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ε#4689. YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥߤޤ ([2022-02-27-1]) ǡʼȶƱ YouTube ͥߤݤʥޤֱѸءפäƤʤˡ--ऺֱѸפֳءפ֤櫓ǤϤޤǤϡ̤ȤǡֱѸءפΤΤäƤߤޤ
ȤμϻˤȤäƤϤǤμǤơäȹͤƤޤޤϡֱѸˡפǤ̣ǡֱѸءפ1ʬǤޤǤֱѸءפιֵôƤаޤޤγˤϡֱѸؤȤϲפͤƤƤʤäȤȤ˵ŤޤȤäƤޤܵ䤦ȤƤʤä褦Ǥ
üŪˤСֱѸȤоݤȤؤǤפȤȤǤˤϻαѸˤѸʸؤޤޤޤѸΥΡֵϡפ˴ŤسؽȤϰ褷ѸΤΤޤޤֵҡפΤѸؤǤȡĤޤꡤȤ櫓ѸȤ̸åȤ˹ʤäƸ椹ؤѸؤǤȤǧǤ
ǧϡüŪˤäơֱѸؤȤϱήθؤǤפȤȤǤåȤȤ⥢ץؤѸȤ櫓Ǥ㤨СܸоݤȤƤƤѸؤΩĤȤΩǤΤˡѸؤΥץѤʤºݤΤȤܸ椷ƤȤϡܤδϢزǤʸʤرǤ⤷Фи뤳ȤǤδѤ餤СήΡֱѸءפβ⤦ʤޤ
ɤֱѸءפˤ⤤ȤꤽȤȤˡʤ鵤ŤޤǤϡѸؼŵʤɤǤϡֱѸءפϤɤΤ褦ƤΤȲƤߤȡʤȺܤäƤʤΤǤƺܤʤȤʤΤǤ礦¤ϼǤϤʤȤΤλȯǤ
ǤϱѸؤζʽǤϤɤȡޤ긵ˤäоȡѸؤδá٤Ƥߤޤ֤ޤפ p. ii ˼Τ褦ˤޤ
ߤʤϡֱѸءפʹȡޤٶƤֱѸפȲ㤦ΤȻפȤǤ礦ֱѸءפȤΤϡѸȤդɤΤ褦ʻȤߤˤʤäƤ뤫ͤؤΰΰǤĤޤꡤѸβñ졤ʸäʤɤɤΤ褦ʻȤߤˤʤäƤꡤˤɤΤ褦ʵ§Ǥ뤫餫ˤ褦Ȥ븦ʬǤ
ϡΤȤ䤬ƤֱѸءפ˶ᤤȻפޤѸλˤȤäƤϡǤϤäʪʤȤƤޤ
ѸؤäƲʤΤǤ礦͡ªϽͽʤΤȻפޤλ¤ϰճȤӤäǤιͤϤϤǤ礦
ʤֱѸˡפ餱餺ǤȤꤢ#225. ֱѸ˸פȤϡ ([2009-12-08-1]) դ
졦⸫ ˡ ס ס ʡ¼ ҡˡоȡѸؤδá١ǡ2013ǯ
ɸ̤ʼȶƱ YouTube ˤְʼδѸظإͥߤޤ
ưֱѸءפäƤʤˡ--ऺֱѸפֳءפ֤櫓ǤϤޤΤʤǤƤޤֱѸءؤäƲʤΡפȤդ꤫Ϥơ줾ʬʰϼҲءǧθءĤϱѸˡˤδ顤Ѹ̤˴ؤ͡ŪˤϤƤޤϼʾҲŪʷϵǤϤɤɤǻʤäƤȻפޤһİƤߤƤͥϿɤ
ԤǤʼҲ𤷤Ȼפޤʸʸ칶ζǡҲءǧθءʤɤʬȤƤޤʢƱνȤƤäˤʤäƤޤˡNPOˡϵ夳Ȥ¼ʪĹǤ⤢ޤ2018--19ǯ٤ˤϡNHKƥӡ֤ƤʤδñѸפιֻդ̳ޤ¿ޤȤ櫓ǯȤʤäΤرѸλˡäʸˡʸå١˼Ҥӡ2021ǯˤǤܤӤ¾ξܺ٤ϡʼΥڡ͵ Twitter Ǥ
ˤϡǤ˻ Voicy ΡֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸Ǥ⡤2٤̡ۤб餷ƤƤޤʤλͤΤ٤ˤ٤ơä¿İƤ褦ǤǤ͡
֡رѸλˡ١ʤˤԡʼȤ̡2021ǯ917
̡ʼȡֱѸ쿷֡פ2021ǯ1022
ߤ YouTube ͥμݤϡ2ͤαѸظԤˤ븪Τʤˤ٤ꡤȤäȤǤˤƤλİԤǰƬˡֱѸءؤäƲפȤȤϤޤѸ̤˴ؿΤˤİƤ館褦ƤǤȻפäƤޤ
ƱǤ٤ꤷƤ⡤ۤʤʬȤ2ͤäС㤦ոФΤʤȤȤ꤫Ȼפޤ⤽ڤǤȤޤ
ܥ֥Voicy ΡֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ȹ碌ơְʼδѸظإͥꤤޤ
ĥ֤ä饤ʾۤƤޤؤͫƤޤīåפ Voicy ΡֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 Ǥϡʿ¤ĤġƺξŪطʤ˻٤ǡ֥饤ʡʸˤˤĤơפȤϤƤޤɤİϢ hellog å碌Ƥɤ
äѤޤ#4672. μͭӥMondפDZѸ˴ؤѤʵ˲Ƥޤ ([2022-02-10-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤ3֤ۤMond˴ƤѸˡѸءؤμ˲Ƥޤ館ʤۤɤ䤬¿Ǥ˥åץåפʤΤǤޤǰʲ10˲ƤޤֲפȤϤޤ¤ǡȥꥬȤƻ䤬ͤȤƤߤȤܥ֥γưαĹʤΤǤ⤷äƤ館ФȻפޤޤ
Ƹȯˡι⤵ˤϴطΤǤ礦
Ѹ¾ȤθܿˤޤѤʤɤ̵ʤäƤäȤΤȤǤȲˤĤƤϤΤ褦ʷʤΤϤɤƤǤ礦
ˤäƲǤο礭ۤʤΤϤʤǤ礦
ߤΤȤ虜λ줬ޤϤޤޤƤʤȤ虜λ줬ɴǯޤǽϤޤ
ƱȯʤΤˤޤạ̈ΰ㤦դ¸ߤΤϤʤǤ礦
ܸʤSOVѸʤSVOӥʤVSOʤɸˤäƸ礬ۤʤޤϤɤΤ褦ʸ㤤ʤΤǤ礦
֥ꥫѸȥꥹѸ졤ȥꥢѸδطϡܤǸȤϰۤʤΤʤΤǤ礦
ֲȲؤΰ㤤褯ʬʤΤǤѤƶƤ
֥ɥĸեϡֽ̾פȡ̾פȤʬबޤɤΤ褦ޤäƤΤǤ礦
ָ줬ʸΤǤ礦ȤʸΤǤ礦
Ƶ̾ (reflexive_pronoun) ϱѸ˸ˤơĤδפȤʤäƤ롥㤨СŪˤϡʤֽͭ + selfפΤΤȡŪ + selfפΤΤߤƤΤϸŵŪǤcf. #47. ͭʤŪʤmyself himself ([2009-06-14-1]) #2376. myself, thyself ˤ my- thy- ([2015-10-29-1])ˡñ -self ȤζʬȤˡ⤢cf. #2322. I have no money with me. me ([2015-09-05-1])ˡޤ̣ŪȯãˤĤƤⶽ̣¦̤cf. #2379. Ƶ̾γŬ ([2015-11-01-1])ˡ
ɸѸϤȡˤ⤷¤롥㤨ХꥫѸθ졤ޤ¾ѼǤ hisself, theirselves ʤɤη֤Ѥ뤳Ȥ뤬ξ硤Ƶ̾ηϤϡֽͭ + selfפǰӤ뤿ᡤɸѸ§ŪȤʤ롥դˡȥꥢѸ1Ѽ䥤Ǥ meself ʤɤѤ뤳Ȥ⤢ (Siemund 609--10)
ˡǤ⡤ѼˤäƤϼƱؼоݤƱŪȤ -self ǤϤʤñȤѼ郎롥ʲSiemund (610) ꡥ
I'm going to buy me biscuits and chocolates.եꥫ Cape Flats English)
He was looking to buy him a house for his family.ƹ Appalachian English)
Τ褦ˡľŪȤƤ⸫Ĥ뤳ȤǤ롥ϸűѸθˡηΤȤͤ (Siemund 610)
He has cut him.
He went to bathe him.
Irish English Newfoundland English Ǥϡ̾˺Ƶ̾줬Ѥ뼡Τ褦㤬ߤ (Siemund 610)
I'm afraid himself [the master of the house] will be very angry when he hears about the accident to the mare.
Is herself [i.e. the mistress] at home yet Jenny?
Τ褦ɸѸ줫⳰˽ФƤߤȡƵ̾η֤ˤˡˤꥨߤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ɸѸˤ֤ȸˡ⡤Τ褦вƹͤƤߤȤ⤷
Siemund, Peter. "Regional Varieties of English: Non-Standard Grammatical Features." Chapter 28 of The Oxford Handbook of English Grammar. Ed. Bas Aarts, Jill Bowie and Gergana Popova. Oxford: OUP, 2020. 604--29.
Ӹ (comparative_linguistics) Ǥϡطˤ뤫⤷ʤȵ2ĤθԥååפбȤܤɤβӤ롥κݤˡξβ餫ǡֻƤפȤܤΤľŪǤϤ뤬ӸؤΡӡפ (similarity) ǤϤʤб (correspondence) Ǥ롥ϰճ⤷ʤȤƤޤäƤĤʤɤƱ츻̤⤢Сդ˸ɤϤäɤŪ̵ط⤢뤫
줾Ȥơ#778. P-Celtic Q-Celtic ([2011-06-14-1])#1151. ¿ ([2012-06-21-1])#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬 ([2012-06-06-1])#4683. ۤʤδ֤ǡֶ줬 ([2022-02-21-1])#4072. Ѹ have ȥƥ habere, ե avoir ̸츻 ([2020-06-20-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
ӸؤˤĤơCampbell (266--67) ϼΤ褦ͺۤ˻ŦƤ롥
. . . it is important to keep in mind that it is correspondences which are crucial, not mere similarities, and that such correspondences do not necessarily involve very similar sounds. It is surprising how the matched sounds in proposals of remote relationship are typically so similar, often identical, while among the daughter languages of well-established, non-controversial, older language families such identities are not as frequent. While some sounds may stay relatively unchanged, many undergo changes which leave phonetically non-identical correspondences. One wonders why correspondences that are not so similar are not more common in such proposals. The sound changes that lead to such non-identical correspondences often change cognate words so much that their cognancy is not apparent. These true but non-obvious cognates are missed by methods such as multilateral comparison which seek inspectional resemblances.
ϻȤȤͽۤ⤺äȷ㤷Ѥ롥줬ӸؤζǤ롥Ϣơ#411. Ʒ---Ʊ줫Ѹ줫 ([2010-06-12-1]) ⻲ȡ
Campbell, Lyle. "How to Show Languages are Related: Methods for Distant Genetic Relationship." Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Oxford: Blackwell, 262--82.
ꥫθؼ Swadesh ˤ줿 glottochronology ʸǯءˤˤĤƤϡ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1])#1729. glottochronology ˬ ([2014-01-20-1])#2659. glottochronology lexicostatistics ([2016-08-07-1])#2660. glottochronology ȴܸá ([2016-08-08-1])#2661. Swadesh (1952) ǯѤ200 ([2016-08-09-1]) ϤȤ glottochronology γƵǼ夲Ƥ
̸δܸäϤäǤϤ뤬®٤֤ƤȤ˴Ť˸츦ˡؤμήɤϼ긷ӤƤꡤǤ˲βȤߤʤ뤳Ȥ¿͡Ƚ뤬ûʤŪΤ Campbell ε (264) ˼Ƥߤ褦¤˼긷
Glottochronology, which depends on basic, relatively culture-free vocabulary, has been rejected by most linguists, since all its basic assumptions have been challenged . . . . Therefore, it warrants little discussion here; suffice it to say that it does not find or test relationships, but rather it assumes that the languages compared are related and proceeds to attach a date based on the number of core-vocabulary words that are similar between the languages compared. This, then, is no method for determining whether languages are related or not.
A question about lexical evidence in long-range relationships has to do with the loss or replacement of vocabulary over time. It is commonly believed that "comparable lexemes must inevitably diminish to near the vanishing point the deeper one goes in comparing remotely related languages" . . . , and this does not depend on glottochronology's assumption of a constant rate of basic vocabulary loss through time and across languages. In principle, related languages long separated may undergo so much vocabulary replacement that insufficient shared original vocabulary will remain for an ancient shared kinship to be detected. This constitutes a serious problem for those who believe in deep relationships supported solely by lexical evidence.
Campbell, Lyle. "How to Show Languages are Related: Methods for Distant Genetic Relationship." Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Oxford: Blackwell, 262--82.
ޤʹʤæ (debuccalisation) ȤѲ롥Ĵ⤫г˰ܤ뤳ȤŪˤϡĴα˰ܤäˤ뤳Ȥ¿Crystal (130) θѸ켭ŵ debuccalized ιѤ롥
debuccalized (adj.) A term used in some models of non-linear phonology to refer to consonants which lack an oral place feature, such as glottal stop or [h]. The process through which such consonants are formed is called debuccalization) (also deoralization): examples include [t] > [ʡ] and [s] > [h].
̸Ū˰ŪʲѲΤ褦ǡѸˤܸˤȤǤ⡤㤬ĤäƤ롥ޤˡ§ (grimms_law) ̵ҲѲƤߤ [kh] > [k] > [x] > [h] Τ褦ʷϩꤵ롥ǽã "debuccalised" [h] Ǥ롥
嵭Ѥˤ⤢뤬åˡ (cockney) ʤɤħȤ롤[t] ĺ [ʡ] Ѥ븽ݤæȤʤ
ܸˤˤΤֿಽ ([p] > [ɸ] > [h]) æŵŪ1Ȥʤcf. #1271. ܸಽȤθ ([2012-10-19-1])ˡ
¾Bybee (27) ˤСڥ /s, f/ > /h/ 㤬Ƥ롥ޤäХġϤ Lumasaaba ˤơĶ˱ [p] > [h] ǧҲ𤵤Ƥ롥
ʾǤϼ [p] Τ褦ʿæȤƤԲ [t] [k] ʤɡ¾ĴλҲˤĤƤ⡤ƱǤ롥̣ǤϤɤʸ⡤岽æƤޤСǽã [h]ˤ̵ȤʤȤ櫓ǤϡæȤΤϡ"lenition" Ȥ礭ʲΰȤƤȤ館Τ褤Τ⤷ʤBybee "Path of lenition for voiceless stops" ɽǤƤ (29)
| Voiceless stop | > | Affricate | > | Fricative | > | Voiclessness | > | Zero |
| p | > | pf | > | f | > | h | > | ø |
| t | > | ts/tθ | > | s/θ | > | h | > | ø |
| k | > | kx | > | x | > | h | > | ø |
#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬 ([2012-06-06-1]) (1) ǡֶΰספȤǽ˸ڤ2ĤθηŪʴطƱꤹ뤳ȤܻؤӸ (comparative_linguistics) ˤȤäơ2줫餽줾Ф줿1Фθ줬 (arbitrariness) ˴ŤޤƤˤʤΤǤϤʤȤǰϾ˶ŪǤ롥ζɬɤʬΤӸؤˡˤƤ⡤뤤Ϥ褦ȤرĤˤȤäƤ⡤Ǥ롥
ˤĤơCampbell (275--76) "Chance Similarities" ꤹ1 Doerfer Ը˸ڤʤƤ롥ˤ2ढȤݤ
Doerfer (1973: 69--72) discusses two kinds of accidental similarity. "Statistical chance" has to do with what sorts of words and how many might be expected to be similar by chance; for example, the 79 names of Latin American Indian languages which begin na- (e.g., Nahuatl, Naolan, Nambicuara, etc.) are similar by sheer happenstance, statistical chance. "Dynamic chance" has to do with forms becoming more similar through convergence, that is, lexical parallels (known originally to have been different) which come about due to sounds converging through sound change. Cases of non-cognate similar forms are well known in historical linguistic handbooks, for example, French feu 'fire' and German Feuer 'fire' . . . (French feu from Latin focus 'hearth, fireplace' [-k- > -g- > -ø; o > ö]; German Feuer from Proto-Indo-European *pūr] [< *puHr-, cf. Greek pür] 'fire,' via Proto-Germanic *fūr-i [cf. Old English fy:r]).
Ū̸Ūʶΰפ "statistical chance" Ǥꡤ̻ŪʲѲη̡֤ƤޤäȤ "dynamic chance" Ǥ롥Ӹؤ2줫餽줾Ф줿1Фθ٤ݤˡޤƤϤʤ2Ĥդ٤ȤõƤ
"dynamic chance" 1Ȥơ#4072. Ѹ have ȥƥ habere, ե avoir ̸츻 ([2020-06-20-1]) ȡ
Campbell, Lyle. "How to Show Languages are Related: Methods for Distant Genetic Relationship." Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Oxford: Blackwell, 262--82.
Doerfer, Gerhard. Lautgesetz und Zufall: Betrachtungen zum Omnikomparatismus. Innsbruck: Institut für vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck, 1973.
ϧޡפ̣ kiln 䡤ꥹλ͡ȡƸúȤ Milne (1882--1956) ˴ޤޤ ln ȤҲϢϡήȯǤϤΤޤ /ln/ ȯ롥n ʤ /l/ Τߤȯ⤢ˤϤ롥
Ūˤϡ/ln/ λҲϢϡѸ˼ /n/ 졤/l/ ؤȴάp. 419ˡ㤨СűѸ eln, cyln, myln ϡ줾츽Ѹ ell, kiln, mill бp. 319ˡ kiln, Milne μȯ /ln/ λҲϢޤबϡ#2518. Ҳۻ ([2016-03-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) ˤΤǤ롥
ơѸȤ /ln/ > /l/ βѲϡλŦ̤ /n/ κªƤΤؤǤϤ뤬Ѳμ֤ȤƤϽƱ (progressive assimilation or "carry over") Ȥ³åŻҲ (degemination) η̤äȤǽ⤢롥ȤΤ⡤Bybee (24) mill ʾʤȤƱʬ˴ؤơˤΤ褦1ĤȤƵƤ뤫Ǥ롥̸Ūʴ顤褯ѻ벻ѲȤƼ夲Ƥ롥
One type of carry over that occurs in Indo-European languages involves cases where an /n/ assimilates to a preceding liquid, as in the case of Proto-Germanic (PGmc) *wulna > *wullō > OE wull 'wool', PGmc *fulnaz > *fullaz > OE full 'full', and PGmc *hulnis > OE hyll 'hill' . . . . Similar examples are Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *kolnis > Latin collis, 'hill' and OE myln > PDE mill. L. Cambell 1999 also supplies a similar example from alternations in Finnish: kuul-nut > kuullut 'heard', pur-nut > purrut 'bitten', and nous-nut > noussut 'risen'. A similar assimilation is found in Kanakuru, a Chadic language of Nigeria . . . and in Kanuri, a Nilo-Saharan language . . . . In these examples, both consonants are coronal, and a notable feature is that nasality is lost. From a gestural perspective, a nasal assimilating to a non-nasal must be viewed as the loss of the gesture that opens the velum. Thus two things are going on in these examples: the two coronal gestures blend, with the [l], [r], and [s], none of which involve complete closure, affecting the closure of the nasal and the loss of velum opening, perhaps in response to the loss of closure.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Bybee, Joan. Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2015.
첻ˤϥԥå (pitch) Ȥ°롥⤤ο͡㤤οͤ⤤СƱͤǤ⤤äȤ㤤äȤ롥üԸĿͤȤ⡤ŪħȤƤΥԥå⤢롥 (intonation)㥢 (pitch accent)Ĵ (tone) ʤɤǤ롥
ԥåϼȿ (frequency) ȴϢξԤƱ뤵뤳Ȥ¿̩ˤмȿϲιбʪŪʻɸǤꡤԥåϤΤ褦ʲιФ뿴ŪʻɸǤ롥ԤϲŪʻɸԤİвŪʻɸȤäƤ褤ˤĤơɴʼŵ PITCH ι2ۤɰѤ롥
When an object vibrates, its movement produces changes in air pressure that radiate like waves from the source. If the frequencies of the vibrations are roughly between 20 and 20,000 cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz), ideally they can be heard by a young, healthy human listener. The range of hearing frequencies declines with age. The physical characteristic of the vibrating body, frequency, produces a psychological experience called pitch. In general, a low frequency produces the sensation of a low pitch (for example, the 60 Hz hum produced by electrical power in a poorly grounded radio), with the pitch increasing as the frequency increases (a male voice at 100 Hz, a female voice at 200 Hz, a child's voice at 300 Hz). Because there is a close correspondence between frequency and pitch, people frequently use the terms interchangeably. However, in addition to frequency, the sensation of pitch is influenced by an interaction between the amplitude of the vibration and the range of the frequency. Pitch is also influenced by the complexity of the vibration and its corresponding wave form. (623)
Pitch is closely related to the physical stimulus frequency, but as a psychological event, it is influenced by the complexity, frequency range, and loudness of the tone. (624)
ϡ֤Ū˴Τ첻ι⤵ʼȿˤȿʹ֤Τ첻ι⤵ʥԥåˤϡΤ̩ܤʴطϤΤΥǤϤʤȤȤԥåϡ첻βŪװΤۤˤ⡤¾͡װαƶƷޤ롥Ϣơ#2687. 첻μȿȲ٥ ([2016-09-04-1]) ⻲ȡ
Hogan, Patrick Colm, ed. The Cambridge Encylopedia of the Language Sciences. Cambridge :CUP, 2011.
ѲͼԤǤ Bybee (9) ɸˤĤ礭ͿƤ롥
A very general answer is that the words and constructions of our language change as they cycle through our minds and bodies and are passed through usage from one speaker to another.
ѲΡ֤ʤפȤ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפؤ˶ᤤΤǤϤʤȹͤ뤬ˤ褳1ʸ Bybee θѲѤȤߤĤळȤǤ롥ǤСǧδפӻѴפθѲѤǤ롥
³ Bybee ϡѲˤ3Ĥηȼĥ롥Ѥˤꡤ3ιҤ
Because language is an activity that involves both cognitive access (recalling words and constructions from memory) and the motor routines of production (articulation), and because we use the same words and constructions many times over the course of a day, week, or year, these words and constructions are subject to the kinds of processes that repeated actions undergo. (9)
Another pervasive process in the human approach to the world is the formation of patterns from our experience and application of these patterns to new experiences or ideas. (10)
The other major factor in language change is the way words or patterns of language are used in context. Very often the meaning supplied by frequently occurring contexts can lead to change. Words and constructions that are used in certain contexts become associated with those contexts. (10)
1ĤǧΡưס2ĤϹ̣Ǥ (analogy)3ĤϻѴ (usage-based_model) ȸƤ褤
Bybee, Joan. Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2015.
ε#4678. ˤݤĹء ([2022-02-16-1]) ǡˤݤĹءפδߤϤ⤦1ĤδǤ֤餮פܤ褦餮ϤˤĤơ (112) ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
Τ褦ʲݤª뼫ˡΰĤȤơϰ˽иñ٤ʬĴ٤뤳Ȥ롥ñνиˤ餮ΤǤСϰˤñ줬иʤ礬ꡤޤǤñ줬¿и⤢ꡤ٤ʬ礭ʤϤǤ롥
ϸȤƤʬ䤹ʸɽäǰƬˤ硤餮ϸˤäưۤʤ뤬⤷Ȥˡ륭ɤϤФФ餮礭Ȥ桤p. 118ˡϡŪʥɤƱʤɤ˹ʶ̣Ǥ롥
ޤʹָˤʸϤȥʸʸϤȤǤ餮٤ȡ餫Ԥ餮礭ΤȤϿʹָħΰü롥ˡʸϤΥˤäƤ餮ϰۤʤ뤿ˡ桤p. 120ˡ餮ٹ礤ʸŪʻɸȤʤ롥
͡ʲǽˤ֤餮פ˥ƥʤĥäƤϢơ1/f 餮 (1/f) ܡ
ҡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ١ؽDz2021ǯ
ˤϡ¾¿μҲݤˤߤֲݡפȤΤѻ롥 (98) Ѥ롥
ηϰǸСֲݡסĤޤñ줬ǤޤäƸ뤳ȡñ줬öȤФ餯δ֤ˤ˽иǡȤۤȤɽиʤʤ뷹뤳ȤȤľŪª뤳ȤǤ롥ݤǤϡûֳ֤³ˤûֳ֤졤ޤդĹֳ֤³ˤĹֳ֤ǽ⤤Τ褦ʸβݤװΰĤϡΤȤʤʸ̮Ѳˤ롥
ݤϡͻʤɡޤޤʣϤˤƤϤ褯Τά͡ȤС籫Ͽ̤ǤޤäƸ뤳ȤϷи̤ïΤäƤҲŪоݤˤƤ⡤ȤСˤϡȤʤäơϢԤ뤿ᡤϤݤ뤳ȤΤ롥Ʊͤˡñ⤢ñ줬ȤʤꡤñʤӤ˴Ϣñβи롥
ƤߤСäȤȤݤǤϤ롥βݤΰŪʸˤˤ뤬˱ѤϾʤ褦ˡȤƤϡ礭ʬơĹءפȡ֤餮פܤ2बȤǤԤƤ
ĹءפˤϤϡ֤ΡĤʬؤʬεΥ s ˰¸ƤɤΤ褦Ѳ뤫Ĵ٤ϡפǤ桤p. 99ˡߤΥ줿2Ĥʬ¤ƤĹؤȤȤˤʤcf. #4675. ʣϡ ([2022-02-13-1]) ǸڤĹסˡ
ѸˤѸǤ괧 the ˤĤơĹʸϤĹزϤߤȡɤ夤Ĺؤ褦桤p. 105ˡޤǼ夤ĹؤˤȤɤޤꡤ٤ߤ the ˤ餢٤βݤߤ뤳ȤȽ롥äȤˡthe ⸽ȤϸǤޤäƸ졤ʤȤˤϤФ餯ʤȤȤٴѻΤǤ롥 (109ˤϡԸ˽λ¤Τ褦˲ᤷƤ롥
k Ĥûֳ֤ȡ³ k + 1ܤδֳ֤ûk ĤĹֳ֤ȡ³ k + 1ܤδֳ֤Ĺˤ롥ûֳ֤³ȤϡоݤȤʤñ줬ǤޤäƸ뤳ȤƤ롥άͤΤ褦ʲݤطʤˤʸ̮Ѳ롥the ˤĤƤϡޤ괧濴ȤưŪʳǰƳθ塤Ƴ줿ǰˤĤƵԤ졤κݤ the ¿Ѥ롥
ϡäˤ¤ (information_structure) ܤthe ˤĤƤβݤɤ߲ȤäƤ褤
ҡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ١ؽDz2021ǯ
NHK饸ֺ¡δñѸ in Englishפ3ΥƥȤȯ䤵ޤϢܡֱѸΥܥʵפ12Ȥʤޤ1ǯ֤ɼԤγȿޤ꤬Ȥޤǯ٤ȤơѤѰդޤñ they äƲפǤ
֤ߤʡʬȻפäƤפȤ̣ Everyone thinks they are right. ȤʸϲǽǤ´ޤeveryone ϰ̣֤ߤʡפǤ⡤ʸˡŪˤñȽޤ͡ȤСEveryone thinks he is right. ȤФ褤Ǥ礦֤ߤʡפǤϤʤϤǤΤǡhe λѤˤ´ޤǤСEveryone thinks he or she is right. ۤɤǤ礦ޤɤäߤǤ͡ɡñʣϻĤޤäȰ Everyone thinks they are right. դΤ褤ΤǤϡȤ夭ĤĤޤñ they (singular_they) ȸƤФˡǤ

ϢܵǤϡΡñ theyפˤĤƱѸˤδǤ뤫ʬ䤹⤷ޤñʤʸˡˤȤɤޤ餺ҲŪʥơޤǤŪʥȥԥåǤ⤢뤳ȤޤդϡפΤۤƿΤǤ͡
ñ theyפꤷȤϡsingular "they" ˴ؤϢεåȤ
#4672. μͭӥMondפDZѸ˴ؤѤʵ˲Ƥޤ ([2022-02-10-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡMondˤơĤμ˲ƤޤΤʤǤ⤽ȿɸѤʵؤβˤĤơܥ֥ǤƾҲ𤷤ޤμȲHPˤʤޤʲˤžܤޤžܤΥ֥ȤʤäƤϷݤޤΤǡܵˤϾΥȤȴϢդƤޤʤ¾μؤβ⤴ФȻפޤ
ƱȯʤΤˤޤạ̈ΰ㤦դ¸ߤΤϤʤǤ礦
ʤϤˤȤʤϤˤʤɡŪ˻ȤդƱǹƤơߥ˥̵̤¿ȯƤϤʤΤˡ줬ޤƤ餳ޤǤδ֤줺ˤΤϤʤǤ
βϡʲ̤Ǥ
ΡƱ۵פνˤϡ3ĤβǽȹͤƤޤ(1) ۤʤ2äΤȯ줷Ƥޤä(2) 1äΤ̣ʬƤޤä(3) ޤƱȯ̤θ줬ǤƤޤä
ϸդŪˤߤ뤳ȤǤΤǡɸμƱȯʤΤˤޤạ̈ΰ㤦դ¸ߤ˻äΤˤϤɤΤ褦ʷаޤäΤǤ礦פȥѥե졼Ƥ餤ޤʤ¸ߤ뤫Ȥ⡤ʤ¸ߤ˻äƤޤäΤȤ˹ͤۤŪʵ⤷䤹ʤޤʲܸǤѸǤ¾θǤ⡤ޤäƱ褦˹ͤ뤳ȤǤޤ
(1) ۤʤ2äΤȯ줷Ƥޤä
ɤθǤ⡤ȯѲȤΤޤºݡˤƤޤȤȰۤʤäƤ2줬ȯѲη̡줷ƤޤȤȤ褯ޤ
лʥ兩ˤȲȻʥˤϸŤɽ狼ȤꡤȤȰۤʤȯǤ֥ע֥סʹٹξüˤȤѲˤꡤξ줬ƱȯˤʤäƤޤޤѸ last ʺǸΡˤ last ʷ³ˤ⡤ǯۤˤ첻ۤʤäƤꡤ2Ĥ̡θäΤǤˤβ첻줷Ƥޤޤ
(2) 1äΤ̣ʬƤޤä
ñΰ̣Ѳ⡤ȯѲƱ褦ˤޤ̾Ṭ̌ȿ̣ϲ餫ǴطƤΤʤΤạ̇̄Ѳ⤽ʬ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤ̣ѲϢŪ˷֤Ƥȡȯΰ̣˴ϢΤʤޤ
㤨СƴΡפȵΡ֥ĥܡפϡ츻õƱǤȤȡ֤ܤߡפۤɤ̣Ƥñϡƴ䤪Τ̤ΰ̣ȯãԤֵפΰ̣ޤȯΰ̣Υ줹ƤΤǡߤǤ̡θȤФŪʤΤǤϤʤǤ礦ʤ餳ɽפȡ֥ĥܡפʬƤ櫓ǤˡѸ flower ֲ֡פ flour ־ʴפ⡤ȤȤƱäΤǤ̣Ѳη̡ϢŤʤꡤ̡θȤߤʤ褦ˤʤޤ
(3) ޤƱȯ̤θ줬ǤƤޤä
ɤθˤ⡤Ȥ벻ʲǡˤΥꥹȤꡤۤ¿ǤϤޤޤβǤȤ߹碌ˤ§Τǡ٤ƤñȼΰۤʤȯˤͿ뤳ȤϤǤޤñ¿кۤɡ¸ñƱȯΤΤФƤƤޤΤǤʤϤˤȤʤϤˤʤɤŵǤϢȤƤϡǤˡֲðפȤñ줬äȤ˥ݥȥ줫֥ܥפäƤƤޤäȤ褦ʥѥ⤢ޤ
ǸˡƱ۵ϥߥ˥ˤȤäΤϤʤΤˡޤǤδ֤줺ˤΤϤʤȤ˲ޤ
1Ĥϡ̲λߤϤʤƤȤȤǤפȡ֥ĥܡפɽflower flour ֻȤΡʶ̸ˤ˥Ȥΰ㤤ʤɤλߤפǤΤ褦ʻߤʤ졤ȤƤ⡤̤ΤȤǾ嵭 (1), (2), (3) ͳˤꡤƱ۵줬ȯƤΤǡĤޤǤäƤŪˤϻʤȤȤǤ
⤦1ĤϡäܼŪʲȤʤޤ¤Ʊ۵ϥߥ˥ˤȤäƤۤǤϤʤȤȤǤۤȤɤξ硤ʸ̮λ٤뤿ˡθ졦̣ȤѤƤ뤫Ǥ㤨 I'll give you a ring. ֻؤפʤΤäפʤΤۣʥ奨ϡۤǤ͡Ʊ۵ϡפƤۤɤˤϥߥ˥ȤʤʤΤǤ
flower/flour ˤĤƤflower ʲ֡ˤ flour ʾʴˤƱ츻İlast ˤĤƤεɤ
Ʊ۵ (homonymy) ϡޤäƸȻפ뤫⤷ޤˡ̣ˤؤǤĤޤꡤΤ¦̤˴ؤοȥԥåʤΤǤ
μϡ˸ؤѸǤСƱ۵͡ (homonymic_clash) ǤŪˤ͡Ƥޤܥ֥Ǥ⤷ФƤޤhomonymy ˴ؤ뵭åѰդޤΤǡҤɤ
ɸˤĤƤϡ#3130. ʣϸء ([2017-11-21-1]) ϤȤ complex_system εdzָƤε#4673. Ūɬȶ ([2022-02-11-1]) ǻȤ椬ظȥե饯٤Ƴǡʣϡפꤹ1Ƥ롥p. 34--35 Ѥ
ܽˤʣϤϡʲĤŪΤȤ롥
Ǥʬۤ˥եΩĤ
Ĺ뤳
ά
Ǥʬۤ˥ե뤳ȤϡϤǤ̵¤Ƥ̵·ϤǤꡤޤϤϳĤȤ롥δĹ˴ؤƤϡߤɽάܽǤĹ (long memory) ȤϡѥΤʬΥ줿̤ʬ˱ƶڤܤȤƶڤܤװϡ̣ŪʸŪŪޤޤǡμ̤鷺ĹΥǤδطʤ٤ĹΤ롥ܸȤǧβʳذʳʬǤϼʤ⤷ʤ縵αѸ long memory ϡʣϲʳؤǤѽФ롥
֥եפˤĹפˤؤǰ̤ѤѸǤϤʤΤ褦ʳǰѤƤʹֳ¿θݤ顤츽ݤۤɳ֤äƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤƶʣϸؤǤ롥¾θݤȤޤäƱȤ櫓ǤϤʤκۤŪΤˤȤ館뤳ȤǤС줿餷ƤܼƤΤǤϤʤΤ褦ʴԤ롥
ҡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ١ؽDz2021ǯ
3ΤȤǤ122ڡˤˡҤȡȤХեΥݥָˤȸŪץå оȸˡפλפΰĤȤơֽѸˤóȽλߡפä뵡ޤZoom ˤ륪饤ȯɽǤθΥǥåޤᡤؤٶˤʤ֤ǤżԤϤᡤݥ¾żԤʼԻüԤγͤ˴տ夲ޤ꤬Ȥޤ
ȯɽϡǤ͡ʵ˸ɽƤȤȤؤˤޤǤϥݥ˴ޤޤоȸˡ (contrastive_linguistics) ռơȤ櫓ܸˤˤóȽˤȤоȤռʤޤ
Ѥ饤ޤ饤ɤܥ֥ؤΥ¿ĥƤޤΤǡ碌ƤȤ
1. ҤȡȤХեˤȸŪץå оȸˡפλѸˤóȽλ
2. ѸˤóȽλ
3. ܼ
4. 1. Ϥ --- 16ɼҲѲ
5. 2. 缺ĴɤαѸ --- ƥؤΰ¸ȥƥ줫Ω
6. Ѹ줬Ƥ3ĤǺ
7. 3. Ωܻؤ
8. 4. ¸ɤοޤ (1) --- 츻Ūֻ
9. 5. ¸ɤοޤ (2) --- óȽ
10. ץѡäĤѡ
11. 6.֥פ̼
12. 7. ̼Ѥؤȿ
13. 8. 졤ץ졤ʸоȸ
14. 9. ޤȤ
15. óȽȡѤоȸ
16. ʸ
ܥ֥Ǥϡʣϡե饯δطˤĤơcomplex_system chaos_theory ʤɤεǾҲ𤷤ƤȤƤؿϤΤΡƬȼäƤʤʬΤ褦ǡʤʤǤʤʸƬˤ⤦䤹ǡ嵭ʬʰŪˤϿ̸ءˤܤʤɤФ褤ΤˤʤȻפäƤȤǯҡˡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ٤Ǥ줿ɤߤȻפĤѤɤƤΤ褦䤯ڡ⤷
ʤ䤬ޤǿǤʤäΤդͳ⡤Ƴ鶵ƤƤơȤƤ桤pp. 10--11ˡ
ʣϲʳؤϼҲŪʷϤŬѤƤªõϡǤⰡήǤꡤŪǤȤ虜ʤμͳȤƤϡʪŪˡоݤϹȤϤäƤޤǤꡤ̤Ͽͤβ˰¸ʤΤܻؤȤ롥θϡͤβȤñʸõ椷ƤϳŪˡϡ̣äơȤ褤ȤϤʤäΤǤ롥ǡʪؽпȤθԤõ椷𤬤˻𤷤Ƥꡤϸν¦ϸʤܽϤΤ褦ʴ¸¿äƤ롥
ȤƤ褯ʬä㤨 Zipf's Law (cf. zipfs_law) Ȥ̾ʸ׳ؾˡ§Ǥ顤ͤùɤߤȻפСؤ⳰˽ФʤФʤʤ¿̤θؤ̤ˤȤäơʤʤФʤΤǤ롥
ǤϡʤϡΤʬäƤʤ⡤ʣϤʤɤȤδط˿ҤΤդΥ䤷Ȥ⡤ (11) äƤ줿
ǡϤȡŪפȤƤŪΩ롥λ¤顤Ūפϡ줬߽ФΰĤΤ褦ªƤ¦̤롥ܽǤ⸫褦ˡΰ̴طϤ餯դǤȻפ롥줬Ūפ߽ФȤϡŪޤꡤϤ餯ȤΩƤ롥ĤޤꡤŪפϡ¸ȤʤäƤȻפ롥ʤФŪɬϡñ칽¤ʤɤȤäν˱ƶڤܤƤϤǤ롥ơŪɬǸ줬ɤΤ褦üäƤ뤫뤳ȤϡܼªĤμΩƤȤʤȻפ롥
ɤޤǤΡŪɬʤΤʬСæΤˤΤơԤʹ֤˹տޤȿǤƤΤǤǽ⤤ (5) ϡΤȤMallarmé СפȤƼƤ롥
Ĥơ Stéphane Mallarmé ˤơФꤸפȤ˸ڤƤά͡Фΰ϶褷ѤʤפȤ Mallarmé ΤȤФϡפȤƤϼʤǤ뤬ˤĤƤȤʤդȯطʤˤϰտޤ뤳Ȥ¿˴ŤȤϹͤˤMallarmé ϡդȤȤ⡤Фꤸ褦˶ѤʤȤżդޤդΥȤԤˤߤ롥տޤäȯäˤ⡤ʸñ˶ӽǤʤʤ顤٤ˤ϶ɬäƤŪΤ뤳ȤǡդȤˤĤ餫ˤʤ롥λˡտޤʤɿʹ֤װܼ˸Ϥޤ
伫Ȥʤ׳ؤ˼椫ƤΤդ꤬ɤ߿ʤ뤦ˤɤɤʬäƤΤ
ҡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ١ؽDz2021ǯ
ҥϥƥӥĤƤμͭӥMondȤӥꡤ˴Ƥƿ̾μˤĤƻ䤬Ѹ˸ԤΩ줫ȤȤϤƤޤͭ̾ӥȤYahoo!ηޡQuoraޤMond ϤꥢǥߥåòƤȤȤΤ褦Ǥ
ظ˴ؤ붽̣Ѥʵפ¿ƤƤ뤳Ȥǧܥ֥ Voicy ΡֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸̤ƻ䤬ܻؤƤΤƱĥӥޤΤǡܼŪ䤤5˲Ƥߤޤ¤٤Ȱʲ̤Ǥ
ָ줬ʸΤǤ礦ȤʸΤǤ礦
֥ɥĸեϡֽ̾פȡ̾פȤʬबޤɤΤ褦ޤäƤΤǤ礦
ֲȲؤΰ㤤褯ʬʤΤǤѤƶƤ
֥ꥫѸȥꥹѸ졤ȥꥢѸδطϡܤǸȤϰۤʤΤʤΤǤ礦
ܸʤSOVѸʤSVOӥʤVSOʤɸˤäƸ礬ۤʤޤϤɤΤ褦ʸ㤤ʤΤǤ礦
Ǥܥ֥ľܡܤ˲⤷Ƥ¿ΤǤ嵭Τ褦ľεȤȲλۤʤäƤȤȤǡβ⿷˽Ƥޤhellog ؤΥĥäƤޤΤǡԤ褷ƤФȻפޤ
ŪʲǤꡤ¾ȤΩ줫ϰŪʲȤƼΤɤϤޤäޤԤԤˤʤäƤ뤫ʬޤǤ⡤ο֤Ǥ⡤ɼʡѤʵפƤʤȤݤϼƤޤ
ε#4670. ˤ֥եꥸκס ([2022-02-08-1]) ˰³ (264) ֥ԻĻפꤹ1 (Cornish) ϥեꥸ (Frisian) ʾ˺Ȥǰ餫ΥƤ褦˻פ뤬ɤ
˥ͤ礹ȡΥ̥ͤϥ̥륺ͤڤΥ졤ȾΤĤ줿ơΥϥȷϤηǤ륫줫ȤȤˡƱȸɤΤȤˤ֥쥤̥֥ȥͤʬΥϻȾνפεˤʤäΥϡΤ˿षƤȬǯˤäȤФȤƾǤƤޤää٤ݤθˤΥϡˤʤäƤߤäΤǤ롥ưοʼԤˤƤߤСΥκϡν̱ȤȤηӤĤ餯뼫ʷ̤Ȼפ줿ηӤĤˤĤƤȿ;ϤΤʤϡ塻ǯߤ줿-ΥͭϤʥСǤäHʡƴʷ˸路Ƥ롥֤ʤͤϥΥؤФʤƤϤʤʤΤʤʤϥͤǤסά͡褦Ȥ֤ϤɤλΤΤȤ٤ȤˤĤƤε뤳ȤϤ롥κ˾Ǯ륰롼פΤҤȤӤȤǯ˻ǤޤäΤȤФΤʤǻȤȤƤꡤ⤽˶ĤҤȤӤȤοƤȤ¤ϡܤ٤Ǥ롥ʤˤϡ饨Ȥˤإ֥饤κӤԤ⤢ۤɤǤ롥
פλϡɤ֥ƥμϰؤȡפ礷褦ȤǤ롥֥ƥüˤ륳⤽α¿ȤʤꡤƱϤ˱Ѹ줬ƩƤȤˤʤäθ塤ϼ¼ŪˤϻȤʤäƤޤä20ˤʤäƤϸ֤ͭ褷褦ȤƤ롤ȤΤ
#779. Cornish Manx ([2011-06-15-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡΥưˤϾħŪʰյʤȤ⤢롥Τ˸Ūˤ⤷ʤ̱²߽ФפȤȤΰ̣ƹͤƤ롤ǤϤ롥
ɡˡë 𡦺 ľҡˡض̸ --- 衼åѽᤰء١ҡ2018ǯ
ӸؤǤϡѸȺǤƤθϲȤХեꥸ (Frisian) ȤȤˤʤäƤ롥ܥ֥ǤϱѸˤμդ͡˰äƤեꥸˤĤƤϡ#787. Frisian ([2011-06-23-1]) #3169. űѸ⳰ˤեꥸͤγ ([2017-12-30-1]) Ǽ夲٤ǡޤܤƤʤä
ǶḽΥեꥸξˤĤ٤֥եꥸκפꤹ̥Ū1Ѥ (262--63) ̱²߽Ф1Ȥƥեꥸ줬夲Ƥս
줬ϤζΰϤˤäƾǤδˤ餵Ƥ⡤̱²ŪޥΥƥǥƥƥ᤹뤳Ȥǡθϰ̤θˤĤʤ뤳Ȥ롥եꥸξ礬Ǥ롥եꥸϡѸƱޥ췲γθ췲̥եꥸ췲ͤ°Ѹ¿ζäƤ롥θ˸ŤˤäƤꡤޤȴطäƤ衼åѤ̱²θǤ롥ĤƥեꥸüԤϡγȤ襤ȴαĤߤơؤ⤯äƤDeus mare, Friso litora fecitաֿĤꡤեꥸͤߤĤäפȡȤեꥸäҤȤӤȤϡʥեȽȥե˥˻͡ˤȥɥġʥǥޡȹܤ륷쥹ҡۥ륷奿ˡΤॹȥإॹϡեδ֤ˤϰ衤ߤȤޤäƤΦȤϤʤۤʤƿ͡ˤΤʬƤޤΤʤǥեꥸˤϿषƤ
ưϽȾФ餹Ǥ˻ϤޤäƤΤǤϡեꥸ¼ǤäƤʤä줬ˡΧʸˤƥեꥸˤȤäϤɤ⡤ˤʤäơΰĹΤȤƥեȤ¸ߤȤϡǥƥƥγä¥ȤϡŪʵϤαդĤġθˤޤȤޤäˡ褦Ȥˤˤϥեꥸǥߡꡤ¤Ƥ롥եꥸ϶ˡΧΰˤϤޤۤȤƳƤʤɤ⡤廰ǯʹ߾عܤȤƳ졤ǯȽǿѤǤ褦ˤʤäȤȡθߤŪʹưΤǡեꥸϥ˶Ϥ˰褯ƤȤ̸ά͡
֥եꥸǥߡפʤȿ뤳ȤΤʤäΤǶä졤Ѹ졤ɥĸ졤̲ȤŪˤŪˤҲŪˤʽζ֤ˤäơޤӤƤȤΤϴפΤ褦ˤפ롥
ɡˡë 𡦺 ľҡˡض̸ --- 衼åѽᤰء١ҡ2018ǯ
Ѹ (world_englishes) ¿ȤСɸΤ褦ıѸѼ郎äȤƤäʤ3;ñ̾λѤˤƷŪ˽ζ̤ĤʤѼĤޤɸѸΤ褦 he she ʤ itˤζ̤ΤˤĤʤѼ郎ΤǤ롥
㤨С쥢եꥫѸޥ졼ѸǤϡФлؼоݤˤ餺3;ñ̾ѤȤMesthrie and Bhatt (55--56) ꡤطսѤ롥
Gender has proved --- despite its minor role in English --- susceptible to variation in New Englishes. Some varieties use gender in pronouns differently. Platt, Weber and Ho . . . report that in some New Englishes where the background languages do not make a distinction between he, she and it, pronouns 'are often used indiscriminately'. They offer the following examples:
41. My husband who was in England, she was by then my fiancé. (East Africa)
42. My mother, he live in kampong. (Malaysia)
Since Bantu languages do not make sex-based distinction with pronouns, and the spoken forms of the Chinese languages of Singapore and Malaysia do not differentiate gender in 3rd person pronouns . . . , substrate influences may well be at work here.
ɸѸΤߤΤäƤԤˤȤäơ϶ä٤ݤΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸˤ椷ƤԤˤȤäƤϡޤää٤ȤǤϤʤѸǤϡˤ뤬Ф he Ȥ3;ñ֤̾ؼ뤫Ǥ롥ˤҤɤʡ˾ˤϡʤʣ;̾Ʊ he ɽ蘆줿ꤹ롥Ѹξˤϡ̣Ūζ̤ξüǤϤʤޤǷŪʹȤˤ̤ĤʤʤäȤȤǤꡤ嵭쥢եꥫѸޥ졼ѸΥȤϻ𤬰ۤʤΤָ World Englishes ϹפȶˡŪʱѸѼޤפȶǤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
äƤ顤αѸˤǤФȤƤ18ᵬϼλפв褦ˤʤäƤ18ᵬϼλפȤŪѤʤεʸˡȤ٤ϡʬŪˤϵŪ¦̤ʤꤢäߤδ֤˲ٺ⤢äȤä˺ɾʤǤΤǤ롥ηˤĤƤϡ#2815. 18εϼκɾˤĤ (1) ([2017-01-10-1])#2816. 18εϼκɾˤĤ (2) ([2017-01-11-1]) ǿ줿
ŪˤϡRobert Lowth (1710--1787) A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762) ǶŪ٤ΤФơ饤Хطˤä Joseph Priestley (1733--1804) The Rudiments of English Grammar; Adapted to the Use of Schools with Observations on Style (1761) DzǵŪ٤Ȥ椵Τä
ԸȤ (100) ˤȡֵʸˡȤ˶ᤤѤͭƤȤ Priestley ⡤ǤǤϡprescriptive comment Ϥ鷺 22 comments Ǥä2ǤǤϡ238 comments10ܰʾäǧƤפȤLowth ܤˤơǤä Priestley εʸˡȤžȤȤˤ⸫롥̤ˡ֥饤Хطפˤäȸ뤬¤ Priestley Lowth ˥饤Х뤷ƤȤȤΤ褦ʻܡp. 98ˡ
Ĥʸˡܤ夲 Lowth Priestley ΰоȤ塤 (108) ϼΤ褦äƤ롥
Lowth Priestly ɮʸˡϡȤ˵ŪǤꡤŪǤäȤϸޤǤʤά͡ŪʻˤĤƤϡŪʤΤǤ뤳Ȥǧ줿ʸˡϡʸˡܤˤäưۤʤ뵬ϤŬѤƤǤʤεϤϻѶŪˡˤϾöŪǤäȤܹƤǤLowth ϡط̾ξάˤĤơηǡδ侩ʤĤޤ궯Ū٤Priestley ϴط̾ that λѤˤĤơLowth ˶ŪΩȤäƤư̾ˤĤƤϡξԤȤѶŪ˵ŪʥȤȯƤ뤬ӤФƤϡLowth ϡŪΩPriestley ϡŪΩ줾ȤäΤ褦ˡLowth Priestley ʸˡˤϡʸˡܤФ more proscriptive more descriptive ǤϤʤmore proscriptive less proscriptive Ȥäܺ٤٤ޤȿǤƤ18εʸˡθζ̣1ĤϡʸˡȤθѤ̯õ᤹뤳Ȥˤȸ롥
ҡ2ͤεʸˡȡRobert Lowth Joseph PriestleyסĻرءʹֲʳס10桤2019ǯ93--111ǡ
Ѹ̾ˤϡĻ̾ (countable noun) ԲĻ̾ (uncountable noun) 롥Ԥ괧 a(n) դʣ -(e)s դԤϤΤ褦ʤΤդʤĻ̾ŵ̾ book 佸̾ family ǤꡤԲĻ̾ŵʪ̾ water ̾ love Ǥ롥
ǡ֡̾פȤ̾μ̤Ǥ6Ĥ⸽줿δطˤϡð̣δ2ĤΥѥθ롥"bounded" "internal structure" 2ĤǤ롥
"bounded" ȤϡޤääƤפȤȤǤ롥㤨Сa book ϡ1ܤȤޤä뤳ȤǤ뤫 "bounded" Ǥ롥ʣ books ǤϡΤ줾줬ɤΤ褦ʰִطˤΤʤɤε䤬ͯΤȤƤޤä뤳ȤΤ "unbounded" Ǥ롥water love ⡤ǤŪʥˤȤǡ"unbounded" Ǥ롥
"internal structure" ϡ˹¤뤫ɤ˾ñ̤ʬ䤬ǽɤȤѥǤ롥a book 1餳ʾʬǤʤ books ϹǤ뤽줾ܤʬǤ롥⤷Τ a family Τ褦̾ǡ̾ΤĤʤäʣΥСʤ뽸Ḥ̂뤫顤¤ġͤؤʬǤ롥water love ϡŪˤϤ켫Τ¤ϤʤȤߤʤʪؤůؤΤ褦ˡȤȤͤͤ¤ȼĥǤ뤫⤷ʤǤϤޤǡְŪʸˤСפǤˡ
2ĤΥѥݤ碌ȼΤ褦Ǥ롥
| [+internal structure] | [-internal structure] | |
| [+bounded] | ̾ family | ̾ʸΡ book |
| [-bounded] | Τʣ books ̾ʣ families | ʪ̾ water ̾ love |
Ѹ th-sound ̸ŪȯǤ뤳Ȥϡ#842. th-sound Ϥޤȯ ([2011-08-17-1]) ¾ǸƤɸѸˤƤ th-sound ȾΤ [θ, ð] ϡ [t, d] Ȥ [s, z] Ȥ⿰ [f, v] ȤۤʤҲǤꡤΩǤƤ롥¿θǤϤαѸ th-sound ΩǤȤƤäƤʤᡤѸäݤˤ̤λҲؤʤɲ餫нˡɬפȤʤ롥
Ѹʸ̮ǤȤʤ롥㤨СܸǤ th-sound ϡ֥פ뤤ϡ֥פȤƼ뤳ȤܤȤʤäƤ뤬 s/z Ȥζ̤Ĥʤơ֥פ sing ˤ thing ˤб뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ֥פ Zen ˤ then ˤбȤä֤Ȥʤ롥
ϡܸǤϤʤθǹѻǤ롥¿θ줬λҲƤäǺǤΤMesthrie and Bhatt (126--27) ϡth-sound ŪƤˤĤƼΤ褦˵ҤƤ롥
Fricatives: The most striking feature among fricatives is that all New Englishes varieties treat /θ/ and /ð/ as something other than an interdental fricative. /θ ð/ are realised similarly as a pair as follows:
Dental stops [t̪ d̪] in CFl [= Cape Flats] Eng (variably) and regularly in IndSAf Eng, Pak Eng;
An aspirated dental stop [t̪h] occurs widely in Ind Eng, but its voice counterpart [d̪] is not usually aspirated;
Alveolar stops [t d] in EAf Eng, Ghan Eng, Sgp Eng, Mal Eng, Phl Eng;
Variably as [t t̪] for /θ/ and [d d̪] for /ð/ in BlSAf Eng and Ghan Eng;
Affricate realisations [t θ] and [d ð] are reported as lesser variants in Ghan Eng.
/θ/ is realised as [f] word-finally in some words in EAf Eng, Ghan Eng and Sgp Engl
In EAfr Eng /θ/ and /ð/ may be realised as [t s f] and [d z v] respectively, Other changes to fricatives are less widespread;
쥢եꥫѸѼ濴Ȥơ¿Ѽˤ th-sound ϡɸѸƱ褦ĴƤʤȤ狼
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
ǯ١ʸʸ칶λαѸ˥ߤ13ܤ´ʸФޤ´ʸܤ̵˽λ˾ǧޤΤǡ13ܤܤϿҲ𤷤ޤߤʷϵ뤫Ȼפޤ
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¤ӽϡ̤Ǥ̤Ǥ⤭줤ʻʬˡޤǴˤΤǤդˤС줯餤¿ͤäȤȤǤ
ǯδؿΤ꤫سĬήȤϢưƤ뤳Ȥ̣ȤȻפäƤޤȤ櫓ɸѸʳѼؤδؿ World Englishes ؤδؿޤäƤƤ褦Ǥ "Jamaican English", "Hispanic", "Cockney" ȤäɤĤ뤳ȤǤޤޤǯ٤ΥߤǤޤް̣Ѳ˾ƤƤȤ⤢ꡤ̣Ѳ褯ޤ
̣ǤΡ̾פ˴ؤơޤޤ줿褦Ǥ϶ʤΤǤ礦̾פŪ˴ؿ䤹ơޤǤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ͡
ΥߤʤϡֱѸ˥ߡפäƤޤɬŪ̻ŪФ櫓ǤϤʤ¼ŪˤϹֱѸإߡפǤǤ⡤ǯ٤Ϻǯ٤˰³Ū̻ŪʴŪäȻפޤ
ǯ٤´ʸܤˤĤƤεå뤤 sotsuron 줫餳ʬ´ơޤȤƤˤ⡤äȻͤˤʤȻפޤkhelf (= Keio History of the English Language Forum) ˤ⻲ͤˤʤϢޤ
ɸϡǶᤤܼŪʼǤ
ϡؤůؤʬκ1ĤǤ֥͡ԥᥦդβפָפʤɤȸƤФ졤Ĺ餯ƤơޤǤޤΤϽФƤޤ
ֶϡ줬͡ʤˤʸˤꤹȼĥޤ줬åѡϥɤäƤȤͤǤּ͡夤ϡϻ͡ʤˤʸˤȿǤˤʤȼĥޤʸåѡϥɤäƤȤͤǤξԤϥΩƤꡤΤȤġͤªǤȤ٥βˤȤɤޤäƤ褦˻פޤ
ָ줬ʸΤʸΤפȤˤϡŪŪ˰ǡ¾Ȥȯۤ褦˻פޤ¤ϤˤϻŪŪʽȤΤϤʤΤǤϤʤȡϹͤƤޤ
褯ָʸΰǤפȸޤ͡ޤä̤ȻפäƤޤؤǤСֶΰǤפȤΤƱ褦ʤΤǤϤʤǤ礦ֶΤΤפȤ䤤ϡȤˤΤǤŪŪˡȤƤϤɤ餬ǡɤ餬ʤΤ䤦ƤϽФʤ褦˻פޤʤ⤢ʤǤդʤж⤢ޤ
ʸδط⡤Ʊ褦ʬΤδطʤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤޤǡ¾ȤȤ館ХåꤹΤˡȤʬΤǤɤʸϤΤ褦ʴطˤϤʤΤǤϤʤ줬ܲλιͤǤ
ѤڤʤǤϤޤʤȤǤǤ礦
ˤĤƤܤϡܥ֥εå
#4657. Գ ([2022-01-26-1]) ȤơϢοŪˤĤƳȻפޤ٤ϹͤȤΤͼ¸ǤϤʤǤ礦̵ǡޤäۤʤȤͤ2ͤǥߥ˥뤳Ȥˤʤä顤ɤʥߥ˥ˤʤΤȤǤůؤʬǤϡ2ͤδ֤Ǹ蘆٤ŪȸƤФƤޤ
ϡԳδפˤֺŪפλͼ¸ˤĤơΤ褦Ƥޤ (95--97)
磻ϡؤȤФоݡ٤ȤܤǤϡ̤ˤäԳĥƤ롥ϡؼԤʬäȤϤޤäۼ̤Τθä͡νҲ˽ȤˡࡿθɤΤ褦뤫---Τ褦ʾǤŪȸƤФ---Ȥͼ¸˴ŤΤǤ롥Ūϸ¤ˤϤޤ¸ߤʤȤΤ⡤ߤǤϤϤ䤳ϵΤۤȤɤϰ褬Ĵ졤ʤȤ鷺ǤäƤ⡤ޤϼǤäƤˤ˽͡θͤ伭¸ߤꤹ뤫Ǥ롥ʤ顤¤ˤ¸ߤʤȤ⡤Τ褦ʲŪʾǤȤɤΤ褦˹Ԥʤ뤫ȤȤͻ뤳ȤϡȤϤ⤽⤤ʤΤʤΤȤȤͤˤͭѤǤ롥
ʲ磻λͼ¸éäƤߤ褦ܿͤθؼԤ̤Τθä̤ΤμҲƧ줿Ȥ롥ࡿϸϤοͤȽФ魯ޤ⡤οͤ챩Υڤäȡοͤϡ֥פȶΤȤθγؼԤϡοͤϡ֥פ뤤ϡ֥ڤäפȸäΤȿ¬ʬΥΡȤˡ֥---פȤĤ줬䤿̾ȤǤϤʤǤʤС֥פȤɽϡ֥פȤɽͣȤϸʤ⤷ʤʤʤ顤ڤΤȤ䤿ܿͤϡ֥פ뤤ϡ֥ڤäפȸʤ뤫⤷ʤϤοͤޤȤǸǤʤǤ롥ࡿϡȤСΤ褦ʾ硤̡֥פȤ֥ʬΥƤʤʬפȸäƤΤ⤷ʤ
λ֤ϾԽʬȤȤ鵯äƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤСɤ줬֥פǤ뤫뤿ˤ˴ѻŤͤȤƤ⡤֤ϲʤΤǤ롥ȤΤϡ˥ڤΤΤȤϤο֥ͤȶ֤ΤȤϡٻ---A---ˤȤäƤϡ֥פ٤ȤȤξڵȤ뤬¾ٻ---B---ˤȤäƤϡ֥̤פ٤ȤȤξڵȤ뤫Ǥ롥
ְ챩Ρפ٤ϸ---MפȤ褦---ȡ֥פȤ߹蘆ƻѤΤѻС֥פʡ̡֥פǤϤʤˡ֥פ٤ȤǤ뤳Ȥ狼롤ȸ뤫⤷ʤΤˤϡMפְ챩ΡפȤȤꤷƤʤФʤʤȤ M ˤƤ⡤֥פƱ褦ˡʣꤦ롥ĤޤꡤM פ A ˤȤäƤϡְ챩Υפ٤⤷ʤB ˤȤäƤϡ̡֥פȤɽޤफʤʣɽ٤⤷ʤΤǤꡤΤ줬Τ餫δѻˤäƷ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤ롥
ʾϼΤ褦ˤޤȤ뤳ȤǤ롥ʤ
֤̤θ뤿μˤϡΰۤʤΤꤨ⡤μΤȤξΩΤΡμɤϸߤξΩʤȤȤꤦס
Ʊ̴ȸޤ礦褯ȤФβäʤɤǡϤʹƤ餫ˤ߹äƤʤΤˡܿͤϸߤ˥ߥ˥ƤȻפǤ褦˸륱ޤ˶ᤤΤǤ礦͡
֥ˤĤƤϡؤδ#920. The Gavagai problem ([2011-11-03-1]) ǤƤޤΤǡȤƤ
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