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[2010-03-04-1]ε#311. girl Ȥ褯 collocate ƻϲפǡȸζ (collocation) ¬ˡ (association measure) ˤϤĤμब뤳ȤѥؤǤϡLog-Likelihood Test ȤˤˡŪ褯ȤƤ뤬줾ηˡˤħΤǡʤ٤ʣˡΤ褤[2010-03-04-1]ƤȽʣʬ⤢뤬BNCweb ǼƤ7ηˡγơˤĤ Hoffmann et al. (149--58) Ȥʤ顤ħѤΥҥȤ
Ƽηˡϡ(a) (frequency of co-occurrence)(b) ͭ (significance of co-occurrence)(c) եȡ (effect-size) 1ġ뤤ʣȤ߹碌˴ŤƤ롥(b) ϡŪͭդǤȤγο٤ɽ魯ɸǤꡤζɽ魯ΤǤϤʤȤդɬפ롥(c) ϡѻ٤ȴ٤ȤδܤȤɸǤ롥
(1) Rank by frequency
ѻ붦٤ΤΤѤ롤ǤñľŪʼ١¾ηˡΤ褦ʣϤۤɤƤ餺ɸȤƤϺǤƤǽɵʤɤ̤뤳Ȥ¿̾ζʬϤˤѤʤ
(2) Log-likelihood
ͭѤ롥BNCweb ΥǥեȤηˡǡѥǹѤƤ롥ǽɵʤɤζˤƹ٤θȤζ䡤դ˶ˤ٤θ1, 2ʤɡˤȤζϤ롥٤ι⤤Ȥ߹碌˹ͿȤħꡤˤդפ롥
(3) Mutual information (MI)
եȡѤ롥ˤ褯ѤƤˡѤäƤ¿դפ롥ǽɵʤɤȤΤդ줿ŪӽƤϤ褤ȿ̡٤ζɽؤФ꤬㤷Фαƶ뤿ˡBNCweb Ǥ "Freq(node, collocate) at least" 10ʾꤹ뤳Ȥ侩롥ˤꡤ"conspicuous and intuitively appealing collocations involving words of intermediate frequency" (Hoffmann et al. 154) ⤭ĦȤʤ롥
(4) T-score
٤ȶͭθˡ٤1ʲ٤εʶɽˤĤƤ Rank by frequency Ȼ褦ʿ٤ι⤤ɽˤĤƤ϶ͭȿǤ롥ޤѻ٤٤ɬ⤯ʤ롥Log-likelihood ̤Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿٤ؤΥХϰضʤ롥ΡɤΤΤ1000礭ˡ̤ȯ뤳Ȥ롥
(5) Z-score
ͭȥեȡθˡ٤ζɽˤϥեȡŻ뤹뤬٤ζɽˤϤޤǥեȡ˴꤫ʤLog-likelihood MI ξħ褦ʡХμ줿ɸǤ롥MI Ʊͤˡ٤ζɽؤΥХߤΤǡ"Freq(node, collocate) at least" 5٤ꤹΤ褤Ȥ롥
(6) MI3
٤ȥեȡθˡMI ΤɽؤнŤ٤Ƥ롥ٶɽˤϥեȡٶɽˤ϶٤Ū褯ȿǤ롥POS ˤȤȤѤȸŪʣ줫ʤѸʤɤμФ˰Ϥȯ롥ΤȤƤϹٶɽؤΥХŪʶʬϤˤϸʤ
(7) Dice coefficient
MI3 Ʊͤˡ٤ȥեȡθˡMI3Ȱۤʤꡤٶɽˤ϶٤ٶɽˤϥեȡ褯ȿǤ졤ξԤڤؤޤʤΤħŪǤ롥ڤؤϡΡɤΤΤ٤ɽ٤10ܤۤɤǵȤ롥иŪˡZ-score Ȼ褦ʷ̤뤬Z-score ۤ٤˴ŤХʤ
ʾΤ褦¿ढäܰܤꤹ뤬Hoffmann et al. θˤСñηˡȤƤ Log-likelihood MI ǡηˡȤƤ Z-score Dice ȤΤȤǤ롥
͡ʷˡˤĤƤϡAssociation measures ȡ
Hoffmann, Sebastian, Stefan Evert, Nicholas Smith, David Lee, and Ylva Berglund Prytz. Corpus Linguistics with BNCweb : A Practical Guide. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2008.
ʤѲ뤫Ѹˡ˸ؤ椷ƤƤˤ䤤1ĤǤ롥ޤǤ⡤ȤŪʴ顤causation γƵǼ夲ƤǤ롥Coseriu, E. (Sincronía, Diacronía e Historia. Investigaciones y estudios. Seri Filología y lingüística 2. Montevideo: Revista de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias, 1958. p. 37.) ˤСѲθ䤦ݤˤϡۤʤ3θ̤٤ǤȤCoseriu θ⤿ʤΤǡWeinreich et al. (99--100fn) ݤ롥
1ܤ "the rational problem of why languages changes of necessity" Ǥ롥ϤʤѤʤФʤʤΤѤɬפΤȤůŪ䤤δθѲԤȤƤϡKeller פ⤫֡Ѳˤϡָ (invisible_hand) ͿƤȤǤ롥ѲϤäƿʹԤȹֶͤή (drift ⡤˴ޤޤ
2ܤ "the general problem of conditions under which particular changes usually appear in languages" Ǥ롥Ѳˤϡۤʤ졤ۤʤˤƶ̤ƸΤ롥϶ȤϹͤˤطʤ˰Ūʸ뤤Ϥ깵ɽǤ conditioning factors ѤƤȹͤΤǤ롥ŪŪҲŪװޤ̣ǤθŪʽ郎ѲȤȤϼƤ롥εuniformitarian_principle ưθ§ˡgrammaticalisation ʤɤ°
3ܤ "the historical problem of accounting for concrete changes that have taken place" Ǥ롥ϡŪ˸ѲΤȤ̤ˡºݤƤ˸Ѳθġλ褦ȤߤΤȤǤ롥ѸˤθǤϡ̾ŪʸѲλűѸǤ̾ʣΤ˿ˡäʤѸʹߤˤϻ¾ -s ΤߤȤʤäΤʤ̾ưȤѥ16Ⱦ˸ϤΤʤ첻ܤΤŪʸѲñȯĴȤäƤ褤
Coseriu ϡؤϡ3ƱƤϤʤʤդƤ롥
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ҥȤޤưʪΥߥ˥ʤˤ͡ʤΤ뤬ҥȤθκħϡCrystal (How 9--10) ˤ (1) reproductiveness, (2) double articulation, (3) displacement Ǥ롥ĤޤǸС(1) ϤɤʤȤǤɽǤ뼫ͳ٤ι⤵(2) ϡ#767. ʬ ([2011-06-03-1]) ħ(3) Ϻ˴ͿΰʳΤȡʺΤȤ䡤̤ξǵäƤ뤳ȡˤȤ뤳ȤǤ줾ɽ魯ȿꡤȡɽʤɤϳΤ˿ƱΤΥߥ˥ʤǤϤ뤬ɽ경ƤƼͳ٤㤯ʬΤ褦ʣʹ¤ŵŪˤϺˤ뤳Ȥˤʤ
ߥ˥ʤˤäƤϡ3ĤξƤ뤫ɤ٤ˤʤȤ¦̤⤢롥륳ߥ˥ʤΰ̣ǸȸƤФƤ٤ݤ̯ʥΤ㤨Сūˤ륳ߥ˥ƤƤ²ԥ͡ȥ륳䥫ʥꥢˤơϤäդ˴Ťūˤ륳ߥ˥ʤǧƤ롥Crystal (Encyclopedia 404) ˰ѤƤ褦ᥭ Oaxaca ² Mazateco ü2ͤδ֤Ǹ蘆줿ūˤäǤ롥
Eusebio Martinez ϾΩäƤϡΥ줿Ȥƻ⤤Ƥȥˤ˸ūǸƤӤԾˤǤäΥȥϡūǤۤʤ벻Dz٤ūθꡤ줬ȥȥϡƻ֤ Eusebio ξΤȤޤǾäƤơ⤷٤餺ˡʪEusebio ϥȥʪȡ椫餪äƤơʧơȥϵäƤäʾΤȤΤͤδ֤ˤϰդˤäϤʤʤäʤμޤڤΥߥ˥θūΤȤˤäƳΤ˹ԤʤƤΤǤ롥
ͤθūǤβäϡȤʤˤȯäΡ줴ȤβĴб4ʳβˤäɽ蘆ƤʸŪŪ˲äʸ̮ŪͤȤۤΤˤ褯ͭƤΤǡͤδ֤ǤβĴΡĴΧȤɬפĴбƸȯä뤳ȤϡۤɺǤϤʤΤȤʤȯäμ̤Ǥ뤫顤θūߥ˥⡤̩ʰ̣ǤθȤߤʤȤϰΤȤǽǤ롥ŪˤȤûʸפûѤ뵡⾯ʤˤΤѤȤȤ顤¤ʤŪʡָפȤߤƤ褤ΤˤϡCrystal (How 13) Τ褦ˡʤȤ "surrogate" ȸƤǤΤ褤⤷ʤ
Ϣơħ ##1063,1064,1065 εȡ
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
ѥˤȤäɽ (representativeness) ̿Ǥ뤳Ȥϡѥ ([2010-11-16-1]) 餫Ǥ뤷ε#1279. BNC ζߤȼߡ ([2012-10-28-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Leech Ȥ櫓ĥƤǤ롥McEnery et al. (13) ϡɽˤĤơLeech ͤˤʤ "a corpus is thought to be representative of the language variety it is supposed to represent if the findings based on its contents can be generalized to the said language variety" ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
ɽŪ˹ͤƤߤ褦㤨 BNC åȤȤ褦ʡ奤ꥹѸȤŪѼϿ륳ѥ (general corpus) ɽϤɤΤ褦ˤΤäդȽդγͤȡ줾50%Ĥ˳꿶뤳Ȥϡ奤ꥹѸɽ«ƤLeech ɽǤ "impressionistic" Ȥʤ餶ʤνִ֤˹ԤʤƤ븽奤ꥹѸΰŪʬäդˤƤǤϤʤ⤷ȤСäեѥγ㤨80%ۤɤꤹۤɽݤǤΤǤϤʤΤȤʤ븽奤ꥹѸľܤĤळȤǤʤʾ塤ɽεϹԤͤޤäƤޤ
ѥä˰̥ѥˤɽȤˡ balance sampling Ȥ2Ĥγǰʬƹͤ뤳Ȥ롥McEnery et al. (13) Ǥϡ"the representativeness of most corpora is to a great extent determined by two factors: the range of genres included in a corpus (i.e. balance . . .) and how the text chunks for each genre are selected (i.e. sampling . . .)" Ƥ롥
balance ȤϡBNC ѸǤȤ domain genre Ȥʬ˴ؤΤǤ롥㤨С奤ꥹѸΥѥɸ֤ʤ⡤ꥹοʹαѸѥϡrepresentativeness 롥奤ꥹѸˤϽդǤʤäդ⤢뤷ԤˤĤƤϿʹѸǤʤʸرѸ⤢ŻҥѸ⤢뤷㤤ʪѸ⤢СѸ⤢롥Τ domain genre θ줿Ȼפ̤ƤĤ text domain ΤʹѸ˸¤äƤ⡤֥ɤ⤢й⤢롥1ĤοʹǤ⡤Ҳ̡ݡ̡ʤɤ̤ɬפϤʤΤҲ̤Ǥйȹݵζ̤ϤɤŪˤϤɤޤǤʬ롥äդǤƱͤ˺ʬ䤷ʤƤСĿ (idiolect) ˸Ŀˤ register ̤θ졤ʤɤΥȥؤȽ夷ƤޤºݤΥѥϡQŪʥ٥Ŷ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬־QŪפ "impressionistic" ϤۤƱ
sampling Ȥɽ뤿μˡǤ롥ΤθŪħƸ褦ˡ̤ˤƹθäʤ顤ѥ˳ domain ۤ뤿ȼǤ롥ˤϡsampling unit ȤƲꤹ뤫ŵŪˤϡܡʹʤɤʤȤƤñ̡ˡΤ褦ñ̤ꥹȲȤϰ (sampling frame) ɤޤǤꤹ뤫ǯؤθ䡤٥ȥ顼ܤؤθʤɡˡɸܼϴʥˤ뤫٤ηϲäǤΥˤ뤫ɤۤ뤫ʤɤΡŪŪ꤬ޤޤ롥
ɽ˴ؤ⤦1ĤγǰȤơclosure 뤤 saturation ȸƤФΤ⤢롥McEnery et al. (16) ˤС"Closure/saturation for a particular linguistic feature (e.g. size of lexicon) of a variety of language (e.g. computer manuals) means that the feature appears to be finite or is subject to very limited variation beyond a certain point." Ƥ롥ʿСʾ女ѥεϤ礭Ƥ⡤ùγѤʤȤϤãСΥѥ saturated Ǥȹͤ롥ɽλɸȤƤϡbalance saturation ΤۤƤȤŦ⤢뤬saturation ϼȤƸäǰƬˤꡤ¾θܤؤαѤϻߤƤʤΤǤ롥
ɽϡ女ѥ̿ǤȤϤäƤ⡤ԤȤ餤Ϥ롥ݤ뤿ʤˡʤ٤ƤΥѥԻԤΩϤƬˤѥϼԻƤ롥Ṳ̄ˤơҤԻȻѤ³Ƥ椭Υϥ٤ʳˤΤ⤷ʤ
McEnery, Tony, Richard Xiao, and Yukio Tono. Corpus-Based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge, 2006.
108--114֤ˤ錄ꡤΩرѸ춵鸦ˤŤǡLancaster ̾ Geoffrey Leech θֱ줿ϡ2ܤ "The British National Corpus: Both a Triumph and a Failure" ꤹֱΤߤλääİ˹ԤäBNC ԼԤκäʤɡ⤷ää
̾ˤ "triumph" "failure" ˤĤơLeech Ϥ줾켡Τ褦ʹܤƤ
A triumph:
It has been claimed that the BNC is the most widely used corpus in the world.
It was the first text corpus of its size to be made widely available.
It is available from a wide range of different sources.
It is widely regarded as a 'standard reference corpus' for the English language.
It has been licensed to over 1300 institutions throughout the world, over 1800 users have signed on for access to it through the BNCweb online interface, etc.
A failure:
It never reached 100 million words! (98,300,000)
The design criteria were never totally achieved.
It hardly ever contains complete texts.
The spoken materials are poorly transcribed.
The metadata are incomplete and can be erroneous.
The part-of-speech tagging contains many errors.
It is out of date! (dating from the late 20th century)
Leech θդüˤϡtriumph γ˼Ƥ褦ˡӤդ줿ߤʤäƤΥѥԽˤĤơФ褫äФ褫äȤθȤ⤤ȿ¿ƤΤŪǤ롥BNC ΥդѤ줿ץ CLAWS4 ٤97%ۤɤHoffmann et al. 43 ˤȡ98--99%ˤȤΤϡ϶ä٤ȤȻפäƤѥϤ礭ΤǿѡȤΥ顼ȤϤäƤ300ˤΤܤȤ¤ϸȤƤäȤХѥˤĤƤϡѥΤ1ۤɤޤʤäȡǡ transcription μäȡѤǡեޥå TEI äȤФΥդˤɬŬڤǤʤäȡʤɤƤ
ʤǤ⡤ʳ鸽ߤ˻ޤǰӤƤ³Ƥɽ (representativeness) ˤĤơBNC ǤϴṲ̄ʤäȤˡˤޤƤʳ顤ꤹ Text Domain ΥХ䥵˴ؤŤͤƤȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥1桼ȤƤϡ¤줿ΤʤǡɽݤȤϰζȤɾƤ뤬Leech ˤȤäƤϡǤ¤ΤȤϤäȤȿ̤Ȥơ̤ۤʤäȤפ褦Ʊˡ䤫ʸĴǤϤäBNC Ӥ¾Τ٤Ƥ絬ϥѥɽۤɽŻ뤷ƤʤȽƤ༫ȤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡѥɽˤĤȼϤäƤ뤬ǽŪˤ "impressionistic" ȽǤȹͤƤ褦ǤꡤˤޤƤˤ衤Leech ɽؤμǰζˡ٤ʥץեåʥꥺ
ʤ[2012-07-05-1]ε#1165. ѹǥѥ椬ˤʤäطʡפǿ줿̤ꡤǰʤBNC³ԤϤʤȤȤLeech Ƥ
礭ۤʤ뤬Ѹ쥳ѥ The LAEME Corpus ɽˤĤơ[2012-10-10-1], [2012-10-11-1]εǹͻΤǡȤ
Hoffmann, Sebastian, Stefan Evert, Nicholas Smith, David Lee, and Ylva Berglund Prytz. Corpus Linguistics with BNCweb : A Practical Guide. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2008.
ѥؤߤޤʤʬʬˡϢϥ־뤳Ȥ¿ʤ褦ˤפ뤬դ˾¿ơȽǤ˺롥ƼʬΤǤʥޤȤƤȻפΤسΥԡɤˤĤƹԤʤ䤬Ǥ褯Ѥ BNC ˴ϢΤ濴ˡŪǤϤ뤬ĥ롥ޤȤϫϡŤ뼰ˤɤ뤫ɸΤۤΨŪȤˤʤĤĤ롦
1. BNC ե
BNCweb ̵Ͽ
BYU-BNC ̵Ͽ
BNC ( The British National Corpus )
2. BNC Υե
Quick Reference for Simple Query Syntax (PDF)
Reference Guide for the British National Corpus (XML Edition)
Reference Guide ܼ
* 6.5 Guidelines to the Wordclass Tagging
* The BNC Basic (C5) Tagset
* 9.8 Simplified Wordclass Tags
* 9.7 Contracted forms and multiwords
* 1 Design of the Corpus
* 9.6 Text and genre classification code
3. ѥϢ祵
David Lee ˤ Bookmarks for Corpus-based Linguists
* Corpora, Collections, Data Archives
* Software, Tools, Frequency Lists, etc.
* References, Papers, Journals
* Conferences & Project
4. hellog ε
#568. ѥȱѸ쥳ѥ: [2010-11-16-1]
#506. CoRD --- Ѹ˥ѥξ: [2010-09-15-1]
#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ: [2010-03-01-1]
ѥϢ: corpus
BNC Ϣ: bnc
COCA Ϣ: coca
5. ġ
Corpus Frequency Wizard
Paul Rayson's Log-likelihood Calculator
VassarStats
hellog Ρ#711. Log-Likelihood Tester CGI, Ver. 2: [2011-04-08-1]
Hoffmann, Sebastian, Stefan Evert, Nicholas Smith, David Lee, and Ylva Berglund Prytz. Corpus Linguistics with BNCweb : A Practical Guide. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2008.
θοİΤʤȤϡ#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1]) #1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1]) εǼ夲ƤϡسεҤ Ethnologue פ˽äơߡǹԤʤƤ6000--7000ĤۤɤǧƤ뤬ޤDzοǤ롥οΤɤۤɤθ줬ʸäƤΤ˴ؿ뤬ޤʸdzθڤߤĤȤʤä
Crystal (17) ˡڤڤĤǤϡ4ۤɤθʷ2000ۤˤʸդ줿ȤʤǤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥οפκǤ뤫ΤꤿȤǤ롥ޤջθο5000ĤȤʤ뤬 Crystal ¾Ǥοפ⾯ʤΤǤϤʤޤʸ⤿ʤǤʤʸɤ߽ǤʤüԿǹͤȡβ䤯餤ˤʤΤʸäƤȤȤȡüԤʸɤ߽Ǥ뤳ȤȤ̤ǤϤȵ䤬來Фƻߤޤʤοˤޤơºݾ塤夲Ϻˤ
ȤƤϡCrystal θڤ⤺ä¿θ줬̵ʸǤϤʤȻפäƤΤǡճǤϤä礷ΤʤΤȤΤ#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1]) פ鸫ĤơüԿͰʲθ̵ʸ줬¿ΤǤϤʤƧǤ
̻Ūʴϡʸĸ줬ɤΤ餤®٤ƤäΤο͡μΨɤΤ褦˿ܤƤΤȤⶽ̣ԤʸʸŤꡤԤϼǽϤˤɤ߽οʤȤäˤ롥ɤ1ĤȤäƤ⡤ˤϲʤ
ܳŪĴ٤СŬʳƤ˹ԤΤ⤷ʤ˿Ƥʸ¸ޤ顤ҶƤ
ϢơʸȯˤĤƤϡ#41. ʸˤ ([2009-06-08-1]) դäդФŪˤĤƤϡ#748. ä ([2011-05-15-1]) ȡ
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
ɸΤ褦 here there 1ǤȤֻ2ǤȤʣ¿롥ϡhere this ȡthere it that ɤؤơֻθ˲Ọ̇̄ŪɸθϤ줾 by this, of this, to that, with that ۤɤ̣롥Ǥ˷ĥä뤬űѸ줫ѸˤƤϤ褯Ѥ졤μ٤ϤषƤۤɤǤ롥17ʹߤϵ˸äƤ椭Τ褦ʸ¤줿Ѱ (register) ؤɤޤ줿ͳȤƤϡѸι¤ȤŵŪǤʤȤĤޤ礫ʬϤؤαѸμήȿȤŦƤ (Rissanen 127) ʸˡȤơޤǸꤵ줿֤ǼѤ줿ϡtherefore ΤߤȤäƤ褤
ѸdzǧѰФϡǤѸˤ˨꤬롥here-, there- ʣϡѸǤϤޤ̤˻ȤƤ뤬ǤߤˡΧʸǤλѤݤäƤ롥ʲϡRissanen (127) Helsinki Corpus ˤĴ̤Ǥʿ١åο1٤ɽ魯ˡ
| Statutes | Other texts | |
|---|---|---|
| ME4 (1420--1500) | 68 (60) | 621 (31) |
| EModE1 (1500--70) | 77 (65) | 503 (28) |
| EModE2 (1570--1640) | 84 (71) | 461 (26) |
| EModE3 (1640--1710) | 126 (96) | 191 (12) |
ɸѸȯȯŸǡɥȤ륤ɽԻԤμҲˤμ礫ʤ˴ Keene ʸɤKeene ϡؼԤǤϤʤ˳ؼԤλ顤ɥɤ濴Ȥϰ̤ǤƤ椯¿οɽѤѸɸಽ˴ؤкѡҲŪطʤ⤷Ƥ롥
Keene (101) ϡ10ȾޤǤ˥ɥ濴Ūϰ̤ϸǤޤäȤ13Ⱦ Edward I μˤ "the prime focus of English identity and civilisation" "the capital in something like the modern sense of that term" (101) ȤƤϰ̤ɤ뤮ʤΤȤʤäȤƤ롥͡ĤɥϤϰꤢä1300ǯ16ˤϼȤƸѤȵߺѤƤ "subsistence migration" Ǥꡤब徺1400ǯλˤϼȤƵȵѤϣƤ "betterment migration" Ǥäκϡɥή͡μ˴ؤ뤿ᡤθŪʽϤˤ⺹⤿餷ȤλŦϡҲŪʴ̣ĹǤ (105)
ǤʤKeene λϡʸΤˤ錄äƼҲŪʼͿƤ롥кѡҲȤɸѸȯʤ顤Keene ϼΤ褦ʷƳ
London is likely to have had an influence in the emergence of Standard English not primarily as a site of government and power but rather as an engine of communication and exchange which enabled ideas and information to be distributed and business to be done across an increasingly extensive, complex and varied field. Key processes to consider would include the establishment of fellowship, trust and norms which fostered understanding and an ability quickly to conclude deals in acknowledged and repeatable ways. In the speech of modern economists, such forms of standardisation would have reduced transaction costs. It is no coincidence, therefore, that some of the earliest evidence for the force of London in processes of standardisation concerns matters of measurement which were vital to trade. Another useful concept from the world of economics concerns integration between markets --- between London and other places, and around certain focal points within the city --- leading to uniformity in prices, products and practice. Integration could be a spontaneous process, but it could also be facilitated by a framework imposed by state authority, the king's peace as it was called in the earlier Middle Ages. The search for peace, with a view to promoting harmony, exchange and prosperous cities, was a profound influence on those who wielded power. (111--12)
Ҳηкѳư¥ʤ뤿˿̹͡դμΤƱͤˡҲΥߥ˥¥ʤ뤿˿͡ɸѸΤǤϤʤȤβˤɤٿ͡ΰջ֤ռȿǤƤ뤫ȽǤ뤳ȤΰѤϡкѤ˸¤餺ˤƤּפҲĬäȤȤϤäƼƤ롥ƼҲŪ˼ŪʹͻȻפ
Keene, Derek. "Metropolitan Values: Migration, Mobility and Cultural Norms, London 1100--1700." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 93--114.
ȤܤˤȤϡۤȤѤˤʤäȤäƤ褤ĤƤ punctuation ʶˤǤ롥ĥɤäΤǡivy-leaf 뤤ϥƥ hedera ȸƤФ롥
Crystal (282) ˤСhedera Ӥϰʲ̤Ǥ롥ꥷޤθŵˤϡȸʬĤѤ줿ʴϢơʬפˤĤƤ ##1112,1113,1114 ȡˡűѸˤϡƥȤμ礿ζڤ佪λΤѤ줿ǶȤƤεǽ˺졤ѤȤʤĤĤäѤȯʹߤŪǤ餫褷͡ʰվۤɤŪѤƤˤϡΥեȤΥڡ䤷̤뤳ȤǤ
⤦Ĵ٤ƤߤȡParkes hedera ˴ؤ뵭Ҥä
. . . the hedera (or ivy-leaf symbol) became a printers' ornament. The hedera is probably the oldest punctuation mark in the West, appearing in inscriptions of the second century B.C. Its decorative potential was already being exploited in some of the earliest surviving codices, but it still appeared at the beginnings and ends of sections of texts in manuscripts produced in the seventh and eighth centuries. In the twelfth century there is evidence to suggest that its function as a mark of punctuation was no longer understood, but it was cast in type in the sixteenth century, and appears in printed books, sometimes in circumstances which stimulate speculation that its original function had been rediscovered. In the mid sixteenth century a number of printers in France and England employed the hedera in places where others had employed the paraph: at the beginning of the first line of the title-page, at the beginning of the first line of a colophon, and even at the beginning of a chapter heading. In A deuout treatyse called the tree and twelve frutes of the holy goost (London, Robert Copland, 1534) the hedera alternates with the pointing hand to separate different injunctions to the reader. However, it was most frequently employed as an ornament, usually on title-pages. On the title-page of John Longland's earlier sermon, A sermond spoken before the King . . . (London, [Thomas Petyt], 1536), it appears in a row of cast pieces, including a pointing hand and fleur-de-lis, employed as ornament. (61)
ޤParkes (181) ˤСƥñ̤ζڤȤεǽαѤȤơűѸμ MS Bodley 819 ǤϡʬΤѤƤ㤬Ȥ̤褦Ȥ12μ̻ϡΰ̣ǤˤĤ hedera punctus versus ֤ƤޤäƤȤ顤Ȥ hedera εǽ˳äΤ⤷ʤ
ߤǤ϶ȤƤ "extinct" Ȥ뤬ȤƤϡΰѤǿƤ褦ʾǤޤ˵˸롥
American Speech 1δƬ McKnight ʸɤ⤦ȤȤˡʲΤ褦 hedera λȯΤǡͤޤǤˡ

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Parkes, M. B. Pause and Effect: An Introduction to the History of Punctuation in the West. U of California P, 1993.
McKnight, George H. "Conservatism in American Speech." American Speech 1 (1925): 1--17.
ؤΩ붵ΤʤǤǤ⡤Ȥ櫓̷ΩȤɸ2Ĥ롥H. Osthoff and K. Brugmann ɽɥĤǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze "sound laws without exception" ȥեؼ Gilliéron ξ chaque mot a son histoire "every word has its own history" Ǥ롥Ԥϲˡ§٤Ƥθ㳰ʤѤ뤳ȤԤϤ٤Ƥθ줬ȼȯŸȤƤ롥Τ褦ΩϤɤΤ褦˲áʤ뤤ϲˤ٤¤ϡξԤΤΤɤˤȤȤʤΤ
Robins (213) ϡξԤϤ̷ۤ⤷ƤʤȹͤƤ롥äΤȤƱѲФȤƱ¦̤ȡƸ줬̤ʿȤۼ¦̤¸ƤȹͤΤǤϤʤȡ
Changes in the pronunciation of words involve two things: the transmission from generation to generation of articulatory habits rests on the learning in childhood of sets of sounds heard first in certain words but, once mastered, used without effort in any number of words; but for various reasons, not by any means all understood, changes take place in the course of successive transmission between the generations, and the recurrence of a relatively small number of sounds in the virtually limitless vocabulary of a language makes for the universality of sound changes. But words are also learned as whole lexical units, and any hesitation, individual change, or other peculiarity in the pronunciation of such a unit is also learned, and may be retained and propagated in later generations or within people's speech during their lifetime. Every word has its individual history in its semantics, grammar, and pronunciation. In most cases its phonetic evolution can be described by reference to the phonetic evolution of the sounds occurring in it (this is the basis of historical 'sound laws'), but in certain cases its pronounced form must be particular history. The neogrammarians stressed phonetic uniformity; Gilliéron and his disciples stressed etymological individuality.
θؤȯۤϡȤ̤ˤĤƤϵ䤬äƤ⡤§Ȥ Neogrammarian Ǥ³Ƥ롥Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze ˴꤫뤿ˤ⡤۾ˡŪʸѲϽפ
Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.
[2011-02-14-1]ε˰³Sir William Jones ΡְӸءŪʸθˤĤơRobins μȤ pp. 192--94 ͤˤơڤդä
Jones 衼åѽ Sanskrit ȤδطΤ˻ŦȤϸػ˾夭ƽפʽäˤƱݤλŦʤ櫓ǤϤʤä衼åѤˤ Sanskrit ؤκǽθڤϡ16ꥢ Filippo Sassetti ̤롥ϡSanskrit Italian θäˤϿƤ롥θ塤ɥĤ B. Schulze ե Père Coeurdoux ʤʪ Sanskrit ȥ衼åѽ˵դƤ
Sanskrit ̤Ȥơ衼åѽˤĤƸ²ιͤܶᤷƤؼԤ16¸ߤե J. J. Scaliger (1540--1609) ϡ褫Ƥ Hebrew > Greek > Latin ľŪȯŸδطѤߴطˤĤƤȤʤ11θɤꤷ²ιͤ˶ŤƤIndo-European Finno-Ugrian ߤʤɡδ̯ʶʬǤϤäػ˾塤ܤ٤ǥäƤȤɾǤ롥
17ˤϡ2ͤΥǥ̤ͤܤ٤ѻʤäƤ롥G. Stiernhielm (1598--1672) ϡѤ餺 Hebrew ٤ƤθεȤʤ⡤̤ Latin Gothic ˵դA. Jäger ϡĸ줬衼åѤ䥢ΰسȻʤ顤줾θɤؤȯŸȤŪʹͤãƤϡĸ줽ΤΤϸ¸ƤʤȤˤⵤդƤꡤͥ줿ƤȤ虜ʤ
17ȾˤϡɥĤ Leibniz (1646--1716) 衼åѤν̤2ʬ²ѤζʬΤΤǤϤʤ˸ؤˡܤͤ롥̾̾ʬۤˡüԡˤִꤷΤǤ롥δ Basque ŪʸΩˤڤƤꡤȯۤϤƿä
Τ褦ˡJones ˤ⡤θ²Ӹؤιͤ碌ͽϤĤ¸ߤäơ[2010-02-03-1]ε#282. Sir William JonesαԤŦפǵ Jones θӤϡ̩ˤСΤߤ˵ΤǤϤʤ¿ʬ˸ĥäƤ롥ǤפϡJones ΤĤλŦ˸λܤ٤ΤǤäƤ⡤ȤƤϸΩŪŪǤꡤػ˾礭ήˤĤʤʤäȤǤ (Robins 168--69) õǰס̱ˤѡѤꡤؤδؿϤĤĤä18ȤߥJones ػ˾αͺ˲夲ΤǤ롥
Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.
[2012-02-12-1]ε#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿפǷڤڤΤߤܸ̻Ūಽ (delabialisation) ФȤƤ롥ߤΥϹԤλҲϡĤƤ [p] äȤǤ롥[p] ΤΤ夯ʤꡤĴ [h] ؤȸषȤʤ櫓ǤϤʤسǤϤۤȤƼƤ롥
[p] > [f] ѲȤСѸˡΤˤϰˤȤ٤ˤˤˡ§ (Grimm's Law; [2009-08-08-1]) ۵롥ˡ§μѲϡĴˤƤĴͼˤƤ⡤ϤηŪǤꡤñȯܸοಽȤ礭ۤʤ롥[2012-05-22-1]ε#1121. Grimm's Law Ϥʤפʤɤǡˡ§ѲεǤΤȤꡤܸοಽװǤȤǡξԤ϶̤Ƥ롥
(95--96) ϡˤäƤϸջݤͿͤʤŪװƤƤ롥
ΡFͤβϡɻΤܤäλˤϿι碌äȶơpͤβǤäȿꤵƤ롥礦ɸβȬŻǻ pa֤ panaꤤ pai paka puni pu: Ȥ褦ˡɻꤺäȰڤܸǤ⡤ puna ʤɤȸäƤΤȤϺγسǤ롥ʤǤϡp͢F͢hͤȤѲϲεäΤˤĤƽȤʤͤʤϤ줬ܿͤγܤιθȤʤǯŪѲ̩ܤʴطΤȹͤƤ롥ܤʸοǤϾȲȤϤԤä߹蘆äƤ뤬ʹߡܤभŪ˾˽Ф뷹롥ƳһοοȻ夬ˤĤơܤʤꡤˤäƹԤƽл䤽û¿ʤĤĤ롥ϸ忰ûΤܿͤξ岼οι碌ˤ븶ȤʤŪѲǤ롥ѲʤȡϹԻҲΡp͢F͢hͤѲȤʿԤƤꡤ˽Ҥ٤wͻҲæ⡤ȯѲȤƤƱθˤäƤҤƤ롥
ƤϳسǤϤۤȤˤʤäȤ (125) ϤΤ褦ʸջƤջΤߤͳˡƬʤꤹΤϲʳŪ٤ǤϤʤȸڤ褦ȤɬפȹͤƤ褦ȤƤϾβܹꤷƤ뤬⾯ʤȤ⸡ڤͤϤȤոΤˡջ̵ΤȻפ롥ΤȤϤɤޤǾФäƺѤޤʤΤȤνʤ顤ΤꤿȻפ
ʤ⤬ջʹ뤫ȤСŪװȤϿͼŪʺʤΤȤǤꡤϿͼﺹ̤ˤĤʤꤦϤǤ뤫εˤĤƤϿŪθԲķǤ뤳Ȥï⤬ǧƤʤ顤ŪħȽħؤƤǽȤϰΥ֡ȤƤѤ롥
ǡϥޥƥͤβʳŪꥢꥺɾʲϡࡼʥ (281--82) Υޥƥ͡ʡزѲηкѡ١ɾǤ롥
ޥƥͤϤˡʤäƤ褤ʳŪꥢꥺäơʪŪƯǽƤ뤳ȤǧƤ롥ʤˤʪŪȤΤϡʥǥŪˡѤ줿뤿ӷ礬¿ΤǤ롥ϤƤ롤ֿͼαƶȤĤΩ꤬롥ऱƤޤ櫓ˤϤʤΤθδﴱΰ̤˸оϡŪ˱ѤäƤǽ뤷Ūʿι¤ˤäơȤФθˤϤβǤǡƤȤޤǤȤȤ뤫⤷ʤϡΤϤˤϡɤʼѤ⤿ĹǦѤŤ褤ĴʤᡤŪʳβΤʤ褦̩θ뤳Ȥᤵ
ܸΤܤ١ȽŹ1974ǯ
ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١ֽ2001ǯ
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ
[2010-08-11-1]ε#471. toilet ˭٤նɽ WordNet Visuwords Ǥߤפǡ饤ѤǤͥåȥβĻ벽ġ2Ҳ𤷤ƱݤΥġȤ WordNet Υǡ١˴Ť Graph Words ɲäʲˡϢġΥƤ
Graph Words: եϤץ롥
Visuwords: եϤŤäƤ롥
Visual Thesaurus: ͭȥ饤뤢ꡥϤŤäƤ롥
碌ơǤ̾켭ŵ⥪饤˭٤˥Ǥ뤬ĤƤ
Merriam-Webster Thesaurus: Ȥ˭٤췲롥
The Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia: ĤƤꡤñؽˤ褤
Thesaurus.com: ꥹȤ롥
HyperDictionary.com: Ʊ
ꥹȤؤ륹ɥμեȥȤƤϡʲΤΤѤ뤳Ȥ롥
WordWebѸ켭եȥȤƿ͵롥
TheSage's English Dictionary and Thesaurusե줤
˱Ѹ켭ŵϡʲġ
HTOED (Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary)
TOE (A Thesaurus of Old English)
ͥåȥβĻ벽ġäƤ뤦ˡñ˥ɤ˴ϢäΥͥåȥΤȤƤǤʤɤθιΤȤѤ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥȯ㤨СGraph Words ¿ "star" ΥͥåȥƤߤȡ褽̤Ȥ˻ޤΥ롼פǤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ƹñִˤ뼨ȤǤϤ뤬ӤäݤפƤȤʰʲϲåˡ

"star" Τ褦¿ˤĤƤϡĻ벽ġϸιƤ롤ΥġȤƤͭʤΤǤϤʤ
ħ (sound_symbolism) ȡβ̶ʬǤ onomatopoeia ڤ phonaesthesia ϡ쵭Ȥ륽塼ʹߤθؤˤȤäƤϡŪǤ롥Ū餳ؿ椯Ȥ¦̤⤢ꡤȤܸüԤˤȤäƤϡܸ˵졦ָȤݤˡ;פ˴ؿ롥ϡħؤΤʤǼŪǤʤ⤢֤ŤݤäƤȤˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ħꤲϡ쵭 (arbitrariness) ؤȿȤJespersen ϤȤȤȤˤĤƤ뤷Bloomfield ⡤˿ŤʤǤϤ뤬ħΰ̣Ѥ䲻ħηˤĤƻ̤䤤Ƥ[2010-01-10-1]ε#258. ư䲻 phonaethesiaפȡˡ20θȾʹߤ⡤##207,242,243 Ǹ褦ˡSamuels Smith ʤɤħǮޤʤƤ롥
ͤϡħֵοݤȤ⡤षƼŪ¤ΤǤסʥࡼʥp. 87ˤȤμĥȤ᤹뤳ȤǤŪ˸쵭θ§ĴƤȤ⤤롥ħŪʤˤĤƤϡJespersen ⽽ʬǧƤꡤ֡ԤΡոˤĤơΤϤϲζΥܥɽΤ褦ʤΤ¸ߤסֲŪܥɽ¤ˤޤѤƤϤʤס֤βŪܥɽʤꤿΰϲɤΤ褦ʲξˤ줬ʤꤿĤΤΤθؼԤλŻפȽҤ٤Ƥʥࡼʥp. 88ˡJespersen εˤƤ顤ħϼդˤȤɤޤ餶ʤäΤ
ħΤ̤θŪʰյϡεˤΤǤ롥[2010-07-02-1]ε#431. ʶθεפǸ褦ˡε onomatopoeia ˸Ȥ⤬뤫ͭյʵȯŸȤϹͤ줺ϤդˤȤɤޤ餶ʤ
ħκҤȤĤΰյϡꥫʬۼԤˤñ̤ڤФμˡ˴Ϣ롥Bloomfield Harris ȤԤǤ顤there, then, thither, this, that ʤɤθ췲 th ȤħŪñ̤ڤФΤǤϤʤȤͶǤ˶줿[2010-01-11-1]ε#259. phonaesthesia ۲פȡˡHarris ϡglide, gleam ʤɤĤġ֤Ȥ gl- Τ褦Ϣ³˷ǤȤƤλʤǧ٤ȼĥ뤳ȤȤƤ⡤gl- ǻϤޤϢ³Τ˰̣ѤʬŪĤΤۤ¿Ȥ¤ʤǤۤäƤȤޤǤʤפȽҤ٤Ƥʥࡼʥp. 208ˡ
˵Ƥħ˴ؿ븦Ԥ٤ƱѸؤ˴פĸؼԤǤ뤳Ȥܤ٤Ǥ롥ࡼʥ (87, 209) μȤˤȡΤʤǤ⡤ޥ졤Ȥ櫓ѸϤƲħ㤬˭٤餷ΤѸϤθؼԤŪŤʤΤФơѸϤθؼԤϳǮơ졦ָ˭٤ܸȤѸ츦ԤޤǮʤ꤬ȤȤΤ⤷ʤ
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ
ɸˤĤơ2֤ε[2012-10-14-1], [2012-10-15-1]ǡGörlach ʸ˽ǹͤƤꥫѸ "colonial lag" ܤ¿ȤϡŪ˻ٻΤǤϤʤ¯˶ᤤΤǤȤ
Görlach ϡ¯ȤऱˤȤɤޤ餺षꥹѸ줳 "lag" ƤΤǤꡤꥫѸ "lead" Ƥȡ˿ʤƤ롥ϢսĤѤ褦
. . . there are very good reasons for regarding the mother contries as more retentive than the colonial societies: Apart from necessary innovations in new situations and surroundings, there were also substantial lexical losses, for social and for referential reasons, in the settler societies. (45)
It is incontestable that Britain has been linguistically conservative during the past few centuries, intent on preserving the linguistic, cultural, and political inheritance, and quite slow to accept innovation. (56)
One could mention that English itself started off as an emigrant language in 5th-century Britain. Note that even here the distincitive features of Old English are those arising from innovations, the number of retentions being quite limited (such as in a few forms of reduplicating verbs in Older Anglian). (57--58)
Görlach ϡ"lag" ȽǤϻˤäƺŪȶĴǡŪ˸СꥫѸγӥꥹѸݼϵ;ϤʤȷŤƤ롥;ϤʤɤˤĤƤϡӡŪĴ٤ΤǤꡤʸȤۤƤΤǤϤʤȻϹͤ롥
ꥫѸγˤĤƤ Görlach Ʊոϡ#315. ꥹѸϥꥫѸ٤ݼŪ ([2010-03-08-1]) ǰѤ褦ˡAlgeo ˤ⸫뤳ȤդäƤ
Görlach, Manfred. "Colonial Lag? The Alleged Conservative Character of American English and Other 'Colonial' Varieties." English World-Wide 8 (1987): 41--60.
ε[2012-10-14-1]³ԡGörlach ϡФ "colonial lag" λʪǤȻŦ륢ꥫˡϡºݤˤ "colonial lag" ʤɤǤϤʤƤ롥ͻܤϲáˤ錄ꡤ¿ˤ錄뤬äϤȻ䤬ȽǤ3Ҳ𤹤롥
(1) ꥫѸŵŪʲħȤơglass ʤɤ첻 /æ/bar ʤɤ postvocalic r /w/ /wh/ ͻʤɤŦƤ뤬ȯϸŤꥹѸȯñʡ¸פǤϤʤ"All three features above have a very complex history in the U.S., a history that shows alternating phases of retention, copying of British norms, and independent development" (46)
(2) "colonial lag" ǤϥꥫѸǤʤȥꥢѸʤɤӤƤ褵ʤΤ첻ѲˤߤȡȥꥢѸǤϥꥹѸ٤ƤɤषʤǤ (48) ꥹѸ줳 "lag" ƤΤǤ롥"lag" ˤŪʳǰˤʤȤ狼롥
(3) äʸˡ˴ؤƱƺɽ魯ȤΥڥϡñʻѤ̵ͭˤäƤǤϤʤ̣١ʸΡɾˤäƶ̤٤ΤۤȤɤǤ (48, 54) ξˡ"lag" ؤǤ롥
ˡĩȯŪǤϤ뤬Görlach ϡΥꥹѸΥꥫѸ첽 (Americanisation) ǰƬ˵ĤġꥫѸǵäƤѲФƥꥹѸ줬ٱ䤷Ƥ뤳ȤŦʸĤƤ롥
For those who have been convinced that Great Britain has become a colony of the United States, these linguistic facts could well be interpretatble as features illustraing 'colonial lag' of a new type. (57)
2ĤŪ˴ϢѼθܤˤĤơ¾ؤδط "lag" ʤΤ "lead" ʤΤ¿ʬŪǤꡤŪʻ¤˴ŤȤϥǥ˴ŤȽǤǤǽ礭ȤȤ⤷ʤ
ϢơMontgomery ξ⻲ȡ
Görlach, Manfred. "Colonial Lag? The Alleged Conservative Character of American English and Other 'Colonial' Varieties." English World-Wide 8 (1987): 41--60.
Montgomery, Michael. "In the Appalachians They Speak like Shakespeare." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 66--76.
ꥹѸ (BrE) ȥꥫѸ (AmE) κۤȤϡؤΥߤֵʤɤǤ˴ؿ⤿ơޤǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤ame_bre γƵ濴ˡϢƤ¿γϡꥹݼŪǤȤڤ귿ΥäƤ뤿ˡꥹѸݼŪǡŪѲ⾯ʤϤȹͤƤ褦Ǥ롥ƱͤˡꥫϳŪǤȤƥ쥪פΤˡꥫѸŪǡŪѲ˭٤ѼǤȹͤƤ褦ɬ⤽줬äƤʤȤȤϡ#315. ꥹѸϥꥫѸ٤ݼŪ ([2010-03-08-1]) #627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ ([2011-01-14-1]) #628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ (2) ([2011-01-15-1]) ʤɤεǿƤ
ꥫѸʻˡˤ˴ؤɤСषꥫѸ줳Ťˡ褯ݤäƤȤҤˤ˽Ф魯Massachusetts ΰϰˤ The King James Bible ˶̤ˡĤäƤȤѥǤ Elizabeth I äƤѸ줬ʹȤΤ褦ʸܤˤĤ̱ϤˤиϰѼ郎콡ѼθŤܤ褯¸ƤȤ㡤СԤԤηФѲ˼ĤƤȤϡ¿𤵤ƤꡤȤ "colonial lag" ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ롥
Görlach "colonial lag" Ȥͤϡ˺ŪǤꡤؾγǰȤƤŬڤꤹ롥̤Ȥơڤ귿Ȥƻ䤬Ūɾޡ"BrE = conservative" Ǥ "AmE = innovative" ǤȤޤؤȲƤ椯Τդε˴ؿäΤǡGörlach ʸȤɤǤߤ
Görlach (43--44) Ǥϡ"colonial lag" ιɤɤɽȤơꥫѸˤ路פΰۤʤξͺ Mencken Krapp ѤƤ롥ɤ Mencken ϡλĬȤ館ΤĹ夭äƤΥ㡼ʥꥹȤǤ롥ɤ Krapp ϡʳŪ˥ꥫѸʬϤڶθؼԤǤ롥
I think I have offered sufficient evidence that the American of today is much more honestly English, in any sense that Shakespeare would have understood, than the so-called Standard English of England (Mencken 1919, in 1977: 774)
The American community has not been segregated, unadulterated, merely self-perpetuating. Relations with the parent country have never been discontinued . . . The absurdity of describing American English as the archaic speech of an isolated community may be realized by considering what might have happened if the conditions favoring isolation had been present. If migration to New England had ceased in the year 1700, if New England had remained after that time a separate state, severed not only from Europe but from the rest of America, it is not improbable that something approximating the language of Dryden might still be heard in New England. But Dryden's speech is forever lost in the medley of later voices that sound more loudly in our ears. (Krapp 1927, quoted from Mencken 1977: 140f.)
Görlach (43) ϡMencken ήΡ֥ꥫѸ줳ͳѸ¸ƤפȤĥϡǥμĥǤꡤŪ˻ٻĥǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥֥ꥫѸϱѸˤƤפȤꥫѸФȽŪʹ֤ɾϡߤƱͤ20Ⱦˤʹ줿ʧˤϡꥫѸ줬ꥹѸˤƤǤ˼줿ŤˡޤݤäƤ뤳ȤΤäȤŪǤ롥Mencken ή "colonial lag" ϡΤ褦طʤǹƤΤȡGörlach ʬϤ롥
Ǥϡ"colonial lag" ɽ魯ȸΩƤƤ륢ꥫѸθܤKrapp ήˡ˸ŪפŤƤߤȡŤꥹˡλ¸Ȥ˹ͤʤΤ˴ؤ Görlach εεǡ
Görlach, Manfred. "Colonial Lag? The Alleged Conservative Character of American English and Other 'Colonial' Varieties." English World-Wide 8 (1987): 41--60.
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. One vol. ed. Ed. R. I. McDavid, Jr. New York: Knopf, 1977.
Krapp, G. P. "Is American English Archaic?" Southwest Review (1927). 292--303.
٤óȻ (lexical diffusion) οʹԽδطˤĤƤϡ[2012-09-17-1], [2012-09-20-1], [2012-09-21-1]γƵǰäƤ19ǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) ˤСѲ "phonetically gradual and lexically abrupt" ǤȤȤQäǯθóȻθˤꡤѲˤѲŵŪ˸ "lexically gradual" βǧ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥֤Ǥ첻Ǥ졤ѲΤʤˤϽȵڤƤ椯ΤȤθϡѲθȤƤ (analogy) Ȥ褯Ѳ֤Ƥ Neogrammarians ⤷ΤȤΤäξȤ
˿ʹԤ벻Ѳǧ硤줬ɤΤ褦ʽǿʹԤΤȤȤʤ롥ǡ٤ȤƤƤΤδθϤޤ˽ФǤ롥ȤȤȤǤСƤϰճʤƤǯʸˡɤй Hugo Ernst Maria Schuchardt (1842--1927) 1885ǯȤᤤʳǡ٤ȲѲνܤդƤΤʲϡPhillips (321) ˷ǺܤƤ Schuchardt ΰѡʱˤǤ롥
The greater or lesser frequency in the use of individual words that plays such a prominent role in analogical formation is also of great importance for their phonetic transformation, not within rather small differences, but within significant ones. Rarely used words drag behind; very frequently used ones hurry ahead. Exceptions to the sound laws are formed in both groups.
Neogrammarian λˤơ٤ȲѲνܤ Schuchardt ״˶äʤμϡθˤüξǤꡤƥΤȤ˭٤dzΤʴפΤäޥؤʬबȤꤸƤȤȴط롥ϡ¤λˤ Neogrammarian βˡ§ȿ㤬˭٤ˤ뤳ȤϤäǧƤꡤˡ§ˤˤκƷǤϸοʤȤ˴Ƥ²ȤͤˤŪǡ˺ȾȻβꤷƤäκؤδؿϲ̤ƤʤŪʸ椬ɾ褦ˤʤäΤϡ1塤쥪츦θ1960ǯΤȤǤ롥
Schuchardt Τ褦ʸۤäƤȤΤС嵭ΰѤ⼫ǤSchuchardt ȥ쥪ؤȯŸȤδطˤĤƤϡ (188--96) ܤ
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Schuchardt, Hugo. Über die Lautgesetze: Gegen die Junggrammatiker. 1885. Trans. in Shuchardt, the Neogrammarians, and the Transformational Theory of Phonological Change. Ed. Theo Vennemann and Terence Wilbur. Frankfurt: Altenäum, 1972. 39--72.
ɧظؤȤϲ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1993ǯ
[2012-10-10-1], [2012-10-11-1]εǡThe LAEME Corpus ɽˤĤƼꤢɾȤƤϡСƤȻȤߤɽ»ʤƤΤΡѤǤѸ쥳ѥȤƤηŪԤޤ줿絬ϤΥѥǤꡤʬդʧäǸ츦˳Ѥ٤ġǤ롥The LAEME Corpus β٤Ϥ뤷¾Υѥˤ䴰ܻؤ٤ȤϹͤ뤬Ū˸椹ݤɬŪˤĤޤȤ³θɾʤȥեǤ롥
˸ؤϡβξ֤ѻȤ˲ݤƤ롥ȤˤϡߤȤˤϸʤ³ĤޤȤMilroy (45) λŦ˸ظ2Ĥθ³ (limitations of historical inquiry)
[P]ast states of language are attested in writing, rather than in speech . . . [W]ritten language tends to be message-oriented and is deprived of the social and situational contexts in which speech events occur.
[H]istorical data have been accidentally preserved and are therefore not equally representative of all aspects of the language of past states . . . . Some styles and varieties may therefore be over-represented in the data, while others are under-represented . . . . For some periods of time there may be a great deal of surviving information: for other periods there may be very little or none at all.
ۤ³ǤϤ뤬Ϥ뤤ϹˤǤŤϤϡˡǤʤƤ롥ΤʤǤ⡤Smith Ϥο (1) դäդδط뤳ȡ(2) ̻ˤȳ̻ˤбܤ뤳ȡ(3) ߤθβؤαѤβǽõ뤳ȡνŦƤ롥
Ȥ櫓 (3) ˤĤƤϡǯҲؤˤѲ®˿ʤߡθβؤαѤˤʤ褦ˤʤäƤLabov ʸɸ "On the Use of the Present to Explain the Past" ˡľ٣ʪäƤ롥
ȴϢˡǤ uniformitarian_principle ưθ§ˤ̤˲Ф˱ѸʸDenison et al. ԽΤȤˡǯǤ줿ȤդäƤ
Milroy, James. Linguistic Variation and Change: On the Historical Sociolinguistics of English. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
Labov, William. "On the Use of the Present to Explain the Past." Readings in Historical Phonology: Chapters in the Theory of Sound Change. Ed. Philip Baldi and Ronald N. Werth. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1978. 275--312.
Denison, David, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore, eds. Analysing Older English. Cambridge: CUP, 2012.
ε[2012-10-10-1]˰³The LAEME Corpus ɽꡥϡΤˤƱѥʸˡͿƤ (tagged words) οˤꡤ头Ȥɽͤ롥ޤɽǤ褦
Table 2: Dialectal and Diachronic Distribution of Linguistic Evidence by Number of Tagged Words
| C12b | C13a | C13b | C14a | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | 0 (0.000%) | 362 (0.062) | 0 (0.000) | 52,883 (9.083) | 53,245 (9.146) |
| NEM | 11,342 (1.948) | 0 (0.000) | 3,980 (0.684) | 2,344 (0.403) | 17,666 (3.034) |
| NWM | 0 (0.000) | 58,332 (10.019) | 16,173 (2.778) | 0 (0.000) | 74,505 (12.797) |
| SEM | 40,082 (6.885) | 26,722 (4.590) | 21,921 (3.765) | 31,408 (5.395) | 120,133 (20.634) |
| SWM | 1,030 (0.177) | 90,400 (15.527) | 106,981 (18.375) | 108 (0.019) | 198,519 (34.098) |
| SW | 1,168 (0.201) | 2,610 (0.448) | 46,032 (7.907) | 30,517 (5.242) | 80,327 (13.797) |
| SE | 0 (0.000) | 4,043 (0.694) | 3,199 (0.549) | 30,561 (5.249) | 37,803 (6.493) |
| Total | 53,622 (9.210) | 182,469 (31.341) | 198,286 (34.058) | 147,821 (25.390) | 582,198 (100.000) |

δؿ濴ϽѸηǤ롥λ˴ؿļԤˤȤäƤϡLAEME ԼԤˤСȯ /ˈleɪmiː/ ˤȤ The LAEME Corpus (Text Database) оϡƱ˴ؤ븦ĶġȤơ¤˴ޤ롥LAEME ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ laeme εǺΤꤢƤȤ櫓ġȤƤβǽõꡤĥ٤#846. HelMapperUK --- hellog ͤαѹϿ CGI ([2011-08-21-1]) #856. LAEME text database Υǡȥƥȵϡ ([2011-08-31-1]) #942. LAEME Index of Sources θġ ([2011-11-25-1]) #1057. LAEME Index of Sources θġ Ver. 2 ([2012-03-19-1]) ɽƤ
繩ˤȤäƻμ줬ʤ褦ˡԤˤȤäƥġθǤ롥Ū The LAEME Corpus ȤäƤ뤦ˡΤȤפȤɤΤ褦ʥѥʤΤΤꤿʤäƤ[2010-11-16-1]ε#568. ѥȱѸ쥳ѥפǼ̤ꡤѥμ礿ħ1Ĥ representativeness ɽˤ롥ϡѥɾΤλɸ1ĤǤ⤢롥˥ѥˤɽγݤˤĤƤϡ#531. OED ΰѥǡѥȤƻȤ뤫 ([2010-10-10-1]) #1243. ٤θ̻ŪΤˡ ([2012-09-21-1]) ǤƤǤ The LAEME Corpus Ƥ롥СƤʬۤˤĤƤϡ#856. LAEME text database Υǡȥƥȵϡ ([2011-08-31-1]) ǺΤꤢʬ˲äƻʬޤʤ The LAEME Corpus ΥġʬϤߤ
ޤϡϿƤƥȤοͤ롥ѥ "scribal text" Ȥñ̤ǥƥȤϿƤ뤬Ȼˤäʬ̤ȡФ礬狼롥ʤʬȻʬϤ켫ΤˡʤΤʲǤϡŪʶʬʤȤϤäƤ⤢٤κϤ뤬ˤȤơ7Ĥء4ĤؤʬƤ롥ʤ N (Northern), NEM (North-East Midland), NWM (North-West Midland), SEM (South-East Midland), SWM (South-West Midland), SW (Southwestern), SE (Southeastern) ء C12b 12ȾˡC13a, C13b, C14a ءѸʬˤĤƤϡ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) ⻲ȡ
Table 1: Dialectal and Diachronic Distribution of Linguistic Evidence by Number of Texts
| C12b | C13a | C13b | C14a | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | 0 (0.00%) | 1 (0.86) | 0 (0.00) | 7 (6.03) | 8 (6.90) |
| NEM | 1 (0.86) | 0 (0.00) | 5 (4.31) | 2 (1.72) | 8 (6.90) |
| NWM | 0 (0.00) | 9 (7.76) | 5 (4.31) | 0 (0.00) | 14 (12.07) |
| SEM | 4 (3.45) | 7 (6.03) | 14 (12.07) | 7 (6.03) | 32 (27.59) |
| SWM | 2 (1.72) | 13 (11.21) | 17 (14.66) | 1 (0.86) | 33 (28.45) |
| SW | 3 (2.59) | 5 (4.31) | 7 (6.03) | 2 (1.72) | 17 (14.66) |
| SE | 0 (0.00) | 2 (1.72) | 1 (0.86) | 1 (0.86) | 4 (3.45) |
| Total | 10 (8.62) | 37 (31.90) | 49 (42.24) | 20 (17.24) | 116 (100.00) |
Wednesday ȯֻδطϰ̾⤤ǽ <d> ȯ줺/wˈenzdeɪ/ ȤʤΤѸؼԤɬĤޤ¿¿Ƥ褤ΤϡɤǤϤֻ¤ /wˈednzdeɪ/ ԤʤƤ뤳Ȥ/d/ ȯʤɸŪȯ15ˤΤܤꡤҲϢ³ /-dnz-/ δĶˤæȤ롥c1300 Layamon μܤ wendesdei Ȥž (metathesis) η֤졤14--17ˤ Wensday(e) 뤳Ȥ顤ҲϢ³ /-ndz-/ δĶˤæȹͤۤ
ȯˤĤƤ⤦1դ٤ϡ-day ̤ƤϤޤ뤳Ȥ첻ˤ /-deɪ/ ʶˤ /-di/ ʼˤ2ȯ뤳ȤRP (Received Pronunciation) Ǥ GA (General American) Ǥ⡤̤˼ޤȤ뤬ºݤˤ See you on Monday. ʤɤʸ֤Ǥ϶Monday morning ʤɤʣɽ1ȤƤϼФ뤳Ȥ¿
Τμ˸θ츻Ϥ褯ΤƤ롥礭ʬơ֤ǿ붵 (ecclesiastical) ȿ̾Ѥ (astronomical) 뤬ѸŵŪʸԤǤ롥ƥ diēs Mercuriī ʥޡ[]ˤΤʤȤơ¿ΥޥǤ Woden's day ʥǥˤƤ줿Woden ϥäμǤꡤ̲äμ Odin 롥ƱСűѸ WōdnesdæġťΥɸ óðinsdagr woensdag ʤɤǤ롥ޥΤʤǤ㳰ϡɥĸ Mittwoch ǡ϶ƥ media hebdomas ʽˤΤʤǤꡤΰȤ롥
ơΤ褦 Wednesday θ츻Ϥ褯狼äƤΤϡ1첻츻Ū o ǤϤʤe ȤƸƤ뤳Ȥe ķϸűѸǤʸڤƤ餺Ѹǽ Wedenesdei ʤɤ롥űѸΰ۷Ȥ *Wōðinas ꤷi-mutation ˤ /o/ > /e/ ȤʤäȤ⤢뤬Ϥ礯ޤťեꥸ Wernis-dei Ӥ롤ȤƤ⤢롥̾ǤϡStaffordshire Wednesbury, Wednesfield Derbyshire Wensley ⻲Ȥ롥
˥ץ뤿2Ĥΰۤʤ¦̡֤̻֤ζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) #1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1]) #1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) #1076. 塼뤬֤̻֤ͥ褵3Ĥͳ ([2012-04-07-1]) ۤdiachrony γƵǼ夲Ƥ˴ؤ1Ĥϡ֤̻֤Τˤϡ塼⤹褦ˡʤΤȤǤ롥
ˤĤơ塼йΩΤˤƤΤ Roman Jakobson (1896--1982) Ǥ롥Jakobson ϡ̻ν˸ڤǽγؼԤǤꡤ塼ˤȤäƤ餫˶ŪʳǰǤηϡפ̻ŪʸݤˤޤǻԤäηϤȤǰ̻֤ŬѤǽꤷ塼ȡβǽõä䥳֥λΰ㤤ࡼʥʸϤˤäƼ
塼ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롤ϤäηϤ̤ξˤǤϤʤǤΤ줫ξˤʤΤǤ뤫顤ϤΥƸ椹ۤϤʤɤηϤȿڤܤʤȤϤʤȯλݤϰξˤΤΤǤ롥ϡ줫ήФΤˤǽĵȤϡŪط⤿ʤΤ褦ʡѵ뼭ȶ¸뼭ȤΤκۡʬŪʻ¤ηϤ˱ƶ¤ȤΤκۤϡξԤĤβʳؤλȤ뤳ȤؤΤǤ롥סФƥ䥳֥ϡǯʸΤʤǤƤ롤ָǽŪηϤȤƸͤϡν֤θˤƤƱͤ˺Τꤢ٤ΤǤ롥֤ƹ褦ȤˤƤ⡤뤤ϸ֤֤ؤȤʲǧ褦ȤˤƤ⡤ѤϤʤ͡ɤ褦ˡŪˡ̻ŪˡȤΤ˱ۤ뤳ȤΤǤʤɤꤹ뤳ȤʤɡǤΤǤϤʤؤˤơηϤνǤεǽȤ鰷Τʤ顤줬äѲȽǤˤäƤ⡤ѲαƶηϤȤΤθ줺ˤȽǤǤͤϤθѲ˲Ū»ˤηϤȤ鸫аۼʤΤˤʤȲꤹΤŪǤʤѲηϤ䡤ΰ䡤κƹʤɤͤäȤȤ⾯ʤʤΤǤ롥Ȥǡ̻ŪϡηϤ䵡ǽȤǰʤФǤϤʤդˡγǰθʤԴʤΤ (168--69)
ξԤӤȡ¤礭ۤʤäƤʤ塼䥳֥ƱͤˡηϤΰͿ줿Ƿ⤬ηΤѲǽˤĤǧƤ롥פȹͤΤǤСξԤϤषոפƤȤ롥ǤϤɤ˰㤤ΤȤС䥳֥ϡǷ֤ΤʤŪߤƤ륨ͥ륮ȤªƤΤФơ塼϶֤Τʤˤ¸ߤʤʤϳǧ뤳ȤǤˡޤ̻ŪˤΤ߳ǧ륨ͥ륮ǤȤơ֤ڤΥƤǤ롥塼뤬äƤΤˡθ̩Ǥäơ̻֤ζ֤ؤκߤʤФʤʤȤ̿ˤꡤޤǤξԤν̤˸ǼΤǤ롥
֤ͥǧ줿ˤϡ塼θǼϤǤ̵ä䥳֥褦ˡѲΥͥ륮֤̻֤˽ɤäƤȹͤۤŪǼ
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ
[2012-04-02-1]ε#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽפϡߥ˥˴ͿǤ˴Ť쵡ǽΥǥȤơ̸ؤζʽǤ⤿ӤӼ夲롥䤹ǥػˤ路ࡼʥϡȽƤ롥ĹѤ褦
Ǥޤǥ̥Ū餯ĹؼԤ̥ǤĤŤ뤳ȤȤФλȤ;ȤʤҤƤ褦ʰݤͿ뤫ǤʤΤǤ롥䥳֥ϡͷŪǽפޤä̵뤷Ƥ롥ȤϤεǽϸؼԤۤȤɸ椷ƤʤΤʤΤäȤ⡤䥳֥ˤȤäͷŪǽϻŪǽΤʤ˴ޤޤȤΤʤä̤ơȤȿ꤬ƤޤʤϤ碌ޯͤȡإޥɥβΡ٤ȤΤˤϤ֤餫οƶꤽ줬ɤͳ褹ΤȤϤ狼뤬äˡξԡͷӤȷݽѡͤ㤬ɤˤΤΤȤȤʤΤξ塤ϻŪǽŪǽȤʬơ̤Ƥ롥ŪǽʸݳؤΤۤɤäơϤ⤦ȤФθͭǤϤʤäƤȤФ輷ʤȬΡֵǽפǤϤʤΤȤǤȤѤ櫓ǤϤʤºݡ䥳֥⤽ΤҤ٤Ƥ⤤Τϻֵǽפϡ¤ϤĤΤΤǤ뤳ȤФΥߥ˥ǽʤʤˤơäƤƤ롥बǽȸƤǤΤϡȤФΤĤ줾üʡˡաusagesͤǤꡤ٤κϤ뤬Ϥߤʡɤʥߥ˥Τʤˤ⸽ƤΤޤˡϻĤꤵ줿ǽϡ䥳֥褦Ϥˤ⤫餺˸ŪʡŪäƤʤϵǽ̤ˤäơỤ̄Ū뤤ʸŪʻɸˤäƤ롥ʡ֤褯ʹޤפȤåθƤӤǽϤ˺Ѥɽι¤ϡʤˤ⤽εǽͭΤΤǤϤʤ˥䥳֥νǽʬϡ̩Ƥ륳ߥ˥ǽξȤϤäơȤФƯʲŪƤΤǤϤʤ(172--73)
Ƚ2Ĥ롥1ĤϡϤ碌ޯʤɤɽͷŪǽޤޤƤʤǤ롥⤷줬ֻŪǽפ˴ޤޤȤΤǤäƤ⡤ʸŪʻŪǽͷŪʻŪǽ̤ʤƤ褤ΤȤϻĤ롥
2ܤϡJakobson 6ǽˤϷŪʴפʤʤŪƶͿƤʤȤȤФˤʣεǽƱ˵ͤޤƤȤΤϳΤХХ˼ФƤߤˤƤ⡤μʤʤǤϤʤȤȽɤޤǤŪ˹ԤȤСΤ˥ࡼʥνҤ٤褦ˡʣεǽ̤˼ФȤϤǤʤ
ֵǽפȤĤɽѤˡˡפȤлȤࡼʥεϤ롥Jakobson θ6ǽϡʥǥǤϤ뤬ŪȯŸʤȤȤ
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ
ε#1257. ʤгʡפ "accusative case" ʤΤ ([2012-10-05-1]) ˰³ʸˡѸˤĤơѸ̤ˤ뤳ȤʸˡѸˤϰ̣ǤʤΤ¿㤨С¾ư "transitive verb" ư "intransitive verb" ȸƤǤ뤬transitive ȤϲΤȤؤΤ
transitive ϡ츻Ūˤϥƥ transitīvus ̤ꡤδΤȤʤư transīre (trans- "over" + īre "to go") Ǥ롥transitive ϡΤȤ "going over, passing over" ۤɤΰ̣Ȥʤ롥OED "transitive, a. (n.)" θӤʸ1ĤǧȡΤ褦ˤä
2. a. Gram. Of verbs and their construction: Expressing an action which passes over to an object; taking a direct object to complete the sense.
. . . .
1590 J. Stockwood Rules Constr. 64 A verbe transitiue .. is such .. as passeth ouer his signification into some other thing, as when I say, 'I loue God'.
顤ưɽ魯ưαƶ¾ΤΡŪλؼΡˤءֵڤ֡ספȤǡ"going over, passing over" ʤΤȤ狼롥
verbum transitīvum "transitive verb" ȤѸ줽ΤΤǤϤʤȤ⡤ưΤΤȤ館ϡ2˸奮ꥷʸˡ路 Apollonius Dyscolus ˵롥Dionysius Thrax Techne Grammatike Ѿ Priscian Υƥʸˡˤ礭ʱƶͿʸˡؼԤǤ롥Dyscolus ϡ̾ʤγʡˤưδطܤưˡ transitive, intransitive, passive ؤʬषػˤˤ Dyscolus ɾRobins (47) ѤƤ
Syntax was dealt with extensively by Apollonius Dyscolus writing in Alexandria in the second century A. D. He wrote a large number of books, only some of which survive, and it would appear that despite earlier writings on Greek syntax his was the first attempt at a comprehensive syntactic description and analysis of the Greek language. His importance, together with that of the Téchnē, was realized by his successors, and the great Latin grammarian, Priscian, some three centuries later referred to him as 'the greatest authority on grammar', and explicitly imposed Apollonian methods on his own full-scale description of the Latin language.
Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.
űѸޤʸˡǤϡ͡ʳ (case) ŪʸƾΤͿƤ롥ĸ˺Ʒ8ʤǤС줾 (nominative) г (accusative) ° (genitive) Ϳ (dative) (instrumental) å (ablative) ̳ (locative) Ƴ (vocative) ȸƤФ롥줾αñϤƥͳƥȤƤߤС褽γʤɽŪʰ̣ˡȿǤ줿Ƥ̾ȤʤäƤ롥
genitive ϡ狼ˤƥ genitus ߽Ф줿פͳ褷ŵŪˡޤ졤פɽ魯°ʤˡ褯ȿǤƤ롥षܸ꤬Τ⤷ʤ
accusative ˤʤ줬гʡʤ뤤ϤεǽˤбΤaccuse ϡʤ롤פΰդǡƱΥƥ accūsāre ͳ褹롥гʤľܤȤϻפʤ
accusative θ츻Ĵ٤ƤߤȡȽ롥ʤ̾Τϸ奮ꥷʸˡѸͳ褷Ǥ aitiātikḕ (ptōsis) "(the case) of that which is caused or affected" ȸƤФƤaitíā "cause" θäΤǤ롥Ȥ aitiā ̤ "accusation, charge" θ碌äƤᡤԤѸƥذܤؤݤξƱƤޤ"accusation" θȤƤޤäϥƥ causātivus դ꤬ȤƤդ路äΤǤꡤǷѾСѸǤгʤ causative (case) ȤʤäƤȤ (Robins 44)
θǤԤϡޤɽŪʶܿͤǡޤǺǤŪʳؼԤäȤɾ Varro (116--27 B.C.) ǤȤ롥ƥʸˡ Varro ϡ4 Donatus 6 Priscian ˤƶϤΤäƥʸˡαƤǡˤȤäƤ¸ߤޤΩʤꥷʸˡ郎λˤäơŪʻŻ㤨СޤǤΤ˶̤ƤʤäʬӤϡVarro ˵ (Robins 63)
Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.
ΤʸˡȤ櫓ʻˤϡ2400ǯϢʤ³ˤ롥5Ⱦ˸줿 Plato (427?--?348 B.C.) ʸιǤ ónoma (name, subject) rhēma (what is said, predicate) ̤뤳ȤüȯʬϡAristotle (384--322 B.C.) ˤ sýndesmos (link) äƸؼѤ줿
3ꡤȥɤγؼԤ3ʳˤ錄ꡤónoma, rhēma, sýndesmos 3ʬ˺ʬƤäβϸ̤ͭ̾̾ʤɤο⤿餷ؤϷѾʤäȥɤʻμήȤϤʤ餺˥쥯ɥꥢɤƬ100ǯ˽Ф Dionysius Thrax ϥ쥯ɥꥢɤήबȥɤ̵ϤƤ餺षΩ椫顤[2011-10-06-1]εǼ夲ꥷʸˡĶ顼 Techne Grammatike 路8ʻθĤǤ롥ʸˡϡꥹȶλ˥˥奷ꥢؤ줿ӥƥɾȤŵԤоݥƥȤȤʤꡤ¤13ΤǰŪʸҤؤ뤳Ȥˤʤ (Robins 38) ơϡꥷ졤ƥʤɤθŵΤߤʤ餺Ѹޤʸˡˤ줩ŤƤ롥
ȤϤäƤ⡤Techne Grammatike ʸˡ˲Ѥ줺طѾ줿櫓ǤϤʤ㤨СǤȤʸˡǤ̾ȷƻ϶̤Ƥ뤬Techne Ǥ ónoma ȤƤޤȤƤ롥Ǥ "substantive" ȤѸ줬ʹ뤳Ȥ뤬̾ȷƻ礹ѸǤ롥դˡʸˡǤϡʬưβ̶ʬȤΩŪTechne ǤưȤΩ1ĤƤƤ
奮ꥷʹߤʻRobins (42) ˿Ƥ̤˺ƸΤǡͤޤǤˡʥådzˡ
Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.
Indian English Nigerian English ʤɡESLϰǹԤʤƤѸѼ "New Englishes" ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ뤬ȯŸŪ˸ȰʲβФƤ롥ϰˤäƲФ®٤ϰۤʤ뤬褽̤Ƥ뤳Ȥ顤"New Englishes" Υ饤եȸƤǤ褤Mazzon (78--79) 롥
(1) indigenisation: Ѹ줬ŪӤǤϤʤŪӤΤ˼ʳ
(2) expansion: Ѽ郎¿ΡӤѤ褦ˤʤʳ
(3) a change from an exonormative model to an endonormative one: [2009-12-05-1]ε#222. ѸüԤƱߥǥ (2)פ Kachru ѸǤȤ "norm-dependent" "norm-developing" ؤȡüԤ٤ѲߤʳѼͭθˡϤϤɸѸ줫ΰæȤϤߤʤʤʤ롥ϰ˱٤äõ§ȯãʸؤʤɤ⸽褦ˤʤ롥"Indian" English ʤɤηƻ줫Ūʴߤä˵Ūʰ̣롥
(4) institutionalisation: عǥܡμͤʤɤˤäƹѤ졤Ѥ侩ʳѼ郎פʼҲŪǽ롥üԤƱѼؤΰ夬ʳǤ⤢롥
μˡ⤦1ĤʳꤷƤ褤⤷ʤɤ "New Englishes" ãƤ餺ã뤳ȤΤʤʳ⤷ʤ restriction ȤʳǤ롥ѼαѸλѤ¤졤ϸθϰ̤褷ơѸμҲŪǽ֤ȤʳǤ롥饤եν
ʳˤơŪѤɸѸؤ٤Ѳ(4) ˻ޤǡҿΤѼȤƤɸѸΩϡä˶ξʤɤǤѤʤ(4) ؿʤˤĤơϰɽȤȯãѼ郎ΰҿ᤹ܶ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥᤹ܶˤĤơɸѼȿѼФ륢ӥХȤ٤ҲΤʤƤΤǤ롥ǤϡꥹѸʤɤɸѼ郎ͥξħª졤ɤѸλѤ䤢ɤΤؤΥѥݡȤǧ롥¾ǡѼˤϹȼŪʰ夬졤ɤȤˤĤտ路ƤѼȤƤΥʧ뤿ˡäƻѤ뵡롥ΥӥХȤʿؼԤ缺Ĵ (schizophrenia) ˤʤ館 schizoglossia (Mazzon 83) ȸƤESLϰΤɤäˤνŤפ鷺ˤϤʤˤѸǤϤ롥
Mazzon, Gabriella. "The Development of Extraterritorial Englishes." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 73--92.
äդˤƤѲŪݼŪʽդȿǤ줺ˡδѻԤܤ˸ƤʤȤǽϡʸؾ塤뤳ȤΤǤʤΤǤ롥㤨С줬νդȿǤƤʤȤäơäդȤѤƤ⤷ʤȤǽǤOED νǯΰ˴ؤ뿵ʤɤϻʹ롥ΤʿǤϤ뤬ޤ˿䤷ʤȡʸ˳ǧʤǡʤ뤳Ȥ⡤äդǤϤ⤷ʤǤ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤޤϢȤơվǡȤ礭Ѳä褦˸ˡϽդڤؤ˵븫ѲˤбäդǤϡޤѲ˿ʹԤƤϤȤ롥
Ѹ쥪βǤ⡤ˡ¤ѤƤ롥Poussa ϡ14ˤ Samuels νդʬǤ Type II Type III ǡڤؤϡбäդεѲΤǤϤʤȤդ˸ʤ̲äդˤƤϡKnut 衤쥪벽 koiné ³ƤϤȹͤƤ롥ơType III оϡ14Ūʥեϰ̤βȡѸϰ̤θưŤ줿ѸɸಽĬήȿǤΤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
. . . if we take the view that the English speech of London had, since the time of Knut, been a continuum of regional and social varieties of which the Midland koiné was one, then it is easier to explain the changes in the written language [from Type II to Type III] as jerky adjustments to a gradual rise in social status of the spoken Midland variety. (80)
褦ʵϡǯ褦ˤʤäƤȸαѸ˵ڤܤƶˤĤƤʹ㤨С[2011-03-17-1]ε#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶפȡˡűѸɸաLate West-Saxon Schriftsprache ߤäƤޤäƤΤΡűѸѸäդˤΥȸŪǤޤޤƤϤȤѸ줬եΤӤѸʹߤˡ褦䤯äդդξ¤ȿǤ褦ˤʤꡤǤ˥ȸαƶƤ do-periphrasis ʹԷʸ塤Ƴǧ褦ˤʤäΤ롥
εϡʸؤˤƼֻܸѤƤ scribal error show-through Ȥäޤ餺äդƩƸƤޤ褦ʽλ̵뤷Ƥ褦˻פ롥̻ʹ֤Ǥ롥˺ݤơäդȤȤʤɤǤǻפ鷺äդϪ褷ƤޤΤȤΤǤϤʤ
äդ١դߤäƤȤΤϻ¤սڤؤˤäơ礭ʸѲä褦˸ȤΤˤդ˸ʤȤǤäդǤϵäƤ⤷ʤ䵯äƤ˰㤤ʤȡѶŪƤƤ褤ͳˤϤʤʤƤѸ쥪βȶǯΥȸƶδ֤˻褦Ǥ롥
Poussa, Patricia. "The Evolution of Early Standard English: The Creolization Hypothesis." Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 14 (1982): 69--85.
ε#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥եαƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) ˴ϢơϡťΥɸ줫θŪƶ뤫⤷ʤȻŦƤܤHotta (155--56) ǡ͡ʸθڤˤΤΤǡƷǤ롥ä䲻˴ؤƤϡBaugh and Cable ϤȤ복ǡťΥɸαƶϹ⤵ƤΤǡǤϤޤȤޤäƵҤ뤳ȤξʤؤαƶβǽŦƤܤ˸ꤷ
1. functional words such as they, till, fro, though, both, are, and same
2. the third person singular present ending in -s of the verb in the North
3. the present participle ending -and of the verb in the North
4. the ending -t as in scant, want and athwart, which are attributed to the Old Norse neuter ending of the adjective
5. the genitive ending -er, as in on nighter tale and bi nighter tale
6. the reflexive ending -sk, as in busk and bask
7. are in the North in contrast with be in the South
8. the loss of the prefix ge- for the past participle of the verb
9. the preterit plural and the preterit subjunctive forms of certain verbs belonging to the strong classes IV and V
1. the tendency to omit the relative pronoun þat in Middle English in contrast with the Old English tendency to retain it
2. the Modern English differentiated usage of the auxiliaries will and shall, which is comparable to the Scandinavian usage
3. the Modern English usage of sentence-final prepositions, as in "He has someone to rely on," which is comparable to the Scandinavian usage
4. the position of an auxiliary in the subjunctive pluperfect construction, and its pattern of omission
5. the Middle English tendency to put a genitive noun before the noun it modified
ιܤˤϡťΥɸαƶη̤ȤȤʤäƤΤ⤢С路Τ⤢롥ޤǸťΥɸαƶ֤פȻŦƤΤʤΤǡդǤϤ롥ʤHotta θʸǤϡ嵭ΤۤȤɤιܤˡŵդƤ롥
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
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