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[2012-06-28-1], [2012-06-29-1]ϢҲ𤷤Ƥ MRC Psycholinguistic Database ˴Ťơ4ĤαѸפǡեλ˼ƤɽȤ˥դ̤Υѥ˴ŤĴԤʤäƤΤ⤢ΤǡӤͤͥǡϡHTMLȡ
(1) ʸˤ

(2) ǿˤ

ʻ͡
[2012-02-13-1]: #1022. ѸγƲǤ١
(3) ˤ

ʻ͡
[2010-04-09-1]: #347. ñʿѲϤɤΤ餤
[2010-04-10-1]: #348. BNC Word Frequency List ˤ벻ʬĴ
[2010-04-11-1]: #349. BNC Word Frequency List ˤ벻ʬĴ (2)
[2010-04-17-1]: #355. COLT Word Frequency List ˤ벻ʬĴ
(4) ʻˤ

ʻ͡
[2012-06-02-1]: #1132. ñʻ̤γ
[2011-02-23-1]: #667. COCA 50ʻ̤γϡ
[2011-02-22-1]: #666. COCA 5000ʻ̤γϡ
[2011-02-16-1]: #660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨ
¾ä٤䡤̤γˤĤƤϰʲε⻲ȡ
[2010-03-01-1]: #308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ
[2011-08-20-1]: #845. Ѹθäεȳ
[2012-01-07-1]: #985. Ѹθäεȳ
ε[2012-06-28-1]ǾҲ𤷤Ѹåǡ١ MRC Psycholinguistic Database ܥ֥夫ʰġºݤˤϸġȤϡMRC Psycholinguistic Database ѤȡʤȤǤȤȤǥǤˤϷ̤10ԤΤߤ˸ꤷƤ롥ܳŪʻѤˤϡڡǡ١ȸץɤ뤫־Υե (Online search (answers limited to 5000 entries) or Online search (limited search capabilities)) ɤ
# ʸǸäʬ
select NLET, count(NLET) from mrc2 group by NLET;
# ǿǸäʬ
select NPHON, count(NPHON) from mrc2 group by NPHON;
# Ǹäʬ
select NSYL, count(NSYL) from mrc2 group by NSYL;
# -ed ǽƻٽ
select WORD, K_F_FREQ from mrc2 where WTYPE = 'J' and WORD like '%ed' order by K_F_FREQ desc;
# 2̾졤ƻ졤ưѥȤʬ (#814. ̾ưʤ̷ư ([2011-07-20-1]) ڤӡ#801. ̾ưε (3) ([2011-07-07-1]) ȡ
select WTYPE, STRESS, count(*) from mrc2 where NSYL = 2 and WTYPE in ('N', 'J', 'V') group by WTYPE, STRESS;
# <gh> ֻǽꡤ/f/ ȯǽ
select distinct WORD, DPHON from mrc2 where WORD like '%gh' and DPHON like '%f';
# Ե§ʣٽ
select WORD, K_F_FREQ from mrc2 where IRREG = 'Z' and TQ2 != 'Q' order by K_F_FREQ desc;
# ߿Ūʰ̣ĸ
select distinct WORD, FAM from mrc2 where FAM > 600 and CONC > 600;
# 䤹
select distinct WORD, IMAG from mrc2 order by IMAG desc limit 30;
# ̣ͭפʸ
select distinct WORD, MEANC, MEANP from mrc2 order by MEANC + MEANP desc limit 30;
# ̾ưʤʻˤäƶѥΰۤʤ
select WORD, WTYPE, DPHON from mrc2 where VAR = 'O';
ؤʬǤϤ褯Τ줿Ѹθåǡ١Τ褦#1131. 2̾ưŵŪʶѥ ([2012-06-01-1]) ȡ#1132. ñʻ̤γ ([2012-06-02-1]) ǻȤ Amano ʸˤơ¸ߤΤäMRC Psycholinguistic Database ϡ150837줫ʤʸåǡ١Ǥ롥Ƹ˸ŪӿŪ26°ꤵƤꡤʣʾŬ礹ΥꥹȤñ˺ФȤǤΤħŪäؤμ¸ѤåꥹȤʤɤӤä˻Ȥ뤬ѥȤ߹碌Ǥϡưפ˸׳ؤθѤǤ
ѥϼ¤¿ˤ錄롥ʸǿλ˻ϤޤꡤΥѥ˴Ť٤ϰϤˤʤߤǽŪʻɸȤơ familiarity, concreteness, imageability, meaningfulness ʤɤꤵƤ롥ʻʤɤ쥫ƥϤƬά졤ϥեʤɤη֥ƥλǤ롥ȯ䶯ѥλˤбƤ롥Ȥ߹碌ˤäơ褽ΤȤǤΤǤϤʤȻפ碌̤Ǥ롥
ǡ١ȸץɤǤ뤬ץѥ뤹ʤݤ¿Τǡ־ΥեѤΤǤ롥2ĤΥեѰդƤꡤ줾쵡ǽϸꤵƤ뤬̾ӤˤϽʬ
Online search (answers limited to 5000 entries): ѥκ٤꤬ǽϷ̤5000ޤǤ˸¤롥
Online search (limited search capabilities): Ϸ̤ο¤ϤʤŪʥѥκ٤ֻȯΥѥľܻʤɡˤϤǤʤ
Amano, Shuichi. "Rhythmic Alternation and the Noun-Verb Stress Difference in English Disyllabic Words." ̾Ų¤̾Ų¤ݽûס 15 (2009): 83--90.
Ȥʤɤǡˡ§ (Grimm's Law; [2009-08-08-1]) 첻 (Great Vowel Shift; [2009-11-18-1]) ʤɤηŪʤȤߤ˲Ѳ⤹ȡʤΤ褦ѲΤȤѤʵ䤬¿롥ѲθˤĤƤϽȤΰոΩƤꡤϤäꤷȤϸʤΤǤ롥ѸǤܸǤ⡤¾ΤǤ⡤üԤεդ̤ȤDzѲϸߤäȿʹǤ롥ޥˤѸˤ˸¤äƤ⡤¿βѲŪ뤤ʸŪǧƤꡤˡ§첻ܤϡȤ櫓̾ǤϤ뤬¿Τ2Ĥˤʤäơˡ§ˤĤƤΡ֤ʤפ䤦ΤǤСƱ褦̵βѲΡ֤ʤפʤФʤʤʤ롥ѲθϤȤƤ⡤ѲŪǤꡤ˭٤Ǥ뤫ȤȤϵαƤɬפ롥
㤨СѸ Welsh ȯޥĸκƷŪˤʣβѲȤʤФʤʤФ꤫ޥĸ줫űѸ West-Saxon ɸǤ Wīelisc ˤɤ夯ޤǤˤ⡤5ĤβѲͿƤΤǤ (Hamer 34--35) ޥĸȤƤϡ캬 *walh ˷ƻ *-isk ղä *walhisk ƷƤбѸ -ish ˤĤƤϡ[2009-09-07-1]ε#133. ƻĤ -ish γηϩפȡˡ

οޤǤ "raising", "breaking", "sk > sc", "i-mutation", "loss of h and compensatory lengthening" 줾βѲդ줿̾ΤǤ롥ˡ§ʤɤĤ̾դƤʤ줾줬Ωɤ1ĤβѲǤ롥
äϤǽʤűѸ West-Saxon ɸ Wīelisc ˤɤ夤θѸʹߤˤʤäߤɸ Welsh ϢʤΤϡ West-Saxon ǤϤʤAnglian Kentish Ǥ롥űѸ Anglia Ǥϡbreaking 餺ष1첻 æ a ز줬 i-mutation ˤƤ æ ؾ夬ꡤѸǤϤȯŸ e, a ʤɤΰ۷Ω16ʹߤϡe 첻ǸǤޤꡤߤ Welsh ŪʸȤ夷
2첻 i ξüˤĤƤϡűѸ˻Ϥޤä餷i ̵ͭɤѸˤ㤷ä褦MED Welsh (adj.) ȡˡʤFrench Ƭ -ish 첻ξά줿֤Ƥ[2009-10-09-1]ε#165. ̱²ƻ i-mutationפȡˡޤ̾ Wallace, Wallis Welsh Ū۷Ǥ롥
Τ褦ˡΤˤȯŪˤϡ¿βѲפɤȤɬפȤʤ롥ȤơѸ father ĸɤΤ褦˲ŪȯŸƤ[2010-08-20-1]ε#480. father ͥˡ§פ⻲ȡ
Hamer, R. F. S. Old English Sound Changes for Beginners. Oxford: Blackwell, 1967.
admiral ʳ羭ġˤֻˤϡ̣ˤ롥ӥ amīr-al(-bahr) "the commander of (the sea)" ƥäΤǤ롥 d ȯֻޤޤƤʤäƥǡadmīrābilis "admirable" Ȥ䤫顤Ƭ ad- ޤޤƤ뤫Τ褦 admirālis ȤֻԤʤФťեǤϡƥͳֻ admiral Τۤˡӥθ֤Ȥ amiral ⸫줿θϡ1200ǯ˥ե줫ѸäƤƤꡤ <d> Τֻʤֻʻ¸Ƥamiral Τۤͥä<d> admiral ֻ夹Τ16ˤʤäƤǤ롥MED amiral (n.) ȡ
ֳ羭פΰ̣ϡڥ䥷ꥢΥӥ֥ͤ饻γشԡפ amīr-al-bahr ȸƤȤȯꥹȶ̤ΥꥢθƾΤȤƤѤ줿ˡΥСեɤؤäEdward III ΤȤǡAmyrel of the Se admyrall of the navy ȤѤƤ롥
(105--06) Ǥϡadmiral ϥͥοʸԤˤ etymological_respelling 1ĤȤƾҲ𤵤Ƥ롥Τ etymological respelling νϡͥħŪʥƥ줫֤θȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ¿ˤϡդ٤2Ĥ롥1ܤϡ¤ϥͥ㤬ʤʤȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤͥħŪǤϤ뤫⤷ʤͭǤϤʤȤȤ2ܤϡեǤӤ㤬뤳Ȥ顤ѸͭθݤǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥षƥ֤ĬϥեǤäƤΤǤ[2011-02-09-1]ε#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡פȡˡ etymological respelling λ㤬եˤǸ٤ʤΤѸˤǸ٤ʤΤ뤤ϤξԤ̤̣ΤɤȽȤʤȤ롥ʤȤ⡤ͥαѸͭθݤǤϤʤȤȤõƤɬפ
ʤemir, amir, emirate ˤ⡤ӥƱ캬ͭƤ롥
礦ҡرѸ˳١dzƼҡ2007ǯ
ε#1154. ѲΥȢȤƤ analogy ([2012-06-24-1]) Ǹڤ Postal ϡ#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡѲθ fashion ȹͤԤǤ롥ƱˡѲȤ "grammar change" ʸˡѲˤˤۤʤʤʸˡѲ֤뵬§κƲǤȤŪѤλơʸˡѲκǽʳɽ魯 "primary sound change which is independent of language contact" ϡ"'nonfunctional' stylistic change" ǤꡤʳθϤꤨʤȤ롥
Postal εϰ츫ñ¤âȤĤƤ롥㤨СҲŪʺ۲Ѳμ¸ȳȻζ̡ܿˤѲѸ Romance Stress Rule ŪˤĤƤƤ롥Postal εϡѲ礭Ȥߤ1ĤȤܤ٤ȹͤΤǡפ1 (283--85) ʬѤ褦
SOME REMARKS ON THE 'CAUSES OF SOUND CHANGE'
It is perhaps not inappropriate to ask what implications the view that sound change consists in changes in grammars has for the much discussed and controversial question of the causes of sound change. Why should a language, independently of contact with other languages, add a new rule at a certain point? Of course there are some scholars who hold that all linguistic change is a result of language contact, but this position seems too radically improbable to demand serious consideration today. Assuming then that some if not all phonological changes are independent of contact, what is their basis? It seems clear to the present writer that there is no more reason for languages to change than there is for automobiles to add fins one year and remove them the next, for jackets to have three buttons one year and two the next, etc. That is, it seems evident within the framework of sound change as grammar change that the 'causes' of sound change without language contact lie in the general tendency of human cultural products to undergo 'nonfunctional' stylistic change. This is of course to be understood as a remark about what we might call 'primary change,' that is, change which interrupts an assumed stable and long-existing system. It is somewhat more plausible that such stylistic primary changes may yield a grammar which is in some sense not optimal, and that this may itself lead to 'functional' change to bring about an optimal state. Halle's suggestion that children may learn a grammar partially distinct from that underlying the utterances they hear and thus, from the point of view of the adult language, reformulate the grammar (while adults may only add rules), may be looked upon as a suggestion of this type. For as he noted, a grammar G2 which results from the addition of a rule to a grammar G1 may not be the optimal grammar of the set of sentences it generates. Hence one would expect that children learning the new language will internalize not G2 but rather the optimal grammar G3. It remains to be seen how many of the instances of so-called 'structural sound change,' discussed in the writings of scholars like A. Martinet, can be provided with a basis of this type.
It should be emphasized that the claim that contact independent sound change is due basically to the stylistic possibility for adults to add limited types of rules to their grammars does not preclude the fact that these changes may serve social functions, i.e. may be related to group differentiation, status differences, etc. That is, the claim that change is stylistic is not incompatible with the kinds of results reached by such investigators as Labov (1963). These latter matters concern more properly the social explanation for the spread of the change, a matter which seems more properly sociological than linguistic.
I have been careful above not to insist that all instances of what have been called sound change were necessarily independent of language contact. Although committed to the view that sound change can occur without contact, we can also accept the view that some changes result from borrowing. The view that sound change is grammar change in fact really eliminates much of the importance of this difference. For under the rule interpretation of change, the only issue is the forces which led to the grammar change. Studies of complex cases of phonological grammar change due to contact have actually been carried out recently within the framework of generative grammar. This work, to be reported in a forthcoming monograph (Keyser and Halle, to appear), shows quite clearly that English has borrowed a number of Romance phonological rules. In particular, English has incorporated essentially the Latin stress rule, that which softens Romance k to s in certain environments, etc. This work has important implications beyond the area of sound change and may affect radically concepts of genetic relationship, Mischsprache, etc., all of which will, I think, require reevaluation.
Postal, P. Aspects of Phonological Theory. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
analogy ѡˤϡѲθȤơǤΤƤ뤬Ʊ˺Ǥڻ뤵ƤȤäƤ褤ֲѲ㳰ʤפȾ19ǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) ϡˡ§ϳϡ䤫ѤˤäƸ̤ˤǤȼĥˤäơȤ櫓ϡ㳰ꤲ٤ȢȲƤä
ǯʸˡɤβѲιͤ "phonetically gradual and lexically abrupt" ȤΤ¤βѲΤʤˤ "phonetically abrupt and lexically gradual" ΤΤ뤳ȤʬäƤƤ롥óȻ (lexical diffusion) νޤѲѲػȡष "morphologically abrupt and lexically gradual" λ㤬̾Ǥ롥ϡޤˤѲŵŪ˸Ǥ롥Ūʲˡ§Ω줫鸫СϥȢΤ褦ʤΤդ濴Ȥ餹ȡˡ§ðۤʻΤ褦˻פƤ롥ξԤʤΰƱǡ⼡βѲˤϸѲФȤɬפʤΤǤϤʤ
֤ƤԹΩˤĤơޤȲѲȤ֤ƤԹʾˤĤơPostal (234) 3ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
'Analogy' is really an unfortunate term. There is reason to believe that rather than being some sharply defined process, analogy actually is a residual category into which is put every kind of linguistic change which does not meet some set of a priori notions about the nature of change. In particular, I think that the term 'analogy' has been used very misleadingly to refer to cases of perfectly regular phonological change in which part of the conditioning environment involves Surface Constituent Structure; i.e. changes which happen only in nouns, or only in verb stems, etc. I suspect that an analytic survey of cases which have been referred to as 'analogy' would yield many instances of regular phonological change with nonphonetic environments . . . .
Postal ϡ"the regularity of phonetic change "its putative purely phonetic character" (281) ȤƱƤȤŪŦʤ顤벻ѲȤεΥϤۤ礭ʤΤǤϤʤȼƤ롥
ϡŪԵ§ŪʺѤȤơѲεˤƤⰷȤƤŪʲˡ§ˤ顤ŪʲФƤºݤˤԵ§뤫餳ȢɬפȤƤΤǤ롥analogy ϿޤƤ٤
Postal, P. Aspects of Phonological Theory. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
̾ <advice> /ədˈvaɪs/ ǡư <advise> /ədˈvaɪz/ ȰۤʤΤϤʤȯֻξˤѤʵ䤬줿OED 츻ŵεҤͤˡƤ椯
ޤθΩ֤äƤߤ롥ƥƬ ad- "to" ˡvidēre "to see" βʬ vīsum äΤǡ "according to one's view" ۤɤǤ롥顤¯ƥ *advīsu(m) "opinion" ȤäΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ʩˤ⤳ʿŪäꤵƤꡤce m'est à vis "this is according to my view" ce m'est avis "this is my view" ȰʬϤ줿Τ뤳Ȥ¿ޤ¯ƥʩǤϡ̾ *advīsāre > aviser Ȥư줬
Ѹؤϡ14˸ʩ줫顤̾ưξѤ줿ϡֻˤ⡤1ҲȤ <d> Ƥ餺ǽҲ <c> ǤϤʤ <s> äե¦Ǥϡ14--16ˡ̻ƥȤ <d> 褵ֻ advis [2011-02-09-1]ε#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡פȡˡ15 Caxton ѸƳ夵Ʊ15ˤϡ2첻ĹǤ뤳Ȥ뤿˸ <e> źä줿ơ16ˤϡ̾ˤĤơҲ̵Ǥ뤳Ȥ뤿 <s> <c> ؽ줿ޤȤС14--16ˤƤ avis > advis > advise > advice ȤȯֻѲɤȤǤ롥
ưˤĤƤϡե aviser ͳ褹ΤȤ <s> ͭҲɽ路Τǡηϩκǽʳ˸ <c> ؤν뤳ȤϤʤääȤ⡤ºݤˤϡѸǡư <c> ֻ⤢ä褦ǡ̾Ȥ¿κƱϤä褦Ǥ롥
̾ advice ư advise ֻϡetymological_respelling "pronunciation spelling" ([2011-07-05-1], [2011-07-31-1]) Ȥäʣʲη̤Ǥꡤζ̤ϸ츻ŪʤΤǤϤʤƱͤȤơ̾ prophecy ư prophesy ⤢롥⡤18˳Ω츻ŪֻΩǤ롥
sneeze ֤ߡʤˡפνФ14ѸǤ snese(n) ʤɤֻǸ줿ƬҲ <s> Ǥʤ <f> Ǥ۷θСϸűѸ졤Ƥˤޤ̤롥űѸǤ fnēosan "to breathe hard, sneeze" ۤɤΰ̣ʸڤ롥ޥĸǤ *fneusan Ʒ졤ޥ cognate ǤϡƬ <fn>- 뤤 <f> ξü <n>- (ex. MDu fniesen, ON fnýsa, Swed nysa, Ger niesen) ޤfn ȤƬҲϥˡ§ˤ구§Ū˰ĸ *pneu- "to breathe" θƬҲб롥
츻ŵˤȡѸˤ <fn>- <sn>- ؤѷϡ<f> <s> ʸθΤɤΤȤ⤬Ҳ𤵤Ƥ뤬κƱѷľܤθȤʤꤦΤǤ롥Τ[2010-12-02-1]ε#584. long <s> graphemicsפǾҲ𤷤褦ˡ<f> long <s> ɤƤȤϻ¤Ǥ롥İФʰݤͿ뤯ߤȤݤб줬٥ǤϤʤֻ٥ǺƱơѷȤȤϹͤˤߤϡֻ١θɤꤹˤϤޤİŪǤ褦˻פ롥षΤ褦˹ͤ
θƬҲξü nese Τ褦ʷ֤Ʊ14ԤʤƤꡤѸ fnese ϤǤȯɬΤɽ蘆ʤŤᤫֻѤ椯ֻäȻפ롥ǡƬҲ nese ˵Ūʸ̤դΤ褦ˡ[s] Ƭźä졤snese ζĴȤƸ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤεϢۤϡsn- Ƭˤ snarl ʤʤˡsneer ʤФϤʤĤ餹ˡsniff ʤ, snore ʤӤˡsnort ɡ©ΩƤˡsnout ʥ֥ʤɤɡ, snuff ʵۤˤʤɤθƵۡɡδϢˤäߤ˶Ƥ롥Τ sneer snore űѸǤ fn- äƤΤǡ sneeze ˸¤餺fn- sn- κƱϡѸˤϹäƤ˰㤤ʤ
Ƭ [f] äƤäȤˡֻ <f> ˾ä椯̿äŤֻȤ <f> ֤ȤĤ륱⤢äȯȤƤϵŪ [s] źäˤäƤߤβŪ졤ֻˤ <s> źä褦ˤʤä<f> ǻϤޤ fnese <s> ǻϤޤ snese Ȥϡ٥ǤϤȤˤ餯 /sneːze/ ȯƤǽ롥Τ褦ʾˤƤϡ<f> <s> Ȥơָɤפȹͤ⡤ȯ˹碌ֺֻؤפȹͤŬäƤ롥ʤȤ⡤ָɡϡ<fn>- <sn>- ؤѷľܤθˤϡ夤Τ褦˻פ롥
ε#1150. centum satem ([2012-06-20-1]) ǡĸ labiovelar ˤäȤ˿줿[k, g] Τ褦ĴݤˡƱ˿ݤƽФǤ롥ɽȤƤ [kw, gw] ʤɤȼΤǤ롥2ĴﴱƱѤäʲǤ뤿ᡤĴˤİˤؤʡñʤ뿰뤤ñʤؤȯã뤳Ȥ¿ۤʤƱ (cognate) ɤδ֤ǡ/k, g/ /w, b/ ʤɤб뤳Ȥˤʤ櫓顤ϡ礭ʺ߽Ф븶Ǥ롥
㤨Сեε˸ƬҲ [k] (ex. que, qui, quoi) ФơѸε˸ƬҲ [w] (ex. what, who) ϲŪˤۤʤäƤ褦˸뤬ĸ *kw ꤹСƱб褯Ǥ롥Ѹ̾ cow ʥˤȥƥͳηƻ bovine ʥ°ΡˤθƬҲۤ⡤PIE *gwōus ꤹ뤳ȤǡճȾƤʤθεˤθ츻ˤĤƤϡرѸ츻ŵ pp. 1647--48 ܤˡ
Ķˤä [g] [w] ˻ƤȤȤϡȶθȤ롥̼Ļˡ֥åޡפ֥åޡפȳФƤޤäȤ㤬롥[regg(u) woːmaː] [reggu goːmaː] ȼ줿Τ3ܤ4ܤζ˸θǤ롥
Ҷθ㤨ʹ㤤ȤȤǤСǶμˤˤʤȤơ֥ȥåȡơѡפ롥ȥá֥ȡפ [t] ˤꡤϤ [p] ĴƱʿʹƱˤ [t] ȤʤäΤȹͤ롥ʹȤƬ褮äΤϡ[2009-07-26-1]ε#90. taper paperפǤ롥εǤϡƱ (assimilation) ǤϤʤष۲ (dissimilation) ä櫓
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
ʸ嵭2022/10/02(Sun) 2022/05/01 Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ˤơ#335. cow beef butter Ʊ캬äƾ̤ǤפȤƼ夲ޤʲɤ
[2009-08-05-1]ε#100. hundred ȰӸءפǡ礭2ʬŪˡȤơɴפɽ魯ƥ (Latin) centum ȥ٥ (Avestan) satem ȤɽʬζʬϡTocharian ε° ([2009-08-06-1], [2009-08-14-1]) θζ֥֥ ([2011-01-20-1]) ʤɤǤȤƤꡤӸؤǤ˽פʤΤȤƤʤζʬ˴Ϣϡcentum satem γƵȡˡ
2ʬˡϡޤȤƤۤɬǤϤʤȤȤ狼äƤƤ롥ξ뤿ˤϡޤ centum satem 2ʬˡκʤФʤʤFortson (53--54) ˤȡĸĺˤĴˤ3̤ƤȤ롥̵ k ǤСplain *k, labiovelar *kw, palatal *
3Ǥ롥3ϡΤۤȤɤΰˤ2غ줿ˤ2̤ꤢꡤ*
*k صۼ줿centum ϡˤȡ*kw *k صۼ줿satem ϡˤȤä̤ȤơԤǤ k, g, gh Ф kw, gw, gwh ԤǤ k, g, gh Ф
,
,
h ̤줿Ȥˤʤ롥PIE *
ܤСԤκǤŵŪ k صۼ줿ԤκǤŵŪ˻ /ʦ, ʧ/ /s, ʃ/ Ѳơɴפɽ魯 PIE
ϡ centum Ϥ satem ϤؤʬƤäΤǤ롥k ɽȤơͻҤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

2ʬˡŪ˸СˤޤŪ뤳ȤǤ롥centum 롼פθ (Greek, Italic, Celtic, Germanic) ŪʬۤƤꡤsatem 롼פθ (Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Balto-Slavic) ʬۤƤ롥20ˤʤäȯ줿 Tocharian ϰʬۤȤƤ϶˰֤ˤ⤫餺plain, labiovelar, palatal 3ݤƤꡤƤ centum ϤθǤ롥ƱͤˡAnatolia ɤ Luvian ˤ3ζ̤ǧ롥ޤBalto-Slavic νϰŪ satem ϤȤ뤬ˤäƤ centum ϤλҲΤ¿Albanian satem Ϥθcentum Ͻϰ˰ϤޤƤȤԲIJʻ¤⤢롥
Τ褦ʻ¤ȡĸĺŪѲϡʤȤʬŪˤϡΩΤǤϤʤȤǽǻˤʤäƤ롥ߤǤϡcentum satem ˤ2ʬˡϡĤƤΤ褦ˡŪʶʬȤϤߤʤʤʤäƤƤ롥ȤϤäƤ⡤ʶʬˤϰ㤤ʤڤ³Ƥ椯
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
űѸȸťΥɸθܿľܤʸڤ뵭ϿϤۤȤɻĤƤʤܿʸĤäƤ뤬ޤۤɤˤʤ
ξʸΤʤǤ褯ΤƤΤ1ĤThe Aldbrough Sundial ȸƤФפα˹ޤƤäǤ롥East Yorkshire ξĮ Aldbrough ˤ St. Bartholomew's church ɤˤϤޤƤΤǡʸϥΥޥȰ˹ޤ줿ΤȹͤƤ롥University of Pennsylvania Anthony Kroch ΥڡDzǤ롥 *
ΥڡˤѤΤ롤Page ʸɤפʸˤϡűѸȸťΥɸθܿ뵮ŤʸħȤʸݻȸѸź褦
+VLF LET (?HET) ARŒRAN CYRICE FOR HANVM 7 FOR GVNWARA SAVLA
"+Ulf had this church built for his own sake and for Gunnvǫr's soul."
űѸζηϤƤ뤳ȤCYRICE SAVLA 狼롥Late West-Saxon ɸǤС*cirican *saule ȤʤϤΤȤǤ롥Northumbrian ǤϸűѸˤϤǤˤμζޤοʿϿʹԤƤꡤäƸťΥɸȤθܿˤƶ뤳ȤϤǤʤGVNWARA ˤĤƤϡŪ°ʷȹͤ뤬Ѹ첽Ƥ褦ʤͭ̾ GVNWARA VLF ϤȤ̲Ϥ̾Ǥ롥
ηϤʾ˶̣ΤϡƵ̾Ϳʤɽ魯Ȥܤ HANVM ȤǤ롥űѸǤ3;ñ̾ͿʤȤƤη֤ϳǧƤʤťΥɸǤϤޤˤη֤ѤƤäơθťΥɸ줫Ѥ줿ȤϼƤ褤3;̾줬ƵŪѤƤ뺣Τ褦ʸ̮ǤϡťΥɸǤкƵ̾ sér ѤΤǤ롥űѸǤϡƵ̾Ƶ̾ηŪʶ̤Ϥʤäʾͤ碌ȡϡűѸ3;ñ̾εǽˡݤäޤޤˡη him ťΥɸб HANVM ֤äȤȤˤʤ롥
VLF GVNWARA ʤʪƤʸʪϡťΥɸüԤäǽ롥ϡűѸüԤȤοͻΤˡʸ˼褦ʡܿˤäѷѸä褦ˤʤäƤΤ⤷ʤPage (178) ϡʤڵ餽Τ褦ʲǽФȤˤդפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Even in the highly Scandinavianized York, people with Norse names need not be of Norse descent. Surviving English inhabitants may have given their children fashionable Norse names in imitation of a Norse dominant class.
Page ϡ֥ɤǸťΥɸϤĤޤäƤפȤΤΤʷĤƤ롥Page ŪĴϡޤĹ⤿ʤäΤǤϤʤȤɤ롥
Page, R. I. "How Long Did the Scandinavian Language Survive in England? The Epigraphical Evidence." England Before the Conquest: Studies in Primary Sources Presented to Dorothy Whitelock. Ed. P. Clemoes and K. Hughes. Cambridge: CUP, 1971. 165--81.
űѸθ (word formation) (derivation) ʣ (compounding) ˤꡤ˭Ǥ뤳ȤϡűѸʸˡѸˤγ̤Ƥ褯ΤƤ롥Baugh and Cable (64--65) ǤϡŪȤơűѸ mōd "mood, heart, mind, spirit; boldness, courage, pride, haughtiness" Ȥ1Ĥθ캬顤100ʾθ줬Ȥ¤Ҳ𤵤Ƥ롥100ĤȤޤǤϤʤǵƤ̣ȤȤƤߤ褦
mōdig "spirited, bold, high-minded, arrogant, stiff-necked"
mōdiglic "magnanimous"
mōdiglīce "boldly; proudly"
mōdignes "magnanimity; pride"
mōdigian "to bear oneself proudly or exultantly; to be indignant, to rage"
gemōdod "disposed; minded"
mōdfull "haughty"
mōdlēas "spiritless"
mōdsefa "mind, thought, understanding"
mōdgeþanc "mind, thought, understanding"
mōdgeþoht "mind, thought, understanding"
mōdgehygd "mind, thought, understanding"
mōdgemynd "mind, thought, understanding"
mōdhord "mind, thought, understanding"
mōdcræft "intelligence"
mōdcræftig "intelligent"
glædmōdnes "kindness"
mōdlufu "affection"
unmōd "despondency"
mōdcaru "sorrow"
mōdlēast "want of courage"
mādmōd "folly"
ofermōd "pride"
ofermōdigung "pride"
ofermōdig "proud"
hēahmōd "proud; noble"
mōdhete "hate"
micelmōd "magnanimous"
swīþmōd "great of soul"
stīþmōd "resolute; obstinate"
gūþmōd "warlike"
torhtmōd "glorious"
mōdlēof "beloved"
Hall θűѸ켭2ǡˤ mōdig դΤȡۤˤϢΤ뤳Ȥ狼롥

Τ˸űѸθ "resourcefulness" ˤ϶äʣ˴ؤƤϡαĹ kenning ȤʸŪΤ뤳ȤŦƤ
"resourcefulness" űѸζŪɽ魯ΤɤȤˤĤƤϽθפ롥[2011-05-28-1]ε#761. űѸ derivation ϻǤפǹͻ褦ˡ "resourcefulness" ϡűѸ̻Ūʣη̤ߡѤ졤˭ʸåͥåȥȤƸűѸ˶Ū˸ƤȤȤǤϤʤsynchronic productivity diachronic productivity ȤʬƹͤɬפΤǤϤʤ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Hall, John Richard Clark, ed. A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan, 1916.
ʼפʸŸˤβбΰɽȻפWatkins (146--47) ɽƸƤߤƬκǽλҲ첻ˤĤƤбɽǤꡤޤǴؤʤΤǤ롥ʤGermanic ˤĤƤ mutation ϹθƤʤ
ĹɽʤΤǡʲν̾åơPDFdz礷ʤ餴
Watkins, Calvert, ed. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. 2nd Rev. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
²ηޤϿޤˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤Ƥ
[2009-06-17-1]: #50. ɥ衼åѸ²ηޤͷӤǡסFlash
[2010-07-26-1]: #455. ɥ衼åѸ²ηޡܸǡˡסFlash
[2012-05-19-1]: #1118. Schleicher η
[2012-05-30-1]: #1129. ĸʬϵ5800--7800ǯ
[2011-04-12-1]: #715. Britannica Online ǻȤǤϿޡסä˸ˤŪʬۤˤĤƤ Approximate locations of Indo-European languages in contemporary Eurasia ȡ *
嵭˲äơ Fortson (10) ηޤ3ˡǺƸƤߤ롥ȤŪǤϤʤޤǤηޤ٤оܤ* ΤΤϡ졤뤤ϸθŤʳɽ魯
ʣΰޤյϡԤȤ˽ʬޤΰۤʤĴ뤳ȤˤꡤηȤΤŪʤΤǤϤʤȤǧˤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1]) #1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1]) ⻲ȡ
PNGǤηʡʲβγǡ
ΡɤĤǤFLASHǤη
ΡɤĤǤHTMLǤΥꥹȷ
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
[2010-05-21-1]ε#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes θϤȰܽפdzѤ褦ˡѸˤ㡤ޥϤν²5դ˥֥ƥϤꡤȷ轻̱նɤäơ꽻ϤäƻϤޤȤ롥ޥϤ̱²ˤϡ͡͡塼ȿͤΤۤե²եꥸͤʤ¾ϥޥϤο͡¿ϸäƤǽ뤬Ϥ鸫ΤȤƻ̤ä²Ǥꡤ1Ĥ̾ΤǸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿äơ֥ƥϤäƤϡ¿쾯ʤ졤֤Ǥ1Ĥ̾ǼΤ뽬ȯãϡ֥ƥϤäޥ²̾Ρ餬ǤΩƤ̾ΡäƤ̾ΤͳˤĤơBaugh and Cable (50--51) ˤäƳά
ɤΩƤ줿ȷ轻̱ϡڤ²ν礷 Saxons ȤƸڤƤʤ Saxons Ū̱²̾ȤФ줿ΤȿͤˤȤäơȤ櫓ͤˤάå̴ΰݤͿȤȤޥϤοάԤϡȷ轻̱礷 Wealas ֳͤפȸƤ Welsh εǤ롥
ơƥǤ⡤ϡޥϤοάԤϰ礷 Saxones ȸƤФ졤οάϤ Saxonia ȤƸڤƤ̱²̾ Angli Ȥơ̾ Anglia ȤƤڤ褦ˤʤäƤ㤨СPope Gregory ϡ601ǯȲ Æþelberht rex Anglorum ȾΤƤ뤷Bede ϼμˤʤ˽ Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum ȸƤǤ롥̤ȤơƥǤ Angli Anglia ̱²̾ؤ̾ΤȤ Saxones Saxonia ֤
ޥϤοάԤϡ餫顤θ Englisc ȤƸڤƤͤؤ Engle Ǥ[2009-09-07-1]ε#133. ƻĤ -ish γηϩפȡˡϡϤ̾ˤ Angelcynn ȥͤӤ̾ΤѤƤ褽1000ǯˡEnglaland (ˤ haplology η̤ȤƤ England) 褦ˤʤäΥͤӤͳ1ĤȤơBaugh and Cable (51) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
It is not easy to say why England should have taken its name from the Angles. Possibly a desire to avoid confusion with the Saxons who remained on the continent and the early supremacy of the Anglian kingdoms were the predominant factors in determining usage.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Ȥʤ̾μȡбưμפʤϡŤʳαѸˤ⸽Ѹˤ¿ǧ롥Ѹˤ뤳ɽȤƤϡ[2012-03-16-1]εǼ夲 singular they ʤɤ褦Reid ˴Ťƣ (85--86) ˤСפϡ3ʬ롥ʲʸǡפʬ֤Ǽ
(A) Τξñξʣ
At ADT (security systems) 98 years' experience have taught us that no one alarm device will foil a determined burglar.
Five years ago 5 per cent of tax returns were subject to review. Today, only one per cent are subject to review.
The whole process of learning a first and second language are so completely different. (Laura Holland)
Rudolph is especially effective in crowd scenes like the opening, where movement of people and camera are delicately braided, where odd characters flutter through the background unemphasized. (Stanley Kauffman, The New Republic)
(B) Τξʣξñ
The sex lives of Roman Catholic nuns does not, at first blush, seem like promising material for a book. (Newsweek)
Two million dollars comes from corporations and foundations, but almost $400,000 from private gifts. (The New York Times)
Two drops deodorizes anything in your home. (Air freshner advertisement)
For one thing, the player is much closer to the instrument than the listener, and the sounds he hears is thus a different sound. (John Holt, Instead of Education)
(C) and Ϣ뤵줿2ĤμΡξñ
Gas and excess acid in your stomach is what we call Gasid Indigestion. (Alka-Seltzer commercial)
We know that the company's destiny and ours is the same.
Galloping horses and thousands of cattle is not necessary to cinema; I call that photography. (Alfred Hitchcock, radio interview)
I just want you to know that this whole Watergate situation and the other opportunities was a concerted effort by a number of people. (Jeb Magruder, Newsweek)
ʾϡΤοȡǰξǾȤפȤ롥AγʸǤСȤʤ̾μؤƤΤñƤ 98 years', tax returns, a first and second language, people and camera ʣ뤿ᡤ˰ưʣǸƱƤȤȤǤ롥
μҲŪϽŪŪ¦̤ȡĿŪϰæŪʸŪ¦̤ȤΤ礤ȸä褤ƣ (87) ΤȤФڤСΤ褦ˤʤ롥
̾οüԤ֤ˤäưȤθƱ줫ʬΤϤʤκ¸ߤƤͤȡθƱüԤ idiosyncratic ʸ촶Сstylistic ʹߤˤäƤȤפ뤬ä礭ʸ٤ȤĤȡüԤ־θƱˤȤ줺˼ͳˡñ뤤ʣθƱƹԤȤɽ1ĤηȻפ롥
ƣ ֱѸñʣˤĤơסإסرûظ浪ס331993ǯ69--88ǡ
Reid, Wallis. Verb and Noun Number in English: A Functional Explanation. London: Longman, 1991.
ε[2012-06-12-1]˰³ѸγϻꡥűѸѸζ1000ǯˤ Malone θϡüᤤȤơߡۤȤɼƤʤжˤˤΤ1200ǯˤ٤Ȥ Kitson ͤǤ롥
Kitson (221--22) ϡޤߤμήθǤ1100ǯ뤤1150ǯȤǯ夬ɤΤ褦ʵ߽ФƤ⤷Ƥ롥[2009-12-19-1]ε#236. Ѹˤλʬ (5)פǼ褦ˡHenry Sweet 3ʬϸ˰ŪʱƶϤĤȤˤʤäSweet ȤѸγϻˤĤƤΰոɤƤ1888ǯʳǤ1150ǯ줫4ǯ1892ǯʳǤ1200ǯ˶ڤꤷƤǤʸԤ[2009-12-20-1]ε#237. Ѹˤλʬ (6)פǼƤ븫ˡθ塤1150ǯȤ븫Ū¿λٻԤߤǤ Hogg (9) "by about 1100 the structure of our language was beginning to be modified to such a considerable degree that it is reasonable to make that the dividing line between Old English and Middle English" ȤθƤ褦ξ⡤Фϡ첻 [ə] ؿʿȤǤ롥
Kitson εСѸγϻ꤬Τϡ첻οʿΤǤϤʤ֤ơˤäưۤʤ®٤ǿʹԤǤ롥ޤ첻οʿϡŪʲѲȤƿʹԤ櫓ǤϤʤʣ (analogy) ѲȤƿʹԤΤǤꡤβפŤ뤳Ȥ;פˤ䤳ǡѸγϻˤäƤϡ(1) ɤˤ첻ʿ濴˿뤫(2) 첻ʿλϤޤäŻ뤹Τ뤤ϴλŻ뤹Τ뤤ֻŻ뤹ΤʤɤδˤʤФʤʤ
Kitson (222--23) ϡ(1) ˤĤƤϡűѸɸ濴 Winchester äȡѸɸಽ줿ɽȤ South-West Midland "AB-language" äȡ첻ʿܺ٤פŤ뤳Ȥǽʤۤɤ¿μܤ鸽¸Ƥ뤳ȡSweet ζʬǤ South-West Midland Laȝamon ȤѤƤ뤳ȤʤɤŦʤ顤"the area between, broadly, Wiltshire and Herefordshire" 뤤 "the north Wessex--south-west midland area" (223) ܤ˿٤ȷŤƤ롥(2) 첻ʿδλ٤ȤˤĤƤϡѲȤƤ첻ʿ褷ƵչԤʤʳʤ˽λʳäѸγϤΤŬäƤȷƤ롥
And bearing in mind that the linguistic processes of the transition were to a large extent analogical rather than strictly regular sound-changes, it seems most reasonable to date the beginning of Middle English, as against Old English whether or not with a sub-period specified as Transitional, to the point of time from which even if external events influencing linguistic change had taken so different a course as to lead to directions of analogy violently different from the actual ones, reduction of inflectional variety to the single-un-stressed-vowel level characteristic of actual Middle English was irrevocable. (223)
Kitson ϡΰܹԴ֤ǽ줿ʸˤֻȯδط̩Ĵ1200ǯޤǤϡޤ첻ȸ첻ζ̤ĤäƤȼĥΤ褦˷ŤƤ롥
. . . even at the end of the twelfth century the replacement of language with at least some variety of inflections by language with fully levelled inflections was not absolutely irrevocable. . . . Granting the level of fuzziness at the edges inescapable in all tidy divisions of linguistic periods, Sweet's 1892 dating really is right after all.
Malone, Kemp. "When Did Middle English Begin?" Language 6 (1930): 110--17.
Kitson, Peter R. "When did Middle English begin? Later than you think!." Studies in Middle English Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997. 221--269.
Hogg, Richard M., ed. The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 1 The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge: CUP, 1992.
ѲϢ³ŪǤ뤿ᡤŪʴΤߤˤꡤˤʬ뤳ȤԲǽǤ롥Ūʴ˲ä¿ʬ˸쳰ŪʴޤơʬƤ椯ΤǤ롥ޤʬäޤäƤޤȡȤʤä̵Ƚ˼ѤƤ椯Ȥˤʤ롥Ω줿ʬϸϰϤˡŤϤꡤưͿץ饹¦̤ƱˡƤޤޥʥ¦̤äƤ롥äơʬȽŪ˸ƤȤ˽פǤ롥
ѸˤλʬŪˤĤƤϡ##232,233,234,235,236,237 Ϣ³Ǽ夲ƤHenry Sweet 3ʬߤ˻ޤŪ˼ѤƤ뤬Ȥ櫓ѸλϤޤɤǯƤ뤫ȤˤĤƤϡޤȤδ֤Ǥ⸫ɤƤ롥¿γǤϡ1100ǯ뤤1150ǯȤǯ夬褯ߤ롥ߤȾۤʤȤΤϡ˽ʬǤ롥
ŤϤ뤬褯ѤȤơפڤä Malone ͤΤƤߤ褦ޤMalone ϡSweet θŵʤ顤Ū3ʬޤλ¸٤ˤΤǤ뤳Ȥǧ
I propose, therefore, to start with the three main divisions of Old, Middle and Modern, based mainly on the inflectional characteristics of each stage. Old English is the period of full inflections (nama, gifan, caru), Middle English of levelled inflections (naame, given, caare), and Modern English of lost inflections (naam, giv, caar). (qtd in Malone, p. 110 as from Sweet, A History of English Sounds, printed on p. 160 of the Transactions of the Philological Society for 1873--74.)
Sweet θűѸѸ̤ϡʿƤ뤫ɤȤˤ롥ŪˤС˸롤͡첻ɽ蘆첻줾ħŪʲݤäƤ뤤 [ə] ؤۣ沽ƤȤˤ롥ۣ沽켫ΤϢ³ŪǤ뤿ᡤ줬Ϥޤäǯ⽪äǯΤ˸ꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤ褽θȤȤǤС¿Ԥ12դƧǤꡤ줬ߤͼƤ1100ǯ1150ǯʤɤζڤǯȿǤƤ롥
Malone ϡSweet ˽äơ첻 [ə] ǯ夬ʤűѸѸʬǯǤȤΤǤС1000ǯˤޤǤΤܤ餻ɬפƤ롥ȤΤϡ10ΤΤȤ4 (the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, the Junius Codex, the Beowulf Codex) ˤ첻ʬۤܺ٤˸ƤȡǤ˶첻 [ə] ʤǤͻҤ "scribal error" ̤Ʊ뤫
εϡƱΥƥȤθ줬ɤޤǸȡ Schriftsprache ȿǤƤΤȯֻδطɤޤΤͤߤΤȤ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤ롥ֻΤߤͤΤǤС첻餫 <e> 11뤤12ԤɬפΤ⤷ʤȯ䤷̤ΤǤС첻 [ə] ϡ10˸ȤȤˤʤ롥¸Ǥ϶üᤤǯǤϤ뤬ε̤ơѸϤĻϤޤäȤ䤤װΤ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ롥
Malone, Kemp. "When Did Middle English Begin?" Language 6 (1930): 110--17.
ε[2012-06-10-1]³ԡJespersen ξ䡤ǸڤƤ뤫ĤƤν¯פȤऱΤϡץ顼 (The Prague School) µ Roman Jakobson (1896--1982) Ǥ롥Jakobson ˤϡŪäͤ롥Murdock ̸Ū mama, papa Ĵ̤˴ŤơΤ褦˹ͻƤ롥
(1) Murdock 줫齸ƤƤɽ魯1072θβʬۤŪʬϤȤҲϢ³ޤΤΤ1.1%ۤɤǤꡤ첻ñȤΤΤϤۤȤɤʤäĤޤꡤξˤĤơñҲ첻Ȥ߹碌Ūä (540)
(2) ҲˤĤƤϡĴͼȤƤĺɡ碌85%ᡤĴȤƤϡȻ碌76%Ȥ櫓Ҳι⤤ĺ⤤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ (540)
(3) 첻ˤĤƤϡΤʳϽФʤ첻Ū /a/ ΩäƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥"the optimal consonant" "the optimal vowel" ȤȤ߹碌¿ȤϡĻθδŬäƤ (540--41)
(4) Ҳ첻Ȥ߹碌νˤĤơ㤨 /am/ ǤϤʤ /ma/ ǤΤϤʤȤΤϡǸȯǤϡĤȤ /am/ νΤۤҲβǤ̤ʤˤϡĻϻҲ첻ؤΤ錄˥ҥȤᡤ˻Ҳ첻βϢǤ椯/ma/ /pa/ ʤɤβṽ¤ϡβȿǤǤϤʤ (541)
(5) ҲȹŸҲΤȤǤϸ첻³䤹֤סˡҲҲΤȤǤ³ˤ֤Ϥϡסˡ첻κۤĴƱˤΤǤꡤ˲ǤȤƤζ̤ΩƤ뤳Ȥɬ̣ΤǤϤʤ̣ͭʲǾζ̤ϡҲˤ (541)
(6) mama, papa ʤɤƱη֤ (reduplication) ϡβǸȤƤζλʪǤϤʤ̣Τñ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥɽ魯ȤǡĻθˤäƤϵ̳ŪǤ餢 (542)
ơĤϡʤƤɽ魯줬 /m/ ϤȤɡҲȼ䤹뤯Ǥ롥͡ʡ¯פऱʤ顤Jakobson Ӯ˺ݤƸФɤ뤿ɡȼ虜ʤȤä٤Ƥ롥ʤۤɡФɤä֤ȯ褦ȤСϥߥˤʤ餶ʤ /m/ ʤɤɡŪʪƤ٤Ƥ˾ߤʤƤƤȷӤĤƤ椯ΤǤϤʤơ¸ߤ֤Ƥ/m/ [nasal] ž /p/ ʤɤλҲȷӤĤ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤϤʤ (542--44)
뤳Ȥ21Ĥϡ褯ŤȤȡ⤦1Ĥϡդꡤˤ Jakobson ŪȤȡڤ䤫
ʸ嵭2013/03/28(Thu)ؤķ˻һˤǽΰ졽ʤƤϡ֥ޥޡסƤϡ֥ѥѡפʤΤ⻲ȡ
Jakobson, Roman. "Why 'Mama' and 'Papa'?" Phonological Studies. 2nd ed. Vol. 1 of Roman Jakobson Selected Writings. The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1971. 538--45.
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
[2012-06-06-1]ε#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬פǡ(3) (language universals) 1Ȥơ¿θǡƤɽ魯 ma, ba, da, ta Τ⡤ΰפȤϹͤ줺餫θͿƤȤפȽҤ٤ʤĶŪʤΤιŪˤϿʤäƤ mama ǡƤ papa ʤΤϤʤ
͡⤬ƤƤĤƤ褯줿ΤϡѸ papa mam(m)a 䡤ɥĸ졤ǥޡ졤ꥢбϡե줫μѤǤȤǤ롥Υ衼åѤνΤߤʤ餺奮ꥷˤ⡤θˤ㤬ߤ뤳Ȥ顤ե櫓ˤϤʤΤˡä17˥衼åѤ˹ޤäƤեʸήԤ衼åѤζ٤θˤ papa mam(m)a ʤɤλѤ¥ȤȤϤä⤷ʤθȯϡ̸ŪΩΤǤȹͤ٤ (Jespersen, VIII. 8 (p. 159))
ޤɽ魯줾θϡĻˤϽФǤϤʤ¾θäƱͤˡ夫ؤȼѤƤˤʤȤԤ⤤Jespersen (VIII. 8 (p. 160)) ڤΤƤƤ褦ˡ¿θҲĤθ줬ǧ뤳Ȥ顤줬
Ǥϡpapa mama ΩȯȤȡϤɤΤ褦˹Ūphonaesthesia δ顤m ϵῴŪľŪǤꡤp ϱŪİջŪǤꡤ줾ΥŬ礹Ȥ⤬줿Ȥ롥Τ褦ˤʤäΤϡ Jespersen (VIII. 8 (p. 154)) ξ褦ʡǤ롥
In the nurseries of all counties a little comedy has in all ages been played---the baby lies and babbles his 'mamama' or 'amama' or 'papapa' or 'apapa' or 'bababa' or 'ababab' without associating the slightest meaning with his mouth-games, and his grown-up friends, in their joy over the precocious child, assign to these syllables a rational sense, accustomed as they are themselves to the fact of an uttered sound having a content, a thought, an idea, corresponding to it.
ĻʤȯޤỤ̄⤿ʤΤĤʤƤʬؼƤΤȴ㤤롤ȤǤ롥Ļˤ콬θθٻǤϤϤ뤬ȾŪ줬 /m/ 㤬 /p/ бΤϤʤʤΤͿƤʤ
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
ε[2012-06-08-1]³ơbinomial 2।ǥˤιǤνȲŪꡥϡ1 and 1˶Τ2פȤ binomial ¿¸ߤ뤳Ȥطʤˤϡ嶯ΥꥺŬ礹ȤȤ⤢뤬Bolinger λŦ褦ˡû and ĹפȤŪʽˤ礹Ȥװ롥äȤŵŪĹûκۤ2Ǥβΰ㤤ȤȤƱñΡ˾ˤϡĹûκۤϲλ³ʹ٤ΰ㤤ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥Bolinger ɽǤС"openness and sonorousness" (40) ΰ㤤Ǥ롥
ʬ "open and sonorous" ٤ι⤤ۤ㤤ۤؤʬहȡ(1) 첻(2) ͭ³(3) ͭĺ˻(4) ̵³(5) ̵ĺ˻Ȥʤ롥δû and ĹפСopenness and sonorousness 㤤 and ⤤פȤȤˤʤBolinger (40--44) ϡ¤ˤ¸ߤʤˤ binomial ƻǤäǤνؤơѸüԤ︳Ԥˤɤ餬Ф"He lives in a plap and plam house." vs "He lives in a plam and plap house." ΤȤǤ롥̤ϡŪɬΤǤϤʤä٤ηϸ줿Ȥ
Ǥä binomial ˤ¸ʾ˶̣Τϡp. 40 ˵ƤϢƬɽǤʴϢơ[2011-11-26-1]ε#943. Ƭˤפȡˡflimflam, tick-tock, rick-rack, shilly-shally, mishmash, fiddle-faddle, riffraff, seesaw, knickknack. Ǥϡ2Ǥ¤Ӥϡ줾첻ʹ٤㤤Ρܹ⤤ΡפνˤʤäƤ롥νˤĤƤϡphonaesthesia δ顤ŪˡֶᤤΡܱΡפȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ (see ##207,242,243)
ꥺࡤʹ١Ƭphonaesthesia binomial ȤˤϱѸβԻĤͤޤäƤ褦
Bolinger, D. L. "Binomials and Pitch Accent." Lingua (11): 34--44.
Ʊ2줫ɽ 2।ǥˤȸƤ֡##953,954,955 εǤϡܤƿ binomial Ҳ𤷤binomial "A and B" Τ褦ŵŪ³ǷФ뤬ǤνϤƤꤷƤ롥ɬ⥤ǥȤƸꤷƤʤˤ⡤ȤƹޤȤΤ롥ʤˤ "A and B" ޤ졤̤ξˤ "D and C" ޤΤ䲻ʤɡä˲ŪʾȤΤΤ
Bolinger ϡѸηȤơû and Ĺפνޤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥ĹûκϡŵŪ˲ΰ㤤ȤƸ롥ŵϡ1 and 1˶Τ2פǤ롥̾ƻĤСa bows-and-arrows project, cold and obvious fact, drum-and-bugle corps, floor-to-ceiling window, fresh and frisky pups, furred and feathered creatures, a red and yellow river, strong and bitter political factor, up-and-coming writer ʤɤ (Bolinger 36) ¾ˤϤ롥
black and sooty, blue and silver, bright and rosy, bright and shiny, bruised and battered, cheap and nasty, cloak and dagger, drawn and quartered, fast and furious, fat and fulsome, fat and sassy, fine and dandy, fine and fancy, free and easy, full and equal, gay and laughing, grim and weary, hale and hearty, high and handsome, high and mighty, hot and bothered, hot and healthy, hot and heavy, hot and spicy, lean and lanky, long and lazy, low and lonely, married or widowed, plain and fancy, poor but honest, pure and simple, rough and ready, rough and tumble, slick and slimy, slow and steady, straight and narrow, strong and stormy, tried and tested, true and trusty, warm and winning, wild and woolly
Ƥˤ狼뤬 binomial 嶯οϤ褤ꥺȤʤ롥 tattered and torn, peaches and cream, merry and wise, open and shut, early and later ʤɤΤ褦ˡ嶯Ȥʤ binomial ⤢ˤϤ뤬㳰ŪȹͤƤ褵
Ρ1 and 1˶Τ2פȤηˤĤơBolinger (36--40) üԤμ¸ˤäƤǧȤäƤ롥ǥȤۤɤޤǤˤϸꤵƤʤ2ˤĤơ"A and B" "B and A" ¤Ӥξơɤ餬꼫üԤФȤ¸Ǥ롥ĤξǼ¸ܤ餫äbinomial ˤơprosody β̤Ƥ礭
Bolinger, D. L. "Binomials and Pitch Accent." Lingua (11): 34--44.
prophet ˤϡ¸ԡפӡͽԡפξΰ̣롥θ츻ϡꥷ prophḗtēs ̤ꡤpro- "before, forth" + -phḗtēs "sayer" ȤǤ롥ȾǤϡư phēmí "I say" ˴Ť̾ǤꡤĤޤȤ prophet θ "one who speaks before/forth" դǤ롥
pro- ˳Ƥ줿2ĤθѸ "before" "forth" ȤǤϡΤβۤʤäƤ롥"before" ȤСäƸƤ͡פȤʤꡤͽԡפ"forth" ȤСָʸɽˤ͡פȤʤꡤष¸ԡפ˶ᤤ¸ϤƤͽǤ⤢ΤǡξԤθ϶Ǥä뤳Ǥ롥Ȥꥷˤư prophēmi ꡤǤΰ̣ϡͽפǤ롥Ȥȡprophḗtēs ϡư줫̾ǤȹͤΤǤꡤθбͽפ˰㤤ʤȹͤ롥
餬ʸؤν֤Ǥ롥Fortson (7) ˤСƥȤξڵ˽ȡ̾ prophḗtēs ư prophēmi 700ǯ˸ΤǤ롥ޤpro- ¾θĴ٤ȡƬθ "before" ǤϤʤ"before" θȯã prophḗtēs νиθν餷Ȥ狼äƤ롥Τ褦˸ȡ prophḗtēs Ȥ "one who speaks forth or announces the will of the gods" ΰդǤꡤ"one who foretells the future" ΰդϸȯãǤȷŤ뤳ȤǤ롥θ̣ȯãΤפŤ뤿ˡʸŪ͡ξڵѤɬפ뤳ȤƤ빥
ʤƬ pro- ˤĤƤϡ[2011-03-23-1]ε#695. 캬 ferפȡ
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
AȸBñꥹȤ٤ợ֤⽽ʬ˻̤ä줬äȤ롥Τ褦ʾˤϡ4ĤβǽΤ줫뤤ʣȤ߹碌ꤵ롥Fortson (1--3) ͤ褦
(1) ΰ (chance) 쵭Ū (arbitrary) ǤꡤΤȤ̡֥פȸƤɬʤСdog ȸƤɬʤäơ2ĤΰۤʤƱʤ뤤˰̣ĸ줬Ʊʤ뤤˷֤IJǽ㤤ȹͤ뤬ǤϤʤ̵ñ٤Сޤް̣ȷ֤פ褦ʹܤ23ϸĤ褯뤳ȤǤϤʤΰפȤǽӽ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
(2) (borrowing) AB餽θѤ뤤Ϥεդξ硤ʤ顤Ѥ줿θΰ̣ȷ֤ξǶͭ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ܸ֥ԥ塼פϱѸ computer μѤǤꡤ̣ȷ֤ʴƱǤϤʤȤƤ˻Ƥ뤳ȤϤޤǤʤ
(3) (language universals) ȿȤƤФнФ onomatopoeia phonaesthesia ޤ sound_symbolism 㡥ĻϱѸ cuckooե coucouɥĸ KuckuckǤܸǡ֥åפǤ롥¿θǡƤɽ魯 ma, ba, da, ta Τ⡤ΰפȤϹͤ줺餫θͿƤȤ롥
(4) Ʊ (genetic relation) (2), (3) βǽӽ졤ĸ֤¿ñ줬ͭƤ硤(1) ζΰפǤǽ¤ʤ㤤ξ˲ǽͣϡθ줬ĤƤ1ĤǤäȲꤹ뤳ȡиߤƱǤȲꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥
ӸؤƷ (reconstruction) θ̩ʼ³ˤƱϾϡ塤(1), (2), (3) βǽξΩäƤȤȤդ(1) (3) ˤϸ (arbitrariness) ꤬äƤꡤ(2) (4) ζ̤ˤϡȱƶ (##369,371) äƤ롥ƱϾȤϡܼäǤοʤΤǤ롥
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
ɸϡ¿οͤؿǤ롥[2010-08-27-1]ε#487. ʰʸˡפǤߤ褦ˡѸ侯θ㳰ȤơʬʸˡŪ (grammatical gender) ηϤݻƤ롥μ (natural gender) ȤϰפʤԹˤߤ̾ʬˡϤäɤΤ褦ưŤȯΤʶȤƤ뤬1ĤȤ Szemerényi (155--57) ˼褦
Ʒ줿˽Сĸˤ (masculine) (feminine) (neuter) 3äȤ롥3ηϤϡBalto-Slavic Germanic 濴¿ݻƤ뤬̾줬Ƚس꿶2ηϤؤȺ줿⡤Lithuanian ޥʤɡʤʤ
ơĸ3ηϤϡʳȤꤵ붦 (common) (neuter) 2ηϤʬȯãΤȹͤ롥ȤΤϡζޥ饹ǤϡȽȤǤƤ뤬 (ex. patēr, mētēr; see also ##698,699) ϤΩƤǤ롥ĸʳǤϤǤˡʬǽΩƤȹͤƤ褤2ηϤʳˤäȤˤϰ롥
ʬȯãΤϤʤȤˤĤƤɴĤŪʸˤСޤβäƤֽפʤɤ̣η֤ǥȤʤꡤ˴ޤޤ첻ʤɤ¾̾ˤƤ̾ɸΤȤƵǽ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤȤ롥
Ǥϡζ2ƥब⤽ǽΤϤʤMeillet θϤǤ롥ĸǤϡĤνפʳǰФơͭŪ (animate) ʤȤ館̵Ū (inanimate) ʤȤ館2ब̤Ƥꡤ줾˰ۤʤ֤ƤƤ㤨СֲСפϥƥǤ ignis ꥷˤϡޤäۤʤ캬ȿǤ pûr 롥Ʊͤˡֿפϥƥ aqua Фƥꥷ húdōr 롤ݤͭ˸ΩƤ뤫̵˸ΩƤ뤫ȤѤ˴ŤơȤ2ηϤȤȤǤϤʤ
ʤʸڤȤƺǤŤ Hittite ϡ2ηϤǤ롥ۤɸŤʳΰ줬2ηϤäȤȤϡĸηϤεˤ礭ʱƶڤܤHittite 2ηϤϡĸ3ηϤ줿̤Τ뤤ϰĸ줬ޤ2ηϤäᤤʬȤΤӸؤΥߥƥǤ롥
Szemerényi, Oswald J. L. Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Trans. from Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft. 4th ed. 1990. Oxford: OUP, 1996.
Ĵθ (the Cooperative Principle) ˤĤơ[2012-05-23-1], [2012-06-03-1]εǼ夲ƤäλüԤۤΤ˽餷ƤȤ롼ΤȤǤ뤬ޤǸ§ȤƼΤȤƤªƤɬפ롥§Ǥ뤫顤ȤˤϰռŪ뤤̵ռŪˤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥㤨СGrice (30) ˤС (principle) 뤤ϸ (maxims) ϰʲΤ褦ʾˤ뤳Ȥ롥Ŭäʤ⤷褦
(1) Τ줺˸Ȥ硥̤ȤơʹθȤ¿ĤȤŵǤ롥ϡθȤȤˤäơʹ˸äå٤Ǥ롥˸¤餺뤳ȤŪȤϰʪʤɤ⡤ΥפǤ롥
(2) տŪ˿Ȥ硥Фơ֤μˤޤפ֤ꡤ֤Ȥǡפä餹褦ʥ
(3) ˽Ȥ¾θȤȤˤʤäƤޤ硥֡Ϥɤ˽Ǥ͡פФơŪʽΤ餺ˡΤɤפ褦ʥ̤θˤСФɬפʤܤͿ뤳ȤԤ뤬θˤСΤʤΤϸˤ٤ǤϤʤȤȤˤʤꡤԤν餬Ԥν˸̤Ȥʤ롥
(4) ̵뤷ˤδް (implicature) ߽Ф硥[2012-05-23-1]εǵ"How is that hamburger?" --- "A hamburger is a hamburger." Τ褦㡥̤褦
A: Smith doesn't have a girlfriend these days.
B: He has been paying a lot of visits to New York lately.
ΤȤǡB ȯϳ̤˼ A ȯ˸ƱƤ餺طθȤƤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ롥B äȤƤ褦ˤϻפʤʾ塤B A ọ̇ͭȯƤˤʤB ϤƴطθˤꡤΤȤ A 狼äƤϤȤΤȤˡA ˸ΰ̣¬褦ΩƤƤΤǤ롥Smith ϥ˥塼衼˿פȤް (implicature) ޤΤϡΤǤ롥ϤѤȤ䵡ΤƼνŪˡϤΥפǤ롥
ȤϡˤȤˤϤϤäΤ⤷ʤ
Grice, Paul. "Logic and Conversation." Studies in the Way of Words. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1989. 22--40.
[2012-05-23-1]εǾҲ𤷤#1122. Ĵθ (the Cooperative Principle) ϡˤפʸȤƹǧƤꡤľäμºݤˤ褦ΤǤ롥餹뤳ȤäʹΤǰۤΤȤƤΤϤʤĴθˤϡŪʺΤ
иƳϰʲΤ褦ʤΤ͡϶ĴθˤȤŤƹưƤ롥Ҷκ餽Τ褦˹ưƤ뤷ͤˤʤäƤ⤽νΤƤƤʤषν礭æˤ¿ϫϤɬפ㤨Сθ˽äƿ¤Ҥ³뤳ȤΤۤĤ³ڤʤϤǤ롥βϡˤ꽬³ˤϤʤäƤƤ⡤Ĵθʤǽ¸ߤΤιŪˤϤʤäƤʤ
Grice ϡĴθǽ1975ǯʸ1989ǯʸǺƷǤ줿ˤǡƤ롥Grice ϡ顤äˤ붨Ĵθ¾οʹֳưˤߤ褦ʷΰȤƤȤ館äλüԤϡŪͭŪã뤿˸ߤ˹礤ФаۤΤˤΤȤǤڤդǤޤǷ³롥
ŪãΤΰۤηǤȤ뤳θϡΤ˹ŪǤϤ뤬줬ƤϤޤʤȤϿ¿¸ߤ롥㤨СޤȤ٤ϡ̤Ūã뤿ηȤͤȤɤΤ褦˴ؤ礦ΤǤ롥ǡGrice ϼΤ褦˹ͤľ
So I would like to be able to show that observance of the Cooperative Principle and maxims is reasonable (rational) along the following lines: that anyone who cares about the goals that are central to conversation/communication (such as giving and receiving information, influencing and being influenced by others) must be expected to have an interest, given suitable circumstances, in participation in talk exchanges that will be profitable only on the assumption that they are conducted in general accordance with the Cooperative Principle and the maxims. (29--30)
ηǤϻüԤζ̤ŪĴƤǤɬⶦ̤ƱŪϲꤵƤ餺üʾˤϻüԤˤäƶŪŪΰۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꤦŪ "the goals that are central to conversation/communication" ͭƤФ褤ϡ꼫濴ȤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤʤGrice ⡤ϤޤʳǤȤƤ롥
Grice ζĴθϸؤȤůؤεƤΤǤꡤθñʸȤʤʤǤ롥
Grice, Paul. "Logic and Conversation." Studies in the Way of Words. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1989. 22--40.
εǡMRC Psycholinguistic Database 150837ޤˤѤ Amano θȤAmano Ǥϡ̾ư stress typicality ĴʪȤơƱǡ١˴Ťʻ̳ɽƤΤǡϤ⤷Ƥ
Amano (86) ϡǡ١10894Ĥ2ȴФʣʻεǽ碌ĸˤĤƤϡ줾ʻΤȤ1ĤȤƲäʤ¾ܤȼ p. 86 Ƥˡ̤Ȥ줿ʻ̤θĿȳϰʲ̤Ǥ롥
| POS | FREQ | % |
| noun | 7326 | 57.04% |
| verb | 2501 | 19.47% |
| adjective | 2420 | 18.84% |
| adverb | 291 | 2.27% |
| preposition | 68 | 0.53% |
| conjunction | 21 | 0.16% |
| pronoun | 15 | 0.12% |
| interjection | 37 | 0.29% |
| past participle | 57 | 0.44% |
| others | 108 | 0.84% |
̾ưפθݤˤĤơdiatone γƵǿƤKelly and Bock θˤС2ˤ̾ưζѥϡŪʶ֤ηȿǤƤȤʤ2̾Ǥ1˶Τ붯巿 (trochaic) 2ưǤ2˶嶯 (iambic) ̤Ȥ롥η stress typicality ȸƤФ뤬ΨǤФɤ٤ηΤ
Amano ϡKelly and Bock Sereno Ĵ̤Ȥʤ顤MRC Psycholinguistic Database ѤȼĴʤäĴ֤ӤǽȤʤ褦ˡ̾¾ʻ쵡ǽ⤿ʤΡˤȽư˸ꤷƤο夲Τ褦ʷ̤Ȥʤä¾Ĵȹ碌ơAmano (86) Ĵפ褦
| researcher | category | result |
| Sereno (1986) | noun | out of 1425 nouns, 93% are trochaic |
| verb | out of 523 verbs, 76% are iambic | |
| Kelly & Bock (1988) | noun | out of 3202 nouns, 94% are trochaic |
| verb | out of 1021 verbs, 69% are iambic | |
| Amano (2009) | noun | out of 5766 nouns, 92.92% are trochaic |
| verb | out of 1184 verbs, 72.65% are iambic |
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