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3֤ε ([2016-03-28-1], [2016-03-29-1], [2016-03-30-1]) ǡѲʬˤ "evolution" ȤѸ줬ˤȤ館ƤͤȤ櫓ǯθؤˤ "evolution" ϡ٤Ѹ˼깤ĤȾϲäȤ˺Ƥ夷ƤǰǤ뤳Ȥǧ1ʾ³ƤȤäƤ褯1Ĥε䤬롥ؼԤγ̿ŪʻۤαƶΤ19ȾʤΤȤ˸ؤʪؤѳפ˸礦ϤѳפФʤäΤʤ100ǯʾ20ȾˤʤäƤ褦䤯 "linguistic evolution" 졤ɾ褦ˤʤäΤδ֤˸ءʼԡˤˤϲäƤΤ
ˤĤơNerlich ʸߤĤɤǤߤNerlich Ϥζλ֤ͳ(1) 19Ⱦ Schleicher ʲȡ(2) 20Ⱦ Saussure ʬŪиŪˤΩäŪؤؤμήȤʤäȡ(3) 20ȾФˤ Bloomfield Chomsky ϤȤ륢ꥫؤ̣¿üԤڻ뤷Ƥȡ3˵Ƥ롥
(1) ˤĤ Nerlich (104) ϡ Schleicher ϥοʲǤָοפŪݡȤȤѤȤˡοʲμ׳ǰǤ "variation, selection and adaptation" ŬѤ˽ƤޤäȤäȤƤ롥ɸ֤ʤ顤μ¡ιͤΥƤʤäΤǤ롥㤨СˤȤäʪμʬϤޤ2ŪʤΤǤꡤ礿ؿѷβäSchleicher ϸʬˤäƤΤθȯιͤȥμοʲȤƱƤȤäƤ褤Schleicher ϡƤʤäȤ롥
(2) ʳ Saussure ɽ붦ŪؼԤ뤬λ˻ޤǤˤ⡤Schleicher θͭǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤꡤȽƤȽϡѲθؤδؿΤ˷ŪѤ뤳ȤϤʤʤȤˡѲ̻֤ȤΤƤ֤Ƥ֤˴ؿ椵̤Ȥʤäޤlangue ؤδؿƤϤ䤵褦ˤʤȡparole °ѤüԤϼ夲뤳ȤʤʤäϰͤǤȤβΤȤǡѲȤȤʤ¿Ѱۤ뤵줿
Τ褦ʶֽŻϡ(3) ˻äĺޤʬۼθؤʸˡϰ̣ȤθƤ֤ΰȤ뤳Ȥ̤夲Ƥä
(3) λȴФơ褦䤯ؼԤϻѡüԡ̣¿ѰۡѲȤȤγ¦˹äƤ뤳Ȥ˵ŤΡֵŤפˤĤơNerlich (106--07) ϼΰǤǮҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
Thus meaning, language change and language use became problems and were mainly discarded from the science of language for reasons of theoretical tidiness: meaning and change are rather messy phenomena. Hence autonomy, synchrony and homogeneity finally enclosed language in a kind of magic triangle that defended it against any sort of indeterminacy, fluctuation or change. But outside the static triangle, that ideal domain of structural and generative linguistics, lies the terra incognita of linguistic dynamics, where one can discover the main sources of linguistic change, contextuality, history and heterogeneity, fields of study that are slowly being rediscovered by post-Chomskyan and post-Saussurean linguists. This terra incognita is populated by a curious species, also recently discovered: the language user! S/he acts linguistically and non-linguistically in a heterogenous and ever-changing world, constantly trying to adapt the available linguistic means to her/his ever changing ends and communicative needs. In acting and interacting the speakers are the real vectors of linguistic evolution, and their choices must be studied if we are to understand the nature of language. It is not enough to stop at a static analysis of language as a product, organism or system. The study of evolutionary processes and procedures should help to overcome the sterility of the old dichotomies, such as those between langue/parole, competence/performance and even synchrony/diachrony.
Τ褦ˤ20Ⱦ̻֤ؤδؿꡤѲȤХοʲȤ櫓ǡʲθؤαѤƳΤǤ롥䡤ǽ Schleicher λߤԤäȤСƱѤϤޤäȤȤ뤫⤷ʤ
Nerlich, Brigitte. "The Evolution of the Concept of 'Linguistic Evolution' in the 19th and 20th Century." Lingua 77 (1989): 101--12.
2֤ˤ錄ɸε ([2016-03-28-1], [2016-03-29-1]) ˤĤƤ3ơϡevolution 3θߤʪؤǼƤ˸Ѳ˱Ѥ줦뤫ˤĤƹͤ롥McMahon (334) ꡤ3θǧƤ
the development of a race, species or other group ...: the process by which through a series of changes or steps any living organism or group of organisms has acquired the morphological and physiological characters which distinguish it: the theory that the various types of animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting types, the distinguishable differences being due to modifications in successive generations.
ˤʤäƤƤˤ evolution εκüϡޤˤθǤ evolution ȤƤ롥ޤǤ2εǸƤ褦ˡ1920θȾˤơؤˤ evolution ȤѸˤϼ깤ĤƤޤäؤˤơѸϥβʳŪʤ⡤üʲʹѤӤӤƤ뤳ȤŪʥåƥŽƤʪʳءˤȸʳءˤ°פӤƤ椨ǤꡤǫξԤʿʿСͭѤȤǤ³ǽϻĤ롥Ӥκݤ˵äΩĤ٤ evolution Ȥϡ嵭θ evolution Ǥ롥ˤϴޤޤƤʤʪʲʬǹƤ mutation, variation, natural selection, adaptation ʤɤѸ졦ǰ˸Ѳ˱ѤǤ뤫Ǥ롥
McMahon (334--40) ϡʪʳءˤȸʳءˤΡʿˤĤƤιͻΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥ߤΰƱ褯ǤСˡ˸ؤˡʪؤؤ֤٤Ȥ¿षԤΤƤΰǤȼĥƤ롥McMahon (340) ϼ̤
[T]he Darwinian theory of biological evolution, with its interplay of mutation, variation and natural selection, has clear parallels in historical linguistics, and may be used to provide enlightening accounts of linguistic change. Having borrowed the core elements of evolutionary theory, we may then also explore novel concepts from biology, such as exaptation, and assess their relevance for linguistic change. Indeed, the establishment of parallels with historical biology may provide one of the most profitable future directions for historical linguistics.
ʪʳءˤȸʳءˤΡʿˤĤƤϡ#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ε ([2016-03-28-1]) ˰³Ѳˤ evolution βˤĤơ evolution Ū (teleology) Ūʴްդ2θ"A series of related changes in a certain direction" ܤä (1) Ⱥθ (2) ϸѲȤˤƶ̤Ƥ뤬(1) ˥٥ˤĹŪʲʹѤȼä˴طΤФơ(2) ϲʹѤѤΤΡѲˤŪˤϱ̿Ť줿Ťȼĥ롥
üŪˤСŪȤ "effects precede (in time) their final causes" ȤȯۤǤ (qtd. in McMahon 325 from p. 312 of Lass, Roger. "Linguistic Orthogenesis? Scots Vowel Length and the English Length Conspiracy." Historical Linguistics. Volume 1: Syntax, Morphology, Internal and Comparative Reconstruction. Ed. John M. Anderson and Charles Jones. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1974. 311--43.) ̾ŪΩ X ³ Y Ȥ̴طʪ뤬ŪˤƤϡ Y 뤳ȤǤ褦 X 롤롥2ϸȿФ1ĤθѲФȤƻȤƤޤȤפǤ롥㤨СΤʳ [mb], [md], [mg], [nb], [nd], [ng], [ŋb], [ŋd], [ŋg] λҲϢ³ƤƤΤʳǤ [mb], [nd], [ŋg] 3路ƤʤʤäȤ롥̾βŪˤСƱﴱƱ (homorganic assimilation) פȤʤ뤬ŪŪѤȡĴ䤹뤿ƱﴱλҲϢ³ȤʤäפȤʤ롥
ػˤˤƤϡ͡ԤŪȤäƤȿԤƱ餤Ƥ㤨 Jakobson ŪԤäθѤŪοǻBloomfield Lass ϡŪΩ˸ȿФƤ롥McMahon (330--31) ⡤ŪŪŪ (teleology of purpose) ȡֵǽŪ (teleology of function) ʬˤ뤳ȤŪŪܤƤơΥˤĤŪŪƱ˲ǽǤȿMcMahon ηѤơ2ΰ̣ evolution ƹͤȤ
There is a useful verdict of Not Proven in the Scottish courts, and this seems the best judgement on teleology. We cannot prove teleological explanations wrong (although this in itself may be an indictment, in a discipline where many regard potentially falsifiable hypotheses as the only valid ones), but nor can we prove them right; they rest on faith in predestination and the omniscient guiding hand. More pragmatically, alleged cases of teleology tend to have equally plausible alternative explanations, and there are valid arguments against the teleological position. Even the weaker teleology of function is flawed because of the numerous cases where it simply does not seem to be applicable. However, this rejection does not make the concept of conspiracy, synchronic or diachronic, any less intriguing, or the perception of directionality . . . any less real.
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ʪؤˤѸ evolution ƱˡؤǻȤƤ evolution ȤѸΰ̣ˤơֿʲפƤİ뤳ȤοǤ롥McMahon 12 "Linguistic evolution?" Τ褯Ҳ𤷤ƤʤξϤˤĤƤϡ#2260. ʲβ ([2015-07-05-1]) ǤƤΤǻȡˡ
McMahon evolution ˤ3ĤθǧȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ʲϤ Web3 äƤ1ܤ19Ūʥ (pre-Darwinian) 2ܤŪŪ (teleological) ްդä3ܤϸߤʪؾθɽ
(1) Evolution 1 (McMahon 315)
a process of continuous change from a lower, simpler, or worse condition to a higher, more complex, or better state: progressive development.
(2) Evolution 2 (McMahon 325)
A series of related changes in a certain direction.
(3) Evolution 3 (McMahon 334)
the development of a race, species or other group ...: the process by which through a series of changes or steps any living organism or group of organisms has acquired the morphological and physiological characters which distinguish it: the theory that the various types of animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting types, the distinguishable differences being due to modifications in successive generations.
ϡǤŤ (1) ˤĤƹͤƤߤΰ̣Ǥ "evolution" ϡȯۤޤʳŪʳǰɽʪΤ줾μϡˤ¤ (creation) ǤϤʤž (transformation) ФȯƤȤŪʹͤѤƤ뤬ηžθˤĤƤϡֿפפȤäʹּҲβʹѤȿǤΤȤƤ롥19θسǤ̤äͤȤʪʲˤƤΤ褦ʲʹѤޤƤʤĤޤꡤθؼԤʤΤ٤ƤǤϤʤˤϥοʲɸ֤ʤ⡤θؤαѤ˺ݤƤϡ˴Ѥ˴ѤǻȿǤΤǤꡤǤϥθѲѤȤäƤ褤
ΰ̣Ǥ evolution ؼԤɽȤСAugust Schleicher (1821--68) Ǥ롥Schleicher Hegel (1770--1831) αƶϰʲνȯãƤȹͤ (McMahon 320)
a. The physical evolution of man.
b. The evolution of language.
c. History.
a b c ȡֿפƤc ˻äƤޤȡɤͤޤʳǤ뤫顤Τ߽ФʤäơȤϡפʤȤͤǤ롥ޤơߤϤ٤ƤΰӤɤäƤȤΤSchleicher λۤä
ͤ180ٰۤʤ뤬Ʊ褦˲ʹѤƸѲߤΤ Otto Jespersen (1860--1943) Ǥ롥Jespersen ϰˤ٤äŽĤΩ줫顤ޤñ㲽Ρֿפȸ (see #1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]), #432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]))
#2525. ָѲ롤ס ([2016-03-26-1]) McMahon ѤʸϤǤŦƤȤꡤߡ¿˸ؼԤϡ1ΰ̣Ǥ evolution ȤƤʤΰ̣ϡǤ˸ػŪʤΤȤʤäƤ롥
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ʸؤμʤǯɽˤĤơ#1433. 10θűѸƥȤʬۡ ([2013-03-30-1])#1044. ѸʡChaucerShakespeareά ([2012-03-06-1])#2323 ѸȤμʡ ([2015-09-06-1])#2503. Ѹʸء ([2016-03-04-1]) ǸƤ⤦ι⤤ΤߤȻפTreharne ʸغʽ pp. xvi--xvii ˷ǤƤǯɽƸ뤳ȤˤˤϢưʸػˤǯɽȤʤäƤ롥
| Historical events | Literary landmarks |
|---|---|
| From c. 449: Anglo-Saxon settlements | |
| 597: St Augustine arrives to convert Anglo-Saxons | |
| 664: Synod of Whitby | |
| c. 670? Cædmon's Hymn | |
| 731: Bede finishes Ecclesiastical History | |
| 735: Death of Bede | |
| 793: Vikings raid Lindisfarne | |
| 869: Vikings kill King Edmund of East Anglia | |
| 879--99: Alfred reigns as king of Wessex | from c. 890: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle |
| Alfredian translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History; Gregory's Pastoral Care; Orosius; Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy; Augustine's Soliloquies | |
| 937: Battle of Brunanburh | |
| from c. 950: Benedictine reform | |
| c. 970: Exeter Book copied | |
| 959--75: King Edgar reigns | c. 975: Vercelli Book copied |
| 978--1016: Æthelred 'the Unready' reigns | 990s: Ælfric's Catholic Homilies and Lives of Saints |
| c. 1010: death of Ælfric | c. 1010?: Junius manuscript copied |
| c. 1014: Wulfstan's sermo Lupi ad Anglos | |
| 1016--35: Cnut, king of England | |
| 1023: death of Wulfstan | |
| 1042--66: Edward the confessor reigns | Apollonius of Tyre |
| 1066: Battle of Hastings | |
| 1066--87: William the Conqueror reigns | |
| 1135: Stephen becomes king | Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae |
| 1135--54: civil war between King Stephen and Empress Matilda | Peterborough Chronicle continuations |
| 1154--89: Henry II reigns | 1155: Wace's Roman de Brut |
| 1170--90: Chrétien de Troyes's Romances | |
| c. 1170s: The Orrmulum | |
| Poema Morale | |
| 1180s: Marie de France's Lais | |
| 1189--99: Richard I reigns | c. 1190--1200? Trinity Homilies |
| 1199--1216: John reigns | c. 1200? Hali Meiðhad |
| 1204: loss of Normandy | |
| 1215: Magna Carta | |
| 1215: fourth Lateran Council | |
| 1216--72: Henry III reigns | c. 1220 Laȝamon's Brut |
| 1224: Franciscan friars arrive in England | c. 1225: Ancrene Wisse |
| c. 1225: King Horn | |
| 1272--1307: Edward I reigns | Manuscript Digby 86 copied |
| Manuscript Jesus 29 copied | |
| Manuscript Cotton Caligula A. ix copied | |
| Manuscript Arundel 292 copied | |
| Manuscript Trinity 323 copied | |
| South English Legendary composed | |
| c. 1300: Cursor Mundi | |
| 1303: Robert Mannyng of Brunne begins Handlyng Synne | |
| 1307--27: Edward II reigns | |
| 1327--77: Edward III reigns | Auchinleck Manuscript copied |
| Manuscript Harley 2253 copied | |
| 1337(--1454): Hundred Years' War with France | |
| 1338: Robert Mannyng of Brunne's Chronicle | |
| 1340: Ayenbite of Inwit | |
| c. 1343: Geoffrey Chaucer born | |
| Ywain and Gawain translated | |
| 1349: Black Death comes to England | |
| 1349: Richard Rolle dies | |
| 1355--80: Athelston | |
| Wynnere and Wastoure written | |
| 1360s--1390s: Piers Plowman | |
| 1362: English displaces French as language of lawcourts and Parliament | |
| 1370s--1400: Canterbury Tales | |
| 1377: Richard II accedes to throne | 1370s: Julian of Norwich's Vision |
| 1381: Peasants' Revolt breaks out | |
| 1399: Richard II deposed | |
| 1399: Henry IV accedes to the throne | |
| c. 1400: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight | |
| c. 1400: Chaucer dies | |
| c. 1410--30: Book of Margery Kempe |
ؼԤǤʤ̤¿ο͡ˤϡѲȤȤ館ꡤդȤߤʤߤ롥ʲʹѤäƲ᤹봷ԤθˤĤƤϡ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) #1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) ˤ
θؼԡä˸ؼԤϡϤΤ褦ʲʹѤȤ̵طˡѲΤȤƤꡤʾǤʲǤʤȼĥ롥ΩˤĤƤϡ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) #1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1]) ǾҲ𤷤θŪΩФƤ1 McMahon (324) ˸ĤΤǡѤƤ
The modern view, at least of historical linguists if not the general public, is simply that languages change; we may try to describe and explain the processes of change, and we may set up a complementary typology which will include a classification of languages as isolating, agglutinating or inflecting; but this morphological typology has no special status and certainly does not represent an evolutionary scale. In general, we have no right to attack change as decay or to exalt it as progress. It is true . . . that individual changes may aid or impair communication to a limited extent, but there is no justification for seeing change as cumulative progress or decline: modern languages, attested extinct ones, and even reconstructed ones are all at much the same level of structural complexity or communicative efficiency. We cannot argue that some languages, or stages of languages, are better than others . . . .
ǤϡѲΤȤä˿Ȥ褦ʲʹѤȼäܻؤƤ櫓ǤϤʤġѲˤĤƤϡ¤줿٤ˤƥߥ˥νˤʤä˸ˤʤäꤹ뤳Ȥ⤢ȽҤ٤Ƥܤͤ롥ϡ#2513. Samuels "linguistic evolution" ([2016-03-14-1]) ǰѤ Samuels (1) "every language is of approximately equal value for the purposes for which it has evolved" Ρ֤褽פȤɽȸƱƤ褦˻פ롥
ѲѲȤڤäƤڤΥʤѲˤˤϡλĬΰܤѤռػŪʴäܶᤷƤʤФʤʤ
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ɸϡ#2513. Samuels "linguistic evolution" ([2016-03-14-1]) ǰټ夲ƹͤƤߤʤ Samuels ܤ̾ "linguistic change" ǤϤʤ "linguistic evolution" ѤΤSamuels ˤȤäơξԤΰ㤤ϲʤΤ20Ⱦ顤٤ϲäƤοʲȤƤ뤬Samuels ѸȤ뤳ȤϡߤθѲͤΩĤٶǤˤĤƵ뵡ơʤ褦˻פΤǡʲ Samuels ƤȻפ "linguistic evolution" Υå
εǤϡ Samuels ˤȤäƤ "linguistic evolution" ַѾ֤ȸߤɽȤȿΤζѹդݤȤȤͻι⤤֡פǤꡤָѲ˴ؤŪȤϡѲƯŪϳؤؤƤѸפȤߤʤŪʤȤ館ѤäƤʤ䤹뤿˰ʲΤ褦ʿޤƤߤ
language-internal and external factors
conservatism or 'inertia' the pressures that work
towards clearer communication
the inherited forms the expressive needs of the present
(= the old) == equilibrium == (= the new)
a considerable margin of tolerance
#775. 첻ܤϡȯֻЪΥκθ ([2011-06-11-1])#2438. 첻ܤϡȯֻЪΥκθ (2) ([2015-12-30-1])#2439. 첻ܤαѸ첻˾ΰյ ([2015-12-31-1]) ǡ첻 (gvs) ɾˤĤ첻ܤȯֻЪΥ߽ФװΤʤǤä˽ǹϤʱƶڤܤװȿƤ뤬̤ƤɾϤɤޤʤΤ
Sato ϡ3ʤѸ춵ʽ New Crown English Series ñ924ȴФ˴ޤޤ첻ˤĤơֻȯδط첻ܤˤäƤɤٱƶƤ뤫Ĵ٤Ūˤϡȯֻδط̩äűѸѸˤȯӤʤ顤ξԤδط첻ܤˤäñ줬ढΤ
Sato ϡѸ줫첻ѲФƶḽѸˤޤ³첻ѲΥפˤäơʲΤ褦9θ췲̤Ƥ롥(i) /iː/ > /ai/; (ii) /uː/ > /au/; (iii) /eː/ > /iː/; (iv) /oː/ > /uː/; (v) /ɛː/ > /eː/ > /iː/; (vi) /ɔː/ > /ou/; (vii) /ɑː/ > /ei/; (viii) new /ɔː/; (ix) new /ɑː/ (i) (vii) ޤǤϡ̤ˤ첻ܤϤȽϤɽƤ뤬(viii) (ix) ˤĤƤ첻ܤλ̤ΥȯĹ첻Ǥꡤ첻ܤȤδطϤޤǴŪʰ̣ˤƤǤ뤳ȤդǤϡSato (20) οͤ
| Members | (Exceptions) | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Group (i) | 70 | (11) | 81 |
| (ii) | 26 | (19) | 45 |
| (iii) | 40 | (1) | 41 |
| (iv) | 16 | (34) | 50 |
| (v) | 28 | (25) | 53 |
| (vi) | 40 | (30) | 70 |
| (vii) | 39 | (6) | 45 |
| (viii) | 71 | -- | 71 |
| (ix) | 47 | -- | 47 |
| Total | 377 | 126 | 503 |
#585. عפθ츻 ([2010-12-03-1]) εǡܸΡعפθ츻1ĤȤơɥˤ»λΩ¿ϩ Savile Row ͳ褹ȤθҲ𤷤θ츻˴ؤơɾȤνФǡ֤ʤعפθ츻ʬäƤʤΤפӡ֥֡ӥפϳʤΤܸʤΤפꤷ2ʬ䤤Ƥ롥εҲ𤷤褦
Фϡ̤θ츻ŵΤۤʬλͿˤܤ̤ǡޤˡ֤Ӥפܸꡤ夷Ƥ顤餯ˡعפȤƾΤ줿餷ŦƤ (99) ԤϴɽȤƤΡعפȤƤꡤѸ civil, Savile Row, Cheviot ʤɤˤεȤʤäƤǽϻĤˤ衤ᤤʳǡعפȤܸƱƤ褦 (99) ۩
عפθǤȤ뤤ޤȡعפؤθ츻ȤޤƤ뤳Ȥˡ֥ӥפθ츻ȥ롦ɤǤȿƤʤ顤֥ӥפɽϻפĤʤäΤǤϤʤ
(101) ϷȤƼѤƤ롥
פΤϤˤơȤв͵αϤͤͤܿͿͤȤܿäȤϡ餯¤ǤͤعפȸϤơαƶعפܸˤʤäȹͤƤΤ˰㤤ʤͤǤäܿͤǤä̤ˤƹؤפΤҤȤĤǤ뤳Ȥְ㤤ʤ
ͤλΩƤΤޤȤɾä褦ˤСعפϡѸβ餫ɽ鲻ȤäơܸȤƤΤǤϤʤȤˤʤ롥ι¤Ūħܤǽ餫ʤܸʤδɽռѰդ줿ȤȤˤʤ롥
ʤcivil clothes civil äƤȤˤĤơޤǽн꤬ΤǤä (102--04) ʸɤäơʼҤ̭˵ԤϤ˻դλԲϻ˵Ƥ뤳ȤȽĤޤꡤϺǽŪˤϻȸƤǤ褵ȤѸ쵯ϡαѸؤȤˤäƿդ뤳ȤˤʤäΤΤ褦ؼԤο¼ФޤǤ⡤ˤ˻ä (106--07) ˤС (108) Ϥޤǿ¬ȤƤ뤬Savile Row ȯƼԤʡϺǤϤʤȤդΡָФäܤפϤ֤뤪⤷츻ؤȤϡˤؼԤˤۤɬפΤ (cf. #466. 츻ؤϵݤʳؤ ([2010-08-06-1])#727. 츻ؤμΧ ([2011-04-24-1])#1791. 츻ؤϵݤʳؤ (2) ([2014-03-23-1])
ʡ͡ȡعΤ١ʸ麽սʸտӡ2008ǯ
ε#2520. Ѹ134 "such" ΰֻ ([2016-03-21-1]) ³ϽѸ쥳ѥ LAEME "such" ΰֻФƤߤ (see #1262. The LAEME Corpus ɽ (1) ([2012-10-10-1])) θϡѸǤϷƻ졤졤³ȤѤ졤ƻξˤ϶ޤ⤹ΤǡΤȤ͡ʷ֤롥ե٥åȽ˰褦ʤäοͤʸڤ١ˡ
hsƿucche (1), schilke (1), schuc (3), scli (1), scuche (1), sec (1), secc (1), secche (1), sech (2), seche (1), selk (1), selke (1), shuc (1), shuch (1), siche (1), silc (1), silk (3), sli (1), slic (5), sliik (1), slik (3), slike (1), slk (1), sly (1), soch (5), soche (1), solchere (1), suc (2), sucche (2), such (51), suche (1), suecche (1), suech (1), sueche (1), sueh (1), sug (1), suic (1), suicchne (1), suich (12), suiche (3), suilc (14), suilce (1), suilch (1), suilk (1), suilke (2), sulch (1), sulche (1), sulk (1), sulke (1), suuche (1), suweche (1), suwilk (1), suyc (1), suych (4), suyche (1), svich (2), sƿche (1), sƿic (3), sƿicche (1), sƿich (1), sƿiche (14), sƿichne (1), sƿilc (30), sƿilch (22), sƿilche (1), sƿilcne (1), sƿilk (14), sƿillc (10), sƿillke (2), sƿi~lch (1), sƿlche (1), sƿuc (4), sƿucch (1), sƿucche (4), sƿucches (1), sƿuch (1), sƿuche (1), sƿuchne (1), sƿuilc (1), sƿulc (8), sƿulce (1), sƿulche (9), swch (1), swecche (1), swech (1), sweche (2), swich (5), swiche (1), swics (1), swil (1), swilc (5), swilce (1), swilk (2), swilke (2), swilkee (2), swlc (1), swlch (1), swlche (1), swlchere (1), swlcne (1), swuche (2), swuh (1), swulcere (1), swulch (3), swulchen (1), swulchere (1), swulke (1), swulne (1), zuich (10), zuiche (14), zuichen (3), zuych (10), zuyche (2)
ʸȾʸζ̤ϤĤˡ113ֻʸڤ롥Τʤ٤ˤƥȥå5ֻȴФȡsuch, sƿilc, sƿilch, sƿilk, sƿiche Ȥʤꡤ5369ĤΤ131 (35.5%) 롥
θѸ줫134ȹ碌ʣֻȡѸΤȤ247ΰֻ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ѤϿޤ䥳ѥɬŪǤϤʤΤǡϹʿͤȻפ롥㤨СMED swich (adj.) ˷ǤƤֻäСϤ⤦
#53. Ѹ through ֤515̤ ([2009-06-20-1])#219. eyes ɽ172ֻ̤ ([2009-12-02-1]) ˰³ѸˤˤֻѰۤˤĤơϡֻμ¿ɾΤʡ "such" 夲롥
#1622. eLALME ([2013-10-05-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ѸϿ LALME βŻ eLALME ˤơItem List 10 "such" äƤ롥ΰֻȴФȡԳΤƾܤ˿Ƥ⡤ʲ134बʤäοͤʸڤ١ˡ
asoche (1), aswyche (1), schch (1), schech (1), scheche (3), schiche (1), schoche (1), scht (1), schuc (1), schuch (3), schuche (4), schut (1), schute (1), sclik (2), sclike (1), sclyk (2), sclyke (2), scoche (1), scwche (1), sech (8), seche (39), sewyche (2), shich (1), shiche (1), shoch (1), shoche (1), shuch (5), shuche (3), shych (1), sic (6), sic- (1), sich (53), siche (101), sick (1), sɩͨh (1), sik (1), sik- (1), sike (2), silk (3), sli (1), slieke (1), slik (10), slike (26), slilk (2), slkyke (1), slyk (13), slyke (26), soch (12), soche (60), souche (3), sowche (2), soyche (1), squike (1), squilk (2), squylk (1), sqwych (1), sqwyche (1), sswiche (1), suc (1), succh (1), sucche (5), such (242), suche (375), suchee (1), sucheȝ (1), suchet (1), sucht (1), suchte (1), suech (4), sueche (6), suhc (1), suhe (1), suich (9), suiche (7), suilk (6), suilk- (1), suilke (3), suilkin (1), sulc (1), sulk (4), sulke (2), sutche (1), suth (1), suuch (1), suuche (1), suuech (1), suueche (1), suych (13), suyche (15), suylk (7), suylke (6), svche (1), sviche (1), swc (1), swch (7), swche (4), swech (19), sweche (48), swelk (4), swhiche (2), swhilke (2), swhych (2), swhyche (1), swic (2), swich (77), swiche (84), swichee (1), swilc (3), swilk (76), swilke (45), swilkes (1), swisɩͨhe (1), swlk (1), swlke (1), swuch (3), swuche (2), swych (56), swyche (65), swyeche (1), swyk (1), swyke (1), swyl (1), swylk (62), swylke (35), swylle (1), syc- (1), sych (23), syche (67), syge (1), syk (4), syk- (1), syke (5), sylk (3), sylke (2)
̤ٳ뤷٤פȡȥå10 suche, such, siche, swiche, swich, swilk, syche, swyche, swylk, soche Ǥ롥ȥåפ2 suche such ϸѸƤԤˤȤäơʬQŪˤߤºݡ2617㤬ʸڤ졤1867Τۤ3ʬ1롥ޤȥåפ10ǡۤ3ʬ2롥äơֻ¿뤫ȤäơΤޤʤ뺮٤ȤȤˤϤʤʤΤ褦ʻϡѸ¿ֻǧ¿θˤĤǧ졤٤Τʤˤ⤢٤餷ΤɤäƤȤ롥ȤƤ⡤νɤˤȤäƤϤϤؤʾä˰㤤ʤˤĤƤϡ#1311. ֻɸಽϤʤɬפ ([2012-11-28-1])#1450. Ѹֻ¿ϤϤؤǤ ([2013-04-16-1]) ̤Ǥ롥
ѸḽνĴ٤СäȰֻμŵϼǰˤΤΡ500ۤɤȤȤ롦
#1634. ֥ӥפ equation ([2013-10-17-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡ<-tion> б̾ȯ /-ʃən/ 㳰Ū equation ȯ /ɪˈkweɪʒən/ ȤʤꡤͭƤ롥/-ʃən/ /-ʒən/ ɤ <-sion> <-sian> ǤϤ褯Τǡ줬Ū <-tion> ˤ礷Τȹͤ뤬Ϥƾʤ
equation Τۤˡ⤦1ĤȤ transition ʰp. 64ˡLPD ˤȡñˤϥꥹѸǤ3ȯԤʤƤ롥/trænˈzɪʃən/, /trænˈsɪʃən/, /trænˈsɪʒən/ Ǥ롥Preference poll ˤȡ줾λΨ75%, 16%, 9%ǡ /-ʒən/ ȯϺǤ⾯ʤȤƤʹ롥ϥꥫѸǤϹԤʤƤʤ褦
ָѸñ spelling sound discrepancy ˤĤơä˱Ѹˤδ鸫 orthography phonology δطˤĤơסʡؿʸѡ81, 1976ǯ49--75ǡ
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
(118) Ĵ٤ˤȡѸˡˤƻҲۻ (silent_letter) ޤϡޤ420줢ȤҲ̤Ȱʲ̤ꡥ<b> (24 words), <c> (11), <ch> (4), <d> (17), <f> (2), <g> (41), <gh> (41), <h> (57), <k> (11), <l> (67), <m> (1), <n> (14), <s> (22), <p> (31), <ph> (2), <r> (1), <t> (37), <th> (2), <w> (33), <x> (2) ʸǤϡζ㤬ҤƤꡤԴѤǤ롥ʲɤǤƤ⤷äճäʤɤǤиȴФҲ𤷤
(1) <mb> <b> ۻȤʤϡ#34. thumb ֤ȯ ([2009-06-01-1]), #724. thumb ֤ȯ (2) ([2011-04-21-1]), #1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1])#1917. numb ([2014-07-27-1]) ʤɤǵƤ⤦ɲäǤ롥űѸѸ <b> (= /b/) Ϥʤä <b> 줿ΤȤ limb, crumb, numb, thumb 롥ĤƤϼ¸Ƥ <b> = /b/ ̵Ȥơclimb, bomb, lamb, comb, dumb, plumb, succumb 롥<mb> Ȥ߹碌Ǥ⡤rhomb ɩ, zimb ʥ֤ΰ, iamb ʼ嶯ʡˤʤɤѸǤ <b> ȯ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
(2) #2362. haplology ([2015-10-15-1]) ¾Ȥơmineralogy < mineralology, pacifism < pacificism, stipend < stipi-pendium, tragicomedy < tragic comedy 롥
(3) perhaps ϤȯǤ /præps/ Ȥʤꡤ<h> ۻȤʤ롥
(4) iron ˤơꥫѸǤ <r> ȯ뤬ꥹѸǤ <r> ̵ /ˈaɪən/ Ȥʤ롥
(5) kiln
ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) /kɪln/ ̤Ѹ <n> ̵ȤʤäŪȯ /kɪl/ ⤢롥Ʊͤ Milne /mɪln/ ̤Jones ȯŵ (1967) Ǥ /mɪl/ ΤߤǧƤȤ顤ֻȯϤĤǶΤȤΤ褦
(6) Christmas տȯǤ /ˈkrɪstməs/ Ȥʤ <t> ۻȤʤʤΤ褦ʻҲ˶ޤ줿ĶǤϡŪ <t> ̵ȤʤΤ̾ä (see #379. often spelling pronunciation ([2010-05-11-1]))
(7) ҳѸȤƤ southeast, northeast Ǥ <th> ̵Ȥʤ롥/saʊ ˈiːst/, /nɔːr ˈiːst/
ʸɤȡۻΥץˤʤ롪
Silent Consonant Letter ʬϡä˱Ѹˤδ鸫濴Ȥơסʡؿʸѡ51, 1973ǯ117--45ǡ
ѸˤϤ˸ؤˤؤǤȡФŵ (classical language) ȤѸ˽Ф魯ŵŵŪϡΡʻˡˤθŵʸŵȷӤĤȤƤΥƥ (Latin) ŵꥷ (Ancient Greek) Ǥ롥ŵϸ (modern language) ΩΤǤꡤָŵ (dead language)פȤϢۤ줽ۤñʤΤǤϤʤ (cf. #645. Ѹ ([2011-02-01-1])) ŵ°ȤƤϡ (vitality) ΤۤΧ (autonomy) ɸ (standardisation) פǤ (see #1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1])) Trudgill (22) Ѹ콸
classical language A language which has the characteristics of autonomy and standardisation but which does not have the characteristic of vitality, that is, although it used to have native speakers, it no longer does so. Classical European languages include Latin and Ancient Greek. The ancient Indian language Sanskrit, an ancestor of modern North Indian languages such as Hindi and Bengali, is another example of a classical language, as is Classical Arabic. Classical languages generally survive because they are written languages which are known non-natively as a result of being used for purposes of religion or scholarship. Latin has been associated with Catholicism, Sanskrit with Hinduism, and Classical Arabic with Islam.
ܤˤƤϡŤ졤ʸŵȤưƤʸϡߤǤŪѼԤʤȤ̣ vitality 礤Ƥ뤬ˤ autonomy standardisation ǧ졤䡦ۤȶӤĤƤդѼǤ롥
ʤŵΤ⤦1Ĥ°Ȥơΰˤ⼨ƤΤΡŪʸ (historical authority) Ū˲äƤ褤ΤǤϤʤȻפ롥
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ε#2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ ([2016-03-16-1]) ˰³ (19--21) ȤơҲʻˤбɽǤ롥
| consonantal phoneme | consonantal grapheme | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | /p/ | p, gh, pp, ph, pe | 5 |
| 2 | /b/ | b, bh, bb, pb, be | 5 |
| 3 | /t/ | t, th, pt, ct, ed, tt, bt | 7 |
| 4 | /d/ | d, bd, dh, dd, ed, ddh | 6 |
| 5 | /k/ | k, c, kh, ch, que, qu, cque, cqu, q, cch, cc, ck, che, ke, x, gh, cu | 17 |
| 6 | /q/ | g, gu, gh, gg, gue | 5 |
| 7 | /ʧ/ | ch, tch, t, c, cz, te, ti | 7 |
| 8 | /ʤ/ | j, g, dg, gi, ge, dj, g, di, d, dge, gg, ch | 12 |
| 9 | /f/ | f, ph, gh, ff, v, pph, u, fe | 8 |
| 10 | /v/ | v, f, ph, vv, v | 5 |
| 11 | /θ/ | th | 1 |
| 12 | /ð/ | th | 1 |
| 13 | /s/ | s, sci, c, sch, ce, ps, ss, sw, se | 9 |
| 14 | /z/ | z, se, x, ss, cz, zz, sc | 7 |
| 15 | /ʃ/ | sh, shi, sch, s, si, ss, ssi, ti, ch, ci, ce, sci, chsi, se, c, psh, t | 17 |
| 16 | /ʒ/ | s, z, si, zi, ti, ge | 6 |
| 17 | /h/ | h, wh, x | 3 |
| 18 | /m/ | m, mb, mn, mm, mpd, gm, me | 7 |
| 19 | /n/ | n, mn, ne, pn, kn, gn, nn, mpt, ln, dn | 10 |
| 20 | /ŋ/ | ng, n, ngue, nd, ngh | 5 |
| 21 | /l/ | l, ll, le | 3 |
| 22 | /r/ | r, rh, rrh, rr, wr | 5 |
| 23 | /j/ | y, j, i, ll | 4 |
| 24 | /w/ | w, o, ou, u | 4 |
| 159 |
ѸβǤʸǤбˤĤƾܺ٤˵ҤʸꤷøįƤȡϳΤʤ褦ٿդʧĤᡤŪ褦ȤȤλäƤ롥ϡ (18--19) ˷ǤƤ첻˴ؤ벻ǤʸǤбɽƸơбޤºݤθˤĤƤϡľʸäƤ
| vocalic phoneme | vocalic grapheme | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | /i/ | ee, ea, e, e...e, ei, ie. eo, i, ae, oe, ay, ey, eau, e, ui | 15 |
| 2 | /ɪ/ | i, ie, e, y, o, ui, ee, u, ay, ea, ei, ia, ai, a, ey, eight | 16 |
| 3 | /e/ | e, ea, ai, ay, eo, ie, ei, u, eh, ey, ae, egm, a, oe | 15 |
| 4 | /æ/ | a, ai | 2 |
| 5 | /ʌ/ | u, o, ou, oo, oe, ow | 6 |
| 6 | /ɑ/ | are, ah, al, ar, a, er, au, aa, ear, aar, ir | 11 |
| 7 | /ɐ/ | o, a, ow, ou, au, ach | 6 |
| 8 | /ɔ/ | aw, a, al, au, ough, oa, or, our, oo, ore, oar, as, o, augh | 15 |
| 9 | /ʊ/ | oo, o, ou, oul, oe, or | 7 |
| 10 | /uː/ | oo, o, o...e, u, wo, oe, ou, uh, ough, ow, ui, eux, ioux, eu, ew, ieu, ue, oeu | 18 |
| 11 | /ɜ/ | ur, urr, ear, ir, err, er, or, olo, our, eur, yr, yrrh | 12 |
| 12 | /ə/ | a, u, ar, o, e, ia, i, ough, gh, ou, er, o(u)r, or, ei, ure, eon, oi, or, oar | 19 |
| 13 | /eɪ/ | a...e, a, ea, ai, ei, ay, ao, eh, ey, eigh, ag, aig, e, alf, aa, au, ae, oi, e, et | 20 |
| 14 | /ɑɪ/ | i, i...e, eye, ay, ie, y, igh, uy, y...e, ign, ye, eigh, is, ui, oi, ey, ei, ais | 19 |
| 15 | /ɔɪ/ | oi, oy, eu, uoy | 4 |
| 16 | /əʊ/ | o...e, ol, ow, oh, owe, o, ou, oa, oe, eo, ew, ough, eau, au, ogn | 16 |
| 17 | /aʊ/ | ow, aou, ou, eo, au, ough, iaour | 7 |
| 18 | /ɪə/ | ear, eer, ia, ere, eir, ier, a, ea, eu, iu, e, eou, eor, iou, io, ir | 16 |
| 19 | /eə/ | are, air, ear, eir, ere, aire, ar, ayor | 8 |
| 20 | /ʊə/ | uo, oer, oor, ure, our, ua, ue, we, uou | 9 |
| 241 |
ʸؤεϥƥȤȤС鷺Ȥ줿 Geoffrey Chaucer (1340--1400) νʡʤ The Canterbury Tales Ǥ롥ʸػˤήʤΥƥȤɾϡʤ⤤ʸؤμ̤̾ȸ Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Τ̵̾λͤνƥȤʸŪɾϹ⤤ʸػ˾ΰ֤Ť Chaucer 椷ƼŪǤ롥ϡSGGK ƥȤ˸ʤäȤ䡤ͤѤ줬Ѹή鳰줿ɸŪΤ륤ΤΤäȤؤäƤΤ褦ˡѸʸؤ˲餫ε̵ռΤǧƤ븽ιԤɼԤΤ Chaucer Gawain ͤФ븫ˤϡ¿ʬѤޤޤƤǽ롥
Horobin (106) ϡѤιԤơΥƥȤˤֻɤΤ褦˹Ȥ餫ˤ褦ȤHorobin ϡThe Canterbury Tales "The General Prologue" ͭ̾ƬʬˤĤơɸŪʹǤǤ Riverside Chaucer ΤΤȡǤ⸢Ҥܤ1 Hengwrt ܤΤΤȤ椷ơ˹Ԥܤˤäֻ˲ѤƤ뤫㤨Сܤ˸ <þ> ϹܤǤ <th> ֤ƤꡤξάۤΤŸƤꡤ⸽ɼԤ˼˸褦ղäƤ롥
SGGK ǤϡԤϼܥƥȤˤۤɲѤäƤʤ<þ> <ȝ> ϤΤޤݤƤꡤܤǤܤθɤȤϤ鷺Ȥʤ٤»ʤʤ褦ˤȤθȤ
Horobin (106) ϡξʤֻιˡΰ㤤ϸ幻ԤξʤФʸػ˾ɾȿǤΤǤȹͤƤ롥
The tendency for editors to remove the letter thorn in modern editions of Chaucer is quite different from the way other Middle English texts are treated. The poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, for instance, written by a contemporary of Chaucer's, is edited with its letters thorn and yogh left intact. This difference in editorial policy is perhaps a reflection of different attitudes to the two authors. Because Chaucer is seen as central to the English literary canon, there is a tendency to present his works as more 'modern', thereby accentuating the myth of an unbroken, linear tradition. The anonymous poet who wrote Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, using a western dialect and the old-fashioned alliterative metrical form, is further cut off from the literary canon by presenting his text in authentic Middle English spelling.
Τ褦ʸ幻Ԥˤϡä˰դϤʤ⤷ʤʤȤⲿ餫αʸػ˾ɾ˴ؤ٤ϤȤȤ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ʲϡǯ˾褦ˤʤäƤѲ˴ѤǤꡤ˸ؤˤ1ĤĬήȤʤäƤ롥ܥ֥Ǥϡ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1])#519. εȿʲõ븦ʬ ([2010-09-28-1])#520. ˸ؤϸεȿʲθȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 ([2010-09-29-1])#2260. ʲβ ([2015-07-05-1]) ۤ evolution γƵǴϢ夲Ƥ
Samuels (1) "linguistic evolution" ƸѲ椷Ԥ1ͤθŵŪƬ "linguistic change" ǤϤʤ "linguistic evolution" ȤѸȥѤͳˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ롥
The title of this book ('Linguistic Evolution') was chosen in preference to 'Linguistic Change' although it is about linguistic change. This is because its purpose is to attempt an examination of the large complex of different factors involved, and the title 'Linguistic Change' might have entailed an oversimplification.
Ѳˤʣװʣ˴ͿƤ (multiple causation of language change)ʣޤñ㲽Ƥ "change" ȤưȤȤȤΤ褦ΰѤ³ơSamuels (1) "linguistic evolution" ȤѸ줬䤹ȤǧƤꡤդ¥Ƥ롥"evolution" ֿ⡤ʡפȤƻŪʴްդĤȤ뤫
Nevertheless 'evolution' is itself open to the misunderstanding that some sort of progress is implied, that a clearer or more effective means of communication has been achieved as a result of it. That meaning of 'evolution' is not intended here. We are not concerned here with the prehistoric origins of human language, and, as has often been pointed out, there is today no such thing as a 'primitive' language, every language is of approximately equal value for the purposes for which it has evolved, whether it belongs to an advanced or a primitive culture.
ǤϡSamuels Τ "linguistic evolution" ȤϤʤΤϡѾ֤ȸߤɽȤȿΤζѹդݤȤȤͻι⤤֤ȤȤΤ褦
. . . it would appear, on the one hand, that both externally and internally in language development an equilibrium must be maintained between the old and the new, between the inherited forms and the expressive needs of the present; but at the same time, that the margin of tolerance and choice in the maintenance of that equilibrium is probably fairly wide, except, that is, for certain especial points of pressure that vary in each era. It is in that sense that 'evolution' is intended here.
Samuels ˤȤäơʤơߤ¿θʲԤˤȤäơˡ"linguistic evolution" ȤϡѲ˴ؤŪȤϡѲƯŪϳؤؤƤѸǤ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ε ([2016-03-12-1]) ˰³ɸˤĤơtry, like, start, forget ʤɤưŪȤư̾뤳ȤǤ뤬뤫ˤäƼ㴳ΰ̣ΰ㤤뤳Ȥȸ롥Quirk et al. (16.40) ˤȡưΤ魯ư "potentiality" ư̾Ϥμºݤ "performance" ްդΤ§Ǥ롥
As a rule, the infinitive gives a sense of mere 'potentiality' for action, as in She hoped to learn French, while the participle gives a sense of the actual 'performance' of the action itself, as in She enjoyed learning French. In the case of try, the double meaning is particularly clear:
Sheila tried ----+---- ''to bribe'' the jailor. [1]
|
+---- ''bribing'' the jailor. [2]
[1] implies that Sheila attempted an act of bribery, but did not manage it; [2] implies that she actually did bribe the jailor, but without (necessarily) achieving what she wanted. With other verbs, the difference is more subtle, and may be overruled or neutralized by the meaning of the verb of the main clause. For example, the negative meaning of avoid and escape cancels out the sense of 'performance' in He escaped/avoided being branded as a traitor.
ΰ̸§ˤ뺹ϡƤϤޤ褦ʸ̮ˤäƤϺ㤬¤뤳Ȥ⤢Τǡ줫ư̾줫λȤʬ˴ؤŪʴȤϤʤˤȤ롥
Quirk et al. Ϥθ塤ư (dread, hate, like, loathe, love, prefer)ư (start, continue, cease)ư (forget, remember, regret) γơˤĤơɤΤ褦ʰ̣Ūʺ㤬Τ뤤ϤɤΤ褦ʾˤκ㤬¤ΤͻƤ롥ä˶̣Τϡư start ˤĤơʣưؤˤư̾줬䤹ȤȤ顤He began opening all the cupboards Ǥ to open Ѥ뤳ȤǽǤϤ뤬ư̾Τۤդ路ȤˤŪɽ魯ưȤ꤬ؤäƤ褦ư˴ؤƤ⡤Ϳ뤳ȤΤƤ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ѸǤϡ¾ưŪȤƼꤦưȤơư̾줬롥¾ưˤäƤϡɤ餫դʤΤ⤢СξդΡޤξդ뤬̣ߤ˰ۤʤΤʤɡޤޤǤ롥ˤĤ33դǷǼĤ˼䤬줿ѸؤǤưʸηʸȤ͡˸椵Ƥ褦ŪˤϤɤʤΤޤϢʸʤɤɤȤʤΤǡľʤȤޤʬʤ̡ʲΤ褦ʲǤʤä
ưŪȤȤ뤫ư̾Ȥ뤫ȤǤ͡ѸǤϡָ̤ư̾ϲָȸ뤳Ȥޤɬ⤭줤ˤǤʤ褦ǤŪˤϤ䤹ʤ椹٤פȻפޤѸǤ⤹ǤˡġưˤäƤŪˤȤ뤫ηꡤΤȤƤΤۤ¿ä褦Ǥܤ̤ĴǤŪˤϡŪΥפˤĤ߾줷ꡤ¾ؾ괹ȤФư⤢äΤǤϤʤȻפޤߤ⤽Τ褦ѲκȤ뤫⤷ޤŪʴưʬषʬξΩäŪɤäƤɬפꤽǤΤФȤǤޤĴ٤Ȼפޤ
ˤĤĴ٤Ƥ椯ϤȤơѸξޤȤƤޤϡQuirk et al. (16.38--40) ȤơŪȤ뤳ȤΤǤựƤȤ˶ʬʤ롥Ƭ * դƤưϡư̾뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥ޤƹԤǥߥθˤưϡ̾ŪֻפΤǤ롥
[ư졡]
(i) *dread, *hate, *like, *loathe, *love, *prefer; long [for], ache [for], aim [for], aspire [to], burn [for], burst [for], (not) care [for], clamour [for], itch [for], yearn [for]
(ii) *begin, *cease, *commence, *continue, *start;
(iii) *forget, *remember, *regret; *bother [about], condescend [to], *delight [in], *hesitate [about]
(iv) *choose, hope, *intend, *mean, *need, *plan, *propose, *want, wish;
(v) deign, *disdain, *help, *scorn, *venture
(vi) ask, beg, decline, demand, offer, promise, refuse, swear, undertake, vow; agree [to/on/about], consent [to]
(vii) affect, claim, *profess; pretend [to]
(viii) *afford, *attempt, contrive, endeavour, fail, learn, manage, neglect, omit, *try; strive [for], seek [for]
(ix) *arrange [for], *decide [on], *resolve [on], *prepare [for], *serve [for]
ˡư̾ư롥Ƭ * դƤưϡ뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥(vi) ֻȼư졤(v) ϶ư졤(vi) ֻȼưǤ롥
[ư̾ư졡
(i) (can't) bear, begrudge, detest, dislike, *dread, *enjoy, (not) fancy, *hate, *like, *loathe, *love, (not) mind, miss, *regret, relish, resent, (can't) stand
(ii) *cease, *commence, *continue, quit, resume, *start, stop
(iii) admit, avoid, confess, consider, deny, deserve, discourage, envisage, escape, *forget, (can't) help, imagine, involve, justify, *need, permit, *propose, recall, recommend, *remember, repent, require, risk, save, *try, *want
(iv) bank on, count on, decide on, delight in, play at, resort to, see about, shrink from
(v) break off, give up, leave off, put off, take up
(vi) do away with, get around to, go in for, look forward to
Τߤ˽äư̾ΤưˤĤơΰ̣ŪʺˤĤƿ줿
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Samuel Johnson (1709--84) A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) ϡѸ˾θäֻ˴ؤˤȤäƤ褤μȤʪԻԤˤĤƤϡ#1420. Johnson's Dictionary ħȳס ([2013-03-17-1])#1421. Johnson θѡ ([2013-03-18-1]) ۤjohnson εۤƤϡѸνˤȤä practice ̾ˤ practise ưˤΤ褦2ñ졦ֻζ̤ˤĤơJohnson ͿƤ뤳Ȥ˿줿
Horobin (148) ˤСѸǤ practice practise ߤ˸ǽʤΤȤѤƤJohnson μνǤˤ긽ζ̤ΩȤƤ롥Johnson ϸФȤ̾ˤ practice ưˤ practise ΩƤƤꡤռŪ˶̤ĤƤ롥ȤJohnson Ȥ̤ʬǤʻˤ餺 practice ֻפ롥㤨СTo Cipher Τʤ "To practice arithmetick" Ȥ뤷Coinage Ȥ "The act or practice of coining money" ߤ롥
Johnson Ƴ̤Τ⤦1ĤȤơcouncil counsel 롥2ϵŪˤϸ츻ŪʤĤʤϤʤơϥƥ concilium ʽˤ consilium ʽˤͳ褹롥ѸǤϰ̣Ūˤֻ⺮ƱƤꡤǽȤäƤ褫äȤ츻 Johnson ϡƥޤ̤äξԤ̤뤳Ȥ褷ȤΤǤ (Horobin 149)
ˤ⤦1ĴϢСѸǤʶ路2Ĥηƻ discreet ʻθΤˤ discrete ʬΥˤζ̤롥ξϸ츻ŪˤƱǤꡤ2Ÿ (doublet) 뤬ѸˤϤθˤƤ⡤ե discret ȿǤ discrete ֻΤ̤ۤäȤ16ޤǤ discreet ֻɤȴͥȤʤꡤȤ櫓ֻθפθˤƤϤηȤʤä2ĤηƻˤĤƤϡJohnson ľ˶̤ƳȤ櫓ǤϤʤä̤Ƥζ̤Ω뤳Ȥ˹Ϥ (Horobin 149)
Τ褦 Johnson ϸ츻Ūʥݥꥷ䴸ʤȯˤޤ³ʸΥڥĤƳ뤤夵̯ʤȤˡǤϤĤƤ̤ Johnson ǤΤˤ϶̤ƤʤȤդߤΤ#2440. flower flour (2) ([2016-01-01-1]) Ǽ夲Υڥ1ۤˤ⸽ licence ̾ˤ license ưˤζ̤˴ؤΤ롥Johnson Ϥ2ޤäʬƤ餺ʻˤ license ֻǸФΩƤƤ롥Johnson ȤŦƤ褦̾ϥե licence ˡưϥե licencier ͳ褹ȤȤǤС츻ŪˤϡʻǤ <c> ֻΤۤդ路ϤȻפ뤬Johnson ΤäΤϡʤդΤۤ <s> Ǥ (Horobin 148) Johnson ϡΤ褦̯ʤȤ롥ʤdefence Ȥ̾ξˤ⡤Johnson ϵƥ defensio Ǥ뤳ȤǧƤˤ⤫餺<c> ֻѤƤ뤫顤Ʊ褦̯Ǥ (Horobin 149) Johnson Ȥɤ⡤ͤλҤȤȤ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#1600. Samuels θѲǥ ([2013-09-13-1]) Ǿ줿Samuels ϸѲȤװͤǤδŪΩȤơIntralinguistic Extralinguistic ͤƤꡤԤϤ Intrasystemic Extrasystemic ʬ롥Samuels (7) ˤطޤѤƼȡʲ̤Ǥ롥
Intralinguistic Intrasystemic
Extrasystemic 1 (linguistic sense only)
Extralinguistic Extrasystemic 2 (non-linguistic sense, here not used)
#2339. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (1) ([2015-09-22-1]) Ȥĥäε#2340. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (2) ([2015-09-23-1])#2431. դμΩ˴ؤ Bolinger ε ([2015-12-23-1]) ǰäƤǤ롥Samuels դμΩȤͤ뤷ƤꡤѲ˴ؤŵŪǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The substance of language, from a descriptive point of view, exists in two equally valid and autonomous shapes --- spoken and written. As a code, each exists in its own right, and there has been justifiable insistence, in recent decades, that graphetics and graphemics must in the first instance be studied separately before their relationship with phonetics and phonemics can be considered. This according of equal status to the written language is not to deny that it is ultimately derived from, and dependent on, the spoken language; but it is necessary, if only to disprove the naive speaker's notion that the written language is a mirror-image of what he speaks (or vice versa), or that it is based on contemporary spoken language, and not the spoken language of various periods in the past. (Samuels 4)
Samuels (5) ϽդäդߴطˤĤơΤ褦ˤҤ٤Ƥ롥
Though there are many differences of convention, the two media both expound what is essentially 'the same language'; and although, for the purpose of describing them at a given point of time they must be kept separate, it may be that for studying their development over a period of time, the interactions between the two media are just as important as their developments as entities.
դμΩȤˤĤƤϡǶʸΤʤǰƤΤǡ (188--92) Ȥ줿
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
δ졡ֱѸηϤɽŪȯãסʸˡҤν?ؿʸʳظԡˡ2016ǯ183--216ǡ
ƣ (2--5) رʸػ˳٤ǡʸءʻˡˤüͳˡ§¸뤤ϸؤȤưϤߤƤ롥˴ʷʸޤǤ롥Ĺʲ˰Ѥ롥
ꥹͤϸĿͤλۤȹưȤμͳ˾Ʊˡˡ§º֡ϡḪ̂Ȥˤ뤳ȤʤȤƼͳ뤿Ǥ롥褦ɼ٤ߡ¹椿Ǥ롥϶ò٤ϤϤȤħȤƤ롥ƥꥹʸؤϡι̱θǤ롥
ꥹͤϡŪ˸Сޤʤ;¿ż˽ŤޤΤ wit humour 롥ҥ塼ޡȤϡʤФˤ⡤ΤȤȤ뤪Ȥ鷺ˡʹͤ͡ˤȤɽǤ롥ҤϿͤ餫ȾФ碌뤳Ȥ˽꤬Ǥ뤬ҥ塼ޡɤߤΤȤޤǤͤ롥Ƥΰżȥҥ塼ޡȤϡꥹʸؤˤɽÿǤ롥
ꥹͤϹ줿̹˽ǤΤǡȤ졤ƿͤмԤˤꡤޤ濴ȤƼҲȤʤ褿äƺˤޤǡꥹʸؤϽŪƻŪ٤Ǥ롥Ƥˤ Puritan spirit Ĺûüξ̤Ƥ롥
ޤΤ椿ʤȤ⡤ꥹʸؤÿǤ롥ڤʤɤʪȸʤȤϡĻ两ʤɤ뤳Ȥ̤뤳θǤԲˤϰܤѤ꤬¿ɤ⡤ΤˤϤ줬Ǥ뤫顤äʸؤˤήԤȤƸΤƤΤʤ
Ʊꥹʸؤ⡤̱²ͭü饤饨ĬȥꥷĬȤήळȤˤäȯãʸɽǤ롥ˤƤ륤饨̱²ĹϡͣФοͤƻɸȤ褷Ȥˤ롥ޤꥷ̱²üϡ¿ͤʶܤ뤿ˡȤɬפʤΤȤºˤ롥ʤꥷͤˤ줿Ȥȡ饨ͤꤾȤȤϡ礭оȤʤƥꥹʸؤϡĬͻ礵褦ȤΤȤ⸫褦ɤ⡤ɤ餫ȸС̱²ˤϡοꥷޤθŵºŤ˹礦Τ餷
դ٤⤦Ĥ롥ꥹʸؤˤƼͳº֤Ȥˡ§Ť뤳ȤޤꡤξԤ褯ĴᤵƤϤ뤬ȤɽˤĤƸСˡ§뤳Ȥȼͳĥ뤳ȤȤοܤȤȤˡߤ˸夷ˤϿ͡ȥåؤ̵˿褦ˡλͤϥޥ̱²αΧˡӤꡤޤˤ٤ˡ§ȤȤ˥եαΧˡơˡ§˽äɤˤʤäƤϡRenaissance αƶơ̤˿ʹ֤ǽϤФȤ뼫ͳÿȤʤꡤʸؤˤɽѤ줿λˡPuritans ˵Ƥ̿ˤФ뤳Ȥẖ̂ȼͳȤΤäƱͤˡɽϸŵϤȤԤȿԤȤ¤¸ʹߤϡҸ鵷ˡȥƥʸؤˡ§ȤǤ褦ˤʤꡤͳϿӤꤨȿưȤʳ Romantics ϡҤ̿ۤȼͳɽȤˤơ̿ΤΤ Victorians ˤƤɽˤƤ⤹аŪˡ§˷ˤϤȿư롥Ƽˡäƿʹ֤褦Ȥ Naturalism ꥹǤȤʤ줿ΤϡΤΤȤǤ롥ˤʤäƤϡ٤Τᡤ̤˼ﻨ¿ηƺ𤷡۾塤ƻ塤塤ŰŪͤ졤ʸؤüʼͳǧ졤¤̣οƱ뤵줿褦ˤʤä褿
Ѹˤȱʸػˡ˱ѹˤδطϡߤ̩ܤǤϤ뤬㤨о嵭αʸػˤˤ뼫ͳˡ§θؤѸˤˤ벿бΤ꤫ǤϤʤɤդ꤬ɤդ̵꤬طʤΤ뤳ȤǡʸػˤδαѸˤȤѸˤδαʸػˤäȤ⤷ΤˤʤΤǤϤʤ
ƣ ͦرʸػ˳١ҡ1963ǯ
2।ǥȤƤФѸ word pair 뤤 binomial ˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ#820. ʩƱ ([2011-07-26-1])#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱ ([2013-04-09-1])#2157. word pair μȸ̡ ([2015-03-24-1]) ϤᡤĤεˤƤ
θˡϡäѸʹߡեƥ줫μѸ줬ƤȤˡˤ֤뽬ܸѸƱ褦ˡ졤ä˴줫μѤƤаޤΤǡŪ˻褦ʾä˰㤤ʤˤĤơƣ (10 fn.) ˴Ϣڤä
Cf. "The inaudible and noiseless foot of Time" (Shakespeare: All's Well That Ends Well, V. iii. 41)
"The dark backward and abysm of Time" (Shakespeare: The Tempest, I. ii. 50)
Ρ郎γؼԤֻСפƬˤ
شȷڽʽ
֥ȤϤ餮ʤ륷祭ΤߤϡƥȤۤӤʤ륷奯¥Τ褭हפȡʸʤɤߡפΤ˻Ƥ롥
ʸɤߤȤϡƱδȷ2ɤळȤǡϵ (饦) Τۤߡס (å) Τ꤮ꤹס˧ʥեݥ˥ȥХפʤɤ롥ʸɤͳ褹ɤǡʿ»ήԤμ¤˻ǯ֤λʸʸ٤ɤȤˤȤ櫓Ѥ줿Τǡ̾롥ѸˤȼѸΥڥˤϡԤΰ̣뤿Ԥ֤ȤưŤФФäʸɤߤǤƱͤˡ̤ˤߤ䤹뤿¸ηɤźȤȯãΤȻפ롥ޤˤƤʩñڥϡܸȯۤǤȡֲʣɡפȤ٤Τä櫓ξˤΤ褦Τ뤳Ȥϡޤ굤ŤƤʤȤ˭٤ʸüѤˤǤȤͤС٤ɬŪȤäƤ褤Τ⤷ʤʡܸظŵ p. 117 ⻲ȡˡ
ܸǤ "binomial" ˤĤƤϡ#1616. ʸ礹ߡ2 ([2013-09-29-1]) ǿ줿֥֡¸Ͽ͡ס֥եɥȡǼš͡ס֥롼ס̺͡פʤɤɽ⡤ΰȤʤ
ƣ ͦرʸػ˳١ҡ1963ǯ
ܸظŵ١ ʸۤ ԡ2007ǯ
32դ俷ʹīˡֹǸŵθ彣ǽڡפȤǺܤƤפǸڤԤȤʡԤꡤ1鵪2ΤΤȤߤǸŵθڤȤ
λ˽פԹβԤȤʡԤλ渶פǡǸŵθҡȾ?ᵪ?売ˤڤīȾˤäν赡ءϲܤ褷ɮʸ˻ѤΤȤߤ졤郎ʸʸεͤ뤦ǽפʼ꤬Ȥʤ롥
ϰԹˤĤơֱ褹뷴Ȥߤפȵ֡ʰԹΡ˹£ʸʪθԤפȡʸλѤ뵭Ҥ⤢롥ԶѤϡθεҤդΤɾƤ롥
ϤˤīȾγϲ褷Ƥ餷θ餬ѤƤΤȿ¬롥£ʸʪθεϿɮѶä褦ͤľʸƤڵȤϤʤʤʤȤܿͤΰϡɮѶ̤ơӤǤȤưˤϵŤƤʸȤȤϤǤȤ⡤ʸ¸ߤȲͤˤĤơܤʤ鲿ռƤΤǤϤʤ뤳ȤǤ롥ˤϡɽŪʰ̣ǤϤ뤫⤷ʤǤܤ˴ޤƤȤϳΤǤ롥#2386. ܸʸˡʸԡˡ ([2015-11-08-1]) ǤҤ٤褦ˡܿͤʸʸ餷ӤǼȤʤ褦ˤʤäΤϡФ餯λ塤餯4Ⱦȹͤ롥νڤϡܤʸʸȿǤ꤬Ȥʤꤽ
223դǡåեؤαѸ˳ؼ Simon Horobin ˤ A history of English . . . in five words ꤹ뵭־˥åפ줿Ѹ˸줿ǯ English, beef, dictionary, tea, emoji Ȥ5ñ夲ѸŪʴ饨å˥ȤƤ롥ϥѡ줿ѤΤ⡤ѸˤޤĤˤʸμ䤷ƤɼζǤ롥Τ
ʲ5ñγơˤĤơܥ֥δϢ뵭ˤĥäƤ
1. English or Anglo-Saxon
#33. 塼ȿͤ̾Τˡ ([2009-05-31-1])
#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes θϤȰܽ ([2010-05-21-1])
#1013. ͤϤɤ֥ƥϤä ([2012-02-04-1])
#1145. English England ̾Ρ ([2012-06-15-1])
#1436. English England ̾ (2) ([2013-04-02-1])
#2353. ʤͤϥɤΤ ([2015-10-06-1])
#2493. ͤϲäơͤϰ줿 ([2016-02-23-1])
2. beef
#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1])
#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1])
#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1])
#1603. ưʪȤɽñפǽ˻Ŧ͡ ([2013-09-16-1])
#1604. ưʪȤɽñפ˻Ŧͤ ([2013-09-17-1])
#1966. ʡʤäƤѸΰʪ˥塼 ([2014-09-14-1])
#1967. ˴ؤեѸ ([2014-09-15-1])
#2352. ưʪȤɽñפο (2) ([2015-10-05-1])
3. dictionary
#603. ǽαѱѼ A Table Alphabeticall (1) ([2010-12-21-1])
#604. ǽαѱѼ A Table Alphabeticall (2) ([2010-12-22-1])
#609. 켭17 ([2010-12-27-1])
#610. æ켭18 ([2010-12-28-1])
#726. ǤȤ뤫⤷ʤŪ Cawdrey μ ([2011-04-23-1])
#1420. Johnson's Dictionary ħȳס ([2013-03-17-1])
#1421. Johnson θѡ ([2013-03-18-1])
#1609. Cawdrey μǡ١ ([2013-09-22-1])
4. tea
#756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1])
#1966. ʡʤäƤѸΰʪ˥塼 ([2014-09-14-1])
5. emoji
#808. smileys or emoticons ([2011-07-14-1])
#1664. CMC (computer-mediated communication) ([2013-11-16-1])
Ѹ̤ˤĤƤϡ#756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1]), #1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ ([2013-07-01-1]) ϤȤơlexicology loan_word ʤɤεȡ
ѸαѸǽ줿ʸؤˤĤơȤ Baugh and Cable 110 "Middle English Literature" (149--51) ˰͵Ѹˤ˴Ϣϰ绨Ĥ˳礷
Ѹ줬ҲŪˤɤä̿ȡѸʸؤ̩ܤ˥Ƥ롥ΥޥˤꡤեäήʸŪϹϡʤեǽ줿ʪظäƤꡤѸǽ줿Τ˥ѥȥդǽϳ̵äѸʪԤȤϳΤǤꡤ̤ŪǽȤ٤ԤʤäƤΤǤ롥ϡѸ줷ʤ̱̽˥ꥹȶ۶褦ȤǮ˶줿Ԥääơ1150--1250ǯѸ˱Ѹǽ줿Τϡۤܤ٤ƤŪ͡ŪʸؤǤ롥Ancrene Riwle Ormulum (c. 1200) Τ褦ʡβܤ䡤űѸͳ褹ⶵξƤľλαѸʸؤä㳰Ū Layamon's Brut (c. 1200) The Owl and the Nightingale (c. 1195) Τ褦ŪʸؤФ㳰ȸäƤ褤λϡ§Ȥ "Period of Religious Record" ȸƤ٤
100ǯ֤ϡեФƱѸ줬ᡤѸ줬깭ʸؤȤɽ蘆褦ˤʤäƤեǽ줿ʸؤʤɤơ14ˤƱѸʸؤƤŪˤϡŪʥޥ (romance) Ȥ뤬ѸȤΤ˾褻褦ˤʤä1250--1350ǯαѸʸؤλϡ"Period of Religious and Secular Literature" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ
14θȾޤǤˤϡɤˤƱѸϤܴۤ (reestablishment_of_english) ̤λѸʸػˤˤڤθ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Canterbury Tales Troilus and Criseyde ȤäĤ Geoffrey Chaucer (1340--1400) ȤơҲŪ Piers Plowman (1362--87) 路 William LanglandʪĤ⤷ John Wycliffe (d. 1384)Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ۤ3ĤζŪŪʼ̤λĤͤ졤ޤ "Period of Great Individual Writers" ȸäƤ褤
15ϡChaucer ʤɤΰͤαƶǡѸʸػ˾塤ƤȤʤäƤꡤ"Imitative Period"뤤Ͻ Shakespeare ޤǤΤĤʤλȤ̣ "Transition Period" ʤɤȸƤФƤ롥ʸػŪˤŪ˲ᾮɾƤ餤뤬Lydgate, Hoccleve, Skelton, Hawes ʤɤηʪƤ롥åȥɤǤ⡤Henryson, Dunbar, Gawin Douglas, Lindsay ʤɤʤˤ Malory Caxton 뤬15θؤʸؤϤäȿ˰Ƥ٤Ǥ롥κǸλθءʸŪˤĤƤϡ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1]) ӡ#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) ȡ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
219դǷǼĤˡɸ˴ؤ뵿䤬줿ǼľƤ١ˤƵȤƤޤȤƤʲάˤ
Ѹˤ to (to-infinitive) ȸ (bare infinitive) 2ब뤬ŪˤϤ褽ʪǤ롥θŤΤϸΤۤǤꡤϱѸΤߤʤ餺ǤϹ롥ȤäƤ褤űѸǤŵŪưθ촴 -(i)an դ֤פȸƤФƤꡤ줬ѸƱͤˡȤƻưγưŪθ֡ӽưθ֤ѤƤθűѸδŪƯϡư̾첽뤳ȡĤޤ̾Ūˡפäθ塤Ѹˤοʿˤ -(i)an 졤촴ΤΤη֤ؼ̤ƤޤäΤǡߤǤϡָפȸƤľ褦ˤʤäư졤γư졤ưθ֤֤ȤƤεǽϡΤޤߤޤǰѤ줿
to פΤۤϡűѸֻ to ˡҤͿʤ˶ޤ -anne Ȥķ֡ϰ̾ȤäƤ褤ΤʤΤǡ̾줵ʤ˶ޤˤ³Τǡ㤨 to ganne ȤСֹԤȤ˸ơפĤޤֹԤˡפۤɤäĤޤꡤűѸǤϡǤŪˡפ to ɽ蘆ƤΤǤ롥ŪˤϡϤͿʸޤΤ˿ʿüɡto + ưθפȤ夯ȤˤʤäǽˤĤƤСto ѸѸˤƤ˳ĥűѸΡŪˡפΤߤʤ餺μϰϤǤä̾Ūˡפؤ¾νεǽȯãƤä
ȯ to 줬ȯθɤĤɤۤƤ椯ȤˤѤºݤˤѸʹߤξԤμϰϤ褤ξܺ٤ʣǤꡤɤǤѲǽʡɤפξФи줿줾μϰϤٷꤹޤǤˡĹλ夬äΤǤ롥㤨Сư make ˡǤСǽư֤ˤƤϸȤ뤬ư֤Ǥ to ȤȤΤⶦŪˤ̯ʸݤˤߤ뤬2μϰ褤η̡Τ褦ʤϤʬۤˤʤäƤޤäȤȤǤ롥ºݡŤѸǤ make ǽư֤Ǥ⸶¤ to ѤƤդλˤĤƤϡ#970. Money makes the mare to go ([2011-12-23-1])#978. Money makes the mare to go (2) ([2011-12-31-1])#971. help + פε ([2011-12-24-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
[2016-02-29-1], [2016-03-01-1]˰³Schmandt-Besserat ˤ롤ɼȤǴڤΥޤʸʳäΤǤϤʤȤˤĤƹͤ롥4ǯνˡǴڤΥޤȡǴڤƴ (bulla) Ȥ߹碌ƥबȯãȹͤƤ롥 bulla ɽ̤ˤϡäƤ3ǴڤΥޤμȿΤޤ2ŪȿǤ椬ޤƤ롥ϰβ̣Τ
οʪθƤߤ褦ļˤοʪͤ¶ȼԤ̤ơĮεҤؿʪȤƤ롥ͤϡ˽ФʪȤȤˡμȿҤʣǴڥޤ bulla ¶ȼԤ˻롥κݡͤ bulla ɽ̤ܿ;θĿͰⲡƤĮԤäƤҤϡ¶ȼԤ龦ʤοʪ켰 bulla ꡤ줬Τοͤμˤä줿ΤǤ뤳ȤˤǧȤȤˡbulla äΥޤ뤳Ȥǡȯ줿ʪμȿäƤ뤫ޤʤɤƤʤǧ뤳ȤǤ롥ۤɵ路ʤˤϡ虜虜 bulla äƳΤɬפϤʤäܿͰ̵¸뤿ˤϤʤ٤ʤۤ褤ǡˡäƤ륳ޤμȿ2Ū˺Ƹˡbulla ɽ̤˥ޤɽ魯ˡԤ߽Ф줿ơ줳ʪɽ魯ʸפȯäΤǤϤʤȤ
䤬ơǴƴ bulla ΤΤɬפǤʤʤäɽ̤ʸᤵФ褫äΤǡñǴĤȤ֤夤ǴĤȤϤäƤ⡤ºݤˤϴʿ櫓ǤϤʤ̷ΤΤ̤Ǥ롥ϡĤƤƴפ碌ΤǤꡤŪϢ³Τ⤷ʤ
⤷βѤʤСʸϰտŪȯ줿ΤǤϤʤषȯ줿ȤȤˤʤ3ΥޤѤ٤ޤصΤ2ΰ֤Ǥꡤι٤̤ȤƽȤ٤Ǥ⤢äȤȤǤ롥
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "The Earliest Precursor of Writing." Scientific American 238 (1978): 50--59.
ε ([2016-02-29-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ɸ Schmandt-Besserat ƾΤǤ롥1978ǯʸݤ
衤ʸεȯŸˤĤƤϡʸ (pictogram) Ϥޤꡤ٤ι⤤ʸؤȿʤȤȤȤƤ켫ΤϸǤϤʤ⤷ʤɥĹųإब1929ǯ Uruk ȯ̤ǴĤʸˤϡ˾ǸŵʸȤʤ⡤Ǥ٤ι⤤ʸѤƤΤȤϡ̤äʸ¸ߤƤȤʸȯˤĤƤοƶ¥ȤˤʤäSchmandt-Besserat (50) ۩
The fact that the Uruk texts contradict the hypothesis that the earliest form of writing would be pictographic has inclined many epigraphers to the view that the tablets, even though they bear the earliest-known writing, must represent a stage in the evolution of the art that is already advanced. The pictographic hypothesis has been revived anew. The fact that no writing of this kind has yet appeared at sites of the fourth millennium B.C. and even earlier is explained away by postulating that the writing of earlier millenniums was recorded exclusively on perishable mediums that vanished long ago, such as parchment, papyrus or wood.
ơSchmandt-Besserat ϡϤΰפȯ̤ơǴڤΥޤǴڤǤǤƴ (bulla) ¸ߤ˴ؿƤˤĤƤϡǤ1958ǯ A. Leo Oppenheim ȤؼԤˤꡤ2ŤεϿηϤΤƻǤϤʤȤ⤬ƤOppenheim θĤ bulla ˤϡɽ̤48Ĥưʪɽ魯椬ޤƤꡤƴΤʤǥ饫ȲΤdzäƤߤȡ줾ưʪɤäޤԤä48äƤΤǤ롥Ϥ餯εϿѤ줿ΤǤϤʤȿ¬졤ʸεʳΤȲᤵ줿ƻǯϵ1500ǯۤɤȤ줿ȯΥޤäȤäȸŤؤȯ줿Ȥ顤ʸˡʵڤӤʳޤˡˤϿǯȤϤDz夲뤳ȤȤʤä
Schmandt-Besserat ĴǤϡΤ褦ǴڤΥޤ9ǯ鵪2ǯ˵ڤĹ֤ˤ錄äϢ³Ūˡ褫ڤ뤳ȤΤʤbulla ϵ4ǯˤϸʤˡεϿˡưꤷηϤȤƼ졤ƤȤSchmandt-Besserat (56--57) Ϥޤʤ9ǯۤɤλˤηϤ߽Ф줿ΤȤߥˤĤơȷкѤνиȤʹּҲѲ˵ΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥
It cannot be a coincidence that the first tokens appear early in the Neolithic period, a time of profound change in human society. It was then that an earlier subsistence pattern, based on hunting and gathering, was transformed by the impact of plant and animal domestication and the development of a farming way of life. The new agricultural economy, although it undoubtedly increased the production of food, would have been accompanied by new problems. / Perhaps the most crucial would have been food storage. Some portion of each annual yield had to be allocated for the farm family's own subsistence and some portion had to be set aside as seed for the next year's crop. Still another portion could have been reserved for barter with those who were ready to provide exotic products and raw materials in exchange for foodstuffs. It seems possible that the need to keep track of such allocations and transactions was enough to stimulate development of a recording system. / . . . The Neolithic period and the succeeding Chalcolithic period, or Copper Age, in western Asia lasted about 5,000 years. Over this substantial span one finds surprisingly few changes in the tokens, a fact that may indicate how well suited to the needs of an early agricultural economy this recording system was.
ȷкѤνиˤʣʲɬפȤʤꡤβˡ1ĤȤǴڤΥޤλѤͰƤ졤ʸȯˤȤʥꥪSchmandt-Besserat (59) ηѤ롥
To summarize, the earliest examples of writing in Mesopotamia may not, as many have assumed, be the result of pure invention. Instead they appear to be a novel application late in the fourth millennium B.C. of a recording system that was indigenous to western Asia from early Neolithic times onward. In this view the appearance of writing in Mesopotamia represents a logical step in the evolution of a system of record keeping that originated some 11,000 years ago.
On this hypothesis the fact that the system was used without significant modification until late in the fourth millennium B.C. seems attributable to the comparatively simple record-keeping requirements of the preceding 5,000 years. With the rise of cities and the development of large-scale trade the system was pushed onto a new track. Images of the tokens soon supplanted the tokens themselves, and the evolution of symbolic objects into ideographs led to the rapid adoption of writing all across western Asia.
ȤǡĤϡǴڤΥޤȡ졤εɽ̤˹ߤĤƴȤƤ bulla Ȥ߹碌ΤʤפƻȤʤΤǤ롥ǴھɼΥƥˤĤƤϡεǹͤ롥
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "The Earliest Precursor of Writing." Scientific American 238 (1978): 50--59.
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