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2024-02-29 Thu

#5421. Ǿ -est ӵ -er ˤ⤦1դää [superlative][comparison][adjective][suffix][reconstruction][indo-european][analogy]

ؤäΤȤꡥ
Fertig (34) ˤȡɸ̤ꡤƻ졦κǾɸ -est ϡӵ -er ˤȯŸǤȤȤ餷

The superlative suffix -est, for example, is historically a combination of the ancestor of the -er comparative suffix (*-ôz-/*-iz- in proto-Germanic) followed by an originally separate *-to-.


ȤȤ *-ôz-/*-iz- *-to- ̡̡̤ä줬蘆뵡¿äΤǡ蘆ä̤η1ĤοȤ򤵤褦ˤʤäȤȤ
Ϥ礦ɸѸ -ist -ic ̡ȤߤʤƤ뤬蘆ä -istic 1ĤΩȤȤ館٤롥㤨 cannibalistic ˤơڤФ٤ -ist -ic 2ĤʬϤ⡤-istic 1ĤʬϤۤºŪȤΤϡ*cannibalist ȤñϤʤ
򶵷ȤСӵ -er -ist ˡǾ -est -istic ȤȤˤʤʬ䤹褦ʬˤ褦ʡ

Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-02-28 Wed

#5420. ݺƻͺˡʸˡѸ١ʳҡ2014ǯ --- Ѹʸˡ [toc][review][grammaticalisation]


ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ



Ѹʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ؤӻϤ᤿ȤˡɸᤷޤܤˤĤƤϡ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)Ǥ夲ޤ#1001. ѸʸˡˤĤΤꤿʤ --- ݺƻͺˡʸˡѸ١ʳҡ2014ǯˡǤҤİ



īۿ heldio Ǥ#1003. There is an apple on the table. --- Ϥɤ졩ꤷơܽ򻲾Ȥʤ¸߹ʸˤĤƤΤäϤƤޤǶ heldio Ǥ¾ˤʸˡˤޤĤ򥷥꡼ۿƤޤΤǡ#5411. heldio ǡʸˡפƳ륷꡼Ϥޤ ([2024-02-19-1]) Υ󥯽⤴Ȥ
ơʸˡѸ٤Ǽ夲ƤѸ˾ʸˡλϤؤ˭٤ǤפʸˡܤФǤʲ˷Ǥܼ򸫤Ф狼뤫Ȼפޤ



Ϥ
1ϡʸˡȱѸ
1. Ϥ
2. ʸˡȤϲ
3. Ѹι¤
4. Ѹ
5. ʸˡưָ
2ϡʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. 괧
3. 괧
4. νиʸˡ
3ϡ¸߹ʸˤ there ʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. There ʸȯã
3. there νиʸˡ
4ϡͭʤɸ -'s ʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. ͭʤɸ -'s ʸˡ
3. of °ʤȯã
5ϡ³ʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. ¤齾°¤
2.1. űѸˤ뽾°¤ȯã
2.2. ¿ͤ³ȯã
3. ³ʸˡ
6ϡط̾ʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. űѸδط̾
3. ط̾ that ʸˡ
4. WH ط̾ȯã
7ϡƵ̾ʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. űѸκƵ̾
3. Ƶ̾ʸˡ
8ϡư DO ʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. űѸεʸʸ
3. DO ʸˡ
9ϡˡưʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. Ѹˡư
3. ˡưʸˡ
10ϡɸ to ʸˡȽưȯã
1. Ϥ
2. ɸ to ʸˡ
3. for + ̾ + to ȯã
4. ưʸˡ
4.1. be going to ʸˡ
4.2. have to ʸˡ
11ϡʹԷʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. űѸοʹɽ
3. ʹԷʸˡ
12ϡλʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. űѸδλɽ
2.1. HAVE λ
2.2. BE λ
3. λʸˡ
13ϡư֤ʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. ư֤ȯã
3. ư֤ʸˡ
4. Ū칽ʸμư֤ˤĤ
14ϡ it ʸˡ
1. Ϥ
2. ;ιʸο
3. it ʸˡ
15ϡʸˡȸʲ
1. Ϥ
2. Ѹ¿ͤʸˡ
3. ʸˡȹ¤Ѳ
4. ξʲ
5. Ѹγʤȸ
6.
׺άɽ
ʸ
ʤ븦Τ




ܽϡ hellog Ǥⲿ٤ȤƤޤʲε⤴ФȻפޤˤʸˡѸ٤ϱѸˤλʸˡȤƥǤ

#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1])
#2146. ѸˤѲϡ͹¤εǽ͹¤ؤγŬǤ ([2015-03-13-1])
#2490. λʸhave + ʬפεȯã ([2016-02-20-1])
#3669. ߤΥ롼׸Τμóݤ ([2019-05-14-1])
#5132. ʤ be going to ̤̣Ρ --- ʸˡפȤѤʵ ([2023-05-16-1])

ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1] [2024-11-08-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-02-27 Tue

#5419. blending contamination [blend][contamination][morphology][word_formation][terminology]

smoke fog ݤ碌 smog ϡ (blending) ȸƤФˤäޤ줿 (blend) ŵǤ롥
ȻΥפȤ (contamination) 롥ƥ gravis ʽŤˤе levis ʷڤˤθ˱ƶơ¯ƥ grevis ѲȤ㤬󤲤롥ޤˤϷŪǤʤŪޤޤ롥㤨 different from other than ä different than Ϥ㤬롥ϡ#630. blend(ing)portmanteau word θƾΡ ([2011-01-17-1]) #737. ʸ contamination ([2011-05-04-1]) Ǽ夲Τǡ⻲Ȥ줿
blending contamination ϡ2ĤǤκ礤˴ŤȤƤ褯Ƥ롥ºݡξԤä˶̤ʤԤ⤤롥嵭ǻ伫Ȥ2ĤѸֺפȡֺפȰۤʤ餻ƤϤߤơδŪȤ櫓ǤϤʤޤDZѸǤΰۤʤѸ츯˱碌Ƥߤˤʤ
ǤϡξԤ̤븦ԤϡɤǶ̤ƤΤˤĤ Fertig (62) Ѥ롥

The terms contamination and blending were introduced by different scholars (Hermann Paul and Henry Sweet, respectively) in the late nineteenth century to refer to roughly the same range of phenomena. Many historical linguists, if they use both terms at all, have continued to use them more or less interchangeably . . . , whereas most morphologists use blend(ing) to refer only to the type of deliberate creation of new lexical items illustrated by smog.


Fertig Ȥ blend(ing) contamination 1ȤߤʤƤꡤΤ褦Ƥ롥

I classify blends as a subtype of contamination. Exactly where to draw the line is tricky, but a prototypical blend has the following properties: (1) it is lexical, i.e. both the input forms and the product are words (rather than phrases or bound morphemes); (2) it is a deliberate creation; (3) the input words both (or all) contribute to the meaning of the blend.


Τ褦˲ᤷƤʤ졼λϤ褦ΤȤξԤ̤򤷤ƤȻפ

Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1] [2024-06-30-1]

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2024-02-26 Mon

#5418. A Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords 񤭤ɤǤߤ褦 [review][loan_word][japanese][lexicography][lexicology][dictionary][inohota][notice][oed]



֤ΤۤͥʵְʼδѸظإͥסˤκǿư褬ޤֺǽܸͳαѸϡޤ hikikomori enjo kosai ⡪---ν-֥ʥסֳסڰʼδѸظإͥ 209ۡǤѸäܸñˤ⤷Ƥޤ߿ܸ줬¿ФƤΤǡ䤹꤫ȻפޤäȤѸˤǤ
ưǤŵȤ OED ΤۤA Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords Ȥ⤷ѤƤꡤҲ⤷ƤޤμˤĤƤϡǶ hellog Ǥ#5410. A Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords --- Ѹäܸñμ ([2024-02-18-1]) ˤƼ夲ƤޤΤǡ⤴ɤ


Toshie M. Evans, ed. ''A Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords''. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1997.



ƱƬ񤭤ɤǤߤޤ礦 (ix--x)

A Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords is a lexical index of terms borrowed from the Japanese language that are listed in standard English dictionaries and in publications that analyze new words. Therefore, this dictionary covers both the loanwords that have withstood the test of time and those whose test has just started.
   American standard dictionaries keep records of borrowings from the Japanese language; most of them, however, do not furnish quotations. A Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords adds a special contribution by providing illustrative quotations from many entries. These quotations were collected from books, newspapers, magazines, advertisements, and databases, all of which were published or distributed in the United States between 1964 and 1995. They give details about the entry, demonstrate how it is used in a natural context, and indicate the degree of its assimilation into American English.
   Recent studies report that Japanese is the second most productive source of new loanwords to English, which indicates that the English-speaking world is paying attention to Japan more closely than ever before. The entries and illustrative quotations present the aspects of Japan that Americans have been exposed to and have adopted. Karaoke, for example, first appeared in English in 1979, when English-speaking societies observed and read about a karaoke fever in Japan. Today, Americans find themselves enjoying karaoke. Karaoke showcase, a weekly television talent contest, appeared on 120 U.S. stations in June 1992. A phenomenon like this is shown in this book in the form of lexical entries.
   The impact that Japan has made on America covers all aspects of life: aesthetics, architecture, arts and crafts, astronomy, biology, botany, business management, clothing, economics, education, electronics, fine art, food and food technology, medicine, oceanography, pathology, philosophy, physics, politics, religion, sports, technology, trade, weaponry, zoology, and so on. Some entries are not accompanied by a quotation; nevertheless, when dictionaries record words they indicate that these words are somehow linked to people's everyday lives. A Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords is also meant to be fun to read. I hope that it will provide the meaning for Japanese words the reader has come across on many occasions, and that it will be an occasion for happy browsing.

    
    μ̥Ϥϡʸ˭٤ʤȤޤ "happy browsing" ˺Ŭʡɤ뼭פǤ
    
Toshie M. Evans, ed. A Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1997.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-02-25 Sun

#5417. ɽηϤüԤˤŪʬϤη̤Ǥ [history_of_linguistics][writing][linguistics][grammatology][medium]

񤭼ʸ䤽ν񤭸դηϤϡ켫ΤθäդоݤȤؤ1ĤηǤ롥ռŪʬϤ뤳ȤʤˡͤʸɽηϤͰƤ뤳ȤϤǤʤơɤ߽񤭤ǽϤ夫ȤˤĤͤޤŪ˹ͰƼԤθʬϤθ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫
Daniels (54) ϡָػˤȤƤν񤭸դˡפΤʤǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Ordinarily, speakers have no insight into the nature of their language or what they are doing when they are speaking. But when a language is written, it is consciously written, and every writing system embodies an analysis of its languages. And that analysis is known not only to the deviser of the writing system (however great an accomplishment the act of devising a writing system may be), but also---consciously---to everyone who learns to write, and even read, that writing system. Ergo, every writing system informs us of 'native speaker analysis' of every written language, and such analyses have touched on virtually every level of analysis known to modern linguistics.


񤭸դȯϡ켫ȤäդθŪʬϤξڵȤߤʤȤǤ롥äơػ˽κǽ֤٤Ǥ롥ʤۤɡ̤ꡥ

Daniels, Peter T. "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 53--69.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-02-24 Sat

#5416. ¿β [variety][world_languages][language_death][sociolinguistics][review]


Words and Worlds: World Languages Review



漼Ѥɾ֤ˤʤäƤ¿ (language diversity) ˴ؤܤѥѥȤ᤯äƤߤUNESCO ETXEA 2005ǯ˽Ǥ줿 Words and Worlds: World Languages Review Ȥ̾ܤĤɤΤ褦ʷаޤꤷΤФƤʤ褦¿ο޽Τ1Ǥ롥
Ƭ1ɤǤȡʤʤɤޤʸǤ롥 (Prologue) "The value of language diversity" ȾФΤĤ11Ǥ (p. x) ʲ˰ѤΤạ̇̄äƤС

Languages are humanity's most valuable cultural heritage. They are fundamental to understanding. Each language provides a system of concepts which helps us to interpret reality. The complexity of reality is easier to understand thanks to the diversity of languages. Progress in understanding is due, amongst other things, to the growing linguistic diversity that has characterised the human species. Languages are also fundamental in the generation and transmission of values. Each language expresses a differentiated ethical sensibility. Each language provides us with symbols and metaphors to deal with the mysterious and the sacred. Furthermore, languages are not closed or exclusive universes. All of them express the rationality of the human species as well as its common fears and hopes. Linguistic diversity is the most obvious manifestation of cultural diversity. In a world characterised by growing processes of globalisation, it seems necessary to assert the value of cultural diversity as a guarantee of more democratic and more creative coexistence. Cultural uniformity would mean a decline, to the extent that we would lose our ability to give specialised answers to specific challenges. The report "Our Creative Diversity", published by UNESCO in 1995, pointed out what orientations were necessary to preserve diversity without renouncing positive aspects of globalisation in the field of cultural and linguistic diversity. We often coincide with the criteria of the defenders of diversity of living species in the natural environment. In both cases it is said that there is a need to protect the heritage. The reason is not exclusively ethical. Both the defence of biological diversity and the defence of cultural and linguistic diversity are necessary conditions for the well-being of humans, for the balances that protect life and for the life quality we aspire to develop.


¿ʪ¿ʿŪ뤳Ȥ¿λݤΰʸǤΤ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ԤϸԤ٤ƸŪȤǧ٤㤤
ѤκǸˤơ¿ʸͳŪʤΤǤϤʤȤˤȤ櫓Ϥ򴶤Ǥʪ¿¿ƱǤꡤ¿ʸϡΰǫХ󥹡μȯŸΤɬ׾ʤΤȤ¿ "specialised answers to specific challenges" 󶡤ƤȤƱͤϤ롥
ʲܼܽǤƤѥѥȤɤǤʤɤܤ1



Prologue
Introduction
Chapter 1. Linguistic Communities
Chapter 2. The Linguistic Heritage
Chapter 3. The Official Status of Languages
Chapter 4. The Use of Languages in Public Administration
Chapter 5. Language and Writing
Chapter 6. Language and Education
Chapter 7. Languages and the Media
Chapter 8. Language and Religion
Chapter 9. Transmission and Intergenerational Use of Language
Chapter 10. Linguistic Attitudes
Chapter 11. The Threats to Languages
Chapter 12. The Future of Languages




Martí, Fèlix, Paul Ortega, Itziar Idiazabal, Andoni Barreña, Patxi Juaristi, Carme Junyent, Belen Uranga, and Estibaliz Amorrortu. Words and Worlds: World Languages Review. UNESCO ETXEA, 2005.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-23 Fri

#5415. õܹ (lexical entry) ˤϲܤƤ뤫 [lexicon][lexicography][lexicology][semantics][dictionary][orthography][etymology]

䤿ʻȤѸ켭ܸ켭ʤɤǤϡФΤȤˤɤΤ褦ʾ󤬵ܤƤФ줽켫Τϡե٥åȽ礢뤤ϸ޽¤٤줿ǡƸ줬ˡ§äʸǷǤƤΤ̤θȯʬ᲻Ķʬ᲻ˤξ󤬵ܤƤ뤳Ȥ¿θ塤ʻƼʸˡ󤬼졤1İʾ󤵤ΤŵǤ롥ȥ꡼ˤϡˡ졦Ϣ졤츻¾ʤɤդƤ뼭⤢̤μ (dictionary) Ȥˡܺ٤ϰۤʤ褽Τ褦ʥ쥤ȤǤ롥
Ǥϡ䤿üԤƬˤ뼭 (lexicon) ϡɤΤ褦ƤꡤƸιܡʤõܹ (lexical entry) ˤϤɤʾ󤬡ֵܡפƤΤϡ̣ŪǤ롥
ޤùܤ¤Ӥե٥åȽ޽ǤϤʤȤľ롥ޤʸɤ߽񤭤ǤʤλҶƬθõܹܤˤϡˡξäƤʤˡʻʤɤΤ褦ˡ̤˸츻˴ؿΤüԤǤʤ¤ꡤƬθõܹˡָפΤ褦̻ŪʥʡꤵƤȤϹͤˤ
ȯʻƼʸˡ󡤸ˤĤƤϡμ (dictionary) ȤϰۤʤȤͽۤ뤬餫ΥեޥåȤƬμˤֵܡפƤȹͤ롥ǤϡŪˤɤʥեޥåȤʤΤ
ϸ̣ʬŪǤꡥ줾ȤǤƤƤ櫓ǤϤʤľƬƤߤ櫓ˤϤʤ绨Ĥʹդ뤳ȤΤѸñǹͤ¤ꡤ㤨СBauer (192--93) ϡLyons 򻲾Ȥ¾ΤĤԸˤۤꤷĤġ4ܤ󤲤Ƥ롥

(i) stem(s)
(ii) inflectional class
(iii) syntactic properties
(iv) semantic specification(s)


(i) stem(s) ʸ촴ˤȤ뤬ȤƤ뤳Ȥϲʬ᲻Ķʬ᲻ˤξΤȤǤ롥(ii) ϷŪ(iii) Ū(iv) ϰ̣ŪǤ롥Ǹιܤϡ¿ξˤϡʣԡפˤ錄
ؤθϤϡˡ츻;ϤϤʤΤǧᤶʤʸȸ츻򰦤Ǥ˸ؼԤˤȤäơäȼ䤷ȤǤϤ롥

Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
Lyons, John. Semantics. Cambridge: CUP, 1977.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-22 Thu

#5414. dungeon ʸˤȸ츻 [doublet][etymology][semantic_change][literature][french][latin][voicy][heldio]

NewsPicks ܹΩ̿ءˤϢܤƤRPGΤΤˡκǿƤޤ֥󥸥ȡҥåӤؤ---ͥȥͥǡǤ


֥󥸥ȡҥåӤؤ---ͥȥͥ



RPG ˤϡ֥󥸥 (dungeon) ζϤޤʤΤǤϤʤǤ礦ΰ̣ϡϲϴסƶססʤ RPG ˤϥ󥸥դΤʤΡåޥ󥹤ȤδطϡΤ褦䤤ƤʸˡʸػˤεǤ
ǤڤƤޤñ dungeon ϸťե󥹸 donjon ѤΤǤ1300ǯˡťե󥹸Ǥθϡּ緯פۤɤǤ줬ϴȤѤ줿طʤ顤ϴסȤ櫓ϲϴפΰ̣ȯãޤˤ RPG Ūʡ̤Τʤ֡סʾ嵭򻲾ȡˤȤˤޤȯŸƤޤʸỤ̄臘٤̣Ѳ (semantic_change) ιǤ͡
ơťե󥹸 donjon ϡ̤ƥ dominiōnem ˹Ԥ夭ϸŵƥ dominium бޤַϰ̡ϡפ̣ޤΥƥñ줬ľܱѸ˼ޤ줿Τ dominion ڡ۸פǤĤޤꡤdungeon dominion 2Ÿ (doublet) ȤȤˤʤޤ
Ϣϡʲ hellog heldio ΥƥĤǼ夲ƤޤΤǡҤɤ

hellog #3899. ƥ domus ʲȡˤθ캬ͥåȥ ([2019-12-30-1])
hellog #3898. danger, dangerous ΰ̣Ѳ ([2019-12-29-1])
heldio #118. danger ΤȤȤΰ̣ϡָϡס
heldio #273. ֻ۸ ΤäƤ danger θ
hellog #1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-21 Wed

#5413. ޥĸȸűѸ1;ñ̾ [comparative_linguistics][personal_pronoun][pronoun][person][germanic][reconstruction][paradigm][oe][indo-european][rhotacism][analogy][sound_change]

Hogg and Fulk (202--203) 򻲾Ȥơޥĸ (Proto-Germanic) ȸűѸ (Old English) 1;ñ̾γʶޤ¤٤Ƽ

 PGmcOE
Nom.*ik
Acc.*mek
Gen.*mīnōmīn
Dat.*miz



ɽκ¦ PGmc γƶޤˤƱ¦ OE η֤ѲˤϤʣ (analogy 䲻Ѳ (sound_change) 䤽¾βƯƤȤHogg and Fulk (203) β򤽤ΤޤްѤ褦

nom.sg.: *ik must have been the unstressed form, with analogical introduction of its vowel into the stressed form, with only ON ek showing retention of the original stressed vowel amongst the Gmc languages (cf. Lat egō/ǒ).
acc.sg.: *mek is the stressed form; all the other Gmc languages show generalization of unstressed *mik. The root is *me-, with the addition of *-k borrowed from the nom. The form could be due to loss of *-k when *mek was extended to unstressed positions, with lengthening of the final vowel when it was re-stressed . . . . More likely it represents replacement of the acc. by the dat. . . . as happened widely in Gmc and IE . . . .
gen.sg.: To the root *me- was added the adj. suffix *-īn- (cf. stǣnen 'made of stone' < *stain-īn-a-z . . .), presumably producing *mein- > *mīn- . . . . To this was added an adj. ending, perhaps nom.acc.pl. neut. *-ō, as assumed here.
dat.sg.: Unstressed *miz developed in the same way as *hiz . . . .


ǸΤȤ PGmc *miz ˤ OE ˤʤäΤˤĤơHogg and Fulk (198) 򻲾Ȥ­ƤϤ礦3;ñʤ PGmc *hiz OE * ȯãΤʿŪȯãȤ*hiz z ˤ벼θ̤ *hez Ȥʤꡤ˸Ҳ rhotacism Ф *her Ȥʤä˾ü *he ȤʤꡤǸ˶ȤĹ첻 ˻äȤ롥
;̾Ϲ٤εǽȤƶȼθؤ㤷Ȥ⤤뤷˿ȼޤ³Ȥ⤵롥嵭β򳵴ѤǤ⡤Ӹؤ񤷤ʬ롥Ϣơʲε⻲ȡ

#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1])
#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1])
#2077. you ȯˡ ([2015-01-03-1])
#3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])
#3776. ǽζȼ岻 (2) ([2019-08-29-1])

Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-20 Tue

#5412. θʣäΤñäΤ [origin_of_language][language_change][evolution][history_of_linguistics][language_myth][sobokunagimon][simplification][homo_sapiens]

ػˤΥϥɥ֥åɤǤ롥Mufwene θεʲ˴ؤϤǤϡޤǤƤƤ͡ʸ쵯ʲҲ𤵤Ƥꡤɤβͤ롥
褯Ѥʵ1ĤˡθʣäΤ뤤ñäΤȤε˴ؤΤ롥ʲδϡʳ鸽ޤǸñ㲽ƤΤʣƤΤȤϢ뵿䤬Ƥ롥
ʬʤΩˤĤƤԤ롥㤨СԤΤ Jespersen ȡԤ Bickerton ϹоȤʤMufwene (31) βѤ褦

His [= Jespersen's] conclusion is that the initial language must have had forms that were more complex and non-analytic; modern languages reflect evolution toward perfection which must presumably be found in languages without inflections and tones. It is not clear what Jespersen's position on derivational morphology is. In any case, his views are at odds with Bickerton's . . . hypothesis that the protolanguage, which allegedly emerged by the late Homo erectus, was much simpler and had minimal syntax, if any. While Bickerton sees in pidgins fossils of that protolanguage and in creoles the earliest forms of complex grammar that could putatively evolve from them, Jespersen would perhaps see in them the ultimate stage of the evolution of language to date. Many of us today find it difficult to side with one or the other position.


ξرĤȤȼ˴ŤƤꡤ󤬤⤽ΤɤǧʤʤΤǡʿ򤿤ɤ餶ʤޤʣñȤϲȤ̤ΩϤ롥ǸˤĤƤϡ#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#4165. ʣˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2020-09-21-1]) ʤɤ򻲾ȡ

Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-02-19 Mon

#5411. heldio ǡʸˡפƳ륷꡼Ϥޤ [voicy][heldio][grammaticalisation][notice][hel_education][language_change][link]

ī6ˡܥ֥λǤȤ⤤벻֥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ۿƤޤ2024ǯ heldio ΥơޤѲ (language_change) Ǥ礭ʥơޤʤΤǼ夲Ƥ¿ˤ錄ޤ򤱤̤ʤΤ1Ĥʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ޤܥ֥Ǥ#417. ʸˡȤϡ ([2010-06-18-1]) ϤȤơ¿εܤƤޤ
轵heldio ˤ5Ϣ³ʸˡĶȤʤϤޤŪʸˡƳ꡼Ȥʤޤ˥󥯤ޤȤƤޤ

#988. 夦夦ñȤñ --- Ƹȵǽ
#989. ƸȵǽΤ줾ħӤ
#990. ʸˡȤϲ
#991. while ʸˡ
#992. while ʸˡ³ˡ
ʰʲ嵭
#1001. ѸʸˡˤĤΤꤿʤ --- ݺƻͺˡʸˡѸ١ʳҡ2014ǯˡ
#1003. There is an apple on the table. --- Ϥɤ졩
ʸ嵭ޤǡ

5äϥࡼˤĤʤäƤΤǡİƤȤ褤Ȼפޤü᤯İȤϡ濴Ȥʤ#990. ʸˡȤϲǤ⥷꡼ȤϤĤȻפޤ



äܳŪʸˡؤӤȤϡܥ֥ grammaticalisation γƵä˽פʵ򤤤Ĥ󤲤Ƥޤ

#1972. Meillet ʸˡ ([2014-09-20-1])
#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1])
#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) ([2014-09-23-1])
#2575. Ѳΰ ([2016-05-15-1])
#2576. æʸˡȸò ([2016-05-16-1])
#3273. Lehman ˤʸˡμ١6 ([2018-04-13-1])
#3272. ʸˡ2ĤΥᥫ˥ ([2018-04-12-1])
#3281. Hopper and Traugott ˤʸˡܼ ([2018-04-21-1])
#5124. Oxford Bibliographies ˤʸˡγס ([2023-05-08-1])

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-02-18 Sun

#5410. A Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords --- Ѹäܸñμ [review][loan_word][japanese][lexicography][lexicology][false_friend][semantic_change][oed][dictionary]


Toshie M. Evans, ed. ''A Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords''. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1997.



įƤǤ⤷褷˰ʤξҲǤToshie M. Evans ˤԽ줿ѸäܸñϿ뼭 A Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords Ǥ1997ǯ˽ǤƤޤ hellog Ǥ#142. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸʬۡ ([2009-09-16-1]) ǻȤ̤Ǥ820ܸͳΡֱñפȥ꡼Ƥޤñ˸Ф줬󤵤ƤǤʤ¿θˤϡ1964ǯ1995ǯδ֤˥ꥫǽǤ줿줿ʸդƤꡤؤ󵮽ŤǤ
ʷϵΤäƤˡֲȭפ hibachi Υȥ꡼Ƥߤޤ礦

hibachi [hibɑːtʃi] n. pl. -chi or s, 1. a brazier used indoors for burning charcoal as a source of heat.
In an old-style shop, the selling activity took place in a front room on a tatami (straw mat) platform about one foot above the ground level. Customers removed their shoes, warmed themselves by sitting on the floor next to a hibachi (earthen container with glowing embers) and were served tea and sweets. (Places, Summer 1992, p. 81)
2. a portable brazier with a grill, used for outdoor cooking.
Double stamped steel hibachi, lightweight & portable. Goes with you to the backyard or even the beach for tasty cookouts? (Los Angeles Times, Jul. 7, 1985, Part I, p. 13, advertisement)
[< hibachi < hi fire + bachi < hachi pot] 1874: hebachi 1863 (OED)


1ܤΡֲȭפΤΤʤΤǤ2Ρ֥С٥塼פˤϤޤƤޤޤ͡θȤΰ̣ѲˤĤƤϡ#4386. ֲȭפ hibachi, ڡפ senpai ([2021-04-30-1]) ǤⰷäƤΤǡȤ
ܸ줫ѸäѸ˴ؿΤϡҰʲεɤ

#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1])
#45. ѸäˤޤĤ͡ ([2009-06-12-1])
#2165. 20ȾμѸ쥽 ([2015-04-01-1])
#3872. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸμǯ ([2019-12-03-1])
#4140. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸΡ֤ġפȡ֤ɤΤ餤ס ([2020-08-27-1])
#5055. Ѹˤˤܿ --- 8+3ˡ ([2023-02-28-1])
#5147. ֤إ饸׽б3 --- إ˥¼ŵ6Ǥɤǿ줿 ([2023-05-31-1])

Toshie M. Evans, ed. A Dictionary of Japanese Loanwords. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1997.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1] [2024-02-26-1]

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2024-02-17 Sat

#5409. Ƕ Mond 6μ˲ޤ [mond][sobokunagimon][heldio][hel_education][notice][link]

֤ǡμͭӥ Mond ˴󤻤ƤѸ˷Ϥμ6ۤɲޤǤ󥯤ͭޤʼʸθʸûʸԽƤޤˡ¤٤Ƥޤ
ī8Ф̼󤫤κǿμϡȤ櫓ϤǤ͡ѥƤޤޤǻ䤬ȤΤʤäѸ˴ؤѤʵǡɷŪǤ꤬Ȥޤ

(1) boss äƤʤ s դĤʤΡ8̼˼䤵ޤʤǤǤ


Mond answer 20240217 re boss



(2) Ѹ줬ƥ줫ưѤȤλʬ˴ŤѤΤϤʤʤΤǤ礦
(3) Japan Ȥñθ츻ϡ
(4) who, what, where, when ʤɤФơʤ how wh- Ǥʤ h- ǻϤޤΤǤ礦
(5) 5ʸ SVO ʤɤ V ϡưפȤޤֽҸפΤǤϤʤǤ礦
(6) ʤưɽ魯Ϥưˡ־ưפʤΤΤǤ礦

ϡܥ֥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ǴϢ夲ꡤܤ⤷ƤꤷΤ¿ºݤ˲ΤʤǤĤ󥯤ĥäƤޤΤǡ碌ƤȤФȻפޤ

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-16 Fri

#5408. 3;̾ϥޥĸζ̴̤ʤ [indo-european][comparative_linguistics][personal_pronoun][pronoun][person][germanic][german][reconstruction]

Ѹ3;̾ he, she, it, they ʳơϼʤηˤζηϤϸǤʣʤۤŪˤˤƤаޤ롥бűѸμʷ󤲤С줾 , hēo, hit, hīe Ȥʤ뤬ܤǤ⸽Ȥκ礭Ȥʬ (cf. #155. űѸο;̾ζޡ ([2009-09-29-1]))
ޥο;̾ηϤ٤ȡΤȤƤȤϤȤ櫓3;ΤθġγʷˤĤƤϡɬƱθ츻̤櫓ǤϤʤޤƤĸޤ̤餻뤳ȤǤʤĤޤꡤ1Ĥζ̴Ʒ뤳ȤǤʤȤȤˤʤ롥3;̾ϡ12;̾䡤ؼ졤ʤɤȤϻ𤬰ۤʤ롥Lass (139) ϢѤ褦

Proto-Germanic did not inherit a fully coherent pronoun or determiner system; nothing quite like this reconstructs even for Proto-IE. Rather the collections labelled 'pronouns' or 'articles' or 'demonstratives' in the handbooks represent dialect-specific selections out of a mass of inherited forms and systems. There are clear IE first-, second-person pronoun systems: we can easily identify a first-person nom sg root */H1egh-/ (l eg-o, Go ik, OE ic 'I') and a second-person root in */t-/ (L tu, OCS ty, OE þū). There is also an interrogative in */kw-/ (L qu-is, OE hw-ā 'who?') and a deictic in */to-/ (Go to 'def art, masc nom sg', OE þæ-s 'def art m/n gen sg'). There is no reconstructable third-person pronoun, however. The personal pronouns may be heterogeneous even across Germanic: Go is, OE 'he' are not cognate. But overall the main systems are related, at least in outline.


ϲ̣Τ3;̾줬¾ȯǤ뤳Ȥ򼨺ΤƬ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡѸˤǤ˻˸¤äƤƱ礭ƤȤаޤ롥ȤȤϡ֤֡μѤηȤؤˤʸǤȤȤʤΤ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-15 Thu

#5407. ػˤϸ奮ꥷϤޤ롩 [greek][history_of_linguistics]

Robins ˤػˤϡͽ̤ۤ奮ꥷϤޤ롥οͤ路ػˤȤɸŪʻϤǤꡤȤˡָפɬפʤȻפΤRobins ϸ򤹤롥奮ꥷΰζȤǰΤ˿֤äƤΤRobins (12) 1ɤǤߤ롥

For the reasons given in the preceding chapter, it is sensible to begin the history of linguistic studies with the achievements of the ancient Greeks. This has to do, primarily, not with the merits of their work, which are very considerable, nor with the deficiencies in it that latter-day scholars looking back from the privileged standpoint of those at the far end of a long tradition, may justifiably point out. It is simply that the Greek thinkers on language, and on the problems raised by linguistic investigations, initiated in Europe the studies that we can call linguistic science in its widest sense, and that this science was a continuing focus of interest from Ancient Greece until the present day in an unbroken succession of scholarship, wherein each worker was conscious of and in some way reacting to the work of his predecessors.


奮ꥷθˤޤ³ΤθθˤʤäƤȤȤǧƤΤɤळȤǤ롥ʤۤɡĤƤθϤäȤƤ⡤ޤǤ­򷫤֤ơϢ³ƤȤפȤĥʤΤΤθؤΤߤʤ餺ΤůؤʤɤǤ⤽ǧƤ褤Ȼפ³ƤΤ϶

Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-14 Wed

#5406. ˤοʲοʲοʲ [homo_sapiens][origin_of_language][evolution][history_of_linguistics][darwin][ai]

Charles Darwin (1809--82) ϡοʲϿοʲΤΤʿŪʤȤȹͤƤꡤޤοʲȤطƤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ä˸Ԥ˴ؤƿʲͤǸȤӤĤƤߤԤϡDarwin ǽ˶ᤫä褦Mufwene (23) Ѥ롥

Charles Darwin commented in The Descent of Man (1871) that the evolution of language was in several ways reminiscent of that of mankind itself. He hypotheisized that it had emerged gradually, had not been given by God or invented by design by humans, and could also be explained by natural selection. He was among the first to correlate the evolution of language with that of the human mind . . . , thus accounting for why parrots cannot produce original spoken messages intentionally, although they can imitate human speech fairly accurately. Showing what an important driver role the human mind has played in the evolution of language, he argued that it was for the same reason that other primates do not use their buccopharyngeal structure to speak.


AIФ줬θʤΤȤˤؤäƤǡŤƿ⤷ʤ
ˡβ³ Mufwene (23) ϡǽϤȯȽȯΩƤ뤫ݤȤ⤦1ĤνפŦƤ롥

We now know that Charles Darwin was only partly right. The other primates' buccopharyngeal structure is not shaped in exactly the same way as that of humans, although, based on the parrot's phonetic accomplishments, we must wonder how critical this particular structure was for the emergence of language (not speech!) in the first place. After all, humans who cannot speak produce signed language, which is just as adequate for communication. This argument may be claimed to support the position that the emergence of the capacity for language must be distinguished from the emergence of languages. However, one must also wonder whether the two questions can be considered independently of each other . . . .


⸽λߤ;פˤ⤷AIϡʹ֤ȯ¿δ¸θǡ򥨥ͥ륮ȤơǽϤ餷ΡΤˤи컺ФμˡˤǤ롥
λˡDarwin ɤǤߤΤͭյ⤷ʤ

Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.

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2024-02-13 Tue

#5405. ¿򾧤 Maupertuis [homo_sapiens][origin_of_language][evolution][history_of_linguistics][language_myth][tower_of_babel]

Ϣ Mufwene 򻲾ȤĤĸεᤰˤ򿶤֤äƤ롥ϡ¿򾧤ե󥹤ůؼԡؼԤ Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698--1759) 夲Maupertuis ϸ¿Τˡ֥Х٥ (tower_of_babel) ȤϤ뤳Ȥ򤻤⤽ȯθ餫¿ͤʸ줬äȡĤޤεʣäñ쵯 (monogenesis) Ф¿ (polygenesis) 󾧤Ǥ롥Mufwene (22--23) ϢʬѤ롥

Another important philosopher of the eighteenth century was Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, author of Réflexions sur l'origine des langues et la vie des mots (1748). Among other things, he sought to answer the question of whether modern languages can ultimately be traced back to one single common ancestor or whether current diversity reflects polygenesis, with different populations developing their own languages. Associating monogenesis with the Tower of Babel myth, which needs a deus ex machina, God, to account for the diversification of languages, he rejected it in favour of polygenesis. Note, however, that his position needs Cartesianism, which assumes that all humans are endowed with the same mental capacity and suggests that our hominin ancestors could have invented similar communicative technologies at the same or similar stages of our phylogenetic evolution. This position makes it natural to project the existence of language as the common essence of languages beyond their differences.


θǽϤ켫ΤΤɤǤǤۤƱ˳֤߽ФƤġθϸߤ˰ۤʤäƤꡤΤȤƸ¿Ф줬 Maupertuis ª
ñ쵯¿ˤĤƤϡ#2841. εȸεδط ([2017-02-05-1]) ε⻲ȡ

Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-12 Mon

#5404. ̾줫ϤޤäΤư줫ϤޤäΤ [homo_sapiens][origin_of_language][evolution][history_of_linguistics][grammaticalisation][noun][verb][category][name_project][onomastics][naming]

ɸϲ褷褦ΤʤǤϤ뤬ػ (history_of_linguistics) ˤƤϸε (origin_of_language) ᤰΤʤǻڤƤ䤤Ǥ롥
Mufwene (22) 򻲾Ȥơ2ͤԤȤθҲ𤷤ɥĤůؼ Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744--1803) ȥꥫθؼ William Dwight Whitney (1827--94) Ǥ롥

   Herder also speculated that language started with the practice of naming. He claimed that predicates, which denote activities and conditions, were the first names; nouns were derived from them . . . . He thus partly anticipated Heine and Kuteva (2007), who argue that grammar emerged gradually, through the grammaticization of nouns and verbs into grammatical markers, including complementizers, which make it possible to form complex sentences. An issue arising from Herder's position is whether nouns and verbs could not have emerged concurrently. . . .
   On the other hand, as hypothesized by William Dwight Whitney . . . , the original naming practice need not have entailed the distinction between nouns and verbs and the capacity to predicate. At the same time, naming may have amounted to pointing with (pre-)linguistic signs; predication may have started only after hominins were capable of describing states of affairs compositionally, combining word-size units in this case, rather than holophrastically.


Herder ϸ̾դ (naming) μϤޤäȹͤȤ̾դη̤ȤƤΡ̾פǽ̾ǤϤʤҸưäȤդϰճȯۤǶ̣Herder ϡ̾ϸư줫ΤǤȹͤϸʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ǤȤʸˡƤȯȤͤ˶ᤤ⤷ʤ
Whitney ϡư̾ζ̤Τʤʳǰɽ (holophrasis) ȯΤǤꡤޤǸˤʤäƤ餽ʸˡƤȯãȹͤ
쵯ʸˡϤΤ褦ˤƴطŤΤȴ补

Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-11 Sun

#5403. ŪӤŪñĴ --- 륽θ쵯ȯã [roussseau][anthropology][homo_sapiens][origin_of_language][evolution][language_myth][history_of_linguistics]

ե󥹤λ۲ȥ륽 (Jean Jacques Rousseau [1712--78]) ϡεϴŪӤˤȹͤθ塤ϿҲ񡤴ĶѲȤȤˡŪʤΤؤȯŸƤȤϸεȯã˴ؤŵŪɽŪʲ1ĤȤäƤ褤
륽ϸ쵯ȯãˤĤơ嵭δŪʹͤ˴ŤŪʰѤäˤڤƤ롥Mufwene (19--20) ˤ륽Ѥ

. . . Rousseau interpreted evolution as progress towards a more explicit architecture meant to express reason more than emotion. According to him,

Anyone who studies the history and progress of tongues will see that the more words become monotonous, the more consonants multiply; that, as accents fall into disuse and quantities are neutralized, they are replaced by grammatical combinations and new articulations. [...] To the degree that needs multiply [...] language changes its character. It becomes more regular and less passionate. It substitutes ideas for feelings. It no longer speaks to the heart but to reason. (Moran and Gode 1966: 16)


Thus, Rousseau interpreted the evolution of language as gradual, reflecting changes in the Homo genus's mental, social, and environmental structures. He also suggests that consonants emerged after vowels (at least some of them), out of necessity to keep 'words' less 'monotonous.' Consonants would putatively have made it easier to identify transitions from one syllable to another. He speaks of 'break[ing] down the speaking voice into a given number of elementary parts, either vocal or articulate [i.e. consonantal?], with which one can form all the words and syllables imaginable' . . . .


줬ʹ֤ȯãȤȤ "monotonous" ȤʤäƤơ"consonants" ƤȤọ̇ۤȯۤطʤˤϡĴѤִŪʡ׽줬ϰäƤ뤳Ȥ륽ΤäƤȤ¤롥륽и鼫ͳǤϤʤäȤ狼롥

Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.

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2024-02-10 Sat

#5402. 2023ǯ٤Ф줿´ʸȽʸ [hel_education][sotsuron][shuron][khelf][seminar][link]

ǯ١ʸʸ칶ĥߤ14ܤ´ʸ1ܤνʸФޤʲơܤޤαѸˤΥߤǤɤʤȤơޤȤʤΤȻפޤ

Ρ´ʸ

Changes in the Frequency of Inanimate S-Genitive Case Use in British Popular and Quality Papers
The Characteristics and Development of Suffix -some in the History of English
The Origin and Development of the Construction It is Adj of NP to VP
The Difference between To-infinitive and Bare Infinitive in a Subjective Complement
A Study on the Singular and Plural Concord with the Collective Noun "Government"
An HTOED-Based Study on Semantic Change of Words Meaning "Delicious"
Contemporary Usage of 'unto' with Semantic Extension from the Bible
The Usage of Metonymies Shared among ENL Areas: The Case of Governmental Facilities
Stylistic Differences and Literary Commonalities among Two Works of George Orwell
Changes in the Social Demand and Frequency of the Woman's Honorific Title Ms
Decoding the N-word: A 20-Year Analysis of Language Evolution in Grammy Nominated Rap (2004--2024)
Political Correctness of the Infectious Disease Names: Hansen's disease, AIDS, and Mpox
Class Society and Language in Britain: Focusing on the Linguistic Characteristics of the Beatles
Changes and Trends of English Use in the Indian Movies: New Middle Class as the Audience

Ρʸ

Tautologies in the History of English: Their Usage and Conventionality

ǯ٤ΥߤǤѸˡѸؤ˴ؤ¿ͤʥơޤǸ椬ʤޤ̣ˡ桤ʸҲؤʤɡؿ¿ˤ錄ܥߤħǤϲءܤ椬ޤǤʻȤƤϾ䤷ˡĴˡȤƤϥѥѤ¾Ūʸ椬ܤȤʤäƤƤޤǯ٤´ˤơޤԤƤޤ
ǯ٤Υ´ʸܤˤĤƤεåsotsuron ɤѸʬΥơõΥҥȤȤʤ뤫Ȼפޤkhelf HP ָơ޾Ҳ뤤ϥ߾Ҳ HP ֥´ơޡΩĤȻפޤ

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-09 Fri

#5401. ʸˡˤĤ60ʬ֤ɼ¶ѤϤޤ [bchel][gender][oe][noun][category][voicy][heldio][notice][hel_education]


26ʲС˸4Ⱦ Voicy heldio ˤ#983. B&C42ʸˡפɼ¶ with 󤵤ȾϽؤǤϤޤBaugh and Cable ˤѸˤθŵŪ̾ A History of the English Language 6ǡˤ򸶽ɤ륷꡼ΰĤǤ̥ȤȤ󤵤ʳءˤϽؤʥեꥹرؤۤˤ򤪾ơɼ¶ѤȤƤϤޤ嵭ϡ̾ۿǥȤƸΤǤ60ʬ֤ĹǤҤ֤ΤȤˤİ
25ʷˤˤϡ hellog ǤͽԤȤʤ뵭#5397. ʸˡΡפͤ --- Baugh and Cable αѸˤ ([2024-02-05-1]) ޤεǤϺܤ42 "Grammatical Gender" θʸǺܤƤޤΤǡįʤ餪İФȻפޤϡѸˤˤ (gender) ܤפʵؤΥ󥯤ĥäƤޤ
᡹ۿİƤäꥹʡ umisio 󤬡ޤȤΡȤäΥڡǸƤޤͽΤȤˤȤ


umisio note 2024028



heldio B&C αѸˤɤ륷꡼ΥХåʥСϡ#5291. heldio ΡֱѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable ɤץ꡼Ĵ˿ʤǤޤ ([2023-10-22-1]) ǤޤȤƤޤ264ᤢܤ42ˤ褦䤯ɤ夤ȤǤΤǡޤޤǤˤϸɤǤޤޤΤǡΥ饤ɥ꡼ˤäСޤʲΥƥꤷƤ


Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. ''A History of the English Language''. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.



Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-02-08 Thu

#5400. 륯ƥνŪ쵯 [origin_of_language]

1Υޤλ͡ůؼ Titus Lucretius Titus (B.C 96?--55?) ̣쵯󵯤Ƥ롥μήβȤʤäƤñ쵯 (monogenesis) 1ѼȤߤʤ뤬ǽפʵǰ褷ƤȤȤ館롥1Ŀͤ줬ȯȤƤ⥳ߥ˥ġȤƤͭϤʤʾ塤ϽŪȯȹͤʤȤǤ롥Mufwene (17--18) θѤҲ𤷤Ƥ롥

   Writing in the first century BC, the Roman poet and philosopher Titus Lucretius Carus questioned one particular brand of monogenesis that is not necessarily Adamic:

[...] To think that one individual then distributed names to things and that humans learned the first words from him is absurd. For why would he be able to mark everything with utterances and emit different sounds of the tongue, and at the same time others not being capable of having done it? Besides, if others too had not used their voices with one another, from where was the notion of utility implanted, and from where was this power first granted to him, to know what he wanted to do and conceive of it in his mind? Similarly, one person could not have prevailed and forced so many to want to learn the names of things so thoroughly [...] (Lucretius Carus 2003 [?54 BC]: ll. 1041--51).


Lucretius thereby suggests that language emerged and evolved from the collective communicative acts of individuals interacting with each other. We may, in modern terms, think of different interactants innovating on different occasions and the successful innovations being copied by others. This is the position articulated by Michel Bréal in the late nineteenth century . . . , in contrast with the vast majority of scholars who have simply ignored the question.


륯ƥεϤޤäȤΤ褦˻פ롥뤤ϡǽϤȯȸѤγϤʬƹͤ褤Τָεפָȯפ̣Ȥ˱ѤäƤǽ롥

Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-07 Wed

#5399. ¿˴ؤεҤϡ֥Х٥פǤʤ֥ࡤϥࡤڥơפ˺줺 [bible][origin_of_language][language_myth][tower_of_babel][popular_passage][race][ethnic_group]

ε#5398. إɥȥˤߤ ([2024-02-06-1]) ǡ#2946. ˤߤȳȻ ([2017-05-21-1]) ˿줿ˤߤγȻ¿˴ؤäȤƤϡ11ϤΡ֥Х٥ (tower_of_babel) η郎Ȥ櫓ͭ̾¤Ϥ105˥Υ3ͤλҶǤ륻ࡤϥࡤڥƤλ¹줾ϤǤ줾θäƤȤҤ롥King James Version Ѥ褦

By these were the isles of the Gentiles divided in their lands; every one after his tongue, after their families, in their nations.


ˤĤƤϡMufwene (16) ¾θԤ򻲾ȤĤġǻŦƤ롥

Hombert and Lenclud (in press) identify another, less well-recalled account also from the book of Genesis. God reportedly told Noah and his children to be fecund and populate the world. Subsequently, the descendants of Sem, Cham, and Japhet spread all over the world and built nations where they spoke different languages. Here one also finds an early, if not the earliest, version of the assumption that every nation must be identified through the language spoken by its population.


ȹȡ̱²ͼδطȤȴʤʤ꤬ǤޤƤΤǤ롥ϢƼε⻲ȡ

#1871. ȿͼ ([2014-06-11-1])
#3599. ȿͼ (2) ([2019-03-05-1])
#3706. ̱²ȿͼ ([2019-06-20-1])
#3810. ҲŪʹʪȤƤΡֿͼס ([2019-10-02-1])
#4846. ȸδط ([2022-08-03-1])
#5368. ethnonym ̱²̾ˡ ([2024-01-07-1])

Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-06 Tue

#5398. إɥȥˤߤ [origin_of_language][greek][phrygian][herodotus][history_of_linguistics][popular_passage][bible][language_myth][heldio][voicy]

ˤפȸ奮ꥷ˲ȥإɥȥ (Herodotus, B.C. 485?--425?) μˤʤˡ٤ˡ (origin_of_language) ˴ؤͭ̾äƤ롥奨ץ26īνβǤץƥ1 (Psammetichus [Psamtik], B.C. 664--610) ǤŤϲ餫ˤ뤿ˡѤƤ¸򤷤ȤǤ롥ˤĤơPerseus Digital Library Υƥȥ쥯ꡤHerodotus, The Histories (ed. A. D. Godley) 22ϡʱǡˤѤ롥

Now before Psammetichus became king of Egypt, the Egyptians believed that they were the oldest people on earth. But ever since Psammetichus became king and wished to find out which people were the oldest, they have believed that the Phrygians were older than they, and they than everybody else. Psammetichus, when he was in no way able to learn by inquiry which people had first come into being, devised a plan by which he took two newborn children of the common people and gave them to a shepherd to bring up among his flocks. He gave instructions that no one was to speak a word in their hearing; they were to stay by themselves in a lonely hut, and in due time the shepherd was to bring goats and give the children their milk and do everything else necessary. Psammetichus did this, and gave these instructions, because he wanted to hear what speech would first come from the children, when they were past the age of indistinct babbling. And he had his wish; for one day, when the shepherd had done as he was told for two years, both children ran to him stretching out their hands and calling "Bekos!" as he opened the door and entered. When he first heard this, he kept quiet about it; but when, coming often and paying careful attention, he kept hearing this same word, he told his master at last and brought the children into the king's presence as required. Psammetichus then heard them himself, and asked to what language the word "Bekos" belonged; he found it to be a Phrygian word, signifying bread. Reasoning from this, the Egyptians acknowledged that the Phrygians were older than they. This is the story which I heard from the priests of Hephaestus' temple at Memphis; the Greeks say among many foolish things that Psammetichus had the children reared by women whose tongues he had cut out.


δ1Ĥΰäˤʤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤˤĤƤϤޤʬʤȤ¿Ȥ¤ƧޤƤɬפ롥äͭ̾ʤ⤦1Ĥθϡ鷺Ȥ줿εҤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2946. ˤߤȳȻ ([2017-05-21-1]) 򻲾ȡ
Ϣơ#4612. εȯã ([2021-12-12-1])#4614. εȯãΤȺ ([2021-12-14-1]) 󤲤Ƥ
ʤߤˡ Voicy heldio ˤƴϢ夲#980. ̵֤֤ǰƤƤǤΤ --- ؤγ󤻤ƤäѤʵİС


Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1] [2024-02-07-1]

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2024-02-05 Mon

#5397. ʸˡΡפͤ --- Baugh and Cable αѸˤ [bchel][gender][oe][noun][category][voicy][heldio][notice][hel_education][link]

ǯ7꽵12Υڡ Baugh and Cable αѸˤθŵŪ̾ A History of the English Language 6ǡˤ򸶽ɤ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ǤΥ꡼ʤƤޤ1200ߤͭۿȤʤäƤޤ1ץ˴ؤƤϤĤǤİĤǤޤȤɤƥȤʤ̵ΰۿԤʤäƤޤޤǤΥХåʥСϡ#5291. heldio ΡֱѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable ɤץ꡼Ĵ˿ʤǤޤ ([2023-10-22-1]) ˤޤȤƤޤΤǡǧ


Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. ''A History of the English Language''. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.



ޤǤ41򥫥СƤޤܲűѸ򰷤3ϤäƤޤ夲42 "Grammatical Gender" ϡűѸ̾˳ǧʸˡΡסʤʸˡ (gender) ܤޤʲƱΥƥȤǺܤƤޤʤǤܽꤷƤΤ٥ȤǤˡ

42. Grammatical Gender. As in Indo-European languages generally, the gender of Old English nouns is not dependent on considerations of sex. Although nouns designating males are often masculine, and those indicating females feminine, those indicating neuter objects are not necessarily neuter. Stān (stone) is masculine, and mōna (moon) is masculine, but sunne (sun) is feminine, as in German. In French, the corresponding words have just the opposite genders: pierre (stone) and lune (moon) are feminine, while soleil (sun) is masculine. Often the gender of Old English nouns is quite illogical. Words like mægden (girl), wīf (wife), bearn (child, son), and cild (child), which we should expect to be feminine or masculine, are in fact neuter, while wīfmann (woman) is masculine because the second element of the compound is masculine. The simplicity of Modern English gender has already been pointed out as one of the chief assets of the language. How so desirable a change was brought about will be shown later.


ʸˡ˴ؤ hellog Ǥ gender Υդ¿εǼ夲ƤޤΤʤä˽פʵؤΥ󥯤ʲĥäƤޤ

#25. űѸ̾(1) ([2009-05-23-1])
#26. űѸ̾(2) ([2009-05-24-1])
#28. űѸ˼Ϥʤä ([2009-05-26-1])
#487. ʰʸˡ ([2010-08-27-1])
#1135. ĸʸˡε ([2012-06-05-1])
#2853. ˤȿʹ֤ʬե ([2017-02-17-1])
#3293. űѸ̾ ([2018-05-03-1])
#4039. ˤȤϥեǤ ([2020-05-18-1])
#4040. ָȿǤƤʹ֤ʬեפεåȡ ([2020-05-19-1])
#4182. ָפΥơޤι ([2020-10-08-1])

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1] [2024-02-09-1]

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2024-02-04 Sun

#5396. ե󥹸ȥƥ줫̤θüѤϱѸβɤѤ [lexicology][french][latin][loan_word][word_formation][lexical_stratification][contact][semantic_change][derivation]

Ѹûˤˤƥե󥹸ƥαƶǤ뤳Ȥϡޤ˿ƾҲ𤷤ƤȤäƤѤ줿ñοñ̤˵ڤӡ礭̤αƶˤȤɤޤʤ絬ϼѤη̤ȤơѸäμ⡤ѸʹߤˡѲμŪѲˤĤơDurkin (224) פ3ŦƤ롥

The derivational morphology of English was (eventually) completely transformed by the accommodation of whole word families of related words from French and Latin, and by the analogous expansion of other word families within English exploiting the same French and Latin derivational affixes (especially suffixes).
Not only was a good deal of native vocabulary simply lost, but many other existing words showed meaning changes (especially narrowing) as semantic fields were reshaped following the adoption of new words from French and Latin.
The massive borrowing of less basic vocabulary, especially in a whole range of technical areas, led to extensive and enduring layering or stratification in the lexis of English, and also to a high degree of dissociation in many semantic fields (e.g. the usual adjective corresponding in meaning to hand is the etymologically unrelated manual)


1ܤϡñβ² (word family) (word_formation) ΤΤαѸŪʤΤե󥹡ƥŪʤΤؤäȤ˿Ƥ롥2ܤϡ줬ˤʤäꡤ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) ФꤷΤ¿¤ŦƤ롥3ܤϡŪ٤ι⤤äؤդäꡤó (lexical_stratification) Ȥ˴ط롥
ñ㲽ɤǼС(1) Ѽ(2) ̣Ѳ(3) óؤȯȤäȤ餬ե󥹸졦ƥ줫̼ѤαѸû˾μŪյǤ롥

Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-02-03 Sat

#5395. 224ڡˡīΥ꡼ֺ¡ʸֻαѸˡפ4ֶѸֻ --- ɸಽܻؤơ [asacul][notice][writing][spelling][orthography][mode][standardisation][etymological_respelling][link][voicy][heldio][chancery_standard][spelling_reform]

3ָ224ڡˤ 15:30--18:45 ˡī㡼󥿡ɶˤƥ꡼ֺ¡ʸֻαѸˡפ4ȤʤֶѸֻ --- ɸಽܻؤơ֤ޤ


224ڡˡīΥ꡼ֺ¡ʸֻαѸˡפ4ֶѸֻ --- ɸಽܻؤơ



ιֺ¤ϡ4Υ꡼4Ȥʤޤ꡼Υ饤ʥåפϰʲ̤Ǥ

1ʸεȯã --- ե٥åȤγȤʽա429
2󡡸űѸֻ --- ޻μʤʲơ729
3Ѹֻ --- ɸʤ˱ɡʽ107
4󡡶Ѹֻ --- ɸಽܻؤơߡ224

٤4ˤĤƤϡ Voicy heldio ˤ#971. Ѹֻ --- 224ڡˤīΥ꡼ֺ4˸ơȤƳפҲ𤷤ƤޤΤǡİйǤ



ޤǤ3ιֺ¤ǤϡѸֻɸಽˤįƤޤϤ褤ḽˤɸಽμ֤ޤޤ15 Chancery Standard ˻Ϥޤꡤ1617ˤƤ Shakespeareض١αѸ켭λФơ18--19μ˻ޤǤλܤñֻɤɤޤθ塤ꥫѸֻƸֻפưޤǤեơѸֻβˤĤͽǤƻαñֻζ򼨤ʤ⤷ޤΤǡ»Ҥˤʤ뤳ȤϤޤ
ֺܹ¤ˤؿΤϡΥڡꤪߤֺϡ̤Τۤ饤ǤλäǽǤޤϿޤȡָ1ָ֡ƨۿפİǤޤԹΤ褤ˡǤäФȻפޤ꡼ֺ¤ǤϤޤƲƤΩƤޤΤǡΤߤñȯΤäǤޤäꤢޤ󡥤ʤֺ¤ѤϡüԤγͤŻŪۤͽǤ
ܥ꡼ȴϢơʲ hellog Voicy heldio ۿ⤴Ȥ

Ρ1ʸεȯã --- ե٥åȤγȤꡡ

heldio #668. īֺ¤ο꡼ʸֻαѸˡפ429Ϥޤޤ2023ǯ330
hellog #5088. īֺ¤ο꡼ʸֻαѸˡפ429Ϥޤޤ ([2023-04-02-1])
hellog #5119. īֺ¤ο꡼ʸֻαѸˡפ1򽪤ޤ ([2023-05-03-1])

Ρ2󡡸űѸֻ --- ޻μʤ

hellog #5194. 729ڡˡīΥ꡼ֺ¡ʸֻαѸˡפ2ָűѸֻ --- ޻μʤס ([2023-07-17-1])
heldio #778. űѸʸ --- 729ڡˤīΥ꡼ֺ2˸ơ2023ǯ718
hellog #5207. īΥ꡼ֺ¡ʸֻαѸˡפ2ָűѸֻ --- ޻μʤפ򽪤ޤ ([2023-07-30-1])

Ρ3Ѹֻ --- ɸʤ˱ɡ

hellog #5263. 107ڡˡīΥ꡼ֺ¡ʸֻαѸˡפ3Ѹֻ --- ɸʤ˱ɡס ([2023-09-24-1])
heldio #848. Ѹɸʤֻ --- 107ڡˤīΥ꡼ֺ3˸ơ2023ǯ926

Ρ4󡡶Ѹֻ --- ɸಽܻؤơ

heldio #971. Ѹֻ --- 224ڡˤīΥ꡼ֺ4˸ơ2024ǯ127

¿ΤäԤƤޤ

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2024-02-02 Fri

#5394. 29̥եˤơإ饸򥲥Ȥˤޤơ֤ΤۤͥפθϿ [inohota][yurugengogakuradio][notice]

ɸ̤ꡤ֤ΤۤͥʵְʼδѸظإͥס˽θϿΤΤ餻Ǥ1ָ29ʶˤ7:00ꡤޤ̥եΥˤơ֤إ饸ο򤪾ƸϿޤåͽμդϤޤäƤޤϿ٥Ȥ˻ä򤴴˾ϡɤ

ΤۤإͥϿ with
--- 19:00
--- 19:30
λ --- 21:30
Ź --- 23:00

塦ĤˤȤäơƤθϿʤ֤̥եפˤƴѵҤˤƱʤʤ顪ˤνĩȤʤޤɥɥޤϿˡءʤ򹭤Ƥȡˤؤλפʤɤ򤿤äפǤȻפäƤޤءѸءѸˤΤ⤷򹭤ư򷫤깭ԤȤơؤڤߤˤƤޤ
Ρ֤ΤۤͥפؤοбˤĤƤϡʲ

1. #120. إ饸ˤۤޤ



2. #122. إ饸о졪2ơ˻ϤޤäƸ˽
3. #124. إ饸о졪3ơإ饸Ϥ뤯ʤ
4. #126. إ饸о졪4ơ󤫤鸫Υͥ롩

ʾ塤٥ȤΤΤ餻Ǥ

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1] [2024-03-01-1]

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2024-02-01 Thu

#5393. 2023ǯ١1ǯ֤ΡֱѸˡפιֵ򽪤 [hel_education]



Voicy heldio ˤ#974. 1ǯ֤ΡֱѸˡפιֵ򽪤 --- 2023ǯǡꤷơʸʸ칶ǻ䤬֤ƤֱѸˡ׹ֵԤۤ򤤤ĤҲ𤷤ޤǯλ hellog heldio ˤ𤹤봷ǤΥ٥ȤȤʤäƤޤǯ٤ΤΤޤᤳޤǤΡֱѸˡ׹ֵؤδۤΥ󥯤ʲˤޤȤƤޤ

heldio #974. 1ǯ֤ΡֱѸˡפιֵ򽪤 --- 2023ǯǡ (2024/01/30)
helwa ͭۿ֡ڱѸˤ #871ǯ֤ΡֱѸˡפιֵ򽪤ơ³ԡˡ (2024/01/30)
heldio #607. 1ǯ֤ΡֱѸˡפιֵ򽪤ơ (2023/01/28)
hellog #5020. 2022ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2023-01-24-1])
hellog #4661. 2021ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2022-01-30-1])
hellog #3922. 2019ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2020-01-22-1])
hellog #3566. 2018ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2019-01-31-1])
hellog #2470. 2015ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2016-01-31-1])

Ƭ˷Ǥ heldio ۿǤϡۤο̾ԤΥȤҲǤޤǤ긵ˤɤ߾夲ʤۤɤʬ̤ꡤɤ⤳Ҳ𤷤ȤǤʲˤĤۤǺܤޤʸϤάԽäƤȤϤޤŪˤ󤻤ƤʸΤޤޤǸɽƤޤʤۤäݤʸϡֺ뤤Ϻǯ٤αѸˤμȤ̤Ƴؤʹ̣ǡֳؤס˻ΤʤˤȤäƺǤͤΤϲǤͳ˵ҤƤפǤ

̱ˤۤˤ˹ޤꡤߤϥХʸȤ夷Ѹ줽ΤΤθˤۤƤѲȼʤ麣ˤʤäΤȤȡäˡѸλǤäפʬֻ԰פˤĤƳؤѡȤϤȤƤⶽ̣Τä¾Υ衼åѽ٤Ƥ⡤ñƤ˻פѸ줬Ť顤ϤʣʸˤޤơηѤäƤɤȤǡʤѸΡפˤŪյ䤦ؤӻϤӤƿȤˤĤȻפheldio ǾҲ𤵤ƤѤʥե٥åɽפδڤߤǤˡμȤȤ̤ˡزܤȤƥե󥹸ȥƥ֤ƤɤѸ˿ؤǤäᡤ줾ؤƤǷҤ봶Ф򤯡¿Ūٶ뤳ȤΰյƳǧǤȻפ


ǤαªѤäȤǤѸˤޤǤϡϱѸȤ¾ǹƤ褦˸ƤơܸȤȡޥΥƥ줫ޥƥȤդªƤޤγǰˤơޥƥϱѸ춯ǤꡤĤ꤬ޥΥƥȤطޤǾˤϽǤޤǤѸˤˤƼѤˤĤƳؤȤѤޤѸ줬ۤɤȤäȤϤǤ㤨ХƥϱѸ˸äη˳򥫥СǤΨŪˡȤήȤȤ䡤αˤϸäη˳ǺߤƥƥήǤʹƱѸѸΩޤǤδפ뤿μˡȤƱ򤷤ȤȤ˵դȤǰϷ褷ƥХ벽ΤΤΤǤϤʤ¿ŪªΤıѸ줽ΤΤĹˤؤˡʤΤȵŤޤ


ĤμȤǤȴʬʤʤ뤯餤Ҥ꤬ꡤܤΥȡ꡼饤󤬤ʤȶ椫ؿʷε͡٤ɤǤ⡤Ĥιưαƶ;ȤʤǤʤƱ褦ʿˤʤäťΥɸȽвäƤʤСΥޥ󥳥󥯥ȤʤСϤޤꥢե󥹸줷Ƥ顤ʡwhat ifפĤפĤΤ褦ʱѸѤƤޤ褦ʬѸˤˤϤĤ⤢ȴ롥ȿ͡ʸ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤȤΤϼΤȤĤޤ꺣ʬä񤤤ȤȤ顤ѸˤΰĤʤΤǤϤʤͤ줾ǤФƤޤˡ줬ˤʤȻפ


ذǯޤǤǻϱѸ7ǯ֤ۤٶƤȤˤʤ뤬ǤϱѸȤ줽ΤΤθáʸˡƱѸ˴ؤ륹ȤˤĤ뤳ȤФ꤬ؤӤ濴ǡѸˡѸļǸȤϰڤʤä餳Ѹˤλ֤ϻˤȤäƶ̣ȤϢ³Ǥʤäάͤΰǯ֤ϲƼʬʬοˤƱѸ˿ؤ뤳ȤǤƤ褫äȿ줫餽ͭյʻ֤Ǥä


ǯ̤ƱѸˤˤĤƳؤȤǡǤͤΤΤϳؤֻƳؤ֤ȤǤȤϽճشαѸˤνμȤ˳ФƤ롥ƤϡѸ˴ؤѤʵ䤿ͳäơȤΤäȸäƤۤɼ䤬⤫ФʤäפȡϺޤǤε̳ǡ֤ϤΤפȤưŪ˳ؽƤǤϤμȤǴ󤻤줿˰졹ưֳΤˡפȻפäޤǡ֤ʤפȤ䤤򷡤겼ƤΤϸΨȻפǤäγؽǤ뤳ȤΤäƳڤȻפäѸμȤϤ󡤱ѸˤؤˤȤäƺǤͤäΤϳؤ֤ȤȤϤɤȤؤ֤ȤǤȤǤ롥츫ȤʤƤȤϤʤΤǤ֤ʤפȤ䤤̵¤ޤ롥ؤӤϼưŪޤΤǤϤʤǽưŪ˼õƹԤΤʤΤȳؤ֤ȤǤϻλĤΤߤʤ餺οˤΩijؤӤǤȴ롥


ϺؤѸˤμȤ̤ơϥߥ˥Ǥʤˤɽ褦ʥӥǥ󥹤ȤƤ¸ߤǤ뤳Ȥ˵Ť˲ͤΤؤӤȤʤäѸϰ̤ե󥹸졤ƥήʤɡˤΤޤ޺פĤƤ롥ȤˡɽȤƤǤäƤ⡤ˤεϿȤƤǤäƤ⡤ˤ˽פ¸ߤǤȤȤ˵ŤŪƤŪƤ줿ؤӤä


ˤȤäƱѸФ븫礭ѤäȤǤͤΤǤȹͤƤޤѸ줬Τ褦ŪˤʤäΤϡˤγưˤΤǤꡤĹˤ錄γưˤΤȡμȤǤ褯򤷤ޤʤȯ֤礭ʥåפΤʤԵ§ʸˡ󤢤Τʤɡˤ˸򸫽ФȤȤƤ򤤤̣Τ뤳ȤȻפäƤޤѸΥ롼򺣤ޤǤŵƳФƤˤȤäƤϡѸˤؤ֤Ȥ礭žäˤʤɹͤȤ⤢ޤʤäˤȤäˤѸ򤯤ȤȤռ褦ˤʤäȤ⡤ˤȤäƤϲͤΤΤǤѸˤϱѸܼ򶵤ƤΤǡѸϤɤΤǤΤˤƤȻפޤȯ֤ЪΥˤĤƤΡѤʥե٥åɽפ˻äΤȤƤڤäѸˤ˴ؤ뿷ʹΥ饸ȥ֥򸫤뤳ȤȤƤڤäǤѸؤǤȤϻפޤȤǿƤʤä꤬ޤޤȻפޤ򸫤ʹ򤹤ȤȤˡѸ˴ؤѤʵʤɱѸˤδǤ褦ˤʤޤǴĥꤿȻפޤ


ѸˤμȤ̤ƳؤȤǺǤͤäΤϾQ򵿤ȤǤ롥ά͸μҲ򸫤ƤȡԥΤ褦ʱѸǽ񤫤줿ʸؤϹΤϤäƤꡤӥͥ䡤ǽʤɤʬDZѸϽפʥݥˤ롥ɤƤ⤽줬ȻפäƤޤäƤꡤܤѸˤˤĤƹͤꤷȤϤʤäΤǡļˤθˤʤäȤäϾ׷ŪäϤγؤӤθ򤷤ơˤƾQ򵿤ȤڤˤȻפơˤΤȤ뤳Ȥϡܼ򸫶ˤᡤQˤȤʤ褦ˤ뤿ΰĤμʤȤɬԲķǤȹͤ롥


ѸȤΤؤֺݤ˹碌ƱѸˤؤ֤Ȥ˰յȤȡ衼åѤθǤСθ줫ѸؤμѸʰ̣ѤʤɤޤˤäꡥŤ򤿤ɤСƱǤäꤹñ줬¿ΤȤȤΤäؤӽ褦ȤݤˤϡˤФե֤䤭Ǥ뤬⤦򹭤ʬΤäƤѸȤ졤ƤδؤȤƤαѸˤؤ֤ȤǡθγؽΩĤΤߤʤ餺ȯ䵿䤬줿ꤹȤڤߤޤ롥ޤϵդ鸫бѸˤؤ֤ȤγڤߤյΰĤȸȤǤߤγؽŪ礭ʤϤळȤˤʤ롥λλϸ콬˸¤ääǤϤʤ褦˻פĤʪ˽椷뤳ȤʤɤΤǻ򹭤ȤδϢ̤θ뤳Ȥγư˭ˤƤΤǤϤʤȹͤ롥


϶ܻؤƤ뤿ᡥֻȯЪΥˤĤƳؤ٤Ȥ˺Ǥͤ򴶤Ƥ롥άͶŤΩѸ򶵤ֻȯ򤱤̤ʤơޤǤ롥ЪΥ򤽤ΤȤƶȡ̤ˤȤäƱѸñʤŵܤˤʤäƤޤ⤷ doubt Ȥñ <b> ɤޤʤȤŵȤƤǤʤؼԤΤθդƴơȯˤϤʤʸƤޤä뤳ȤǤСѸʹ̣Τ򤤸ȤƴƤ̤ФƤΤǤϤʤ䤬ذǯΤȤμȤʹ̣äʢפïΩˤʤꤿΤ褦ʱѸμˤȤäͭȤȡȤʤΤ¾Ǥ롥äƻ䤬ˤʤä餳μʤդ꤫ޤ鷺ϪΤǤϤʤߤطμ˶̣Τ̤򸫶ˤơܿͤΤäޤ⤷ѸˤθŤǻȤʤȤƤ⡤ƤֻȯΥåפФ֤ʤפΤäƤΤȤʤΤȤǤϡ̤ΩĤȤμ礭餫˰ۤʤ롥Ʋ̤ΩäƤ褦3ؤ´ȤƤѸ˥֥ɤ³롥


ѸФѤʵ䤤Ѹˤ򸫤ƤDz褷򤹤ȤĤߡƤˤäμˤȤäƺǤͤΤΤǤȻפϾعαѸʶդˤʤꤿȻפǡȸμȤޤDZѸؤǡֻȯΥåפ䤽¾͡ʤȤˤĤƵƤȤ򼫳Ф趵դˤʤꡤ̤˵褵줿ʤΤϤʤΤȻפǮ˼Ȥפȡ֤ϤޤפǺѤޤƤѸħˤ̤ФäŪǤΤΤäˤꡤѸȤαΤƱˡɬפʶܤȤˤĤ뤳ȤǤ


䤬ǯ֤ƳؤΤϡѸꥯƥ˸ȤȤѸȤȡޤޤʥ᡼롥㤨ͥ۸Ǥ롤ʸǤʤɡΤ褦Ѹ줬ˤʤDZѸؤӡ¿Υƥ쥪פ˲Ϥ뤳ȤǤȴ롥㤨кشǤϱѸ줬¤Ĥθβˤäȡ300ǯδ֡Ѹü԰ʳοͤ˻ۤƤȤͤȡѸϤɤΤ褦ϰ̤ؤȥեȤƤΤͤ롥ѸüԤޤʤȡܿͤޤ뤳Ȥޤ disadvantage Ǥ뤫Τ褦ʼҲĬ桤ѸͥѲ뤫⤷ʤܼŪͥǤϤʤȤȤƧޤ뤳Ȥǡ͡и⾯ʤʤ뤭äˤʤΤǤϤȻפƥꥫ¿ιȤαƤ˥󥰥ɡƱѸ켫ΤܼŪ¿ͤǤ롤ǤȤ¤⡤ߤ¿ͤѸФƤꥤ󥯥롼֤ʰռǼ뤳Ȥ˷ҤäƤΤǤϤʤȻפޤ褯ܤǤȯ붵ʤɤޤΤ褦ˡѸˤγؤӤˤäѲǽȻפޤ


Ѹˤؤ֤ȤϤȤƤ񤷤ĤޤʤΤȹֵϹͤƤѤƤѸ줬ɤΤ褦˺ƤΤɤäѲƤΤˤĤơΤ狼䤹ڤֵǤ褯Ǥȴ롥ǽιֵǡ֤ιֵѸθ180ѤפȤääƤȤȤƤ褯狼ä줫Ѹˤ˴ؿ³ƤȻפ


̳ˤäơߤǤϾعǯѸ򶵲ʤȤï⤬ؤֻDZѸȤ֤ʤפȤοˡǼΤ⤿餷Ƥ졤ޤʻͿƤΤѸŪθä


αѸˤ̤ơ䤬ؤȤϤɤʤ˾ʻǤäƤĴ٤ƤߤȤʤĤ뤳ȤڤǤ롥άͿȤβˤäȤΤܤͤ뤳Ȥǡ礭ˤή䤿ζܤؤ٤뤳ȤΤɤȤʤä


ѸˤdzؤȤȤơǤ⼫ʬ˲ͤΤäȤϡָǰˤȤ줺¿Ūʪʬϡѻ뤳ȤǿʳؤӤȯ˽в񤨤פȤȤճشǽμȤ an apple ä˺ʤ첻 a an ˤʤȤͤŪˤϸǡϺǽϤߤ an (one) äҲϢ³򤱤뤿 a pineapple Τ褦ˤʤäȤȡǰˤȤΤɤʤȼ´


Ū˸Сμ䥷ƥ˵ܤ³뤳ȤˤꡤؤӤȯȤȤݤ˻ĤäƤΤϡѸ줬͡ʸ줫äѤƤȤDZѸ줬Ƥ򤷤ξ׷ѸϰĤθαѸȤȤߤǤΤªƤΤǡűѸ좪Ѹ좪ѸȻ夬ʬ롤줾β¾줫αƶƤ뤳ȤΤꡤʪĤȤߡǰȤªƤޤȤϡ򤵤ȾȵŤޤޤäȤ׷ΤϡVoicy through 500̤ʾ夢Ȥǡ߸줬ɸಽƤ뤳Ȥ⤽ǤϤʤthrough ǥ롼Ȥȯˤᤤڥ󥰤ñ줬äϤȤáǽϵ˻פä롼ȯ򤤤Ĥδ֤ˤ˴through Υڥ󥰤¿äȤ˶äȤˤϡʬǤ𤱤ʤ鴶˺줺褹롤ΤȤˤ⵿ܤ³פȴѸ򹭤Ǥʤˤʪθͤ˱ƶͿƤޤѸˤμȤ򤵤˴Ƥޤ򳫤ƤäˤϤդƤޤ


ޤǧƵʤäݤƵҴѻ뤹ˡؤȤǤѸˤƤˡϡ㤨иʱѸˤѲŪװǤʤ쳰Ūװǹͤ뤳ȤǤСĤλݤ̻ˤȳ̻ˤλ¤ˤƥץ뤳ȤǤ礦ˡǤϲ褷ʤ꤬ˤꡤ˥쥬Ȥ˲򤱤뤳ȤȤäδ뤳ȤǤޤλ륢θϡμȤγؽѸưˤ뤪ʤ١󡤥󥹥ԥ졼ˤʤޤ꤬Ȥޤ֤ˤäơס֤ʤߤˡפȤäѤʵѶŪ˻˺Ҥ٤äơѸˡѸءؤ糤Ǥͷ֤ĤǤ


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