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1066ǯ Norman Conquest θ塤ɤϥեȤԤλ۲äȤϤäƤ⡤ɤεサԤ¿Ѥ餺ϤǤꡤեϤäƤԤȤв²ΤŤμԤԤäο¿ʤäѸޤ Norman Conquest ͥ300ǯϤäѸ줬ϲʤ⤿ޤӤΰĤϡѸüԤпŪ¿äȤǤ롥ǤϡΥޥ²ȥ̱ο϶ŪˤϤɤ줯餤äΤ
˿׳ؤäƤƤ11ȾˤΤΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤBlake ˤ뤪褽θѤϻͤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
It would be reasonable to suggest that the number of native French speakers can never have been greater than 10 per cent of the total population of England, and a more realistic estimate is probably less than 5 per cent. The greatest part of the population in England at this time consisted of the peasants who tilled the land. They probably formed anything between 85 and 90 per cent of all people here, . . . . (107)
פ˥եͤϿ5%˲ʤȤθѤǤ롥 Blake ϡԳեͤοȤäƤϤ㤤ȸѤäƤ롥
. . . the number of native French speakers in the clergy at any one time cannot have been very large. Perhaps it amounted to no more than 2 per cent of the total clergy. (108)
嵭οפޤᡤμҲͻ̤ȤƳФΤϡɤϿΰ̣ bilingual ǤϤʤäȤĥǤ롥
Although two languages, English and French, were spoken in England, it is doubtful whether it ever became a truly bilingual country. The majority of the population was monolingual and only used English. (109--10)
"truly bilingual" ɤΤ褦ʾؤΤǤϤ뤬ñ˿Ⱦ줾θȤƤꡤ¾θ⤢٤ǽǤȤΤȤꤹȡɤ bilingual society ȤߤʤŪʤȤ館ŬڤȤȤˤʤ롥Blake ŪʴФǤС"barely bilingual" 餤ɽŬڤʤΤ⤷ʤ
Blake, N. F. A History of the English Language. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996.
ޤѸˤܤΤʤǷ֤Ѥ롤ŤѸǽ줿ȤΤĤ¸ߤ롥äѥå缡Υ֥ɲäƤ popular_passage ʤɤȤΤȤǰǤȡѤΤˤȻפäǡϡפɽѸ̾ʣɤˤĤ Caxton 1490ǯ Eneydos νʸǵƤäҲ𤹤롥пȤȤܤͤZealand ظϩ˥ȳߤΤȤȤΩꡤͤȤǤ롥
And one of theym named Sheffelde, a mercer, cam in-to an hows and axed for mete; and specyally axed after eggys. And the goode wyf answerde, that she coude speke no frenshe. And the marchaunt was angry, for he also coude speke no frensche, but wolde have hadde egges, and she understode hym not. And thenne at laste a nother sayd that he wolde have eyren. Then the gode wyf sayd that she understode hym wel. Loo, what sholde a man in thyse dayes wryte, egges or eyren?
[2009-11-06-1]ʤɤǿ줿ȤꡤѸλǤ롥ɳϤ¸ߤʥɥǤ顪ɸȤƤϰ̤ΩƤʤääơ㤨пȤüԤпȤüԤȤäˤϡ줾줬ʬݽФˤäΤǤꡤ˥ߥ˥ΩʤȤ⤢ꤨΰäǤϡפʣǤ eyrenǤ egges äˡ顤ߤˤ狼礨ʤä꤬̤Ƥ롥
ѸʣɽƤΤ eyren Ǥ롥űѸǤϡפɽ̾ñʤ ǣg Ȥ֤ä r-stem ȸƤФޥʡʶޥפ°̾ǡʣʷ ǣgru Τ褦 -r- Ƥchild / children ƱפǤ ( see [2009-09-19-1], [2009-09-20-1], [2009-12-01-1] )
ѸޤǤϡ -(e)n ղä줿۷֤ޤơűѸͳ r ķ֤ʤƤ14顤ťΥɸͳιŤ <g> ķ֤˸Ϥβ桹ΤäƤȤꡤǽŪɸѸĤäΤο eggs ΤۤǤ뤫ˤϤ⤷
ֻˤĤƤCaxton ϡѤо줷ƶֻθ경θǽǤ뤬([2010-02-18-1])ûΤʤǤ eggys, egges ȸ˰֤꤬롥ֻɸಽϡ150ǯʾ夫ơ1718ޤǡäȿʹԤƤ椯Ȥˤʤ롥
ʰʲ嵭2025/01/19(Sun)
heldio #183. egges/eyren륭㥯ȥͭ̾ʰá
[2010-03-17-1]εǿ줿ˡΧʸαѸ첽˴Ȥץä1362ǯ˸Ƭʾټ³ե줫ѸڤؤäˡΧطʸˤϤޤޤե줬ѤƤ¤1731ǯޤǻȤ³ΤǤ롥Υե Law French ȸƤФ졤Norman Conquest Norman French ȤȤʤäƳΩ줿ˡΧʸϸǤ롥
ߤǤѸˡΧѸȾեͳǤΤϡҤˤäƤ롥ˡΧط̾Ⱥ̾ȤäƤߤƤ⡤ѸˡΧ French ʬ
̾: advocate ԡ, attorney ͡, bailiff ּ, coroner ָ봱, counsel ۸͡, defendant , judge ֺȽ, jury 濳, plaintiff ָ
Ⱥ̾: arson С, assault ˽ԡ, felony ֽź, fraud ֺ, libel ʸ̡, perjury ֵڡ, slander ָƬ̡, trespass ֿ
ޤեǤϡܷ̾ƻפȤ礬̤ʤΤǡȿǤˡΧطζ礬¸ߤ롥
attorney general ֻˡĹˡ̳Ĺ, court martial ַˡġ, fee simple ñڸ, heir apparent ˡ³͡, letters patent ֳļ, malice aforethought ͽŤȰա
ѸˡΧٶΤϤΤѤ
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992. 591.
ε[2010-03-27-1]ǡ˭٤˴ؤƤϱѸ¾٤ƤȽҤ٤äȰʤȤˡѸܸϤǤ褯ƤΤǤ롥ѸǤϡˡե졤ƥꥷλع¤ʤƤ뤬ܸǤϡ¸ˡ졤θλع¤ʤƤ롥ܸʻפĤˤƤߤ褦
| ¸ | θ | |
|---|---|---|
| ʤФ糤 | ||
| ͡ʤ | ޥ͡ | |
| 褮ʱˤ | ߥ | |
| ʤΤʽλҡ | ||
| ߤΤȱӡ | ȱ | إ |
| Ρ | ؽ | ȥ |
| ɥåȥ | ||
| ޡʼ֡ | Ѽ | |
| | ||
| 襤 | Ʈ | Хȥ |
| ޤ | å | |
| ҤȤġʰġ | ||
| Ҥᤷӡ | 뿩 | |
| ɡʽɡ | ι | ۥƥ |
ǰɽΤİʾθ줬¸ߤȤϤɤθǤʤΤˡʡƱפȤΤ¸ߤ뤳ȤơפȤȤǤС¿θ¸ߤ롥ȤϤΤΡѸ˭٤ϡ¿θ٤Ƥä٤ۤɤǤ롥ΤȤ켭ŵ ( thesaurus ) ƤߤСǤ롥
Ѹˤδ˭٤СϱѸ줬¿θܿƤ¤˵롥ۤʤä줫бİۤʤä˥奢Ǽ졤äΤʤѤƤäˡ̤ȤƱѸ ( thesaurus ) ȤʤäΤǤ롥
츻̤ˤդ뤤ʬƤߤȡˡءפ뤳Ȥ狼롥㤨СŵŪΥѥȤơֻع¤פȤǤƤ֤٤Τ롥ؤ졤ؤե졤ؤƥꥷȤѥǤ롥
| native | French | Latin/Greek |
|---|---|---|
| ask | question | interrogate |
| book | volume | text |
| fair | beautiful | attractive |
| fast | firm | secure |
| foe | enemy | adversary |
| help | aid | assistance |
| kingly | royal | regal |
| rise | mount | ascend |
;ñ̾ thou ˤĤƤϡΥ֥Ǥⲿ٤˼ꤢ([2010-02-12-1], [2009-10-29-1], [2009-10-11-1])ɸѸǤʤɤθ¤줿 register ĤäƤˤʤϰѼθȡʤɤӤƤ뤳Ȥǧ롥֤̾ <tha>ȯ /ðə/ ǡͽ̤ѸοƶᴶΤ줿;ñ̾ȤѤƤȤ
ϡ衼㡼ȯɽǤ (Svartvik and Leech 55)
Don't thou thou me, thou thou them as thous thee.
thou ϡ;οƾ̾ȤƤˡΤۤ;οƾ̾ thou ǸƤӤפȤưˡꡤǤ "Please don't use thou in addressing me; use thou to address people who use thou in addressing you." ۤɤΰ̣ˤʤ롥
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
ε[2010-03-24-1]˴ϢꡥѸˤɬȤäƤ褤ۤɼꤢưʪϱѸ졤ϥեפȤʬϡѤƤäǤȤĥ롥OED Խ紴̳ Burchfield ˤȡ"[an] enduring myth about French loanwords of the medieval period" ȤĹѤ (18)
The culinary revolution, and the importation of French vocabulary into English society, scarcely preceded the eighteenth century, and consolidated itself in the nineteenth. The words veal, beef, venison, pork, and mutton, all of French origin, entered the English language in the early Middle Ages, and would all have been known to Chaucer. But they meant not only the flesh of a calf, of an ox, of a deer, etc., but also the animals themselves. . . . The restriction of these French words to the sense 'flesh of an animal eaten as food' did not become general before the eighteenth century.
beef OED MED dzǧƤߤȡΤưʪΤΤθǧ롥ʣʸįƤߤȡưʪΤȴϢڤƤ륱¿褦Ǥ롥㤨СθǤνȤξȤ14ȾμʸǤƤ롥
Hit mot boþe drink and ete .. Beues flesch and drinke þe broþt.
Ǥ⡤Burchfield μĥ褦ˡưʪϱѸ졤ϥեפȤʬŪˤʤäΤ18ˤʤäƤȤȤȤʤСϤʤ18ˤطθ줬ե줫̤äƤȤ¤⤢ꡤ줬طƤ뤫⤷ʤ
ưʪλȤʬλϤޤ꤬ǤǤ졤ѸüԤΰռˡֹ⤭ϥե졤㤭ϱѸפȤݤŪ夷ƤȤϳΤ
Burchfield, Robert, ed. The New Fowler's Modern English Usage. 3rd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
Ѹ濴ȤեäμѤȤˡϳʤѤΤưʪƤΤϥꥹΰ̱̽Ǥ뤿ᡤưʪɽϥϤθѤ롥ǡ줿ܤˤΤϡ̾ήΥե²Ǥ뤿ᡤɽϥեϤθѤ롥˴ؤƤϡSir Walter Scott ξ Ivanhoe (38) μΰͭ̾Ǥ롥
. . . when the brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a Norman, and is called pork, when she is carried to the Castle-hall to feast among the nobles . . . .
ŪȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
| Animal in English | Meat in English | French |
|---|---|---|
| calf | veal | veau |
| deer | venison | venaison |
| fowl | poultry | poulet |
| sheep | mutton | mouton |
| swine ( pig ) | pork, bacon | porc, bacon |
| ox, cow | beef | boeuf |
ܥ֥Ǥϡ饤ѤǤ븽ѸΥѥȤơؤ˻Ȥ BNC ( The British National Corpus )ܳŪ˻Ȥ BNCWeb̵ϿˤҲ𤷤ƤBNC Ϥ̾ǡꥹѸΥѥǡۤ1975ǯʹߤαѸ줬1줪Ƥ롥Τ9Ͻա1äդȤǤ롥ߥ饤ѤǤεϤαѸ쥳ѥǤ롥
ϤǤСä礭ʱѸ쥳ѥ¸ߤ롥˳³˥ѥ The Bank of English ǤꡤεϤ55000ˤޤã롥BNC ȰۤʤꡤꥹѸǤʤꥫѸޤ¾Ѽ⥫СƤ롥
Τΰ5600줬 Cobuild Concordance and Collocations Sampler Ȥƥ饤̵ǸƤ롥饤40ԤޤǡΥ100̤ޤǤϤʤ֥ǥǡפǤϤ뤬˴ñʥ꤬ǤʤɡڤŪǤнʬ˻Ȥͤͭ Collins WordbanksOnline ⤢ˡ
ΥȤƤϡT-score MI ( Mutual Information ) ٤롥[2010-03-04-1]Ǥ줿줾Υħñ˽Ҥ٤롥
MI (mutual information): 2줬Ị̇Ū˾Ƥ뷹롥Ѷ硤Ȥ虜ʣ졤Ѹʤäθ˹⤤ͤͿ롥ѥΥ˰¸ʤ3ʾͤä collocate ƤȤߤʤȤ롥ȤƤϡϢۥŪʸȸδط餫ˤʤȹͤȤ褤 ( = lexical collocation )ٸ줬Ĵ뷹ꡤäǤ⤷̤ˤʤ뤳Ȥ롥
T-score: collocation ٤ΤΤλɸȤ⡤ߤ˴Ϣȸڤο٤λɸѥΥƤƤ롥̾ϡ2ʾͤǤ collocation ŪͭդȤߤʤ롥2ζ٤˾Ƥ뤿ᡤɤˤֻ졤Ѳ졤;̾졤ʤɤʸˡ¤θΤۤȤŤƤޤäȡޤʸʤɤ줬̤˥롥ȤƤϡʸ䵡ǽϢ餫ˤʤȹͤȤ褤 ( = grammatical collocation )
䥳νϤϡѸθؽΤǤʤѤȯۥġ롤ϢۥġȤƤȤ롥㤨Сoctopus Υ MI ͤФƤߤȡ̤ squid, dried, october ʤɤ롥̣襤
ˡܲ עؼѥء١ˡ1998ǯ113--15ǡ
ʸϤۤȤɤ̤ͥǤ롥κˤϡͼʸۤƥҥȤ9䤬ǤȤ¤롥ʸα̤ͥ㳰ʤ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨С奤ǤϺȹͤƤ䤽αƶܤǤ⡤ˤäƤŪ˺줿Ȥ⤢äȤޤʸ˸¤ȡͥδǰϺϡ줹뤳δǰ츻õäƤߤ
Ѹ right ϰ캬 *reg- ̤롥ϡ֤ޤäˤפǡƱ캬ϥƥͳ褹 regular, reign, rule ʤɤѸäƤ롥θ͡˰̣ȯŸֵססָססʡסֱΡפʤɤعäright Ρֱפΰ̣ϸűѸ鸽Ϥᡤˤ swīþra ѤƤϡswīþ "strong" ӵηǤꡤ"the stronger side" ۤɤΰ̣Ǥ롥Τ褦ˡֱפˤϤޤäǡȤۤ롥
left ϡθ츻⤬뤬ϥޥ˳ǧ lucht "weak, useless" ƱȤ롥űѸ lyftādl "paralysis" ˤߤ褦ˡµȤϢŤƤ롥ֺפˤϼ夤Ȥۤ롥
ե˻ܤȡdroit ֱפˤϡˡΧפΰ̣롥gauche ֺפϤΤޤޱѸ˼ѤơԴѤʡפΰ̣ɽƥ줫 dexter ֱΡפ dextrous ִѤʡפȤƱѸ˼ѤƤ뤷sinister ֺΡפ sinister ԵȤʡפȤƤϤѸ˼ѤƤ롥
Ѹäñ濴ˤưΤҲ𤷤κ̤餫
ɡ饤ȡؿκ?Ѥ?١åꥨƥ֡2009ǯ
ε[2010-03-20-1]ǡɤΥ㥬絲 ( Great Irish [Potato] Famine ) Ȥ̤ΥɿͤꥫذܽɱѸθˡꥫѸؤ⤿餷⤷ʤȤ˿줿㤨Сshall will ѤȤ AmE ħϡɱѸθˡͳ褹ΤǤϤʤȤ
ä⤷뤿ˤˤΰ̴طĤƤߤȡɤμ翩른㥬ä絲⤿餷¤θPhytophthora infestans ȤݤƸ I will ʤɽ夵Ȥ⤤롥ߤ̾ζݤϡʤȤƤ鱿ФƤΤä̤ȤƤߤСꥫϥɤ˶ݤФ̤Υɰ̱ȡʤ餯˥ɱѸˡޤ줿Ȥˤʤ롥[2009-08-24-1]ΡֱѸˤΤϥޥͥߤǤŪʶǤϤ뤬biohistory of English (?) ʤ餹ȥȡȤƤ⤷ΤǤϤʤ
ȤǡBrE Ǥ will shall ϼο;ΤˤäƻȤʬΤʸˡηǤ롥ȤȸѤΥåƥŽǽ롥[2010-02-22-1]Ǥߤ BBC ˤѥǤϡλȤʬƲ7̤Ǥ롥⤷θѤꥫˡ˸岡ƤȤʬΤǤСŪƶ Irish -> American -> British ȲäƤȤˤҡȥåפȤȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤ
ʲˡ絲ˤĤƴñ19衼åѤ˵äεä˥㥬¸Ψι⤫äɤǤϡ1845--49ǯΥ㥬¤ˤ綧ˤꡤ̤ο̱ﳲä1844ǯˤ840ͤ絲ľ1851ǯˤ660ͤˤޤǸäƤषΤ¿äƤѹذ̱Τ¿ä̱ϵδ֤Τߤ150͡ʹߤ³ޤϡ1841--51ǯϰ̤οΨϤꥢﳲäȤ褯狼롥

19ȾС絲 ( 1845--48 ) ƥɿͤΥꥫؤܽ ( The Great Irish Immigration ) äη̡ĤΥɱѸθˡꥫѸ˻ޤ졤˥ꥫˡȤ夷ȤϲͭԡرѸˡ٤ˤС㤨СΤ褦ʹܤƤ롥
shall ˡ will ˤۤȤɼä줿1855ǯˤǤ˳Ω
the measles ʤɤΤ褦괧ѤˡʥɱѸδؤˤ륲αƶ
Ƭˤʻѡ anti-, semi-, -ster, -eer ʤɤܼˤ¤ AmE ˸ΥǤϥɱѸαƶϤޤDzǽȤΤȡ
ո¿
Τʤäαƶ¤ɤҴŪդΤǧɬפ뤬ФлŦѸαƺΰü Irish English ˵ȤСꥫ̱ˤȤϢƶ̣
ϲ ͭ ԡ ¼ϰ ˡ ϲ ͭĻ ¼ δ ˧ رѸˡ١Ѹإ[1]1986ǯ罤۽Ź159--60ǡ
ε[2010-03-18-1]ǡmandative subjunctive ꥫѸΤߤʤ餺ꥹѸǤƤƤ뤳Ȥ˿줿Ѹˤ礭ή줫餹ȡޤμϸؿܤ³ƤͽۤȤmandative subjunctive 礷ƤΤȡ礭ήΤʤξʵήƤ뤫Τ褦Ǥ롥100ǯʾBradley ϱѸˤήռơΤ褦ͽ¬ΩƤƤ
The only formal trace of the old subjunctive still remaining, except the use of be and were, is the omission of the final s in the third person singular of verbs. And even this is rapidly dropping out of use, its only remaining function being to emphasize the uncertainty of a supposition. Perhaps in another generation the subjunctive forms will have ceased to exsit except in the single instance of were, which serves as a useful function, although we manage to dispense with a corresponding form in other verbs.
100ǯθߡBradly ͽ¬ߤȤ˳줿Ȥ狼롥ǤϤʤФ drift ȸƤФѸζηФơչԤ뤫Τ褦ʸѲäƤΤϺθǤ뤬ƺǤȤƤѤؤαƶǤȤʳˤ⡤ͤ٤ѥ¿Ǥ롥¹ʸɤפĤ¤Ǥ⡤ʲΥѥͿƤǽ롥
that ưθä insist, suggest ʤɤ factive ʸ suasive ʸ̤٤
that ư줬be ư줫ư줫ʰ̤ be ư٤⤤Ȥ
ʸʸɤ
ʸʸɤ
that be not ꤵƤΡξԤŪط
üԤǯ
Ѥ formality
that μưˤ volition
that ư줫̾ȤȤ˻Ȥ mandative subjunctive
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. 95. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
¹ָ奤ꥹѸ˱ Mandative Subjunctive ˡסʸסѸʸء쳰ʸء18桤1987ǯ123--36ǡ
ѸˤơưƻȴϢŤ줿 that ư줬³ˡ ( subjunctive mood ) ζ֤ȤȤʸˡ롥عʸˡǰ̤ˡ ( subjunctive present ) ȸƤФƤ븽ݤǤ롥äˡΤ褦 that ˸륱 mandative subjunctive ȸƤ֡
ˤĤƤ[2009-08-17-1]Ƿڤ줿ޤλ٤αƺˤĤƤ[2010-03-08-1], [2010-03-05-1]ǿ줿ĤޤǤСAmE ǤϤޤʤ³ˡŪBrE Ǥ should Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿AmE αƶ BrE Ǥ³ˡλѤƤƤ롥
عʸˡǤϡAmE mandative subjunctive BrE should ξάǤ뤳Ȥ롥
AmE: I advised that John read more books.
BrE: I advised that John should read more books.
ŪˤϾάǤȤ뵭ҤǽʤΤ⤷ʤŪˤϤεҤŬǤ롥Ūˤϡ AmE subjunctive ΤۤŤűѸ Shakespeare λǤ⡤mandative subjunctive ϹȤƤ Shakespeare ˡΤޤޥꥫϤꡤAmE ǤϸߤޤѤ餺˼ѤƤΤǤ롥BrE Ǥ Shakespeare λ mandative subjunctive ˡѤ졤ưȺƲᤵ줿ǡľˡư should 줿ΤǤ롥
äơŪˤߤСAmE mandative subjunctive λѤ should ξάʤɤǤϤޤäʤषȿФǡBrE should դʤΤǤ롥[2010-03-08-1]Ǥ줿 AmE ݼŪ BrE ŪǤȤ츫ȰճΰĤǤ롥
ŪаޤƧޤȡ BrE Ǥ mandative subjunctive 褷ĤĤȤ⤷Ƥ
إեѸˡ١ҤĤ˼1996ǯ60--65ǡ
[2009-09-05-1]εʤɤǡѸαѸˤƤε˷ǤǯɽǤϡ1362ǯ˵IJγѸ졤1363ǯˡǤλѸ줬ѸȵȤԤˡǤαѸѤ1363ǯǤϤʤIJǤαѸѤƱǯ1362ǯȷӤĤƤ뵭Ҥ̤ǸĤդλƤʤäΤǡΤʤȤĴľƤߤ
С1362ǯν˳줿IJǡ³ˡ ( Statute of Pleading ) ꤵ졤ܹԤǯ1äȤȤǤ롥ѸˤѸŪյȤƤϡǯȤоħŪܹǯȤм¼ŪȤȤˤʤˤ衤IJγƱѸǹԤ줿ǯȽŤʤ뤳Ȥ⡤1362ǯѸθŪħǯȤߤʤƤ褤αѸޤǤˡNorman Conquest ¤296ǯκзήƤ
ơLondon Middlesex νȽˤƤϡѸˤʾټ³ϰ1356ǯ˻ϤޤäƤŪˡΧȤƤϾ嵭̤1362ǯꤵ줿ϡ³ϥեǹԤƤΤǤ롥ޤƱˡꡦܹԸ⡤ϿΤϤޤƥǹԤƤȤõ٤Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤΩڡ۸ۡʤɡƬʾټ³Ѹڤؤä줬ʸʤˤϱѸϰ̤ϤޤäѸ줬ˡΧνդȤƤǧ줿Τϡ줫126ǯ1488ǯΤȤǤ1489ǯ1ȤҤ⤢ꡤꡦܹԤκˡ140ǯ塤1628ǯˤ褦䤯Ѹǽ줿ǽˡŵԻ졤ˤ103ǯ塤1731ǯˡΧʸƥǤϤʤѸǽ뤳Ȥ̳Ť줿ˡΧʬǤαѸ첽®٤١ȤΤǤäΤ褦դˤСʬǤΥեƥαƶϤ褤礭ΤǤä狼롥
߷ ˧ͺ 顡ԡرѸǯɽ?ѸˡѸػˡʸػˡ̻?١ҡ1993ǯ
졡رѸˡ١罤ۡ1983ǯ174--75ǡ
[2010-03-15-1]Υβϡ Flash Υ饤Ǥɤʥե뤬500KBȤŤΤǡܵˤŽĤʤäľܡPDFΥ饤ɤȤȤɤ
饤ɤǤϡμΥڡʤˤˤʤäƤ롥Ҥ٤̤ꡤΤϹӤäݤͤǯΤΤǤꥢåץǡȤƤʤΤǡޤǻͤޤǤˡѤͻϤĤ뤬Graddol Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿ä
Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm
ǯٻϤᡤѸˤνμȤǰʲΤ褦ʥƤ25ˡʤӤäݤǤϤ뤬ɾʤΤǡ1ǯۤ˻Ѥ2009ǯǤΥʲ˷Ǻܤ̥⡼ɤǤɤˡľܡPDFΥ饤ɤȤȤɤϡεǡ
controversy פȤˤϡƤɸȤѼȤäƤ⤤Ĥȯꤦ롥LPD ( Longman Pronunciation Dictionary ) εҤˤȡʲȯ롥
(BrE) /ˈkɒntəvɜːsi/ or /ˈkɒntəvəsi/: RP ( Received Pronunciation ) ͥȤȯ
(BrE) /kənˈtrɒvəsi/: RP ʳǹȤƤȯؤǤ12Ȥȯ /ˌkɒnˈtrɒvəsi/ ⤭롥
(AmE) /ˈkɑːntrəvɜːsi/: ƸǤͣȯ
AmE ǤϤʤBrE ǤϥȤ1ˤΤ2ˤΤȤ variation 롥LPD ηĴˤȡBrE Ǥɤٹ礤ϰʲ̤Ǥ롥

ꥹι̱Ūʴ弭Ȥ COD ( The Concise Oxford English Dictionary. 11th rev. ed. ) ȤƤߤȡɸѼǤ /kənˈtrɒvəsi/ ϸǤȵƤ뤬ºݤΤȤषΤۤ褯ȤƤȤȤˤʤ롥Ф餯֤ФȯͥˤʤäƤ椱СѼ֤κΤˤʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ΤȤϡBrE Ǥ controversy ȯ˴ؤ controversy Ϸ³Ǥ롥
ˤĤƤ⤷ΤϡꥹǡŪ /ˈkɒntəvɜ:si/ Ȱۤʤ /kənˈtrɒvəsi/ ȤѼ郎褦ˤʤäȤԤϥꥫѸ줫֤줿ȯǤȤǧ BrE üԤ¸ߤȤǤ ( Algeo 177 )BrE üԤˤ AmE Ѹλ뤹Ȥ롥ǯ AmE ŪʱƶϤΤȤˤϼޤäƤƤȤϤΤΡˤ¸³Ƥȹͤ롥Ǹ褦AmE ǤϡBrE Ūȯб롤1˶Τȯ¸ߤʤΤǤꡤǧˤϻ¤դʤиľˤʤä櫓Ǥ롥[2010-03-08-1]ǿ줿褦ˡBrE ݼŪͳAmE ϳŪˤƷΤͤȤäƤڵǤ⤢롥ºݤˤϡθȯ˴ؤ¤ꡤBrE 2˶Ūȯ߽ФΤǤä
Ȥΰ֤˴ϢȤƤϡ̾ư ( diatones ) ([2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1])
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
Soanes, Catherine and Angus Stevenson, eds. Concise Oxford English Dictionary. 11th rev. ed. Oxford: OUP, 2008.
Algeo, John. "America is Ruining the English Language." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 176--82.
Robinson Crusoe Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) νǤꤺä1701ǯ The True-Born Englishman ȤɻƤ롥ꥹ James II Ѥơ̾̿ˡäƤ William of Orange William III ȤơMary II ȤζƱȤDz̤ˤĤƤѥեåȺȤ William III λٻɤǤä Defoe ϡͤ椬ƤȤȤ͡йŪǡܽ˽ФפˡΥɿͤʤɤȤΤϤꤨʤˤʬȤꥤɿͤϻʤΤ顤ͤβۤäƼ衤ȤåǤ롥֤褦졤ߤǤͼҺѻߤδ餽ƤϿƤʤɾƤ롥
ɿͤǤ뤳ȤȱѸ줬Ǥ뤳ȤϡԤ礷Ƥ롥ĤƤܽʤɤˤ¿̱²Ȥܿη̤ȤơɤѤˤʤꡤѸ줬Ѥˤʤä (see [2009-06-04-1])ɤ¿̱²Ѹλˤϡ Defoe θդƸ餷Τ֤褵Ĺ 1703ǯǤ˴Ť饤 Luminarium Edition Ѥ롥
The Romans first with Julius Cæsar came,
Including all the nations of that name,
Gauls, Greeks, and Lombards, and, by computation,
Auxiliaries or slaves of every nation.
With Hengist, Saxons; Danes with Sueno came,
In search of plunder, not in search of fame.
Scots, Picts, and Irish from the Hibernian shore,
And conquering William brought the Normans o'er.
All these their barbarous offspring left behind,
The dregs of armies, they of all mankind;
Blended with Britons, who before were here,
Of whom the Welsh ha' blessed the character.
From this amphibious ill-born mob began
That vain ill-natured thing, an Englishman.
The customs, surnames, languages, and manners
Of all these nations are their own explainers:
Whose relics are so lasting and so strong,
They ha' left a shibboleth upon our tongue,
By which with easy search you may distinguish
Your Roman-Saxon-Danish-Norman English.
Ѹϡ"this amphibious ill-born language" ȤȤˤʤ뤤ϡ"The Untrue-Born English Language" ȸƤǤ褤
塤üԤζϤʰϤˤѸ줬ƤƤ椯ǽ뤬 ( see [2009-10-07-1] )˸Ƥ뻨ŪʱѸФüԡʤʸˡŤαѸ춵աˤϤɤΤ褦ȿƤ椯Ȥˤʤ
ʹߡä1920ˤƱѸüԿȯŪƤȤϡܥ֥Ǥ⤿Ӥ˼ꤢƤ롥㤨СѸüԿ͡ʬλ[2009-10-17-1], [2009-11-30-1], [2009-12-05-1], [2010-01-24-1]ǰäѸüԤʬϤȤ⤫ȤüԿΤΤƤ˾ƤȤ褯礤˽ФΤޥå롼ǥǤ롥ǶǤϡSvartvik and Leech (8) ǤǺܤ줿ǥǤ롥
Ҷ˿ޤƲ˸뤫ȿҤͤ顤ޥå롼ǤϤʤ祦դȤΤǡǤ̾ΤֶɤեǥפȸƤǤΰ̣ȤϿޤа

οͤ ENS, ESL, EFL ޤ2δ֤40ܤƤΤäοޤƻפȤ3ΤǡȤƤ
(1) üԿɽζɤեǥ¦̿ޤȤȤ館ơΩŪ˿夫ΤȡüԿʬɽƱߥǥ([2009-11-30-1])˶ʤΤǤϤʤƩα߿Ȥäˤơ夫ΤǤ롥üԿäˤäȤƤΤϡOuter Circle ڤ Expanding Circle ˽°͡Ǥ롥
(2) ɤդξüˤھ̮ΰĤҤȤĤѸѼ ( variety ) ȸ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤü˶ᤤۤɶڤϸߤΥƤºݤˤդäΤޤƤڤʤΤǡĤʤäƤ롥αѸѼ֤ƯϤȵῴϤפ롥
(3) ȰʹߤȤDZѸˤʬȤǯѸ˸Ǥϡä˶Ѹʹߤ˴ؤ븦ˤơüԤȸȤδطռҲؤʥץ赤ŤƤ롥ޤѼ֤̯ʰ㤤αդ븦ƤƤ롥üԤʬѼߤ˶ᤤ˸츽ݤظˤҲŪʾˤ⥢Ǥ롤ȤȤͿƤȻפ롥
ФơѸθϡΤ˼ҲŪʻΥץƤƤȤϤǤˤϸ¤꤬롥ѼϰѼˤθŪʹȤХɡʤȤμաˤ˸¤졤ʹߤŸʣޤѼʬۤȤϵϤۤʤ롥
ѸˤΤ褦ʬͤɬ⤤ȤϻפäƤʤѼεϤ乭ꤳ礭ۤʤ뤬ѼΤˤĤƤ϶⤽ۤѤʤΤǤϤʤ
䤳ȡοޤƤߤ
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
[2009-09-05-1]εǡѸˤĤƽҤ٤1066ǯΥΥޥͤ ( Norman Conquest ) ʹߡ1362ǯդˤޤǡɤǤϸξDZѸ줬Ѥ뤳ȤϤۤܤʤäΤ˽ѸȸƤФ뤳λˤѸǽ줿ʸ¸ߤ뤬ޤŪʸǤ롥ʸŪˤ⤢ޤƤʤɾ뤳Ȥ¿ѸեΤӤΤȤǡ̱θǤѸϤޤϲäƤΤǤ롥
ơܸˤߤƤߤȡʿ½˰츫ȱѸȻ̤ä𤬤äܸǽ줿ʸؤϡս٤κ줿ȹͤ760ǯ顤ļΡظź٤κ줿905ǯޤǤΤ˶롥λϴʸλǡ²ο١طй١ʸڽク٤ʤɤδʸνͿνκǤΤǤܽ١ܸ嵭١³ܸ嵭١ʸϿ١ػϿ٤ʤɤιˤ⡤٤ƴʸǽƤդǤߤ¤ꡤΤ˾ü줿Τ褦褷ƤΤǤ롥θ줬νդȤƤۤȤɸƤʤǡ夳ۤʤ졤ѸܸξϻƤ褦˸롥
礭ۤʤ롥ܤǤϡ̣ǤäȤŪʰ̣礤ӤӤʸϤʸǤϤʤʶʤܸʸȤƵƤΤǤ롥ŷĤν˻ʤΤȡˤǤ롥˻ŷĤˤäƸƬɤ߾夲¸դǤ롥鵮²äƴʸܤθĺŷĤθȯ줿դܸ줽ΤΤǤä˻ʸϤ̿ΤȤǽƤꡤǤϴ濴Ǥ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ졦ưबղ̾Ǽ졤ܸ줽ΤΤǤ롥ʸǤϤ뤬ʶʤܸʸϤǤ롥ܤǤϡŷĤϤᵮ²äդܸäȤϵʤФơΥꥹǤϡ²ŪäդϱѸǤϤʤեä
ξǡҲŪϰ̤ι⤤ܤǤϴ졤ꥹǤϥեˤظ졤㤤ܤǤܸ졤ꥹǤϥեˤظȸƤ֤ȤˤȡξϰʲɽΤ褦ˤޤȤ롥
| ꥹ | ||
|---|---|---|
| ̱ä | ||
| ν | ||
| ²ä |
ε[2010-03-09-1]˰³ The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English Ǽʬޥ˥WordSmith ˤ KeyWords еǽ롥ññꥹȤٽ¤٤ΥꥹȤǤ⤪褽ΥƥȤμɤ뤳Ȥϲǽ̤˵ǽʤɤλ̤ߡᤷˤФơɥꥹȤǤоݥƥȤμ褯ɽ¼Ūʥɤ̤Τǡᤷ䤹
ͤȤƤϰʲ̤Ǥ롥ʥѥʤɤȥƥȤȤƻѤñ줴Ȥ˰Ū٤ƳФˡоݥƥdzñˤĤ٤ФоݥƥǤ٤ȥƥǤ٤礭ˤϡоݥƥȤͭΥɤȤߤʤ롥Τ褦ʥɤưŪõФƤΤWordSmith KeyWords еǽǤ롥ϥꥹѸǽƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤȥƥȤȤƤ FLOB ( Freiburg-LOB corpus ) Ѥʲ50ΥɤǤ롥
plural, english, s, n, old, nouns, norse, dialect, midland, middle, plurals, dialects, texts, language, forms, text, ending, diffusion, v, south, west, nominative, early, stem, the, spread, linguistic, singular, endings, inflectional, contact, accusative, o, system, weak, in, development, sec, change, fem, dative, morphological, languages, saxon, item, formation, period, transfer, germanic, strong
ФƤޤ plural ʣθʤΤǤǤʤкȤΥꥹȤⵡǽλ褯ϤƤ롥
WordSmith ˤϳƥɤΥեǤνиսŪ˥ץåȤ뵡ǽ⤢ꡤ嵭50ˤĤưʲΤ褦ʥץåȤ줿

ɮܿͤʤΤǡʤۤɤȻפ뤳Ȥ¿Ǿ̸ϥƥˤޤ٤ʤ뷹뤬ǤʬۤФäƤΤ⤢롥7̤ norse Old Norse ˤĤƤ7Ϥ˸ǤޤäƤ뤷18 diffusion Lexical Diffusion Ū˰äƤ5Ϥ˽椷Ƥ롥
ʤȯ⤢äѲƤΤ development change ¿ѤƤ뤬ɮˤϤۤɰռξȤʬƤ櫓ǤϤʤäǤФޤ٤ʤʬۤƤʤΤºݤˤ change 5դкߤƤ롥ȤȤϡ̵ռΤ˻ȤʬƤȤȤʤΤ̵ռʤȤǤ⤤٤ΤȯǤƤ⤷
ʸϤΤ褦ʬϤ뤳ȤǡŪʸ̤ͤ줽Ǥ롥פĤ
ʸΤפİ뤳ȤǺʸϲ˳褫ïʸΤ˶ŤܥϤʤѥ饰չλؿˤʤɡ
ʬβʸϤӤʸΤηǯѲѻ
ʸʤɤǥȥ䤬ʣˡɤͤˤƷꤹ
ʬβʸʤɤҤäʬоݤȤֻθơޤϡʥɡˤǤפȸڤ褦ˤʤ
βʸʤɤҤäʬоݤȤ֤ʤθơޤϡʥɡˤǤפȸڤ褦ˤʤʢä
ˤ䤫˴ϢĤʸ A B ߤ˻ȥƥȤȤƤ줾ΥɤФA ħ B ħ٤롥¿ȤȤƤΤǡɤˤäƵդ⤭Ħˤʤǽ롥
ʬǽʸϤʬϤ뤳Ȥʬޥ˥ȤѨۤʤ The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English αʸˤơʬαѺʸηʤкˤĴ٤ƤߤѤġϡѥѤ˳ȯ줿 WordSmith Version 3 Ǥ롥
ޤȤơ긵ˤ۹Ƥ LaTeX ե뤫ɽ Bibliography ʤɤȤʸޤޤ褦ʿƥȤ롥 WordSmith ˤơʸΤ˴ؤͤФƤߤ
| Tokens | 58,535 |
| Types | 4,805 |
| Type/Token Ratio | 8.21 |
| Standardised Type/Token | 37.81 |
| Ave. Word Length | 4.88 |
| Sentences | 1,745 |
| Sent.length | 22.49 |
| sd. Sent. Length | 12.36 |
| Paragraphs | 865 |
| Para. length | 67.67 |
| sd. Para. length | 48.26 |
| 1-letter words | 3,239 |
| 2-letter words | 9,619 |
| 3-letter words | 10,771 |
| 4-letter words | 7,996 |
| 5-letter words | 5,657 |
| 6-letter words | 4,938 |
| 7-letter words | 5,220 |
| 8-letter words | 3,747 |
| 9-letter words | 2,594 |
| 10-letter words | 2,043 |
| 11-letter words | 1,224 |
| 12-letter words | 857 |
| 13-letter words | 304 |
| 14(+)-letter words | 203 |
the, of, in, to, and, a, is, plural, as, english, that, s, for, old, was, n, it, be, from, i, this, are, with, by, on, middle, language, but, or, nouns, not, early, dialect, norse, west, midland, were, forms, text, south, texts, more, have, we, system, than, which, an, may, v
ʬϵǽƸȤƤ plural, english, middle, nouns, early, forms ȽФƤƤ줿ȤȤΤϡȥñ줬̤˽ФƤƤʤȥȥդäȤȤˤʤ꤫ͤʤdevelopment 56̡nominal 189̤ä
ѸαƺˤĤƤϡޤǤ⤤ĤεǼ夲Ƥ ( see ame_bre )ƤֿáפˤСꥫѸ ( AmE ) ŪǡꥹѸ ( BrE ) ݼŪȤȤˤʤäƤ롥̱ˤĤƤΥƥ쥪פ˴ŤäȤäƤѸˤǤϤ褯夲뤳ȤǤ뤬ºݤˤϡAmE ˸ŤˡĤäƤꡤBrE ˳Ūʸˡ뤳Ȥ⾯ʤʤ⤽ѸˤȾϥꥹǤꡤAmE ˤĤʤѸޤǡѸȤϤޤˤΥꥹǿθѲФƤΤǤ롥Ūˤߤ BrE ŪݼŪǤȤȤϤǤʤ
Ǥʾ塤AmE BrE ⤢̣ǤϳŪǤꡤ̣ǤݼŪǤ롥ϡAmE BrE ɸŪѼ郎줾ɤΤ褦ʸŤˡݤ³Ƥ뤫ˤĤɽŪʤΤ롥ʲŵ Algeo
AmE ΤۤݼŪǤ
(1) more, mother ʤɤ /r/ BrE ǤȯʤѲߤˤäƤ롥
(2) path, calf, class ʤɤ /æ/ BrE Ǥ /ɑ:/ ؤѲߤˤäƤ롥
(3) secretary /ˈsekrəˌteri/ ʤɤǺǸ夫ܤβ2ȤġBrE Ǥϡ̾ /ˈsekrətri/ 첻ü3ˤʤ롥
(4) Chaucer ⰦѤ I guess I think ΰ̣Ѥ롥BrE Ǥ guess ϤäѤָƤפΰա
(5) get βʬȤƤ gotten λѡBrE Ǥ got Τߡʤߤ AmE Ǥ got Ȥʤ櫓ǤϤʤgotten Ȥϰ̣ۤʤ롥㤨СI've got a cold = I have a cold I've gotten a cold = I've caught a cold ( see also [2010-03-05-1] )
(6) They insisted that he leave. ʤɤˤ벾ˡλѡBrE Ǥ should ѤΤ㡥( see also [2010-03-05-1], [2009-08-17-1] )
BrE ΤۤݼŪǤ
(1) atom Adam ʤ첻֤ /t/ /d/ Τ˶̤롥AmE ǤƲ ( flap ) ξ줬Ʊȯˤʤ롥
(2) callous Alice ʤɤƧޤʤʺǽۤʤȯݤäƤˡAmE Ǥϡǽ첻ۣ첻 /ə/ ͻ礹뤿ᡤƧࡥ
(3) father /ˈfɑ:ðə/ fodder /ˈfɒdə/ ʤɤǶ첻ۤʤ롥AmE Ǥ /ɑ:/ ͻ硥
(4) I reckon I think ΰ̣ǻѤ롥AmE Ǥϡreckon ַ̾롤Ѥפΰա
(5) fortnight ֡, corn ֹʪפʤɤλѤỌ̇̄AmE Ǥ̾ԤϻȤ鷺Ԥϡ֥ȥפΰդ˸ꡥ
(6) Have you the time? ʤɰưȤƤ have ưΤ褦֤ʸˡAmE Ǥ Do you have the time?
ѼˤݼäƤꡤɤ餬ŪʤΤݼŪʤΤȽȤʤȤΤ¤ǡAlgeo μθˤαդƤ
Perhaps Americans do innovate more; after all, there are four to five times as many English speakers in the United States as in the United Kingdom. So one might expect, on the basis of population size alone, four to five times as much innovation in American English. Moreover, Americans have been disproportionately active in certain technological fields, such as computer systems, that are hotbeds of lexical innovation. (182)
Algeo, John. "America is Ruining the English Language." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 176--82.
[2010-02-26-1]εǼꤢ³ԡεǤϡñˤäΨϰۤʤΤΡꥹѸǤ -ise -ize ξֻԤ뤳ȤBNC ˴Ť餫ˤ20ˤĤƤϡ -ise ֤ΤۤͥȤȤä
̻ŪʴĤⵤˤʤäƤޤʤΤǡǿʵ䤬-ise / -ize ΤΨϡ鸽ߤޤǤ¿ʤȤѲƤΤΤޤǤΤܤʤޤǤ⡤Ѹ30ǯ֤ʬѲƤͭյʷ̤Ф뤫⤷ʤȻפ1960ǯȾΥꥹѸɽ LOB ( Lancaster-Oslo-Bergen corpus ) 1990ǯȾΥꥹѸɽ FLOB ( Freiburg-LOB corpus ) ӤƤߤ뤳Ȥˤ
줾ΥѥǡεǼꤢ٥ȥå20 -ise / -ize ưˤĤơѲʲʬñ -s -ing(s) ˤޤ٤ΨФƤߤʲɽȡˡ
| item | LOB: rate (freq) | FLOB: rate (freq) | ||
| -ise | -ize | -ise | -ize | |
| recognise | 59.6% (99) | 40.4% (67) | 71.8% (127) | 28.2% (50) |
| realise | 63.2% (134) | 36.8% (78) | 68.7% (125) | 31.3% (57) |
| organise | 65.6% (42) | 34.4% (22) | 67.2% (43) | 32.8% (21) |
| emphasise | 37.7% (20) | 62.3% (33) | 62.9% (39) | 37.1% (23) |
| criticise | 52.0% (13) | 48.0% (12) | 80.0% (24) | 20.0% (6) |
| characterise | 0.0% (0) | 100.0% (4) | 56.3% (18) | 43.8% (14) |
| summarise | 35.3% (6) | 64.7% (11) | 64.7% (11) | 35.3% (6) |
| specialise | 56.3% (18) | 43.8% (14) | 81.8% (27) | 18.2% (6) |
| apologise | 68.8% (11) | 31.3% (5) | 70.6% (12) | 29.4% (5) |
| advertise | 100.0% (41) | 0.0% (0) | 100.0% (55) | 0.0% (0) |
| authorise | 77.4% (24) | 22.6% (7) | 68.2% (15) | 31.8% (7) |
| minimise | 90.0% (9) | 10.0% (1) | 80.0% (16) | 20.0% (4) |
| surprise | 100.0% (182) | 0.0% (0) | 100.0% (173) | 0.0% (0) |
| supervise | 100.0% (10) | 0.0% (0) | 100.0% (9) | 0.0% (0) |
| utilise | 70.0% (7) | 30.0% (3) | 83.3% (5) | 16.7% (1) |
| maximise | 50.0% (2) | 50.0% (2) | 50.0% (9) | 50.0% (9) |
| symbolise | 50.0% (3) | 50.0% (3) | 40.0% (4) | 60.0% (6) |
| mobilise | 66.7% (2) | 33.3% (1) | 20.0% (1) | 80.0% (4) |
| stabilise | 58.3% (7) | 41.7% (5) | 33.3% (3) | 66.7% (6) |
| publicise | 81.8% (9) | 18.2% (2) | 84.6% (11) | 15.4% (2) |
ʥѸ (CanE) ˤĤƤ褯ŦħȤơꥫѸ (AmE) ȥꥹѸ (BrE) ξħߤƤ뤳Ȥ롥CanE ȯϳ AmE ˱äƤǡξѼξ̤ Northern American English ȤѼߤ⤢롥ֻˡʤɤǤ BrE ˽Ȥ⾯ʤʤΤȤ CanE ϱѼκΤ褦˸뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥
ξϡŪ롥ꥫΩǤɬ⤹٤ƤΥꥫͤꥹй櫓ǤϤʤLoyalists ȸƤФ륤ꥹٻɤ¸ߤ ꥫΩ塤Loyalists Nova Scotia ʤɤΥʥ̤ƨ졤ΥʥѸη礭ꥹȤο̩ϢȤŪ³Ƥ뤳ȤġʱƶϤؤٹꥫȤŪܿġĤطʤ߹äơʥѸ줬ߤλѤؤȯŸƤ
ε[2010-03-05-1]ŵŪʸˡαƺƱνΥʥ͡ʲؼԡˤ˿ҤͤƤߤȤȤ AmE Ūä BrE ŪäȤޤޤäεϢ֤бơƱνʥͤμȿΤä˶̣äΤ롥
(3) AmE ˡ̾ˤñǰפ롥BrE Ѥ뽬Ϥʤ
(4) BrE θǤ뤳ȤΤ They insist that she accepts the offer. Τ褦ľˡλѤϡ֤ȤǤʤפȤΤȡ
(7) AmE ;ʣ̾ y'all ϡǤ regular ˻Ѥ롥
(8) Have you eaten yet? ʤɤʸǡߴλȲˤäƻȤʬ롥Did you eat yet? ѤΤ̤If no, then will you eat? ʤɤްդˤϸߴλѤ롥
(9) look out (of) the window Ǥ AmE of ʤˤѤ뤬get off (of) the sofa Ǥ BrE of ʤˤѤ롥αƴ֤ʬɤŦƤȤʬդΤӤûۤǤΤȤ
(10) dived ǤϤʤ dove Ȥrang rung ξѤ뤬ȤФԡsank sunk Ʊ͡swam swum Ȥϸʤ
ʥѸȰˤ뤳ȤϤǤ͡ʥ٥Ѽ郎ꤦʥѸκ褯Ƥ롥Chambers ϱξѼκߤ ( bimodal tradition ) ȸƤǤ롥
Why do we find ourselves in this apparent state of confusion? As in so many other dilemmas, it follows from the crux of our history as British North America. Our venerable historical allegiance to Britain pulls us one way but our geographical attachment to the United States pushes us the other. . . . English spelling conventions were stabilized in England just before the American Revolution and then reformed in the U.S. at a time when belligerence had cooled into disdain. The result was not exactly two traditions but a bi-modal tradition. (cited from Chambers in Svartvik and Leech, p. 97)
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
ֻαƺ([2009-12-27-1][2009-12-23-1])ȯαƺ([2009-11-24-1])³ʸˡαƺˤĤƼפʤΤ10롥
(1) gotten (AmE) / got (BrE)
AmE: She's gotten into trouble in school.
BrE: She's got into trouble in school.
(2) from ... through ... (AmE) / from ... to ... (BrE)AmE through Ȥ8ޤ̣ˤʤ롥BrE ǤϤδѤʤᡤto Ǥ8ޤΤݤBrE ǡִޤɤߤˤˤϡŪ inclusive ȤȤ¿
AmE: The tour lasted from May through August.
AmE and BrE: The tour lasted from May to August.
BrE: The tour lasted from May to August inclusive.
(3) ̾οΰסAmE ǤϷ֤ñǤ¤ñBrE ǤϷ֤ñǤ̣ʣǤиԤŻ뤷ʣteam, audience, board, committee, government, the public ʤɡ
AmE: The Government has been considering further tax cuts.
BrE: The Government have been considering further tax cuts.
(4) insist, recommend, suggest ʤɤ뽾°ˤ벾ˡ (AmE) should (BrE) λѡBrE Ǥ AmE αƶDzˡλѤ̤ˤʤäƤƤ롥(see [2009-08-17-1])
AmE: They insist that she accept the offer. (also increasing in BrE)
BrE: They insist that she should accept the offer. (getting unacceptable in AmE)
BrE (colloquial): They insist that she accepts the offer. (not accepted in AmE)
(5) AmE ѤȤƤηƻ졥good, slow, awful, sure ʤɡ
AmE: They pay them pretty good. (non-standard in BrE)
BrE: They pay them pretty well.
(6) AmE like ³ȤƤλѡBrE Ǥ as if ̡
AmE: It seems like we've made another mistake. (non-standard in BrE)
BrE: It seems as if we've made another mistake.
(7) AmE ΤĤѼŪ;ʣ̾ you all, y'all, yous(e) ѡ
AmE: I'll see y'all later. (South)
AmE: How much did yous want? (Northeast, esp. New York City)
AmE: We'll see you guys Sunday, okay? (informal)
(8) ߴλȲAmE ǤϤФвѤ롥
AmE: Dolly just finished her homework.
BrE: Dolly has just finished her homework.
(9) AmE out ֻȤƤλѡBrE Ǥ out of Ѥ롥
AmE: I always look out the window.
BrE: I always look out of the window.
(10) AmE Ѥưβΰ۷BrE Ǥϳη֤ȤʤAmE θǤξȤꤦ롥
dove ( dived ), fit ( fitted ), pled ( pleaded ), rung ( rang ), sung ( sang ), sunk ( sank ), snuck ( sneaked ), swum ( swam )
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 166--69.
ѥȤä collocation ¿ʬǤϹԤäȤʤäΤǡMcEnery et al. (56--57, 210--20) ͤˤĤġ餪ķǤ collocation ΤƤߤä collocation ˤ͡ɸħդƤߤ
ϡgirl Ȥ褯 collocate ƻϲסѤ륳ѥ BNCWeb girl κ¦3ޤǤ˸ƻоݤȤcollocation ζ٤͡ʻɸФơɸȤ˾20ĤޤǤηƻˤΤɽǤ롥
| Rank | raw frequency | observed/expected | t-score | z-score | log-likelihood | MI | MI3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | little | 15-year-old | little | little | little | 15-year-old | little |
| 2 | young | 16-year-old | young | young | young | 16-year-old | young |
| 3 | that | dark-haired | good | 15-year-old | good | dark-haired | good |
| 4 | this | 13-year-old | that | dark-haired | clever | 13-year-old | clever |
| 5 | good | nine-year-old | this | 16-year-old | poor | nine-year-old | pretty |
| 6 | one | 14-year-old | old | clever | pretty | 14-year-old | that |
| 7 | old | four-year-old | poor | pretty | old | four-year-old | 15-year-old |
| 8 | other | year-old | other | teenage | that | year-old | dark-haired |
| 9 | poor | clever | clever | 13-year-old | beautiful | clever | poor |
| 10 | clever | teenage | one | nine-year-old | lovely | teenage | 16-year-old |
| 11 | beautiful | blonde | pretty | four-year-old | golden | blonde | this |
| 12 | pretty | pretty | beautiful | head | nice | pretty | old |
| 13 | small | head | nice | 14-year-old | 15-year-old | head | beautiful |
| 14 | any | little | lovely | poor | teenage | little | teenage |
| 15 | nice | wee | big | blonde | dark-haired | wee | lovely |
| 16 | big | eldest | small | good | head | eldest | head |
| 17 | another | brave | golden | golden | 16-year-old | brave | golden |
| 18 | lovely | golden | tall | beautiful | tall | golden | nice |
| 19 | new | silly | dear | lovely | this | silly | tall |
| 20 | golden | young | teenage | year-old | dear | young | blonde |
Penn Parsed Corpora of Historical English ΥץȤ̤ȤơUniversity of Pennsylvania PPCMBE ( Penn Parsed Corpus of Modern British English ) Ǥ줿ˤꡤʲ̤ꡤűѸ줫鸽Ѹˤ錄ƻΥꥹѸ쥿դѥФäȤˤʤ롥
YCOE: Taylor, Ann, Anthony Warner, Susan Pintzuk, and Frank Beths. York-Toronto-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Old English Prose, first edition. Oxford Text Archive, 2003. (1.5 million words)
PPCME2: Kroch, Anthony and Ann Taylor. Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Middle English, second edition. University of Pennsylvania, 2000. (1.3 million words)
PPCEME: Kroch, Anthony, Beatrice Santorini, and Ariel Diertani. Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Early Modern English, first edition. University of Pennsylvania, 2004. (1.8 million words)
PPCMBE: Kroch, Anthony, Beatrice Santorini, and Ariel Diertani. Penn-Hensinki Parsed Corpus of Modern British English, first edition. University of Pennsylvania, 2010. (1.0 million words)
Helsinki Corpus ١ȤФƱ annotation scheme ˤŪղäƤꡤߤϢȤǤ褦˺Ƥ롥ϰۤʤ뤬褽1410ǯ1695ǯޤǤΤνʽȤʤ륳ѥ PCEEC Ʊͤ annotation scheme ǥդƤꡤϤϢȤǽǤʤѤŪˡ
PCEEC: Taylor, Ann, Arja Nurmi, Anthony Warner, Susan Pintzuk, and Terttu Nevalainen. Parsed Corpus of Early English Correspondence, first edition. Oxford Text Archive, 2006. (2.2 million words)
ǡ碌 7.8 million words ̻ŪŪʻ饿դ졤̤ѲǽˤʤäȤˤʤ롥
ȺȡؤΥХCOEץ֥ѥ˴Ťض鸦 ( Corpus-based Linguistics and Language Education ) Ťǡ"Corpus Analysis and Diachronic Linguistics" ꤹݥݥबƱؤdz졤Anthony Kroch Merja Kytö ʤɱѸ˥ѥؤ̾ʳؼԤֱ餷ʥݥˡPPCMBE νľȤȤ⤢äΤǡä Anthony Kroch ä˶̣äƤϢ˱Ѹ쥳ѥȤä츦ΰüǤ⸫ƤΤʤȴԤƤäȤˡ˱Ѹ쥳ѥ˥ե쥳ѥȤ߹碌ֱʩо̻쥳ѥءפȤǤ⤤٤βǽȯɽä University of Pennsylvania ϱѸ˸¤餺ΥѥεȤʤäƤꡤ䤳Ȥ߹碌ȤʤȤ⤢ʤȤǤȤȤĤ줿ȤǤ⤤
ʤߤˡ夲줿ϱʩ direct object topicalization ˤǡѸξˤ 1151--1250 ǯ 1251--1350 ǯˤơľŪ֤٤쵤˸Ȥ
ε[2010-03-01-1]ǡѸκѱñꥹȤĤҲ𤷤ΤʤǡŤȤƤ GSL ( General Service List ) ˴Ť100θ츻̤Ĵ٤Ƥߤ

Ѹ ( native words ) ΰ;Ǥ뤳ȤϰǤ롥Ѹ ( loan words ) Ϥ鷺Ǥ롥Ѹäηʶʤ Anglo-Saxon Ǥ롥
ťΥɸͳθ they, she, take, get, give 5Τߡshe θ츻ˤϥʤɽ⤬롥ޤget give ˤĤƤϡƬҲ /g/ ťΥɸͳ褹ȸäƤ褤бϸűѸˤ⤢ꡤͤˤäƤϤɤθˤⵢ롥ǤϡťΥɸͳȤƿ
եͳθϡstate, use, people 3Τߡ
εǤפĤܤƤΤǡȡ
[2009-11-15-1]: Ѹδܸ600εȳ
[2009-11-14-1]: ѸμѸεȳ (2)
[2009-08-15-1]: ѸμѸεȳ
ѸκѱñϲˤĤƤϥѥءءȯŸˤꡤ͡ɽƤ־Ǥñ˼ΤǡĤɽŪʥꥹȤؤΥǤƤø˳Ѥ
μפɽ
GSL ( General Service List ): 2000ǤꥹȡǤ1953ǯȸŤߤǤȤƤꥹȡ
AWL ( Academic Word List ): ؽѥƥȤ˸ꤷѸꥹȡ2000ǯ˽Ǥ졤GSL˴ޤޤȽʣʤ褦Ф줿570Ǻܡ10Υ֥ꥹȤʬƤ롥AWL ȤȤʤ롤1984ǯ˽Ǥ줿808Υꥹ UWL ( University Word List ) ⻲ȡ
BNC Word Frequency Lists: BNC ( The British National Corpus ) ˤ6318Υꥹȡɽľܥɤ顥
Top 1000 words in UK English: 18ͤԡ29ʡ460ΥѥФꥹѸκ1000ꥹȡ
Brown Corpus List: Brown Corpus ˤ륢ե٥åȽꥹȡ
The Longman Defining Vocabulary: LDOCE 1988ǯǤåꥹȡ2000ʾ塥
¾ΥꥹȤؤΥ
Work/Frequency List: ͡ɽؤΥ2010/09/10(Fri)ߥڤ
Famous Frequency Lists: ͡ɽؤΥ
Basic English and Common Words: MLκѸɽˤĤƤε
Υե٥åȤʸɽ
Letter Frequencies (rankings for various languages): ĤΥɽ롥BNCǤ "etaoinsrhldcumfpgwybvkxjqz" νȤ롥
ʸ嵭2010/03/07(Sun)American National Corpus ˴ŤɽĤWritten Spoken ʬ̤ɽ⤢ꡥ
ʸ嵭2010/04/12(Mon)COLT: The Bergen Corpus Of London Teenage Language ˴Ť1000ΥꥹĤ
ʸ嵭2011/02/14(Mon)Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) ˴Ť Corpus-based word frequency lists, collocates, and n-grams ĤTop 5,000 lemma, Top 500,000 word forms ʤɡ
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46
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