Only men must beware, that they carry their anger rather with scorn, than with fear; so that they may seem rather to be above the injury, than below it; which is a thing easily done, if a man will give law to himself in it.
For the second point; the causes and motives of anger, are chiefly three. First, to be too sensible of hurt; for no man is angry, that feels not himself hurt; and therefore tender and delicate persons must needs be oft angry; they have so many things to trouble them, which more robust natures have little sense of. The next is, the apprehension and construction of the injury offered, to be, in the circumstances thereof, full of contempt: for contempt is that, which putteth an edge upon anger, as much or more than the hurt itself.
And therefore, when men are ingenious in picking out circumstances of contempt, they do kindle their anger much. Lastly, opinion of the touch of a man's reputation, doth multiply and sharpen anger. Wherein the remedy is, that a man should have, as Consalvo was wont to say, telam honoris crassiorem. But in all refrainings of anger, it is the best remedy to win time; and to make a man's self believe, that the opportunity of his revenge is not yet come, but that he foresees a time for it; and so to still himself in the meantime, and reserve it.
To contain anger from mischief, though it take hold of a man, there be two things, whereof you must have special caution. The one, of extreme bitterness of words, especially if they be aculeate and proper, for cummunia maledicta are nothing so much; and again, that in anger a man reveal no secrets; for that, makes him not fit for society. The other, that you do not peremptorily break off, in any business, in a fit of anger; but howsoever you show bitterness, do not act anything, that is not revocable.
For raising and appeasing anger in another; it is done chiefly by choosing of times, when men are frowardest and worst disposed, to incense them. Again, by gathering (as was touched before) all that you can find out, to aggravate the contempt. And the two remedies are by the contraries. The former to take good times, when first to relate to a man an angry business; for the first impression is much; and the other is, to sever, as much as may be, the construction of the injury from the point of contempt; imputing it to misunderstanding, fear, passion, or what you will.
ѸԵ§ʣȤ̾ˤϡʣȸƤФ췲롥ȤƶѸʹߤ˥ƥ졤ꥷ졤ե졤ꥢʤɤѤ줿ؽѡǡˤʣݤäƤΤˤơѸε§Ūʸ -(e)s 褦ˤʤäΤ⾯ʤʤޤɽŪñŰʸˡ٤˰͵ưʲ˼
ä˥ƥ -us ̾˸20ε§ʣήˤĤƤϡHotta ȡʴϢơ#121. octopus ʣ ([2009-08-26-1])#161. rhinoceros ʣ ([2009-10-05-1]) ˡ
1. ƥϤ̾
1.1 -us ǽ
a) -us [əs] -i [aɪ]
alumnus ˻´ alumni
bacillus ʥХ륹ݡ bacilli
esophagus ʿƲ esophagi
locus ʵס loci, loca
stimulus ʻɷ stimuli
b) §ʣ -es Ĥ
apparatus ֡ apparatuses
bonus ʥܡʥ bonuses
campus ʹ campuses
caucus ʴġ caucuses
chorus ʥ饹 choruses
circus ʥ circuses
impetus ʵưϡ impetuses
minus οޥʥ minuses
prospectus ʳعʤɤΰ prospectuses
sinus ƶ sinuses
status ϰ̡ statuses
c) -us -i Ѳ -es ξͤΤ
cactus ʥܥƥ cacti, cactuses
cirrus ʴ cirri, cirruses
cumulus ѱ cumuli, cumuluses
focus ʾ foci, focuses
fungus ʤΤʤɤζ fungi, funguses
genius ʼŷ͡ genii ʼˡgeniuses ŷ͡
nimbus nimbi, nimbuses
nucleus ʸҳˡ nuclei, nucleuses
radius Ⱦ¡ radii, radiuses
stratus ر strati, stratuses
syllabus ʶܡ syllabi, syllabuses
terminus üء termini, terminuses
d) ¾
corpus ʽ corpora, corpuses
genus ° genera, genuses
1.2 -a ǽ
a) -a [ə] -ae [iː]
alga algae
alumna ʽ´ alumnae
larva larvae
b) §ʣ -s Ĥ
area ϰ areas
arena Ʈ arenas
dilemma ʥޡ delemmas
diploma ʳذȾ diplomas Τޤ diplomata ⤢
drama ʥɥޡ dramas
era ʻ eras
c) -a -ae -s ξͤΤ
antenna ʿѡƥʡ antennae ʿС, antennas ʥƥʡ
formula ʸ formulae, formulas
nebula nebulae, nebulas
vertebra ǡ vertebrae, vertebras
1.3 -um ǽ
a) -um [əm] -a [ə]
addendum Ͽ addenda
bacterium ʥХƥꥢ bacteria
corrigendum ʥߥץȡ corrigenda ɽ
datum ʥǡ data
desideratum ڼ¤ desiderata
erratum ʸ errata ɽ
ovum ҡ ova
b) §ʣ -s Ĥ
album ʥХ albums
chrysanthemum ʵơ chrysanthemums
forum Ƥ forums Τޤ fora ⤢
museum ʪۡ museums
premium ʳ premiums
stadium ʥ stadiums Τޤ stadia ⤢
c) -um -a -s ξͤΤ
aquarium ʿ²ۡ aquaria, aquariums
curriculum ʶ curricula, curriculums
maximum ʺ¡ maxima, maximums
medium ʪ media, mediums media ñmedias ʣȤˡ⤢
memorandum ʥ memoranda, memorandums
millennium ǯ֡ millennia, millenniums
minimum ʺǾ¡ minima, minimums
moratorium ʻʧͱͽ֡ moratoria, moratoriums
podium ʻش, podia, podiums
referendum ʹ̱ɼ referenda, referendums
spectrum ʥڥȥ spectra, spectrums
stratum ء strata, stratums
symposium ʥݥ symposia, symposiums
ultimatum ʺǸ̹ ultimata, ultimatums
1.4 -ex, -ix ǽ
a) -ex [ɛks], -ix [ɪks] -ices [ɪsiːz]
codex ʸżܡ codices
b) -ex, -ix -ices -es ξͤΤ
apex ĺ apices, apexes
appendix Ͽ appendices, appendixes Ρפΰ̣ʣ appendixes
index ʻɸ indices, indexes Ρֺפΰ̣ʣ indexes
matrix Ρ matrices, matrixes
vortex ʱ vortices, vortexes
2. ꥷϤ̾ʣ
2.1 -is [ɪs] ǽ
a) -es [iːz] ˤʤ롥
analysis ʬϡ analyses
axis ʼ axes ax(e) פʣ ȯ [ɪz]ˤȤʤ뤳Ȥա
basis Ūá bases base ִϡפʣ ȯ [ɪz]ˤȤʤ뤳Ȥա
crisis ʴ crises
diagnosis ʿǡ diagnoses
ellipsis ʾά ellipses ellipse Ĺߡפʣ ȯ [ɪz]ˤȤʤ뤳Ȥա
hypothesis ʲ hypotheses
oasis ʥ oases
paralysis paralyses
parenthesis ʴݤä parentheses
synopsis ʳס synopses
synthesis , syntheses
thesis ʸ theses
b) §ʣ -es Ĥ
metropolis ʼԡԲ metropolises
2.2 -on ǽ
a) -on [ən] -a [ə]
criterion ȽǤδ criteria
phenomenon ʸݡ phenomena
b) §ʣ -s Ĥ
electron Żҡ electrons
neutron ҡ neutrons
proton ۻҡ protons
c) -on -a -s ξͤΤ
automaton ʼư֡ܥåȡ automata, automatons
ganglion ʿ ganglia, ganglions
3. եϤ̾ʣ
3.1 -eau, -eu -eaux, -eux
adieu [əˈdjuː] ̤ adieux [əˈdjuːz] ޤ adieus
bureau [ˈbjʊəroʊ] ʻ̳ɡ bureaux [ˈbjʊəroʊz] ޤ bureaus
plateau [ˈplætou] ʹ⸶ plateaux [ˈplætoʊz] ޤ plateaus
tableau [ˈtæbloʊ] ʳ tableaux [ˈtæbloʊz] ޤ tableaus
3.2 ñʣƱ ʤʣΤȤΤ -s [z] ȯ
corps ġ corps
chassis [ˈʃæsi(ː)] ʼư֤μ桤㥷 chassis
faux pas [foʊ pɑː] ʥåȤȿ뼺ԡ faux pas
rendezvous [ˈrɑːndəˌvuː] «ˤ rendezvous
4. ꥢϤ̾ʣ
4.1 -o -i
libretto ʵܡ libretti [-iː] ޤ librettos
tempo ʥƥݡ tempi [-iː] ޤ tempos
virtuoso ʵ virtuosi [-iː] ޤ virtuosos
4.2 §ʣ -s Ĥ
solo աξϡ solos
soprano ʥץΡ sopranos
ʴ ۡʲˡ, ܳ, ⾾ʶˡŰʸˡ١ʸҡ2000ǯ
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Thesauri or Thesauruses? A Diachronic Distribution of Plural Forms for Latin-Derived Nouns Ending in -us." Journal of the Faculty of Letters: Language, Literature and Culture. 106 (2010): 117--36.
ϢˤƤ "aureate termes" ʤ뤤 aureate_dictionˤȴϢơOED aureate, adj. ιƤߤޤ1ȤƸ˶ᤤ "Golden, gold-coloured." Ȥ졤c1450ν㤬Ƥ롥³Ƹ2ˡƤʸءؤѤŪʸǺܤƤ롥
2. fig. Brilliant or splendid as gold, esp. in literary or rhetorical skill; spec. designating or characteristic of a highly ornamental literary style or diction (see quotes.).
1430 Lydgate tr. Hist. Troy Prol. And of my penne the traces to correcte Whiche barrayne is of aureat lycoure.
1508 W. Dunbar Goldyn Targe (Chepman & Myllar) in Poems (1998) I. 186 Your [Homer and Cicero's] aureate tongis both bene all to lyte For to compile that paradise complete.
1625 S. Purchas Pilgrimes ii. 1847 If I erre, I will beg indulgence of the Pope's aureat magnificence.
1819 T. Campbell Specimens Brit. Poets I. ii. 93 The prevailing fault of English diction, in the fifteenth century, is redundant ornament, and an affectation of anglicising Latin words. In this pedantry and use of 'aureate terms', the Scottish versifiers went even beyond their brethren of the south.
1908 G. G. Smith in Cambr. Hist. Eng. Lit. II. iv. 93 The chief effort was to transform the simpler word and phrase into 'aureate' mannerism, to 'illumine' the vernacular.
1919 J. C. Mendenhall Aureate Terms i. 7 Such long and supposedly elegant words have been dubbed ???aureate terms???, because..they represent a kind of verbal gilding of literary style. The phrase may be traced back..in the sense of long Latinical words of learned aspect, used to express a comparatively simple idea.
1936 C. S. Lewis Allegory of Love vi. 252 This peculiar brightness..is the final cause of the whole aureate style.
1819ǯ, 1908ǯɾŪʸϡareate terms ŪȤͥƥɾ롥ޤ1919ǯ Mendenhall ʸϡareate terms Τ⤦1Ĥɽ路Ƥ롥
٤Фʤ顤ñθ츻ϥƥ aureāus (decorated with gold) Ǥ롥ʤַ˴͡פɽ魯 poet laureate aureate ȵӱƧबɽ1429ǯ Lydgate ФǤʤ laureat poete ηǤϤ Chaucer ˸Ƥˡ
ε#3583. "halff chongyd Latyne" ȤƤ aureate terms ([2019-02-17-1]) ˰³Lydgate ȯŸ aureate terms ȤʸΤƱɾȤˤɤΤ褦˼ƤͤƤߤ̩ˤ Lydgate μλ°뤬Henry VII ˻Ťɻ Stephen Hawes (fl. 1502--21) The Pastime of Pleasure (1506ǯ˴1509ǯ˽ǡˤΤʤǡaureate terms ΤȤΤ褦Ƥ (Cap. xi, st. 2; ʲNichols 521fn ư)
So that Elocucyon doth ryght well claryfy
The dulcet speche from the language rude,
Tellynge the tale in termes eloquent:
The barbry tongue it doth ferre exclude,
Electynge words which are expedyent,
In Latin or in Englyshe, after the entente,
Encensyng out the aromatyke fume,
Our langage rude to exyle and consume.
Hawes ˤС "The dulcet speche" Ǥꡤ"the aromatyke fume" Ǥꡤ"the language rude" жˤˤΤäΤǤ롥
ϥƥѸФ16ƬɾǯƱθȾˤʤȡܳŪʥƥѸή --- Ϥ֥ƥ줫֤פȤۤɤǮ --- Ϥޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʸλŪˤѸŪˤ⡤Chaucer ³1Ĥ礭ήǧʤ櫓ˤϤʤ
Ϣơ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1])#1463. euphuism ([2013-04-29-1]) ȡ
Nichols, Pierrepont H. "Lydgate's Influence on the Aureate Terms of the Scottish Chaucerians." PMLA 47 (1932): 516--22.
ɸ "aureate diction" ȤΤ롤15 Lydgate ʤɤȯŸƥñˡ¿ѤֶԤʡʸΤǤ롥θˡ John Lydgate (1370?--1450?) ιˤĤƤϡ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1])#2657. Ѹ˾ Lydgate ([2016-08-05-1]) Ǽ夲Ȥä "aureate terms" ȡФƱȿˤĤƸƤߤ
J. C. Mendenhall ϡAreate Terms: A Study in the Literary Diction of the Fifteenth Century (Thesis, U of Pennsylvania, 1919) Τʤǡ"those new words, chiefly Romance or Latinical in origin, continually sought under authority of criticism and the best writers, for a rich and expressive style in English, from about 1350 to about 1530" (12) Ƥ롥Mendenhall ϡChaucer οˡȤߤʤƤ뤬15 Chaucer ɿԡȤ櫓åȥɤ Robert Henryson William Dunbar ѤȯŸȤƤ롥
Nichols 餫ˤ褦ˡaureate terms θϫԤ Lydgate ȤäƤ褤⤽ aureat(e) ȤƻѸƳʪ Lydgate Ǥ뤷ηƻ켫Τ1Ĥ aureate term ʤΤǤ롥ˡMED aurēāt (adj.) ȡäȤˡƤ20㤹٤Ƥ Lydgate νʤƤ롥
θˡ Lydgate ȶӤĤƤȤϡƱλ John Metham ɾ狼롥Metham ϡ1448--49ǯ Romance of Amoryus and Cleopes ΥԥΤʤǡͤȤƤ Chaucer Lydgate Τ褦ɾƤʰʲNichols 520 ưѡˡ
(314)
And yff I the trwthe schuld here wryght,
As gret a style I schuld make in euery degre
As Chauncerys off qwene Eleyne, or Cresseyd, doth endyght;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(316)
For thei that greyheryd be, affter folkys estymacion,
Nedys must be more cunne, be kendly nature,
Than he that late begynnyth, as be demonstration,
My mastyr Chauncerys, I mene, that long dyd endure
In practyk off rymyng;---qwerffore proffoundely
With many prouerbys hys bokys rymyd naturally.
(317)
Eke Ion Lydgate, sumtyme monke off Byry,
Hys bokys endyted with termys off retoryk
And halff chongyd Latyne, with conseytys fantastyk,
But eke hys qwyght her schewyd, and hys late werk,
How that hys contynwaunz made hym both a poyet and a clerk.
üŪˤСMetham Chaucer ϵӱλͤLydgate aureate terms λͤɾƤΤǤ롥ơѤνˤƤβս "termys off retoryk / And halff chongyd Latyne, with conseytys fantastyk" Ȥ뤬Ϥޤ areate terms ƱŪȤäƤ褤ˤƤ "halff chongyd Latyne" Ȥϸ̯Ǥ롥#3071. Pig Latin ([2017-09-23-1]) ۵ˤʤ
Nichols, Pierrepont H. "Lydgate's Influence on the Aureate Terms of the Scottish Chaucerians." PMLA 47 (1932): 516--22.
ε ([2019-02-15-1]) ǡɸ˴ؤ Ellenberger ɾҲ𤷤Ѹγ (= "mots savants") Υ˴ؤŪʸϡ˥եǤϤʤȤǤ롥ǤϡEllenberger ȤϡˤĤƤɤΤ褦ʻΤդ路ȹͤƤΤʸνˡ4վǤƤ (149--50)
1. Words are borrowed not once and for all but many times and from many sources.
2. A Latin word borrowed into either of Anglo-French or English would be given an ending prescribed by Anglo-Norman scribal tradition.
3. Words could be borrowed from Latin or French depending on what spheres of society the borrowers moved in. Clerics would be more likely to borrow from Latin than would laics.
4. As the medieval libraries of England contained mainly Latin books and school curricula concentrated on Latin texts, learned words borrowed into French from written Latin sources would be more likely also to have entered English from those same sources than through French.
ѸˤǤϡѸμѸȤХե줬äƤ˴ؤ¤ꡤѸΥƥ줫μѤϡ̤˻פƤ⤺ä˭٤äȤդϢơ#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1])#1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ ([2012-08-20-1])#2961. ͥǤϤʤƥ줫֤λ塩 ([2017-06-05-1])#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1]) ȡ
Ellenberger, Bengt. "On Middle English Mots Savants." Studia Neophilologica 46.1 (1974): 142--50.
#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1])#848. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ (2) ([2011-08-23-1]) Ƥ褦ˡȤ櫓Ѹ˥ƥ졦ե줫äƤѸϡθȤΤȽȤʤ¿ƥʤΤƥ첽եʤΤեʤΤե첽ƥʤΤ
OED 濴Ȥ롤ФŪнˡȤơ֥եʸڤХեѸȤǤʤ˸¤äƥƥȤߤʤפȤŪä⤦äƤޤСȽȤʤˤϡեȤߤʤΤǥեȤȤ褦ȤEllenberger (142) ϡΩҲ𤷤ʤ顤ФȽŪʸƤ롥
. . . the 'learned words' . . . could have been taken either from French or directly from Latin. The difficulty of determining the exact source has been recognized with varying hesitation. Foremost in Francophilia stands the Oxford English Dictionary, which regards as borrowed from Latin only those words that have not been recorded in French; in addition, French forms are often postulated. To the author's knowledge, no scholar before Marchand has openly criticized this procedure.
Ellenberger Ʊո֤Ȥư礤˽ФƤ H. Marchand ϡThe Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation (2nd ed. München, 1969) p. 238 ǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ (Ellenberger 142fn)
It would . . . be an erroneous standpoint to be always looking for the Latin original or the French pattern of a word (which the OED often does). The existence of an actual pattern is irrelevant so long as, potentially, the coinage is Latin. . . . the principle of assuming an actual original is wrong.
Ѹη֤ʸڤ뤫եǤȤǤʤƥǤȤΤ褦ʵϤ餯ΩʤȤȤEllenberger (148) ȤθդǤСΤ褦ʵȤʤ롥
The clerks knew about adaptation and suffixation; they were used to latinizing English names, and sometimes words, and we may trust them to have been able to anglicize a Latin word in the same way as they or the French would have Frenchified it. To request a French intermediary for each and every word is to deny the knowledge of Latin in England. To regard an English word as a loan from French because a corresponding French loan is recorded a few years earlier in an ever so obscure source is to fall a victim to the perilous argument of post hoc, ergo propter hoc; as far as we know, no annual lists of new French words circulated among English clerks. Whether a learned word occurs first in French or English is simply a matter of chance, need, and literary activity.
Ѹγ (= "mots savants") ΥեʤΤƥʤΤȤ뤳ȤʤȤϡष줬̤ΥեѸȤϰۤʤ٥°뤳Ȥǧ뤳ȤEllenberger (150) ʸκǸǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ̤Ǥ롥
A far more useful distinction than that between learned words that might have and those that could not have been mediated by French is that between Romance popular and learned words. Middle English mots savants are latinisms and should be treated as such.
ʤEllenberger ǤϡOED 嵭Τ褦̤˵Ƥ뤬ԻʤǤOED3 ԼԤ1ͤǤ Durkin ϡ˽٤Ƥ뤳ȤդäƤ#848. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ (2) ([2011-08-23-1]) ȡ
Ellenberger, Bengt. "On Middle English Mots Savants." Studia Neophilologica 46.1 (1974): 142--50.
Shakespeare νʤȶ (Authorized Version; King Jame Bible) ϤۤƱ˽Ƥʤ⡤줾αѸϽ¦̤ˤưۤʤäƤcf. #492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1])#1418. 17 its μơ ([2013-03-15-1])#3491. dreamt dreamed ˡκ ([2018-11-17-1])ˡŪˤ Shakespeare ϳŪݼŪʸո¿Ȥ롥Crystal (275) ꡤκۤ㼨Ƥߤֵפȡֿפδ֤ɤƤư֤Ѱۤ濴ˡŵŪΤǤ롥
King James First Folio old form new form old form new form bare 175 bore 1 bare 10 bore 25 clave 14 cleft 2 clave 0 cleft 8 gat 20, gotten 25 got 7 gat 0, gotten 5 got 115 goeth 135 goes 0 goeth 0 goes 166 seeth 54 sees 0 seeth 0 sees 40 spake 585 spoke 0 spake 48 spoke 142 yonder 7 yon 0, yond 0 yonder 66 yon 9, yond 45
ϡʸ "The old Ecclesiastical Words to be kept, viz., the Word Church not to be translated Congregations, &c." ʤɤȽҤ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥͽ̤ۤꡤݼŪʸո褯ĤƤ롥θƤƸŤᤫȡޤ Tyndale ɽ줿1ۤαѸǥȤƤ뤳Ȥʤɤ顤ΤηˤĤäԻĤϤʤcf. #753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1])ˡ
Shakespeare Τ褦ûҷȤθո̱̽ο͡θո˶ƤϤȤȤ⡤ưפǤƱǤ⡤Ѱ (register)ǥŪʤɤۤʤСޤǸΰ㤤ФΤȤȤƤ롤ѸˤιǤ롥
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
Encyclopaedia Britannica "English language" εƬˡѸδŪħ3ĵƤ롥ޤñ㤵 (simplicity of inflection) ǽν (flexibility of function) äγ (openness of vocabulary) Ǥ롥ޤñ㤵ȸäγˤĤƤϡ#151. Ѹ5ħ ([2009-09-25-1]) Ϥ pde_characteristic εʤɤǼ夲Ƥǽν𤵤ѸδŪħ1Ĥ˿夲븫ŪΤǤϤʤȻפʲBritannica Ѥ롥
Flexibility of function has grown over the last five centuries as a consequence of the loss of inflections. Words formerly distinguished as nouns or verbs by differences in their forms are now often used as both nouns and verbs. One can speak, for example, of "planning a table" or "tabling a plan," "booking a place" or "placing a book," "lifting a thumb" or "thumbing a lift." In the other Indo-European languages, apart from rare exceptions in Scandinavian, nouns and verbs are never identical because of the necessity of separate noun and verb endings. In English, forms for traditional pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs can also function as nouns; adjectives and adverbs as verbs; and nouns, pronouns, and adverbs as adjectives. One speaks in English of the Frankfurt Book Fair, but in German one must add the suffix -er to the place-name and put attributive and noun together as a compound, Frankfurter Buchmesse. In French one has no choice but to construct a phrase involving the use of two prepositions: Foire du Livre de Francfort. In English it is now possible to employ a plural noun as adjunct (modifier), as in "wages board" and "sports editor"; or even a conjunctional group, as in "prices and incomes policy" and "parks and gardens committee."
ˤʤäƤֵǽν𤵡פȤϡѸȤСפʻž (conversion) 뤤 (zero derivation) ΤȤǤ롥֤餺˵ǽ̣ͳѤƤޤȤϡΤ˱ѸΤäħȤäƤ褤ѸΤͻ̵ϡޤο˵ָ캬פȤطѸν˿߹üȤʤäƤcf. #655. ޤο캬ξ ([2011-02-11-1])ˡ
Ϣơ#190. ʻž ([2009-11-03-1]) ɮƬ conversion εȤ줿
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2008.
#3576. ͱѸ (= AAVE) θŪħ --- ȯ ([2019-02-10-1])#3577. ͱѸ (= AAVE) θŪħ --- ʸˡ ([2019-02-11-1]) ³McArthur AAVE θŪħҲ𤹤롥ϸáˡ¾ˤĤơ
(1) goober (peanut), yam (sweet potato), tote (to carry), buckra (white man) ʤɤեꥫθä̤롥
(2) ⽸Ĥ homeboy / homegirl ʼʬζпȤμ͡ˡhomies (homegirls) ʤɤѤ롥
(3) 뽸ĤΤƸƤ̾ΤȤ honkie / whitey (͡ˡredneck / peckerwood ļˤϤΡ͡ˤʤɤѤ롥
(4) ¯Ȥ bad / cool / hot (ɤ)crib ʲȡˡshort / ride ʼ֡ˤʤɤѤ롥
(5) ŪʸˡȤơstepped-to ʡʷޤǡͭʡˡupside the head ƬΤȤǡʲˡˡashy ʡ椬æơˤʤɤѤ롥
(6) ¿ AAVE ɽꥫѸθˤȤäƤ롥hip / hep ʥݥԥ顼㡼̤Ƥ͡ˡdude ˡ
(7) եꥫθƬͳ褹͡ɽϤꥢꥫѸθ˳ȤäƤ롥the dozens ƤФȯˡrapping ͺۤǹߤʸոˡshucking / jiving ͤչߤˤ餫äꡤޤꤹ뤳ȡˡsounding ʸդˤзˤʤɡ
Ȥ櫓äɽΰǸʤΤϡˤҤ٤褦ˡ̤ΥꥫѸθ졦¯ˤ¿Ǥ뤳ȤꥫѸǡʤȤȤϡ٤ɸѸǤˡAAVE ̵Ǥʤ餤¸ߴäƤΤǤ롥Ȥ櫓 AAVE Υݥåץ㡼θؤαƶϤ礭
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ε#3576. ͱѸ (= AAVE) θŪħ --- ȯ ([2019-02-10-1]) ˰³McArthur ˰͵ AAVE θŪħˤĤơʸˡܤ롥
(1) ¾αѸѼˤߤ뤬¿̤Ѥ롥No way no girl can't wear no platform shoes to no amusement park.
(2) ¸߹ʸ there ǤϤʤ it Ѥ롥It ain't no food here.
(3) ʣͭʷ3ñ -s -ed ʤɤά뤳Ȥ롥He got three cent. / That's my brother book. / She like new clothes. / They talk all night.
(4) ʸ֤ʤʤȤ롥What it is? / How you are?
(5) be ư do Ѥ뤳Ȥ롥It don't all be her fault.
(6) be νˡThey be fightin. / He be laughing.
(7) Τ been ˤνŪʹ٤ɽ魯I béen see dat movie. / She béen had dat hat.
(8) ˾ a ˤջ֤ɽ魯I'm a shoot you. (= I'm going to shoot you.)
(9) steady ʹԷ֤䡤ʸΰ֤ˤƶȼäŪʰ̣ɽ魯We be steady rappin. / We steady be rappin. / We be rappin stéady. (= We are always talking.) / They steady be high. / They be stady high. / They be high stéady.. (= They are always intoxicated.)
(10) Come ˽ưȤѤ롥He come tellin me some story. (= He told me a lie.) / They come comin in here like they own de place. (= They came in here like they owned the place.)
(11) like ֤ۤȤɡפΰ̣ŪѤ롥I like to die(d). (= I almost died.) / He like to hit his head on that branch. (= He almost hit his head on that branch.)
ΤˤΤ褦ʱѸäС狼ϤʸʹʤȻפ롥ۤʤȤۤɤεΥǤϤʤΤ¤Ǥ롥AAVE ΰ֤ŤǮӤӤ櫓
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ܸǡֹͱѸפȸ蘆ƤѸѼϡҲؤǤ AAVE (= African American Vernacular English) ȸƤ֤Ȥ¿¾ˤ Black English Vernacular, African-American English, Afro-American (English), (American) Black English, black English ʤ͡ʸƤԤʤƤ뤬ʲ AAVE ̤
ܥ֥Ǥϡ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1]) ޤ aave γƵ AAVE θŪħ䵯ˤĤƾҲ𤷤ƤǯΤ褦 AAVE ˴ؿΤߤʤɤ˸뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤˤ錄ꡤ⤦ηŪ AAVE θŪħҲ𤷤ƤMcArthur αѸŵ BLACK ENGLISH VERNACULAR ι (133--35) ˰͵ʤ顤ȯʸˡáѤʤɤ̤˾Ҳ𤷤ƤͽǤ롥
ϥȥȤ AAVE ΤΤǤϤʤѰ (variation) ħŤѼǤ뤳ȤޤĴǡȯħؤȿʤߤAAVE ϡƹιͤ¿ȤѸѼǤ롥ˤϼβѼ郎ꡤҲؤˤäƤۤʤ뤷Իԡļˤ̤ˤäƤۤʤ롥ŪɸŪʡפΤ顤Ƥ餺ޤäĶ鳰˽ФʤϤͤˤää¤ΤĤפΤޤɸŪ AAVE ȤäƤ⡤ɸѸƱͤϰˤ뺹ۤ¸ߤ롥 AAVE ϡͤäѸθˡǤ뤷 AAVE ƱͤǤ롥ĿͤˤäƤ⡤¤ζ AAVE ѼɸѸ˶ᤤѼȤθ (style-shifting) Фи졤ʼҲ˸ŪΤʵҤϺˤ롥
ǤϡŵŪ AAVE ȯħĤƤ
(1) ŪʥꥫƱͤˡnon-rhotic Ǥ롥car "ca" Τ褦ˡparty "pahty" Τ褦ȯ롥ޤҲ˵ /l/ æhelp "hep" ˡself "sef" ˤʤ롥r l ϡWe're coming We'll be here ʤɤˤƤæ"We comin" "We be here" Τ褦ˤʤ롥
(2) -ing ˤơ/ŋ/ /n/ ִ롥coming, running ϡä "comin", "runnin" Ȥʤ롥
(3) λҲϽ̸롥desk, test, cold Ϥ줾 "des", "tes", "col" Ȥʤ롥
(4) /d/ Ҳˤæ롥looked, talked ϡ"look", "talk" ȤʤäƤޤ
(5) Ƭ /ð/ ϤФ /d/ ȯ졤that day, this house "dat day", "dis house" Ȥʤ롥
(6) /θ/ ϤФ /f/ ȯ졤booth, south "boof", "souf" Ȥʤ롥
(7) 2ˤơФ1˶롥ȤСɸѸȰۤʤ "pólice", "défine" ʤɤȯ롥
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ߡꥹ̲ߤϽˡ pound ?ˤ˴ŤƤ롥1 pound = 100 pence Ȥطˤʤ롥βʾ٤ˤʤäΤŪ1971ǯΤȤǤ롥λˤϡΥޥ³ 1 pound = 20 shillings = 240 pence ȤηϤѤƤʤ̤ä̲ñ̤ penny Τߡˡshilling(s) s. Ȥơpenny/pence ϸޤζ danarius/danarii ͳ褹 d. Ȥά줿?4. 5 s. 6 d. (= four pounds five shillings six pence) ǡǤ롥
˾ñ̤Ȥơfarthing (= 1/4 penny) half-farthing (= 1/8 penny) ⤢ä1960ǯѻߤƤ롥
ñ̤ȼºݤβʾȤʪǤ롥shilling ϲʾȤ¤줿Τ Henry IV μ1504ǯΤȤǤꡤˤϷñ̤ˤʤäñ̤ȤСˤ mark ⤢ä1 mark = 2/3 pound = 13 s. 4. d Ȥñ̤Ǥ롥
Τ褦Ūˤ͡ʲʾñ̤äʣäʾμऽΤΤꥨ˭٤Ǥ롥 (Ͽ 68--67) ꡤ礿ΤƤߤ褦
Ȳߡ13ʹѤ줿4ڥβʾꥶ٥1ˤ6ڥߤ夨줿Τ˥㡼륺2褷18ȾФޤή̤19Ⱦˤ褷
եߡ1337ǯˡɥ3ˤեĥβʾǥ¤줿ͤ3եñ̤ϡ1849ǯ˺줿2ζߤˤѤ줿
Ρ֥ߡ1344ǯ˥ɥ3եߤ夨ƺ餻ͤ68ڥΤˤ84ڥβͤѹ
ߡ1465ǯ˲68ڥζߤȤ¤졤֥ߤ˼ääƥ奢īޤ¤³
ߡ14˥ɥɹҤơ̤ȯԡɤǤ1465ǯ˥ɥ410βͤζߤȤ¤1470ǯ¤ߤ줿إ7˰褷
饦ߡ5βʾ1526ǯ˶ߤȤо졥ɥ6ʹߡߤȶߤξ¤줿ʤΤˤ϶ߤΤߡˡ1902ǯʹߤ̤ʵǰκݤˤΤ¤롥Ⱦ饦ߤ1970ǯޤǻѤ줿
ʥȶߡ1604ǯॺ1ˤꥤɤȥåȥɤιƱǰ¤줿20
ˡߡ1663ǯեꥫΥ˥ζ¤ʲ20ˡʥȶߤ˼ääθ夹˲21˾夬ꡤ1694ǯˤ30ޤǾ徺1717ǯ21˸ꡥ¤ʾ1813ǯߤ줿ʾñ̤ȤƤϤθĹѤ³ߤ˻äƤ롥Ȥˡư֤ʤɤι۾ʤդʤɵŪʰ̣ȤʤˤޤѤ롥
ߡ1ݥɤβ̻͡ѲʾȤƤϡ1817ǯ1925ǯޤ¤Ʊ̾ζߤϡ1489ǯ˥إ7ʲ20ˤ¤Ƥꡤɥ6ᥢ1ꥶ٥1ˤ30ζߤȤ¤줿
̭ԡˡإꥹˡ١Ǽҡ1998ǯ
ε#3573. accomplish one ζ첻Ѱۡ ([2019-02-07-1]) ǡ<o> ֻбȯ /ʌ/ /ɒ/ δ֤ɤƤߤϡ⤽ <o> ֻŵŪˤ2Ĥ첻б뤳Ȥ˵롥ñȤƤ <o> /ɒ/ Τۤä¿餳夲褦 spelling_pronunciation ΥǥȤʤΤ<o> /ʌ/ 褷ƾʤʤषŪʸ¿ѻȤ¤⤢롥äơɤб§Ǥꡤɤ餬㳰ʤΤľŪˤȽȤʤ
Carney (355) ϡ<o> ˤĤƤΥǥեȵ§Ȥ <o> /ɒ/ ΩƤƤ롥ñ
across, belong, block, bobbin, bronze, catalogue, choreography, confident, dog, donkey, glottal, jolly, obstinate, off, olive, plonk, stock, tonsils; cost, lost, frost, costume, ostensible, posterior
<o> /ʌ/ ϡ嵭ΥǥեȤϰΤΡ/v/ ǤϹߤ뤷ʳǤ¿뤳ȤǤ롥Carney (351, 355) ȴФ
above, coven, covenant, cover, covet, covey, discover, dove, glove, govern, love, oven, plover, recover, shove, shovel, slovenly; accomplice, accomplish, among, another, borough, brother, colour, comfort, company, compass, conjure, fishmonger, front, frontier, ironmonger, mongrel, monk, monkey, month, mother, nothing, one, once, other, smother, son, sponge, ton, tongue, won, wonder, Monday
ΥꥹȤˤϵƤʤ#3513. come some ֻ ([2018-12-09-1]) come, some <o> /ʌ/ Ǥ롥2ĤΥꥹȤθ췲ˤĤƤϡ¿ <o> <m>, <n>, <v> (= <u>) ߤ졤"minim avoidance" 뤳ȤǤΤΤǤ٤Ƥդ뤳ȤϤǤʤ"minim avoidance" ˤĤƤϡ#2450. Ѹˤ <u> <o> ˤѡ ([2016-01-11-1])#2453. Ѹˤ <u> <o> ˤ (2) ([2016-01-14-1]) ȡˡ
2ĤΥꥹȤ٤ȡdonkey /ˈdɒŋki/ /ˈmʌŋki/ ϡ褦ֻƤʤۤʤ붯첻ĤȤ狼롥ΩɸŪǰŪʥꥹȯ˴ŤˤΤΩĤΤǤꡤꥫѸǤ donkey /ˈdʌŋki/ ȯ⤢뤳ȤդäƤ
դޤʤꡥε one ǤߤȤꡤ̾ /ʌ/ ȯ among, mongrel, nothing, once, tongue ζ첻ĿͤȯˤäƤ /ɒ/ ȤƸ뤳ȤˤդƤ<o> ȯ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ɽñϡ#211. spelling pronunciation ([2009-11-24-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ [əˈkʌmplɪʃ] ȯƤǯΥꥫѸǤֻαƶˤ [əˈkɑ:mplɪʃ] ȯ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥
ꥹѸǤθݤѻ졤2첻 /ʌ/ ǤϤʤ /ɒ/ ȯ뷹ƤƤ롥LPD Preference poll ˤȡꥹѸǤ8%ۤɤԤ첻ȯ褦ˤʤäƤȤcf. #488. ȯɤΰ ([2010-08-28-1])#2268. ֤ʤޤפΰۤʤ˴ؤ붦Ū ([2015-07-13-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
ϡֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) θ̤ȤäƤ褤ֻ <o> б첻 /ʌ/ /ɒ/ ѲƤƤ¾ȤƤϡcolander, combat, comparable, comrade, conduit, constable ʤɤˤ1첻 (Upward and Davidson 193) ηϡñȯñ٥ǤϺƤΤͽۤ롥
⤦1Ȥ˺ƤϤʤʤΤone 첻Ǥ롥ñϡŪˤ /wʌn/ ȯƤ¤ /wɒn/ ȯƤƤ롥LPD Preference Poll ˤСꥹѸˤ30%ԤȯȤǯؤǤ50%Ȥ顤첻֤ƤΤ⤷ʤone ȯˤˤĤƤϡ#86. one ȯ ([2009-07-22-1])#89. one ȯ¤äȯ ([2009-07-25-1])#3536. one, once, none, nothing 1첻 ([2019-01-01-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ21ˤ⿷ѲѰۤŸƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʪήžΤ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ε ([2019-02-05-1]) ³ain't ˤĤơϤε˴ؤ뤤ĤҲ𤷤褦
Ҥ٤褦 ain't ϡam not, isn't, aren't ΤѤȤƤѤ뤳Ȥ顤Τ줫˵ĤȹͤΤɸŪ3ĤΤ줫ȯãȲꤹ硤n Ҳξü˴ؤȡ1첻 /eɪ/ ˴ؤ褷ʤФʤʤ줬ʤʤ
1;ñ I б ain't ˴ؤƤϡCrystal (35) ϡŪ amn't, amna, amnae, ammot, am't ʤɤλҲæˤΤȤߤƤ롥
. . . from the sixteenth century on, we see forms dropping the m appear---first an't, then ain't, again with many regional variants such as een't in Suffolk, yunt in Worcestershire, yent in Berkshire, ant in New England, and ent in African-American usage.
ˡOED be, v. Ƥߤȡ츻2.1˾ܤҤ롥ˤȡain't ϡamn't ȯãȤǽ⤢뤬aren't ⡤ isn't ƱͤȯãȤƤ롥
The forms an't and ain't, when functioning as 1st singular, perhaps represent a contraction of am with the negative particle rather than levelling from the 2nd singular and plural (i.e. corresponding to aren't with simplification of final consonant group; compare discussion of ain't below and see discussions in E. J. Dobson Eng. Pronunc. 1500-1700 (ed. 2, 1968) II. §238, W. N. Francis in Focus on: Eng. & Wales (1985) 141-151; a third possible source (for ain't) is by compensatory lengthening after loss of s from isn't; compare discussion of en't at Forms 2c(iv)ζ). However, if so, an't and ain't were subsequently reanalysed as equivalent to are not, and the spelling aren't superseded an't in standard English, leading to avoidance not only of I aren't but also of aren't I by some speakers of current English. A similar problem arises with the early modern English form wan't, which when used for the singular, may represent either a contraction of was with not or show levelling of a variant of weren't. Compare also the concurrent development of similar contracted forms shan't (contracted form of SHALL v.) and han't, hain't, ain't (contracted forms of HAVE v.).
;ΤȤ˾ʬȯãõȤȤɬפ⤷ʤޤҲϡξˤæפդ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ첻ˤĤƤѶŪʥȤϤʤǤȤñ˰۷ǤȤΤ褦ǺѤޤƤ礬¿褦Ϥꡤain't ŪǤ롥
Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.
be ư1֤Ȥ ain't 롥ɸŪȤߤʤ뤬ǤϤФѤ롥am not, aren't, isn't Τˤ뤿ᡤȿθʤ̣ǡ̴Τ褦ʡ be ưη֤Ǥ롥 be ưˤȤɤޤ餺have not, has not ɸŪʰ۷ȤƤѤ졤¤˼ϰϤͱѸ졤 AAVE Ǥϡdon't, doesn't, didn't ѤȤʤꡤǽ be ưȤƤ ain't äʤ롥
ain't ɸŪȤƤꡤλѤϵŪΩ줫뤳Ȥ¿Ǥ϶ܤ͡δ֤ǤѤ졤Ȥ櫓1;ñε am I not? ȤƤ ain't I ϵƤٹ礤⤤ (ex. I'm going too, ain't I?) ޤ100ǯۤˤϡήǤ̤ѤƤݤ Crystal (35) ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Today, ain't is considered non-standard, but it's widespread throughout the English-speaking world---probably used far more often than the standard equivalent---and a century ago it was actually acceptable upper-class speech, turning up frequently in the novels of the period. Here's the lawyer Mr Wharton arguing with his sister-in-law over his daughter's future, in Anthony Trollope's The Prime Minister (1875): 'I ain't thinking of her marrying'. And towards the end of the novel the Duke of Omnium himself asks someone: 'I hope you ain't cold'.
ain't 18Ⱦ깭ѤƤ뤬εˤĤƤϽ⤢롥Ūˡ˴ؤƤ⡤̻Ūȯã˴ؤƤ¿̥ŪʥȥԥåǤ롥Ϣ American Heritage Dictionary Notes ꡤain't ȡ
Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.
֥ȡפ˴ؤϸŪųŪ̱²Ū˰¿줾ǤȤϽФƤʤؤˤĤƤСȸɤʬۿޤޤ#774. ȸʬۡ ([2011-06-10-1]) #778. P-Celtic Q-Celtic ([2011-06-14-1]) ǷǤƤȤ˷ޤ˴ؤƤϸԴ֤ǰոʬƤ롥
ȸӸؤŪ˽Ż뤵ƤΤ[2011-06-14-1] Ǥߤ P-Celtic Q-Celtic ζ̤p q βбʤȤ߽ФѲˤŤߤơȽʬहˡǤ롥Τ˥ꥹ Insular Celtic ٥ȸ췲ˤ˴ؤ¤ꡤp ֥ƥϤ Brythonic q Ϥ Goidelic Ȥ褽줤˶ʬƤȤʤäƤꡤŪʴ䤹ΦϤΥȽޤǻȡp q κۤŻ뤷ƤޤȤˤäơ嵭ζʬȤ礭ۤʤ̤ζʬǽȤʤäƤޤȤˤʤ롥
ȤСWelsh Irish p, q б˾Ȥ餻СȸɤǸߤŪᤤ֤ˤȤ뤬Ǥ븫ˤȡWelsh p ΦϤ Lepontic ˤᤤIrish q ǤϤΦϤ Celtiberian ˤᤤȤȤˤʤ롥ȡWelsh Irish ŪʶᤵȷŪʶᤵӤĤ褦ȤϡŪǤϤʤȤȽˤ餵
ºݡ²¾θɤߤƤ q p θؤϹߤ롥ƥޥǤϡquatuor, quatre ʤ q ݤäƤ뤬p > q Ф̤ȤƤ q quinque, cinq ʤɤ㤬롥ƱåɤǤ Umbrian Oscan Ǥ p Ȥ¤⤢롥ޤꥷǤ¿ p
Τ褦˹ʬۤ벻ؤɽŪʸʬˤƤɤͤΤΤȤƲ᤹٤ϡ²Τζʬ˴ؤ#1150. centum satem ([2012-06-20-1]) Ʊ͡ؤǤϤ롥
ʾ塤Oppenheimer (87--90) ȤƼɮ
Oppenheimer, Stephen. The Origins of the British. 2006. London: Robinson, 2007.
ε ([2019-02-02-1]) ˰³literacy ϿˤȤäƳŪʡεѡ (= [the] technology of the intellect) ǤΤݤȤͤ褦
Foley (433) ϡliteracy ϡεѡפǤˤƤ⡤괧դ褦ͣФΤΤǤϤʤˤˤäƷҲŪʸŪʹʪ1ĤȤƤεѤˤʤȹͤƤ롥ȤȡŵꥷŪʡεѡפϡɬŪʽǤϤʤޤǸ奮ꥷŪݤ줿1ĤüʵѤȤߤ٤ȤȤˤʤ롥
Literacy is not a straightforward "technology of the intellect"; technologies, like intellects . . ., are social and cultural constructions, arrived at by particular histories of engaging with the world and each other through various institutions and events. There are as many literacies as there are ways of engaging the world and ourselves through the written word. Those whose lives are deeply embedded in and lived through the written word could expect some cognitive effects as a result of this, but that is simply the result of their particular lived histories, their trajectories of structural coupling and nothing more. And, of course, what those effects might be will be local, specific to the local literacy practices that they have engaged in and whose understanding they embody. There are no certain or universal effects.
βսϡ¤ɤ߱ΤɾǤ롥³ Foley (434) ηǤ⡤ƱݤǼΤ褦ˤ롥
Cultural practices and beliefs about literacy are highly variable, demonstrating the impossibility of any simple oral/literate divide or monolithic literate technology. Rather, literate practices of each culture reflect the way they engage with the world through the written word, their lived history of structural coupling via a script technology.
literacy ȤȡޤĿͤǧΤؽȤ¦̤ͤƱ餤ġμҲʸͭŪʪȤˤդʧäƤ
Foley, William A. Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997.
literacy ΤĿͤȤʤĿ͡literacy Τ붦ƱΤȤʤƱΤȤǤϡŪ˰ۤʤäƤˤʤȻפΤϼǤ롥Ǥϡɤ߽Ǥ롤ǤʤȤκۤĶơɤۤʤΤFoley (417) ϡʬʬŪʸ路ؼ Goody Ҳ𤷤Ĥġ˿Ƥ롥
In a seminal study, Goody . . . building on earlier work . . . proposed that literacy is a major force for social and cultural change. He proposed to replace earlier contrasts in anthropological writings between prelogical versus logical mentalities or "primitive" versus civilized minds . . ., or the Neolithic "science of the concrete" versus our modern "science of the abstract" . . . with a contrast between oral versus literate cultures. In other words the invention of writing, roughly around five thousand years ago, was a watershed event in human history, so that societies possessing this "technology of the intellect" . . . are fundamentally different as a result of this invention. Goodly followed this work up with subsequent publications . . ., and this hypothesis has independently been proposed or enthusiastically taken up by a number of other researchers. . . . On the face of it, this suggestion might seem relatively uncontroversial. The members of a literate society are clearly different from those of an oral one --- they can read and write. But Goody and his fellow researchers mean much more than this; it is their contention that the possession of this skill, this "technology of the intellect," leads to major cognitive changes in the way literates think about themselves and their world. Literacy brings about a major cognitive revolution, a revolution best exemplified, in Goody's view, in the flowering of critical and speculative thought in classical Greece, but a potential outcome wherever literacy takes hold.
Goody ˤȡliteracy ϡǧξ̿פ⤿餷ŵŪ˸ŵꥷȷӤĤɾŪŪȯ¥ΤȤGoody literacy ΤϤϤ餯ŪɬŪȹͤƤ뤬Τ褦ñ˵뤳ȤϤǤΤǤɤ߽Ǥ䤿ˤȤäơliteracy = "[the] technology of the intellect" Ȥªϡ̣˼ʤΤΰոˤȿФƤ롥εˤĤƤεǡ
ϢȤơ#850. դȯŪͤδط ([2011-08-25-1])#1014. ʸȯãȽ°ʸȯã ([2012-02-05-1])#3118. ̵ʸҲ˽ҡ ([2017-11-09-1]) ȡ
Foley, William A. Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997.
#3556. إץȥѹˡʸػˡ٤Ρֱʸػˡפܼ ([2019-01-21-1]) ³ʸػˤܼ2ơŵȻή줬褯ݤ߹롥
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