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semantic prosody ϡѥؤοŸˤ20;ǯˤθݤդ줿ФŪǤ롥ѸˤĤƶŪʴ餷Ƥ⸦椬ʤǤʤΤ顤̻Ū¦̤θϤޤ̵ȤäƤ褵[2011-03-12-1], [2011-03-03-1]εǷڤڤ褦ˡ̻ŪʥǥϤϤạ̇̄ѲθȴϢơ太⤷ʬˤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤȹͤƤ롥
ޤǿδϢʸܤ̤̻ŪʸڤϤۤȤɤʤͣ졤[2011-03-03-1]ǴϢʸȤƵ Louw semantic prosody irony δطʤ顤̻ŪʴϢ˸ڤƤ롥
Prosodies, therefore, are reflections of either pejorative or ameliorative changes that have run their course sufficiently to allow irony to be instantiable against them through the deliberate creation of an exception to the trend. (169)
ɽ irony ǧ뤿ˤϡɽ semantic prosody äƤꡤʹ⤽ΤäƤ뤳ȤȤʤ롥ȯäϡɽȤ̾ﶦʤɽտŪȤ߹碌뤳Ȥˤäơʹͽۤڤ뤳Ȥܻؤ̤뤿ˤϡȤʹ꤬ semantic prosody ̵ռǤΤäƤɬפ롥μϡ¾ΰŪʸǽ (linguistic competence) ƱͤˡĿͤŪ˥뤳ȤǤʤμĿͤ콬βdzΤˤϰ㤤ʤǤϡ˺ݤƤΥץåȤϲȤȡѥФȽƲĻ벽ζɽȤ٤ζɽ٤ϡθ춦ƱΤŪ˰ޤƤΤθߤθǤ롥semantic prosody ̻ŪʥǥϳΤ¸ߤ롥
semantic prosody ˤΤɤʳΤ뤳Ȥϡʤʤsemantic prosody ˤδߤ㤬¿Ȥ顤䤤¿ϡ֤礬Ū (derogatory) ߤӤӻϤΤϤĤפȤ褦ʤΤˤʤʸ̮ðǰĴ٤ơ1㤺 derogatory ݤȽꤷƤ椯ȤƻǺʺȤɬפȤʤˤɤɽ semantic prosody θˤʤꤦ뤫Ȥ褷ʤФʤʤʤʤСsemantic prosody Ϥ餷üԤʤľǤϥǤʤΤǤ ([2011-03-20-1]) ˴ؤơLouw ηپ
A common problem is what might be called 'twenty-twenty hindsight': the tendency to claim that one 'felt' the presence of a form which was inaccessible to one's intuition until it was revealed through research. The only cure for twenty-twenty hindsight lies in constant exposure, of the most humbling kind, to real examples. (173)
ʤǥǤʤơޤȤȤΤϡˡ̷Ǥ롥̻Ū¦̤ˡѸζŪ¦̤Ǥ semantic prosody Ϥޤ褯ƤʤΤǤ롥
semantic prosody ȤϲȤˤĤƤϡ[2011-03-02-1]1ĤҲ𤷤ªˤǰʤΤǵҴŪʵҤषľʤ̯ˤ褯ǤΤǤ롥㤨СLouw μʤɤϡäȤ褯ľ˥եåȤΤǤ롥
[a] consistent aura of meaning with which a form is imbued by its collocates (157)
Louw, Bill. "Irony in the Text or Insincerity in the Writer? The Diagnostic Potential of Semantic Prosodies." Text and Technology: In Honour of John Sinclair. Ed. M. Baker, G. Francis, and E. Tognini-Bonelli. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1993. 157--76.
[2009-05-18-1], [2011-04-28-1]ε -dom ˤĤƾҲ𤷤ε[2011-04-28-1]ȤǡѤ˴ޤޤƤ Wentworth ʸɤǤߤ-dom ŪʤääۤŪʸä餷ϤʤΤ-dom ζˤ¾夳 (productivity) ȤäƤʸΤޤ˶ʤ뤬ʲαƤ
ޤWentworth (280--81) ϼ20θؼԤ -dom ˴ؤڤ¿"inactive" ȤԤ "active" ȤԤδ֤ǰո˳Ƥ뤳Ȥ"inactive" Ȥڤ1Ȥơ1935ǯ "-dom . . . is to all intents and purposes now dead" 롤"active" ȤΤˤƱǯ ". . . still active, that is to say, regarded as easily available for the coining of new compounds . . ." 롥
ڤˡ19ȾƱηŪȿޤޤƤ궽̣ (283--84)
Among the recent vulgarisms that have crept into the press is an abuse of the suffix dom . . . as legitimately used in kingdom, christendom . . . The word, however, does not admit of unlimited extension at the hands either of neologists or of would-be comic writers. 'Officialdom is strong in France . . . '
ˡWentworth ϡ1840ǯ100ǯ֤ǽư˸줿262Ĥ -dom (284--85) 20äƤ40ǯ֤ǤۤȾ132줬Ƥ롥Ƥ⡤ OED ˴Ť̻Ūʬۤ20ˤ -dom ˲ᾮɾƤȤȤʬ롥Wentworth Ԥǯ -dom ο줬Ƥ뤳ȤդƤ롥
Ƥ̾ʺȤˤ -dom λѤ塤Wentworth 1800ǯʹߤ˸줿300 -dom "usage status" ˤĤĴ롥ΤۤȤɤ "standard" ʸǤȻŦƤꡤ-dom Ť˼Ƥ褦Ǥ (290)
Of the approximately 300 Modern English words treated in this inquiry, all but a relative few are standard. Many are rich in connotation of empire, of politic organization, of dominion real or fancied. Some are daring, poetic, curious, whimsical. But such traits hardly disqualify the words as standard English, so broad is that concept.
ˡ-dom θħ-dom ζΰ֤ͻ (293--94) ƻδΤΤĤɤȤ halidom, bourgeoisdom, carefreedom, topsyturvydom, awaredom, Englishdom, Germandom, ramshackledom Ҳ𤵤뤬Ǥ٤ι⤤ -dom 줬 freedom wisdom ʤɷƻͳǤ뤳ȤŦ (293)
³ơ -dom 줬Ҥ뤤Ĥμ˸ФȤƴޤƤ뤫ɤǧ (294) -dom 줬ʸڤ줿Ȥ뤫ɤȤȤɬλɸȤϤʤʤȤJespersen 鼡ΰѤĤ -dom ŪɾƤ (295)
A word may have been used scores of times without finding its way into any dictionary,---and a word may be an excellent one even if it has never been used before by any human being. If at its first appearance it is just as intelligible as if it had been in constant use for centuries, why should the first occurrence be more faulty than the three-thousandth?
Ǹˡ1800ǯʹߤ˸줿 -dom 줬300Ĥۤɥꥹȥåפ (296--306) ɵ椹ȤβƻԤŪʸä
ʬäƤĤܼϤϤꤽϤʤФʤʤʤȲƼ´
Wentworth, Harold. "The Allegedly Dead Suffix -dom in Modern English." PMLA 56 (1941): 280--306.
[2009-05-18-1]ε-dom ̾פǤϸѸǻȤ -dom Ĥ̻Ūʴ餳įƤߤBauer (220) ˤȡ-dom ϰ٤λȤߤʤۤɤ˿षƤѸǤϰᤷƤƤȤ
-dom This suffix forms abstract, uncountable nouns from concrete, countable ones. For a long time it was thought that the suffix was moribund or totally non-productive, but Wentworth (1941) showed that it had never completely died out, and it is still productive in contemporary English, though not very much so. Recent examples include Dollardom, fagdom, gangsterdom, girldom (all OEDS). (220)
-dom ϸ§Ȥ̾δΤղä̾뤬freedom Τ褦˷ƻδΤղä⤢롥
OED ̻ŪʬۤĴ٤Ƥߤ[2011-01-05-1]ǾҲ𤷤OED θ̤äȤʬह CGIפѤȤ -dom 夲ʲΤ褦˻вSodom ʤɤλ¿ϺäƤꡤäȸƵդΤϺ绨Ĥʿ夲Ȥ줿ͥǡϤΥڡHTMLȡ

Ѹ줫ѸˤƤΤ露Ȥ衤19ȯϰŪǤ롥20βФϡ¤ȿǤƤΤ뤤 OED θüλˤΤˤƤ19ʹߤο -dom äϤ٤Ƥٸǡnonce-word ¿Frequency Sorter ˤȡANC (American National Corpus) 10ʾѤƤΤϡfandom, boredom, stardom, fiefdom 餤
ܼ (productivity) Ū˷ΤȤ (Baayen and Lieber) -dom 19ȯ2021ˤɤ³ƤΤľŪªܼȤϵҴŪˤɤΤ褦˵ҤΤ˥ѥɤΤ褦˳ѤǤΤ-dom ܤǤ⡤꤬͡夬äƤ롥
Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
Baayen, Harald and Rochelle Lieber. "Productivity and English Derivation: A Corpus-Based Study." Linguistics 29 (1991): 801--43.
Ѹ˸¤餺ѤȯΥƥȤϡμ̤ (copying) ˤäãƤ̤μ̤ (recopying) ³ȡΤ褦˸ƥȤκϳƤ椯Τ̤Ǥ롥Ȥ٤μ̤ǤäƤ⡤ʹ֤ˤǤʾ塤ȤƤ븶 (exemplar) ΰæʤޤΰæñʼ̤ (scribal error) Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤢СտŪԽ (editing) (translation) ˶ᤤΤǤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥äơ븶ƥȤν̤ˤäƥȤϡΰʸ䥳ԡʸȤ븷̩ʼ̤ǤϤʤ٤ΰæɬޤǤ롥ʸˤ textual transmission ϡΤ褦ʰæήưħŤƤ롥Boffey (117) ˤȡħ Zumthor ˤ "mouvance" ȸƤФƤȤΤΤǤ롥
̤κݤ˰æ߽Фᥫ˥ȤƤäȤ䤹Τϡ̻ (scribe) ˤ̤ (error) Ǥ롥ˤϡʸؤ롤̤ʸʸȤԤְ㤨 (eyeskip) ʤɤ롥μ䥿ԥˤбΤΤ䤹ƥȤܡɤǤݤ˹Ԥְ㤨ʤɡӻǤ롥
ñʼ̤ǤϤʤտŪʼΰæȤƤϡɤɤߤͿȤȽǤǤʤ֤롥ޤоݤȤʤɼԤİԤռƤβѤȤȤ⤢롥㤨СⶵǤСפΤ֤ǤȤȥåΤ˸ؤꤹʤɤͤ롥ؤΤĤꡤˡѤȤȤ⤢롥ʸǽ줿ƥȤƱθ˥åץǡȤȤѤ⤢ˡ̻ܤʬˡפȤ⤢롥ΡפäɸѸ¸ߤʤѸˤäƤϤ̤˹ԤʤƤꡤƥȤθΤߤʤ餺ƥȤμ礭ѤƤޤǽϤǤ롥
ʸϡǽ餫鴰ǤǸƤᡤδǤԡۤ뤳ȤȤƤ롥ǡʸϡǽ餫ǸޤǴǤȤΤϤʤǤ̤βѤ줿ǤȤƼƤ椯ȤȤƤäơԤΥƥãǤϡƥȤɬŪ dynamic, flexible, unfixed äΤǤ롥
¸ѸƥȤ version ͤݤˤϡ嵭Τ褦ʡȤϰۤʤʸ textual transmission λǰƬ֤Ƥɬפ롥
ѸޥȯŸ⡤ʸ textual transmission ħŤ "mouvance" ˻٤ƤˤĤƤϡ[2010-11-06-1]εRomanceפȡ
Boffey, Julia. "From Manuscript to Modern Text." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 107--22.
ؤμȤDZѸˤˤŪʸѲˤäơФиѲ⤹ɬפΤγغŪʬ˾ǤŬڤʻʤѲܼʤɤȤΤǤϤʤȻפäƤ뤬õ⼫ʬǤޤȤۤüᤤȹͤBussmann θؼŵ "language change" ιȤޥɥޥåפƤߤΡɤĤǤFlashɤ

äƤϡۤ[2010-07-13-1]εָѲθפʤɤȤ椯椯 language_change γƵޤȤơޥɥޥåפβǤꤿȻפäƤ롥̣ǡΥ֥Τ̤ƸѲ˴ؤͻϿȤƤȤΤǡνο
ѸθѲ˴ؤ륦־λȤƤϡRaymond Hickey's Studying the History of English Language change ¤Ƥ롥
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
ޤǤʤѸ (a global language or world language) 뤤ե (a lingua franca) ȾΤθ1ĤǤ롥˾塤ۤ¿ξǤۤ¿οͤäƤϤʤäǤäȤ٤ι⤤Ǥꡤ¾ "the global language" 괧ĤƸƤФ줿ȤƤ⡤¿ܿͤˤȤäư´ʤȤƤθѸݤˤϡ괧 "a global language" 뤤ʣδĶ "one of the global languages" ȤѤΤŬڤǤ롥
¿θؼԤѸ1ġפȹɽƤ뤬1ĤˤϾŪʱѸѤδްդȤŪ롥äȶŪˤСȿѸԤռΩŪʸոǤȤͤ롥äȤƤαѸˤݤˤɬŪˤʤˤŪȼ虜ʤŪްդʤ٤ʤ뤿Ρʤ켫Τ̣Ūʡ˥ȥå1ĤȤߤʤȤǤ롥
ʾˡ1ġפȤɽˤϳŪʸ롥ˤ⸽ߤˤ⡤٤κϤפȸƤӤʣä⡤Ʊ褦ʣ¸ߤǽ롥ȤƤαѸ뤿ˤϡ¾оȤƱ뤳ȤɬפǤ롥ȤƤαѸθϡȤ "global languages" Ȥ pluralist ʸ̮ǤʤʤФʤʤ
Ѹʤ餺ȤΩˤϡ褽褦ʱƶ˵ڤܤȲǤ롥Crystal, The English Language 10--11 ͤˡߡȤƤαѸ줬˵ڤܤƤƶΤĤŦ
(1) ̤ͭξܺ٤äƳؽ졤椵롥η̤ȤơŪʸˡ伭졤ضػߤ¤츦椬ȯŸ롥
(2) ʤ䤽¾θˤФ͡ΰռޤꡤ˴ؤҤ仨饸ȤƥȤ̤ơŪ˷ȯ롥
(3) ʤ䤽¾θˤФռޤꡤŪ˷ȯǡ͡ϵդ˸ˤĤȽŪǿˤʤ롥ѲȤߤʤ¤Фꡤ¾θѼФ¾ŪԴƤ٤뤳Ȥ⤢롥
Ūʱƶϡ¾ˤ⤤ĤŦǤ롥
ΤȤʤ顤Υߥ˥ưפˤȯˤ
γؽ˼Ĥ줿Ԥ "linguistic divide" μҲŪ亹̤˶줷ȤȤ뤫⤷ʤ
ΰϤˤꡤξǤ뷹®ʤˤϰ⤢롥㤨 Crystal, English as a Global Language 20--25 ȡ
Ѽʥԥ䥯쥪ޤˤϤޤ졤˸ߤǽθؤʬƤ椯
嵭ιܤ¿ĤƤ1ĤǤƥˤƤϤޤפεϤϡǤѸȰۤʤ뤬Ωˤ줬ıƶϤˤϡ̤ħ뤳Ȥʬ롥ˤפϡѸͭħǤ롥Τ뤿ˤϡƸߤ¾ʤθˤȤоȤ礫ʤ
ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) ˤĤƤϡelf γƵǼ夲Ƥä˰ʲεȡ
#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹ: [2009-10-21-1]
#272. ݸȤƤαѸüԤʬ뿷ǥ: [2010-01-24-1]
#372. ݸȤƤαѸοˤĤƤεˤʤ¡2005ǯǡ: [2010-05-04-1]
#376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ: [2010-05-08-1]
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
츻ؤȤʬμΧˤĤƤϡ[2010-08-06-1]εָ츻ؤϵݤʳؤפǼ夲츻ؤ[2011-04-17-1]ε֥ȥåŪȥݥȤƤθ츻פǺٸڤؤˤ츻ؤΰ֤Ťǡɾޤʤ츻ؤλ̿ϸθ츻ˤ餫ˤ뤳ȤθñȯŪǻȯŪˤʤ꤬Ǥ롥츻θϡθˤޤĤŪʾؤ¾ʬͭפǤ롥ͭפǤϤäƤ⤽ǤŪ˽ϤƤޤʬȤƤμΧϳݤʤ츻¿ο͡δؿ椯˺ǤؿƤؼԤˤȤḁ̈ϤˤʤΤ˸츻ؤɬ⼫ΩŪʬȤߤʤƤʤȤϻǰǤ롥
̤ˡ츻ؤؤνʬ˰֤ŤСβ뤳Ȥˤʤ̻ŪפȤǤƤӤ뤳θ츻ؤˤϡ̤θˤϸʤĤħ롥Malkiel (200--01) 4ħ줳츻ؤ autonomy κǤȼĥ롥ʲˤ4θդƤߤʸʸΰѤϤΥڡHTMLȡˡ
(1) 츻õˤϸº֤٤Ĺꡤäδؿ˸ꤵ줺ʹ֤αĤߤȴϢŤƤ
(2) 츻õϡʸˡʤ¾ι¤Ūʸ츦˽ȤϤޤäۤʤȯۤפ abductive discipline Ǥ롥
(3) 츻õϡ1ʬȤƷ֤Ọ̇̄ξ˰̣𤷤ƸȼȤδطդʧä˷Ū¦̡ʲˤ˴ؿ椵ƤаޤꡤǰĹ롥
(4) 츻õǤϡ¾ʬʾŪʾڵȸ礦Ȥפ뤬ŪڵȤ𤳤ԤξǮΩơƱ˸ԤΥȿװʤΤǤ롥
4ϡ츻ؤ̥ϤäƤ뤬ΩʬȤƤϰ̤Ϳˤϥѥ夤ȤΤΰݤǤ롥Ǥ츻ؤΥݥƥʲǽȤΤǤС(2) abductive ˴ԤMalkiel "creative etymology" (201) ȸƤǤ褦ˡ츻õˡϱ (deduction) ǤⵢǼ (induction) Ǥʤ (abduction) Ǥ롥Charles S. Peirce (1839--1914) μĥʳؤȯϤ褽 abductive ǤꡤƱȤϸؤˤ츻ؤˤ⤢ƤϤޤϤabduction θʳؤǹʤ¤ꡤabduction ΩӤ츻ؤΧ뤳ȤΤ⤷ʤ
abduction ȤϡΤ褦꼰ηΤȤǤƿ, p. 54ˡ
ä٤£äѻ롤
⤷ȤǤСäλǤ
äơȤǤȹͤ٤ͳ롥
Malkiel, Yakov. "Etymology and General Linguistics." Word 18 (1962): 198--219.
ƿ ͵ إ֥ȯ١Ҧ˼2009ǯ
Ѹ˾ǽαѱѼȸ Robert Cawdrey A Table Alphabeticall (1604) ˤĤƤϡ[2010-12-21-1], [2010-12-22-1]εϤᡤcawdrey γƵǼ夲Ƥ
[2010-12-27-1]εdz⤷褦17켭äȤ Cawdrey Ρפȡθ³¾μԻԤΡפȤۤʤ롥Ԥɽ Bullokar, Cockeram, Blount, Phillips μϡNoyes (600) ˤ "storehouses of difficult and elegant words exclusively" ֻϰѼԡˤäǡCawdrey Ϥޤ "hard vsuall English wordes" 뤤 "plaine English words" A Table Alphabeticall νǥȥڡꡥֻϰѼԡˤǺܤΤǤ롥ϤʸǤϤʤޤʤܤˤϿѼԤμռƤΤǤ롥ϡCawdrey ʤԤǤ©Ҥ Thomas ˤعĹǤ궵ԤǤäȤ̵ǤϤʤζ鳦ΥɥDZѸ켭Իɬʤ Richard Mulcaster ([2010-07-12-1]) ϡThe First Part of the Elementarie (1582) 8000ۤɤñꥹ "Generall Table" Ǥ¿ Cawdrey μˤȿǤƤ롥ŪԻŪȤΤǤäȤʬ
ºݤ A Table Alphabeticall įƤߤȡΥ饤ȡˡΤޤξѸؽԤθóؽΩñꥹȤȤʤäƤ롥δФǤȡѸ1?1٤θäֻϤޤˤɸಽƤʤƳȸѸؽԤˤȤʶŪƤˤʤäƤ롥
ޤ[2010-12-22-1] (4) Ǽ褦ˡ츻ˤϴȤˡCawdrey ϸ츻ʤȤäƤѸεҤˤʤˤܤƤ롥οʴϡCawdrey 礤˻ͤˤ Coote ǤƤ³ Bullokar Cockeram Ǥ̵뤵ƤƳ줿Τ Blount Glossographia (1656) Ǥ (Noyes 602) ˤ⡤Cawdrey ζŪɼ롥Noyes Cawdrey ɾѤ褦
It was unfortunate for the development of the English dictionary that succeeding lexicographers scorned the practical schoolmasters' tradition and focussed on the more eccentric and less permanent elements in the language. This attitude was, in fact, responsible for sidetracking the English dictionary for a century. (604)
Noyes, Gertrude E. "The First English Dictionary, Cawdrey's Table Alphabeticall." Modern Language Notes 58 (1943): 600--05.
Ѹθä˥եѸοϤޤɡuse ۤ٤ι⤤ϤʤFrequency Sorter BNC ΥɽĴ٤ȡuse ư̾٤碌Ȥ˺Ǥ٤ι⤤եѸȤʤ롥ʤ¾κǹ٥եѸȤƤ people, state, very ʤɤ롥Ϣ[2010-03-02-1]ε⻲ȡ
Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) ؤôեѸäʤäƤϰϤºݤˤϲؤˤؤˤĹΤӤƤ롥Τ褦˽פʸˤĤƼѸ줬֤¿ʤȼѸζξԤ˷褻Ƥ褦ˤߤ륱ϳΤˤ롥use Τ褦ʽ̱Ūʸ줬ѸꥹȤξ̤˴ޤޤƤ뤳ȼΤ϶ˤΤȤǤ롥
use αѸθηϤؤƱٹ礤ϺΩäƤ롥ȼ ( hybrid ) ȤƤ useful, useless ϤȤꡤϸ be used to ư used to ʤɤˤ⸽졤ä餱Ǥ롥ѸäƤ13Ǥꡤ¾κǹ٥եѸ٤ƤθųǤ롥ȤƼѸζȾԤˤޤĤǧˤƤ⡤use αѸؤƱˤϡʬŪǤ¾˲餫λ𤬴ͿƤȹͤʤ
Menner (235--36) ϡƱ۵ ( homonymic clash ) ͿƤΤǤϤʤƤ롥ֻѤפ̣ note(n) ( < OE notian ) ȡȷŪֽդפ̣եѸ note(n) ( > PDE note ) ͤԤह뤳Ȥˤạ̈δַեѸ use(n) ȤڽǤ롥ֻѤפΰ̣ǺǤ̤ä OE notian Ѹ14ˤ -i ֽդפƱ note(n) ˤʤäƤƱ۵ͤˤֻѤפΰդ note(n) ϽѤȤʤäƤ椭ˤǤ¾θ¸ߴ褦ˤʤäƤ use(n) ֻѤפ̣Ǥ̤θȤƵǽ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤȤMenner ϡƱ۵ͤѲξöŪʸȤѶŪɾԤ1ͤǤ롥
Although proof is hardly possible in such a case, the combination of circumstances makes one suspect that the homonymy of the native and foreign note was one of the factors in establishing use as one of the commonest words in our language. (236)
ڤˤϡƸδϢλ٤Ĵ٤ɬפ롥ޤֻѤפ̣ brouken ( < OE brūcan ), nitten ( < OE nyttian ) ʤɡ¾ȤδϢˤդɬפOED MED ¾ HTOED ( Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary ) 줿ȤǡΤ褦Ĵϳʤ˹Ԥʤ䤹ʤäƤƤ롥Ʊ۵ͤʤɤ HTOED βää˵䤹ơޤˤʤѲˤƱ۵ͤΰյĥ M. L. Samuels Historical Thesaurus of English ΥץȤΩ夲ʪǤ뤳ȤϷ褷ƶǤʤ
Menner, Robert J. "The Conflict of Homonyms in English." Language 12 (1936): 229--44.
[2009-06-01-1]εǡѸ thumb ֻ˴ޤޤ츻Ū reverse spelling <b> ˤĤOED εҤȤơ13źáפȵOED ˤȡ1290ǯ The South English Legendary Strongue is þe þoumbe I-cleoped ȤʤäƤ롥¾μ츻ŵ⤳ OED εҤƧƤ褦MED, "thoume" ˤȡ<b> ޤϡ12ȾФ The Peterborough Chronicle 1137ǯεϿ˸ȤǤ롥Clark Ǥ鳺սֻϰѼԡˡ
Me henged bi the þumbes other bi the hefed 7 hengen bryniges on ˈherˈ fet. (1137, l. 22)
Clark (p. 94) ˤȡPChron ᤤĢ the Doomsday Book ˡOxfordshire ̾ Thomley ɽ魯Ȥ Tvmbeleia ѤƤȤ<b> ϡOED εҤ⤺äѸκǽˤǤ˸줿ȤȤǤ롥
[2009-06-01-1]Ǥϡcrumb, limb, numb ȹ碌 thumb <b> ˾ /b/ Ȥȯ줿ᤷʤȽҤ٤thumb ˤĤƤϤȯ٤⤷ʤ1112ᤤˤμ reverse spelling ۻ ( silent letter ) Ƴ줿ȤϹͤˤ嵭 Tvmbeleia Τ褦ˡ/m/ ¾β³Ķǡ錄겻 ( glide ) Ȥ /b/ ΤĴŪ˼Ǥ롥¾θˤĤƤ⡤<b> ϶ѸˤƤΤȤ֤ȯ ( spelling pronunciation ) ڤʤäȤȡϳΤ褦ʤ˾ /b/ Ȥȯ줿ᤷʤפȤΤϼĥȤƤ϶⤷ʤĥǤΤϡ /b/ ޤȯȯŪˤꤨȤƤ⡤פѼˤ /b/ ޤޤʤȯ椷ͥʸطǤäȤϤʤפ餤ΤΤ
ʤthumb θűѸ þūma Ѳ̾ˤäΤǡѸǤͽۤʣʼʤгʡˤ -n ķ֤PChron ǤϤǤ -s ʣ þumbes Ǥ롥䤬Ĵ٤ϰϤǤϡѸ쥳ѥǤθ줬ʣ -s ȤϤ줬ͣΤΤǤ롥
Clark, Cecily, ed. The Peterborough Chronicle 1070-1154. London: OUP, 1958.
Ѹη硤Ѹ˾Τ礭Ǥ (synthesis) ʬ (analysis) ؤѲƤ뤳Ȥ¿ (see synthesis_to_analysis) ޤ˸СȤ϶ޤ˰¸ؤʬϤȤϸֻ졦ưλѤ˰¸ؤ synthetic 뤤 analytic ʸʤʳˤϤʤȤȡޥˤߤơɤθ synthesis analysis ξüȤΤɤ֤˰֤Ť뤳Ȥˤʤ롥űѸ줫ѸˤƤϡ analytic 礭ưΤȤƤȤ館롥ߥˤߤȡɽѻȤɽ synthetic ʼʤ analytic ʼʤߤƤ뤳Ȥ˵ŤѸ줫줿ζ̣1Ĥɸ˷Ǥ be nihtes Ǥ롥
Ϣ夲Ƥ롤East Midland ǽ줿פʽѸƥ The Peterborough Chronicle 1137ǯεҤ顤Τ褦ʸʰѤ Clark ǤꡨֻϰѼԡѸĤˡ
Þa namen hi þa men þe hi wenden ðat ani god hefdeˈnˈ, bathe be nihtes 7 be dæies, . . . (year 1137, lines 17--19)
PDE translation: "Then they took the men that they thought had any property, both by night and by day, . . ."
βս be nihtes 7 be dæies ξ̾ -es ϵȤƤʣǤϤʤñ°ʸǤ롥[2009-07-18-1]ˤѸ once, twice, always, sometimes, nowadays, besides, else, needs ʤɤ /s/ ⡤ñ°ʸǤ롥űѸˤϡŪ°ʡ ( adverbial genitive ) ȸƤФ°ʤˡꡤ˻֤ɽ魯̾ -es ղääñȤȤƵǽΤǡֻɬפʤäΤǤ롥űѸǤϡˡפ nihtesˡפ dæges äȤѸˤƱѸʬŪޤäƤȡѸ "by night" "by day" ֻѤɽƤ롥Τ褦˸οܤƤˡűѸŪȶѸŪʬѸŪʺ be nihtes 7 be dæies 줿ΤǤ롥
ʤߤˡűѸŪ°ʤͳ褹 nights ϸߤǤäˡάդȤѤƤ롥
Clark, Cecily, ed. The Peterborough Chronicle 1070-1154. 2nd ed. London: OUP, 1970.
ε[2011-04-18-1]ǡѸƥ The Peterborough Chronicle Ѹ˾ѲָƤ뵮ŤʻǤ뤳ȤҲ𤷤줾ɮ̻ۤʤ뤬The First Continuation The Final Continuation ΥƥȤ֤Ƥ20ǯۤɤû֤˸ʸΰ㤤뤳Ȥ顤Ѳ㤷ƤȤ虜ʤȤ˸ˤƳŦ뤳Ȥ¿Լ Clark ˤȡThe Final Continuation "modernity" ϵʤȤ
The modernity of this language [The Final Continuation] appears also in its syntax. In studying the morphology we have already noted the great simplification of the case-system, in particular the disuse of the dative, and the corresponding adjustments in syntax, including a great increase in the use of analytic constructions. And Rothstein demonstrated how frequently certain constructions typical of Old English, such as inversion of subject and verb after an introductory adverbial phrase, are here abandoned in favour of word-order nearer to that of Modern English. (lxvi)
ν˵ Mitchell θˤȡPChron θȾʬθ "modernity" ϲɾƤȤMitchell ή̩ʸ祿פξʬˤꡤǸ¤ꡤä˺ݤä modern ǤڵϾʤ롥
The word-order of the two Continuations therefore contains much which is common to Old and Modern English, much which cannot occur in Modern English, and nothing which cannot be paralleled in Old English. (138)
Mitchell Ϥ祿פڤ뤫ʤȤ binary ǤϤʤƸ祿פ٤Ǥ뤳ȤǧƤꡤΤȤƤϳΤ "modern" ˿ʤǤȤǧƤ롥ޤˤơŪ줬̾Ǥʤ̾Ǥ SOV ʸ The Continuations Ǥϳ̵ǤŦͣκݤä "modernity" ǤȤǧƤ롥ޤ Mitchell ϸűѸ줫ǤϤʤϢ³ΤۤŻ뤷Ƥ롥
ʹ礭ʸѲθƥȤȤƤ PChron ɾϡΤ褦˵ޤߤǤ롥űѸκǸΥƥȡѸκǽΥƥȤȤ褦ˡʬˤ褦ʻɾ͡ʤΤǤ롥ޤȤ˴ؤϡɤˤ뤫ȤڤΥʤ[2009-12-20-1]ε Sweet ˤѸ˻ʬҲ𤷤PChron ° "Transition Old English" ȸƤӤʤ뵤ʬ롥
űѸ줫ѸؤθȯãˤĤƤ[2009-09-06-1]εȡ
Clark, Cecily, ed. The Peterborough Chronicle 1070-1154. London: OUP, 1958.
Mitchell, Bruce. "Syntax and Word-Order in The Peterborough Chronicle 1122--1154." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 65 (1964): 113--44.
ѸˤǤϡűѸ줫ѸˤƤȤ櫓礭ʸѲƤȤĴ롥 synthesis analysis ؤž ( see synthesis_to_analysis ) ݤȤƤλδ֤Ϣ³䤬뤫Ǥ롥䡤ݤǤʤҴŪˤΤǧ뤳ȤǤΤǤ ([2009-11-04-1]) ʸǤĤƤʤθʹθѲľܤ˴ѻ뤳ȤƥȤθŤʬϤиѲοʹԤ뤳ȤǤ⤢롥Τ褦ʥƥȤ1ĤThe Peterborough Chronicle ʰʹ PChron ˤȤǯ嵭
PChron ϡBodleian, Laud Misc. 636 ˽ƤƥȤǡ1154ǯޤǤΥɤˤǯ嵭Ȥ֤Ƥ롥King Alfred μ (871--99) ԻλϤޤä The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 1ʰ̤EȤƸڤˤǤ롥1121ǯޤǤεϿ The Copied Annals 1122--1131ǯޤǤҤ The First Continuation 1132--1154ǯ The Final Continuation 3ʬʤ롥Ⱦ2ʬϡPeterborough пȤμ̻ƱθƱνƥȤǤꡤ츦 holograph ȤƤβͤ롥ΤᡤѸ˸ǤפʥƥȤȤƤФм夲롥PChron αѸ˸βͤϡԼ Clark (1958) Τ褦ŪΤɽƤ롥
These Peterborough annals are not merely one of the earliest Middle-English documents: they are also the earliest authentic example of that East-Midland language which was to be the chief ancestor of our modern Standard English. (lxvi)
The Continuations θοϡ˸뤳ȤǤ롥ʤηϤϸűѸΤ줫μ¤˿षƤꡤͿʤϾäĤĤ롥ηϤƱͤƤƤ롥ˤ (Hotta 109--15) ̾ʣΤǸ -s ȤϡThe Copied Annals 4䡤The First Continuation 6䡤The Final Continuation 8ȤʤäƤꡤѲܤ˸褦ŪˤʬŪ (analytic) ʷ졤űѸ˸줿Υפΰæѻ롥פʸǤСPChron 1140ǯεϿˡ;̾ scæ "she" Ѹ˾ƸƤ뤳ȤŦƤ she θ츻ԾܤǤꡤʶȤƤ롥[2010-03-02-1]εȡˡ
νפʥƥȤˤĤƤϴܡʸʤɤ뤬WebǥǤΤޤơפȻפΤ
1. Editions
Burrow, J. A. and Thorlac Turville-Petre, eds. A Book of Middle English. 3rd ed. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2005.
Clark, Cecily, ed. The Peterborough Chronicle 1070-1154. 2nd ed. London: OUP, 1970.
Earle, John and Charles Plummer, eds. Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel with Supplementary Extracts from the Others. London: OUP, 1892. 2 vols.
Garmonsway, G. N., ed. and trans. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. London: J. M. Dent, 1972.
Irvine, Susan, ed. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition, Vol. 7, MS. E. Cambridge: Brewer, 2004.
Jebson, Tony, ed. "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: An edition with TEI P4 markup, expressed in XML and translated to XHTML1.1 using XSLT." Available online at http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/. Accessed on 18 April 2011.
Whitelock, Dorothy, ed. The Peterborough Chronicle. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1954.
2. Modern English translations
Killings, Douglas B., trans. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Online Medieval and Classical Library Release #17. Available online at http://www.omacl.org/Anglo/. Accessed on 18 April 2011.
Whitelock, Dorothy, trans. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Revised Translation. London: Eyre, 1961.
3. Monographs and articles
Behm, O. P. The Language of the Later Part of the Peterborough Chronicle. Diss. Upsala, 1884.
Kubouchi, T. and K. Ikegami, eds. Language of Peterborough Chronicle 1066-1154. Tokyo: Gakushobo, 1984. [in Japanese]
Mitchell, Bruce. "Syntax and Word-Order in The Peterborough Chronicle 1122--1154." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 65 (1964): 113--44.
Clark, Cecily, ed. The Peterborough Chronicle 1070-1154. London: OUP, 1958.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
ε[2011-04-16-1]ǡplagiarism κνŤ츻礤˽Ф⤤ǯ٤κǽˤĤμȤǡפˤĤƸʤȤƳɬפäΤǡplagiarism θμդˤ狼Ĵ٤Ǥ롥θ츻ˤȸߤΰճʰ̣ΤĤʤˤϤ߽ФȥåŪˡָ츻ˡפȤϤθ츻ˡǡबȤ⤳Ȥ櫓إȥå٤路֡ (57) ˤСָ츻ˡϸ衤ܤڤȤƶƤƤꡤߤǤʤȥåŪȥݥǤ³Ƥ롥
θ츻ˡȤȥݥμˤʤˤϡդʤФʤʤʤʤС֤θ츻ˡŪ֤ޤ굤ˤȤǤʤطǤä夲뤳ȤФФפǤ (56) 츻Ū¤Ķʤ뤤̵뤷ơǤä夲θ츻äƵѤ륱롥㤨С̤˴ؤ political correctness (PC) εǤ褯Τ줤ΤȤơhuman history ϡman his ޤǤ뤳Ȥ̼ͥҲħǤꡤ˽ʿδ鹥ޤʤפȤΤ롥*huperson *herstory Ȥ줬äƤ褤ΤǤϤʤȤˤʤ뤬츻Ūˤ human man, history his Ϥޤäطʤ¾ΥȥåŪȥݥƱ츻ˡȤǸ̤Ѥ롥
¤ΤȤ伫Ȥ plagiarism θ츻ˡȶüPCԤ human θ츻ˡȤδ֤ˤϡϤʤܼŪʺϤʤθŪ츻ؤ餫ˤƤ̣֤λŪȯãεҤ˽Сhuman εϸä츻˴ŤǤꡤ plagiarism εϡʴΤǤȤϸڤʤȤˤΤʸ츻˰͵Ƥ롥plagiarism 츻ŪˡͶȡפ̣뤫ȤäơबǤ뤳Ȥ뤳ȤϤǤʤ٤ϤϤ뤫⤷ʤʤԤƸ츻ˡѤΤˡϤϤʤ츻ˡϥȥåǤʾ塤ϤǤʤϤäƤˤʤ֡ϥȥåˤ츻ˡΤ褦ŪΤɾƤ롥
ΤˡηϤˤơϲְ̣סָ츻Ūˡײ̣ʤɤȤȤϤʤ츻ˡѤ뤳ȤԤˤϳؤθͤդΡ֤ۤȤΡװ̣ϤǤΤǤ뤫顤ۤοʹ֤ɤϲäƤ狼ʤʤꡤۤ뤷ʤȤ櫓ʤΤ¾θʸ̤Ʊ褦ˡ츻ˡŪŪɷŪʤΤǤꤦ롥ϤȤʤϸʾΤΤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ츻ˡϤĤ⤢ȥåΰʤ˲ʳβʪǤʤά͡ (58)
Ǥϡ֡ϸ츻ˡȥåΥȥݥȤ㤯ɾƤȤȤʤΤؽǡإȥå٤路ƤܿͤȥåΰʤǤ츻ˡ⤷ƤȤϹͤˤԤܽκǸ (170) ǽҤ٤ƤȤꡤ֥ȥåϿƻɬ⤽ǤϤʤʿ¤ΡƶΡʸƻǤϤ롥⤷ϤʤꤦǽäƤ롥
θؤˤơ츻ؤΩ줬ǰ¸ŪǤ뤳Ȥϡ[2010-08-06-1]εָ츻ؤϵݤʳؤפˤȤǤ롥츻˥ȥåȤƤβͤΤ뤳ȤǧȤƤ⡤켫ȤΩηŪʳΰˤʤ뤫ɤǺޤǤ롥츻ؤݤǤäȤƤ⡤츻ȥåΥȥݥǤäȤƤ⡤츻ʳءˤϰ̤ñȯλμʾβΤ˹줬θĿŪʻפǤ롥
ϢȤơפӸ츻 ([2009-05-10-1]) ȡ֤פӸ츻 ([2009-06-05-1]) ȡ
֡ ͺ إȥå١ҡʸ˥ӡ2000ǯ
ضθǤϡȤDzݤݡȤʤɤˤߤबȤʤäƤ롥켭ŵ٤ˤȡȤϡ¾ͤʸϡʡʤɤѤʬΤΤȤȯɽ뤳ȡפȤ롥ڤ˥־ξԡ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤꡤߵ郎㤯ʤäƤΤƱˡԤʤԤκΰռ㤯ʤäƤ롥פϡȤספϡ֤äפΰդǡ٤ο蘆ǤȤ館Ƥʤ褦ࡤפ̣ñ plagiarism θ츻ҤȤȡȺȤƤνŤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥
plagiarism 뤤 plagiary ϡ17˥ƥ줫ѸäƤǤ롥ƥ plagiārius ͶȡפؤѸǤ⡤plagiary Ѥƴ֤ʤ17ˤϤθݤƤθ塤ѤȤʤäƥ plagiārius ͶȡפΤȤˤʤäƤΤϡplaga ּѤ֡櫡פǤ롥櫤館뤳ȤߤǤꡤͶǤä̤ȡĸ *plek- ԤפȤ캬ؤɤ夯θ캬ϡִפȤꡤ-ple ( ex. simple, triple, multiple ), -plex ( ex. complex ), -plicate ( ex. duplicate, implicate ) ʤɤŪȯã
Τ褦ˡplagiarism ϡԤע֡ע櫡עͶעפȤճʰ̣ϢˤȯãƤˤäǤ롥ͶªʤСκνŤʬٶ Ambrose Gwinnett Bierce The Devil's Dictionary (1911) ˤȡư plagiarize ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥"To take the thought or style of another writer whom one has never, never read." ˡޤ
Ѹζѥε§ϡ§Ȥ "left-prominent and morphologically governed" Ǥꡤ Germanic Stress Rule (GSR) ȸƤФ롥ϡ[2009-10-26-1], [2009-10-31-1]ǥޥħ1ĤȤָ촴1˶פ[2009-11-13-1]εǸ褦ˡѸʹߡեƥѸ줬̤ˤ⤿餵褦ˤʤꡤѸαΧ "right to left and phonologically governed" §Ȥ Romance Stress Rule (RSR) ääʹߤαѸ챤Χˤϡȿ2Ĥζ§ߤ˴ĤˤǤ롥ơϸߤˤޤ³Ƥ롥
Halle and Keyser βŪʸʹߡѸƳ줿 RSR ѸαΧѳפ⤿餷Ȥ롤嵭Τ褦ʸͭϤȤʤäƤ뤬Minkova ˤСѸǤ RSR θ̤ϲɾƤ뤭餤ȤषGSR Ϥɾ٤ǤȤոΤ褦˹ͤ뺬ϤĤ롥Minkova (169--73) εޤȤ褦
(1) RSR GSR ɬȿΤǤϤʤ㤨С3Ǥϸ̤ɽŪ˰פ㤬롥máidenhòod (by GSR) and víolènt (by RSR) ʤɡ
(2) Ƭ˶֤ʤ൬§ GSR ϡФХޥƬˤŬѤ졤äưѸǤ̤Ǥ롥Ѹ confirm, deduct, displease, enlist, expose ʤɤζ֤ȡʤ̾ƻǤ϶1˰ܹԤ̾ưפˤĤƤϡ[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1]ȡ
(3) ѸŪᤤ˱ѸäեѸϡƱƤꡤGSR ˤäƶ1˰ܹԤƤ
(4) ѸǤ RSR GSR ζˤեѸ줬ͤ˶֤ɤΤ褦ˤ뤳Ȥ롥ŵŪȤƵΤϡChaucer λ "In dívers art and in divérse figures" (FrT 1486) Ǥ롥ܤĴ٤ȸˤäɤ٤ϰۤʤ뤷Χΰ֡ʲ֤ˤ뤫ݤ) ȶɤʬۤĴȡ¿ɤ줬Χ˵ΤǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ºݤäդǤϡŦƤ빭ϤɤϤʤäȹͤ졤GSR ŬѤˤꤹǤ1˶ƤѸ¿ä
RSR ƳˤѸ챤Χưɤϸۤ˲ŪʤΤǤϤʤäȤRSR ȤϰۤʤŪʶѥ⤿餷ȤϳΤǤ롥ä˸ʳŪѥϡ3ᤫʤѸǿβ˶륱Ǥ롥ʲθϡʤȤѤ줿2˶Ƥcalendar, sinister, memento, placebo. ޤ3äǽü2ˤʤäƤΰ֤Ѥ餺2ޤޤθ⾯ʤʤädivers(e), legend(e), maner(e), honour(e), montayn(e), natur(e), tempest(e), sentenc(e), solemn(e). θϡαѸ챤Χ餹Ȱۼʶѥ˽äƤꡤRSR ѸαΧ˰ξ⤿餷ȤϳΤǤ롥
Minkova ϡѸʳǤΤȤƽ GSR ޤŪǤꡤRSR ˲ŪʱƶϤƤʤȼĥ롥Ѹ챤Χ礭ưɤäȤС̤Υƥ ([2010-08-18-1], [2009-08-19-1]) Ф Renaissance ʹߤΤȤ
. . . in spite of the influx of 10,000 Romance loanwords, words of Germanic origin continued to constitute the bulk of the core vocabulary of Middle English, accounting for seventy-five to ninety-five per cent of the wordstock, depending on register. It was only during the Renaissance that the balance began to shift in favour of non-Germanic patterns, bringing about the co-existence of two typologically different systems of stress in modern English. (172--73)
ưɤ顤ߤˤޤ³κޤ줿Ҥ̾ư⤽Ʊ֤Ǥζ֤κۤ⤽Ǥ롥ʲϸԤˤĤƤ Minkova θڡ
Seen in the larger context of prosodic typology, however, the accentuation of derived Romance words introduced a major new paradigm of stress-shifting in English. For the first time in the history of the language words derived from the same root started to exhibit disparate prosodic contours: móral--morálitèe, párish--paríshonèr, sólemn--solémpnitè, vólume--volúminòus. (173)
Halle, M. and S. J. Keyser. English Stress: Its Form, Its Growth, and Its Role in Verse. New York: Harper and Row, 1971.
Minkova, Donka. "The Forms of Speech" A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 159--75.
ޤƱ۵ ( homonymic clash ) ˤĤƤĤƤΤ ( see homonymic_clash ) Ϣ뻨¿ɲŪ˥⡥
1. [2011-04-11-1]εѲƱ۵ ( homonymic clash ) ˤäư줿ȼȤϡ̤ǤŪԤǤСΤ褦ʸݤ
(1) Ʊ۵ͤƤϰˤΤߤˡθѲѻʤФʤʤƱ۵ͤƤʤϰˤǤϡθѲѻƤϤʤʤ
(2) Ʊ۵ͤŪθѲԤƤ뤳ȤΤ˼ʤФʤʤ
(3) Ʊ۵ͤƤ֤ûʤФʤʤСƱ۵ͤ塤ޤ֤θѲˤäƾͤ褵ƤʤФʤʤ
(4) Ʊ۵ͤƤ2ϡƱʻ°syntagmatic ڤ paradigmatic ˿ƤꡤỊ̇ȿСʤȤ˰ۤʤäƤʤФʤʤ
嵭ǤθѲפȤϡͤƤҰѤȤʤäꡤ֤ΰ۲Фꡤ̣ΰ۲Фꤹ뤳Ȥޤࡥ
(1)?(4) ν㤬СƱ۵ͤˤͶȯ줿ѲפȤߤʤȤ˰ԤϤʤΤ褦㤬ФƤǽϤ餯̵ŪˤϤ줾ξ¿ˤơŬ礹㤬뤫ɤõ᤹뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
2. θ٤ȤơʬŪ homonym Ȥ homophone homograph ˤĤƤ⡤ͤȤη̤ȤƤθѲϵꤦΤȤ꤬ʳѸˤĤƤ[2010-02-07-1]ȡˡξ硤ȯʸΤ줫Υ٥ǤʬŪʾͤʤΤǡͤưŤϽ homonym ξ⤺äȼ夤ȹͤ롥ܸǤ2ϸͤʬȤꡤƱۻϤޤäʤʡ֤פб44δ[2010-02-06-1]ȡˡ⤷ˤ̤ʤСͤǺȤʤäƤǤ⡤[2010-10-18-1]ǸȤꡤֹŷפȡֹŷפΤ褦˴ʤǤϤʤ
3. ж (397) ˤȡƱ۵ΰ˧ʤ̣ĤȤˤס㤨С֥Сפ̣Ȥ ass donkey ޤ뤬¯ arse ֤פƱ۵Ǥ롥ξ硤˧װ̣ͭ¦θ줬Ѳ٤Ѱ˷̤ˤʤȤȤ
4. Ʊ۵ͤͤ˻аޡʡϡˡͤƤ֡˲ä˻аޡʡϡˤȤưŪʲªʳǤɤΤ褦ʥѥ뤫㤫õФȤɬפʤΤǤϤʤϤȤƤϡѲˤΡѤˤΡ̤Ʊ۵ͤνϡʤζͤΤ褦ʻ[2011-04-10-1]ǸˤˤΤͤ롥ϤȤƤϡҤΤ褦ѡ֤ΰ۲̣ΰ۲ͤ롥ֻۤʤΤѤꡤ°饹̾ʤɡˤѤꤹˤäƤϸ褦 ( Bussmann 210 )
5. ͼΤ˴ؤΤ2ǤäƤ⡤Ƹظˤʣ̣ξ ( semantic field ) ꡤäỌ̇̄ηǤ͡Ѳ¥ץå㡼ѤƤ롥2줽ΤΤǤʤϢ췲ΤΤʤǤ2ΰ֤Ťθ뤳ȤˤäơͤΤ⤿餹ǤԹͽۤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤ顤"potential homonymy" Ȥǰ롥
. . . homonymy should be graded according to the evidence on a scale of 'more or less', and not simply of 'absent or present'. Attention has been too often focussed on actual obsolescence, while there has been neglect of the study of potential homonymy, of its effects on the frequency and semantic area of a given word, and of the relation of those effects to other words in the same semantic field. (Samuels 73)
6. Ʊ۵ͤˤĤƤϼʸ롥
Malkiel, Y. "Problems in the Diachronic Differentiation of Near-Homophones." Language 55 (1979): 1--36.
Menner, R. J. "The Conflict of Homonyms in English." Language 12 (1936): 229--44.
Wartburg, W. von. Einführung in die Problematik und Methodik der Sprachwissenschaft. 3rd rev. ed. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1970.
Williams, E. R. The Conflict of Homonyms in English. New Haven: Yale UP, 1944.
ʾ塥
ж Ϻ ԡظѸؼŵ١Ʋ1973ǯ
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ǯ١ǽμȤǤĤߤȤƼ»ܤƤѸʻˡˤ˴ؤ3ǯ٤ϤۤȤɺǯ٤ΤΤƱ⥹饤ɤܥ֥δϢؤΥޤѸ괬ĶǯðŪ®٤ѲƤꡤ䤷ƤͥǡϤǤ˸ŤʤäƤǽ⤤ΤǡåץǡȤ٤ʤΤƳѤȤȤǻͤޤǤˡѤͻ Graddol ¾
2011ǯǥȥѻ
2011ǯǥȥʲ饤ɡ
2010ǯǤ[2010-04-13-1]2009ǯǤ[2010-03-15-1]ȡ
Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm
Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia ꡤѸˤ˴ϢͭפʸϿޤĤȤǤ롥ǤΤǥץ쥼ʲ˥ĥäƤ
Approximate locations of Indo-European languages in contemporary Eurasia ʴϢư²ηޤϡ[2009-06-17-1], [2010-07-26-1]ȡ *
Distribution of the Germanic languages in Europe ʴϢƥޥɤηޤϡ[2009-10-26-1]ȡ *
Distribution of Romance languages in Europe *
Distribution of the Slavic languages in Europe *
The distribution of Old English dialects *
The distribution of Middle English dialects ѸʬˤĤƤϡ[2009-09-04-1]ȡ *
English Language Imperialism: The English Language Across the World ˤѸιˤĤƤϡ[2010-05-08-1]ȡ *
ε[2011-04-10-1]ǡѸǤ "though" "they" Ʊ۵ ( homonymic clash ) Ҳ𤷤Υ̤˹ͤƤƱ۵ͤȰۤʤäƤܤͤϡ"though" "they" ȤǤʻ줬ۤʤ뤳Ȥ̾Ʊ۵ͤ[2010-10-18-1], [2010-11-07-1]νǸ褦ˡƱʻƱ۵ ( homonym ) ڥΤȹͤƤ롥ʻ줬ۤʤСȤƱǤäƤ̣ŪǽŪ㤬Ǥꡤʸ̮˰¸Ȥ̤ΤĤΤ̤
Samuels ϰۤʤʻƱ۵Ϥʻष٤ȽͿΤƤ롥
It should now be clear why the development described above does not fit the normally accepted canon: both 'they' and 'though' are functionally important words that can co-occur; but, judged by frequency, the importance of 'they' outweighs that of 'though'. The evidence shows, firstly, that if pressure for the adoption of a new form in the commoner (here pronominal) function is overriding, that form will be adopted in spite of the fact that it clashes with the form already in use in the less frequent (here concessive) function; and secondly, that after such an adoption, the proportionately minor (though not in itself small) problem of homonymic clash is automatically remedied by a process of ad hoc regulation. (72)
"though" "they" ξ硤ξȤٸǽפʵǽǤʻͤޤǤˡѸٽ̤ Frequency Sorter ˤȡ줾270̤25̡ˡΤ褦ʹٸڥδ֤˾ͤˤϡŪˤ٤ι⤤ "they" Ǥʤ "though" ɤФɤФ줿 "though" ¦Ϥɤʤ뤫ȸСad hoc ˡʺξϤޤ þouȝ μѤˤ˲褵줿
Samuels ϸѲˤƱ۵͡ʤȤβˤѶŪɾ夯Ϥ뤬̣ξ˾˺ѤƤѲθưϤȼĥ롥
. . . instead of insisting that every one of a certain list of conditions must be satisfied before the possibility of homonymic clash can be considered, the pressure of homonymy should be regarded as potential in some area of most semantic fields, always present to combine with other factors to cause redistributions within that field, and irrespective of whether it eventually causes obsolescence or not. (70--71)
ʤԤϡSamuels Τ褦Ʊ۵ͤѲ˴ͿŪʤΤȤɾƤʤ褦Ǥ롥ϡ"though" "they" ΥΤ褦˳ƸʬִۤΥߥʤɺ٤ʾɬפȤʤΤǾڵŤ뤳ȤȤͳ⤢Ʊ۵͡ʤȤβ˰ʳװǤ⤷ФФʤĤȤͳ⤢ȤäƱ۵ͤŪᾮɾΤŬڤǤʤǡ Samuels Ʊդ
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
[2010-10-18-1], [2010-11-07-1]εƱ۵ ( homonymic clash ) 夲³ though ([2011-04-06-1], [2011-04-07-1]) ǵƤȤ˻פФΤѸؤΤƤ "though" "they" Ʊ۵ͤǤ ( Samuels 69--72 )
ѸǤƱǤˤä֤͡ä˶üȤ[2009-06-20-1] "through" ֻͽۤȤ³ "though" äξǤ롥MED, "though" Ǹֻ˭٤ʬ˴ؤҤ٤ȡѸ쥤ǤϡűѸ West-Saxon þēah ͳ褹 þeiȝ ʤɤ첻ͥäϤǤ˾ääƤꡤþei ʤɤֻ⸫롥ǤϸťΥɸƱ ( cognate ) ͳ褹 þouȝ ʤɤθ첻ͥä
;̾ "they" ˰ܤȡǤϸűѸ hīe ͳ褹 hy ʤ <h> ƬˤķŪͥä (űѸο;̾ηϤ[2009-09-29-1], [2009-10-24-1]Ѹ Chaucer ο;̾ηϤ[2009-10-25-1]ȡˡǤϸťΥɸ줫Ѥ줿 þey ͥäŪˤϡ þouȝ "though", þey "they" Ȥ߹碌 þeiȝ "though", hy "they" Ȥ߹碌˰Ϥ褦ȤƤ
ǡ̤ذϤƤΤϿ;̾ þey "they" Ǥ롥줬˿Ū hy "they" äִƤäǤ þey "though" "they" ξ̣뤳ȤˤʤꡤƱ۵ͤƱ۵ͤ餱˲äΤϡ٤ȽŪ³ "though" Τۤä"though" ϡ"they" Τ˶̤ þouȝ ʤɤθ첻줿̤ȤơȤ߹碌ˤѤ줿Ȥˤʤ롥ơ줬ɸѸˤäƤ롥
þouȝ "though" þey "they" ʬΤϡhy "they" þouȝ "though" פȤ߹碌ȤʸڤƥȤ1ĤʤȤǤ ( Samuels 71 ) Ȥþey "they" Ȳꤷͽۤ þey "they" þeiȝ Ȥ߹碌ϡΥƥȤˤƼºݤʸڤΤǤ롥Τ褦ʥƥȤǤȤȤϡþey Ʊ۵ͤû֤³ʤäȤ롥Ʊ۵ͤƴ֤ʤþouȝ "though" Ȥǡ꤬褵줿ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ʾ夬Samuels "though" "they" Ʊ۵ͤ˴ؤǤ롥Samuels ƤʤΤϡʤ þey "they" ޤǽȤȤǤ롥¤ϡˤϤ⤦1ĤƱ۵ͤǤ롥 hy "they" ϡ첻ӽñ;̾ hē ȷ־ζ̤Ĥʤʤ롥 h Τ˶̤ th η֤ʣ;̾ȤƳ뤳Ȥˤäơ;̾ηϤˤƱ۵ͤ褷褦ȤΤǤϤʤΤ褦˹ͤȡþey "they" 1ܤξͤ褷ǤϤ뤬2Ĥξͤ⤿餷ĥܿͤǤ⤢äȤˤʤ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
aged, beloved, crooked, dogged, jagged, learned, naked, ragged, wicked, wretched ʤɤβʬƻ줬2ȤȯˤĤơ[2011-01-30-1]ε롥εǤϡʤΤ褦ʰθ췲ǤΤߡ2첻ݻ줿ˤĤƵ褷ٸȤϤ ( Frequency Sorter dzǧѤߡˡ٤ϴطʤˡȽˡκͿƤǽ뤳ȤϡκǸǼ
ƻȤƤˡΰ㤤ˤɤΤ褦˴Ϳ뤫ˤϡΧ ( prosody ) ꥺԹ ( eurythmy ) ȤƳɬפ롥ˡȤѤƻϡ̾ľ̾줬롥ľˤϥȤμ夤ؼΤ뤳Ȥ¿ŵŪȤ a lovely girl ͤȡȤ嶯嶯³嶯 ( iamb ) Ǹ롥ϡѸǺǤŵŪǼ˿Ϥ褤Χ1ĤǤ롥ΰ֤ˤƻ줬1˥Ȥ2ǤۤѸαΧ塤Թ礬褤Ȥ狼aged, naked, wicked ʤθ췲ϡޤˤΤ褦ʡԹΤ褤ײṽ¤ʤƤ롥⡤¿ȤƸˡѤ롥my aged aunt, their beloved Ireland, a crooked nose, the jagged edges, a learned journal, a naked body, a ragged jacket, a wicked witch, the wretched animal ʤɡѸβʬǤϤʤ-id ĥƥѸ solid, squalid, timid, vivid ˤ2⡤餯Ʊͳݻ줿ȹͤ (Minkova 327--28)
ʬƻθ -ed Ǥʤ -en ޤȡˡ ( predicative use ) ȸˡ ( attributive use ) Τ줾Ѥ֤κϤˤʤ롥Minkova (327) ˵Ƥʲ˼
| PREDICATIVE | ATTRIBUTIVE |
|---|---|
| The case is proved. | a proven case |
| The sailor is drunk. | a drunken sailor |
| His knee is bent. | one bended knee |
| The main had burst. | a bursted main |
ʲˡѤ Log-Likelihood Tester, Ver. 2 ʸ褦ˡϥǡΥեޥåȤ䡤⡼ɤŬڤƤʤˤϥСǥ顼ǽΤա
| though | although | |
|---|---|---|
| Natural and pure sciences | 56.3 | 80.13 |
| Applied science | 37.36 | 68.31 |
| World affairs | 45.81 | 68.2 |
| Social science | 48.98 | 63.38 |
| Commerce and finance | 46.18 | 57.21 |
| Arts | 74.07 | 52.93 |
| Leisure | 45.85 | 49.46 |
| Belief and thought | 70.78 | 46.75 |
| Imaginative prose | 80.2 | 26.37 |
ε[2011-04-06-1]ǡthough although θˡκ˿줿Ʊǡ
4000Ķʤ The Longman Spoken and Written English Corpus (the LSWE Corpus) ȤѸʸˡBiber et al. (845--46) ǤϼΤ褦ˤ롥
Both of these subordinators [though and although] occur in all four registers [conversation, fiction, news, and academic prose], although the registers show different preferences of use. Conversation and fiction show a slightly greater use of though (concessive clauses are, however, uncommon in conversation generally). News shows no particular preference. In academic prose, although is about three times as frequent as though. Although seems to have a slightly more formal tone to it, fitting the style of academic prose . . . . The greater use of although by writers of academic prose may also result from an attempt to distinguish this subordinator from the common use of though as a linking adverbial in conversation . . . .
ޤƱ p. 842 ɽϡŪ though fiction ¿although academic prose ¿Ȥǧ롥ˤ뺹ƤȤη̤
Τ褦Ըơ BNC ( The British National Corpus ) ˤꤳΤƤߤ롥BNCweb ǡ{although/CONJ}, {though/CONJ} 줾측Written/Spoken, Text Domain, Sex of Author/Speaker, Perceived Level of Difficulty ʤ͡ʥѥǽиʬۤʬϤΩä̤ʲ˼ʿͥǡϤΥڡHTMLȡˡ
ޤWritten/Spoken κˤĤƤϡͽۤȤꡤξȤ Written ؤФ꤬㤷ʺ۷ though 0.66344 although 0.49770 ǡ餫˽դФˡLog-Likelihood Test Ǥϡp < 0.0001 Υ٥ǽդäդͭպΤ˼줿
ꡤäˤ뺹ⶽ̣դäդξǡalthough ͭպäλѤФäƤ롥though ˤĤƤϡ although ۤɸǤϤʤʤդǤ p < 0.05 ͭպˡ
ˡText Domain ̤٤ߤ롥9 Text Domain ̤ ( Natural and pure sciences, Applied science, World affairs, Social science, Commerce and finance, Arts, Leisure, Belief and thought, Imaginative prose ) 100νиɸಽͤǡξ Text Domain ٤ղΤʲοޤ

Text Domain ˤäξνи٤оŪʷ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ū sciences ( = academic prose ) although ΩImag(inative) Prose ( = fiction ) though ¿Log-Likelihood Test ǤϡText Domain ˤиκ p < 0.0001 ͭդǤ롥
ľŪˤԸη̤ͽۤȤǤϤ뤬although νˤؽѻʸǸѤȤ줿
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
°³ though although θˡμʰ㤤ϡԤĥäȤʸѤ뷹ȤHuddleston and Pullum (736) Ǥϡ"Although and though are alternants, the latter slightly more informal." Ȥ롥إϥѸ켭ŵ٤θˡˤȡ¾ˤƸθˡ˼Τ褦ħ䷹Ȥ
(1) ̣ξǤϤۤƱǤ뤬 though ΤۤϤ뤫̤θǡalthough ϤʸŪ
(2) It's expensive, though. ֤Ǥ⤤פΤ褦ʸŪˡ although ˤϤʤ
(3) as though, even though though although Ѥ뤳ȤϤʤʸƬǤ Although it is expensive. (ɡäѤ⤤)Τ褦ˡȤѤ롥
(4) young though he is (㤤ȤϤ)Τ褦ʹʸ although Ѥʤ
(5) ԤƳȤ(ǤϤʤ)ޤä¤Ҥ٤ʤɤǤ although ΤۤѤ뷹롥
Mizuno (41--42) ˤȡξħӸϰ̣õǽδ͡ˤʤƤMizuno ϡ(al)though Ƴ뽾°Ԥ뤫³뤫ȤŪʴˡ̣ʬ ( standard concessive, rhetorical concessive, contrast, rectifying concessive ) ݤ碌ơCOCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) fiction newspaper articles ФʬϤ
ĥٹ礤Ȥΰִط̣ʬʤɤˤäơѸˤ though although θˡκ뤳Ȥϼθˤä餫ˤƤ뤬κˤƤȤŪʴθϤޤʤΤǤϤʤ
ŪŪˤϡalthough though ˶դ all ղä줿ʣǤ롥Ѹ "even though" "even if" Τ褦˾䲾ɽȤѸǤ "all though", "all if", "all be it" ( PDE "albeit" ) Τä֤夷 "though all"' "if all" ɽ⤢ä ( OED, "all" 10c ) ³ؤ "all" ղäѸǤ̤ΤȤǤꡤ[2011-03-21-1]εǼ夲 also ⤽1Ǥ롥OED εҤˤȡalthough ϤΤ褦 though ζä1400ǯޤǤˤ϶դ though θطˤʤʤꡤֻȤƤ1֤褦ˤʤä
ѸǤϡ˽Ҥ٤褦ξθˡκϳΤˤꡤthough ñʤطªǤԽʬǤ롥κŪ¦̤ȤСʶ餯Ȼפ뤬ˡOED "practically only a variant" ȤҤûŪȤȤˤʤ졤̣Ѱ ( register ) ʤɤؤꡤ⤷Ѹˤθоݤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
Mizuno, Yoko. "A Quantitative Analysis of Although and Though Clauses: Their Commonalities and Differences." Studies in English Literature. Regional Branches Combined Issue. Vol. 3 (2011): 47--66. (As Hokkaido Review of English Literature 55 (2010): 41--60.)
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
餫δǽñΥꥹȤŪ٤ν¤ؤȤ롥㤨С[2011-03-22-1]褦ˡ٤Ե§ʿȤδطĴ٤ȤˡܤʷˤΰŪ٤Τɬפ롥Ūˤϡ[2010-03-01-1]ǾҲ𤷤褦絬Ϥѥѥ˴ŤɽͭѤǤ롥BNC lemma-pos list (122KB) ANC word-tagset list (7.2MB) ʤɤθĤҤȤĸٿٽ̤Ĵ٤Ƥ椱Ф褤¿ˤݤǡ嵭2Ĥɽ顤Ϥʷˤ٤Ƚ̤Ф CGI
ԤǤ⥹ڡǤ⥫ޤǤ褤Τڤ줿ñꥹȤʲΥܥåϤ"Frequency Sort Go!" å롥Ϸ̤ٽ̤ι⤤˥Ȥˤϡ"sort by rank?" ˤʥǥեȤǥդˤȡϽ˽Ϥˡ㤨СɸѸ˻Ĥ i-mutation ʣϰʲ7ΤߤǤʣ졤ʣ[2011-04-01-1]ˤ sister(e)n ϽˡԡƥܥåϤ롥
foot, goose, louse, man, mouse, tooth, woman
ɸθϡ֡ʥӥ졤ȥ륳졤ڥ륷Ρԡפ̣롥OED θϡ"An interpreter; strictly applied to a man who acts as guide and interpreter in countries where Arabic, Turkish, or Persian is spoken." Ǥ롥츻ϥӥ tarjumān ԡפǡ͡ʸͳե줫Ѹ drugeman Ȥ14˼Ѥ줿 MED ȡˡϡޤǶɤǤ Kyng Alisaunder ȤΤǡʲ˰Ѥ롥Alexander οʷФơDarius ΤȤ Salome ˷褦¥̡Smithers ǤꡥֻϰѼԡ
For Alisaunder is ypassed Achaye, And is ycome to Arabye, And is on þis half þe flum Jordan, And so me seide a drugeman. Haue we þe feld ar he, We scullen hym wynne, hym maugre.' (B 3395--400)
θ줬⤷Τϡ츻Ūˤ man Ȥ̵طˤ⤫餺man ޤʣȸäʬϤ졤dragomen ʤʣ鸽Ƥ뤳ȤμǤ⡤ʣȤ dragomans ˲ä dragomen ܤƤ롥Quirk et al. (306) Ǥ⡤". . . the irregular plural can be found also in nouns that are not 'true' compounds with -man; eg: dragoman ? dragomans or dragomen." ȤƸڤƤ롥 German *Germen, human *humen ʣƤޤפʬ ( metanalysis ) ˴ŤѤȤ뤬ѤˤĹ˵ܤۤɤ˰̲ȤȤBNC θǤϡdragomans 3㡤dragomen 1㤢ä
̾̾ʣηƯ ( analogy ) ϡ¿ -s ʣؤΰĤȤƯ٤Ե§ i-mutation ˤʣǤäƤ⡤Ȥ櫓٤ι⤤ men ε۰Ϥ˶ȹͤ ([2011-03-22-1]) ѸäˤƥפοȤưŪʵ۰Ϥؤ -s μΤʤǡñΤ٤Ȥ˹⤤۰Ϥͭ men ʤȿƤ---ʹޤ뤫⤷ʤʤʤߤˡѸ̾ʣθǤϡʣ20496ȡΤ2431ȡ man ʣäμȤΥͥ륮 11.86% men ƤȻפϫ
Smithers, G. V. ed. Kyng Alisaunder. 2 vols. EETS os 227 and 237. 1952--57.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Ѹä14˥ɤǽ˱Ѹ줬եΤӤ졤ƤäаޤˤĤƤϡ ( Black Death ) ̱ ( Peasants' Revolt ) reestablishment_of_english γƵǽҤ٤ƤʴϢǯɽ[2009-09-05-1]ȡˡѸȤäƤ⡤ѸȤ줬ǽưŪϰ̤θޤä櫓ǤϤʤޤDZѸȤ͡μҲŪϰ̡ȯϤ夷ȤȤǤ롥
θ͡ФеΤĹʩɴǯ ( Hundred Years' War ) ˤ̱ηкôȹ¤ˤǤ롥¤ˤϫƯꡤϫƯԤ¾夲ᤷϡε[2011-04-02-1]Ǽꤢ "deference society" ȤɤγҲФĩäޤ social deference ᤷ³ϡ¾夲˸٤ߤƬ ( poll tax ) ɲŪƳʤɤơϫƯԤդʤǤ14Ⱦаʹߡ̱濴ȤϺؤμҲŪкŪϳμ¤礷ƤꡤεȤ1381ǯ̱䤬äΤä
ϫƯθݢϫƯԤȯϤâѸȤˤϡɬ⼫ưŪήȤߤʤȤϤǤʤRigby (36) ˤȡ˲ Brenner ϼΤ褦˼ĥƤ롥
. . . the successes of the English peasantry in their struggles against their lords in the later Middle Ages were not simply a product of population decline, which strengthened the bargaining position of tenants against their landlords. Rather, the ability of the peasants to organize to throw off manorial impositions and restraints was itself an independent variable in the equation: population decline could just as logically have led to the intensification of serfdom, as it did in seventeenth-century Bohemia, as to its demise . . . .
"the ability of the peasants to organize" ̱ȿϡפȤ̱ΰտŪʼʼĥɽ路Ƥ롥δ餹ȡѸ⡤кŪʸطʤˤʤ⡤ޤDZѸüԤǽưŪϰ̸ΰߤˤäƤȸ
̱ϡʹߤοƬǤ줿ǰŪյϤäRichard II θŤˤäưפ˲ޤƤޤäˡܼŪʼҲ̿ȸƤ٤ۤɤΤΤˤϤʤʤäɤμҲѳפϤΤ褦ˤäȤߤǿʤˤƱ褦˱ѸˤäΤǤϤʤ˿ʹԤΤǤ롥
Rigby, S. H. "English Society in the Later Middle Ages: Deference, Ambition and Conflict." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 25--39.
ɼҲŵŪʥϡҲŪưξʤҲǤȤȤRigby (27) ϡ18ΥɼҲ "deference society" ȤƤȤ館 Maurice Keen θդڤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . a 'deference society', i.e. one characterized by 'an ordered gradation' of social ranks which are hierarchically arranged 'by scales which regulate the respect and the kind of service which one man or woman may expect of another, or may expect to pay another'. 'In the minds of men of that age, the relations of deference and service that persisted between the grades (of society) were the basis of social order, of its essence: they had not yet come to regard social distinctions as divisive, as forces with the potential to tear society apart' . . . . (27)
θˤȡɤμҲϡĿͤμҲŪͿ줿ʬ褦᤹ҲǤꡤ˴¸μҲѳפ褦Ȥ뤤ʤߤҲȤȤˤʤ롥
ʸؤΤʤˤθٻ뺬õȡJohn Gower (1325?--1408) Υƥ Vox Clamantis (5.15, p. 215) ˼μĥȤ Rigby, p. 27 αѡˡ
When a poor man is elevated in the city through an unexpected fate, and the unworthy creature is allowed to reach the height of honour, then nature suddenly groans at the changed state of things and grieves at the unaccustomed rarity.
ǻפФΤKyng Alisaunder ΤȤ륷Ǥ롥ڥ륷 Darius Alexander Թ綠ƨȤǡϲ2ͤڤ Besas Besanas ˤäǻɤȤ̤Ǥ롥Ǹϡʤ뵳Τϲܤ٤ǤϤʤȶ롥Smithers ǤѤ롥
Fundelynges weren þai two Þat her lorde biseiȝen so. Þerfore ne shulde no gentil kniȝth Neuere norissh no founden wiȝth, Ne beggers blood brynge in heiȝe wyke, Bot he wolde hym-seluen biswyke. (B 4595--60)
θ塤Alexander 2ͤޤޤ路ΤȹʼˤϤɤǤϤʤѸθİ "social deference" Ȥơξ̤ᤷƤΤ⤷ʤ
ºݤΤȤRigby εϡɡᶳμҲפϥƥ쥪פǤꡤĿͤμҲŪ;ϤϳΤˤä³ä˹¤θ塤14ȾϼҲϤήưŪˤʤꡤĿͤμҲŪưޤäȤ롥ȤϤҲΤȤƤϡֶפǤˤäơֳ̿פܻؤϼŪʻκʬ夯餤ˤϽʬֶ ǤäȤΤ Rigby ηΤ褦
ɤ deference society ϡ٥ǤϤɤΤ褦ʴߤ餴ȤѼ2;̾λȤʬ ([2011-03-01-1], [2010-07-11-1], [2010-02-12-1][2009-10-29-1]) ˻פĤޤ[2010-10-24-1]ǾҲ𤷤˸ ( historical pragmatics ) ؤäƤ
Rigby, S. H. "English Society in the Later Middle Ages: Deference, Ambition and Conflict." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 25--39.
Smithers, G. V. ed. Kyng Alisaunder. 2 vols. EETS os 227 and 237. 1952--57.
ε[2011-03-31-1]ǡűѸο²̾ζɽbrethren εˤĤƤڤȴϢƿ²̾줪դ ( analogy ) ⤦ĵ褦brethren Ȥ sister(e)n Ȥʣ롥MED εҤˤ褦ˡѸǤ -(e)n Ϥ̤Ǥꡤ-s ̲Τ brother ξƱʹߤǤ롥դϻΰʤΤǡܺ٤ʥǡäƤ롥ѸǤ⥤ɤǤ -s ͥǤϤλ sister ʣϸ§Ȥ -n 뤤첻θݤƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ ( Hotta, p. 256 )
ơsister(e)n ϸѸĤäƤ뤬brethren Ȱۤʤꡤ̾MˤϵܤƤʤBNC ( The British National Corpus ) ǤҥåȤʤäCOCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ), COHA ( Corpus of Historical American English ) ǤϤ줾4㡤1519ȾʹߤˤҥåȤäѤ饢ꥫѸʹ뤳Ȥʬ롥COCA 1ĵ롥Ƥ "CNN Crossfire" ǤֻϰѼԡˡ
Well, you know, I hate to correct you, but you made the same mistake many of your liberal brethren and sisteren, have said in analyzing this dissent by Judge Stevens.
COCA, COHA ξѥη19Τ16ޤǤ brethren and sister(e)n ȤƸ졤˥եѤ졤dear my ԤƤӤλȤ¿brethren Ʊͤ˽ŪȹŪʸ̮ǸƤ褦ꤵ줿ȤƤΤۤʸŪʸ̤⤢Τ⤷ʤϢơOED sister θ5ѤƤ"In the vocative, as a mode of address, chiefly in transferred senses. Also colloq. as a mode of address to an unrelated woman, esp. one whose name is not known."
äѤ饢ꥫѸѤ뤳ȤˤĤƤϡMencken (502) Ƥ롥
Sisteren or sistern, now confined to the Christians, white and black, of the Get-Right-with-God country, was common in Middle English and is just as respectable, etymologically speaking, as brethren.
sister(e)n Ȥʣ˴ؤŪϡḽ奢ꥫѸǤλѤѸη³ȤƤȤ館٤뤤ϥꥫѸDzƤ⤿餵줿ȤƤȤ館٤Ǥ롥OED ˤȡsister(e)n ϰŪʸϸȤƤ16ȾФѤ줿Ȥ롥Ѹ䥤ꥹѸޤĴʤʬʤ(1) brethren Ȥϻ鷺ꤽǤ뤳ȡ(2) brethren ȵӱƧΤǸƤӤʤɸä˹ޤ줽Ǥ뤳ȡ2饢ꥫѸǤκƷȹͤΤǤϤʤѸ츻Ū sister(e)n Ф줿餤顤ѸDzƺ줿ȤƤԻĤϤʤ
sister(e)n ̾μˤϺܤäƤʤ餤Υ쥢ʣbrethren, children, oxen (but see [2010-08-22-1]) Ʊ˻Ĥ뾯 -en ʣ֤Ƥ롥
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. Abridged ed. New York: Knopf, 1963.
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