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2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ѸκǤ̤θϡּܡʽưפǤ롥ĤΥǤϡỤ̄ŪŪưŤˤꡤθ礬 (inversion) 뤳Ȥ֡ʽưܼפȤʤ롥Ǥưư˸ꤷǡɤΤ褦ʥ뤫Huddleston and Pullum (94--96) ʬफƤߤ褦
(1) Ĥʸ (Closed interrogatives)
- Can she speak French?
- Does she speak French?
(2) 줿ʸ (Open interrogatives)
- What did she tell you?
- Where did you go after that?
- What is she doing?
(3) òʸ (Exclamatives) ʤܽưθǽ
- What a fool have I been?
- How hard did she try?
(4) Ǥ֤ (Initial negative)
- Not one of them did he find useful.
- Nowhere does he mention my book.
(5) only ֤ (Initial only)
- Only two of them did he find useful.
- Only once had she complained.
(6) so/such ֤ (Initial so/such)
- So little time did we have that we had to cut corners.
- Such a fuss would he make that we'd all agree.
- You got it wrong and so did I.
(7) ¾Ǥ֤ (Other fronted elements)
- Thus had they parted the previous evening.
- Many another poem could I speak of which sang itself into my heart.
- The more wives he had, the more children could he beget.
- Well did I remember the crisis of emotion into which he was plunged that night.
(8) (Conditional inversion)
- Had he seen the incident he'd have reported it to the police.
(9) may (Optative may)
- May you both enjoy the long and happy retirement that you so richly deserve.
- May the best man win!
- May you be forgiven!
ƤߤȡѸǤǥեȤΡּܽưפ֤ơֽưܼפȤʤ뵡ϡ碌СȤƤ٤Ȥɬ⾯ʤʤ褦˻פƤ롥¿ȤΤϸष̾ȰäƤȤۼѤơŪͭѤʲԤʤäƤΤȹͤƤ
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
ܸθŵʸˡˤ̤νư֤פȯϡ֤פʤΤ֤פʤΤ[m(u)] [n] ƱɡǤȤϤŪˤ϶̤벻Ǥ롥Ǥʿ»ˤơؤȯãȤؤäơ[m] [n] κƱϻϤޤäƤ (165) ˤСֽȾϼ n ؤؤࡦ٤ǽ褦ˤʤäפۤɤ˺ƱʤǤܸβˤƤϡź̤ /m/ /n/ ζ̤ϷƤֲŪʲؤȤˤƤϡκۤ¤ƤΤǤ롥С/m/ /n/ ϸ§ȤƤ϶̤衤ֲŪԹ礬褤ʤ¤ȤʤȤۤɤˡDZѤƤ
ܸλ𤬤⤷ΤϡѸˤǤ褦ʻ˻褦ʤȤäƤꡤθθѲ˾ʤ̱ƶͿƤǤ롥ѸǤ⡤ź̤ /m/ /n/ βŪʺۤϾ˷ƤʤŵŪˤϤˤλҲȤƤ /m/ /n/ ϡűѸ줫Ѹؤβϴˤ12ˡǤ˺Ʊ졤Ūˤ [n] ؤȼ̤ƤäMoore ʸȡˡˤäƶβŪ¿Ȥϴְ㤤ʤܸˤˤƲؤȤݤ⤿餷̤ɤŨΤ롥㤨СűѸѲ̾ nama ϡʡ˱ nama (nom.sg.), naman (acc.sg), naman (gen.sg), naman (dat.sg), naman (nom.pl), naman (acc.pl), namena (gen.pl), namum (dat.pl) ȶޤޤ [m] [n] ؤκƱȸ첻ۣ沽ˤꡤ̤Ȥơñ nama Фơ¾Τ٤Ƥγʡ naman Ȥ֤˼̤Ķˤ벻ŪΩ̵³ƷŪΩ̵줾ηˡƤȵڤˤ⡤ʤ̱ƶڤܤΤǤ롥
ξȤˡ줬11--12ֲŪѲǤȤΤϡǤ롥[m] [n] ξɡκƱ켫ΤϡźʤξΤޤޤλŪʰפԻĤɬפʤ⤷ߤΤϡ[m] [n] ؼ̤Ȥ٤ʲŪݤΡθηŪ;ȤӤȤѸˤĤưƳƤʬ⤢뤫⤷ʤȤȤ
顡ܸˡ١˼Ҥӡ2017ǯ
Moore, Samuel. "Earliest Morphological Changes in Middle English." Language 4 (1928): 238--66.
ɸϡճȺ䤹Ѹ췲Ǥ롥Ǥˡ¼˴Ťơ#3314. Ѹˤˤָʸױưס ([2018-05-24-1]) Ǥ夲Ƥ
ޤäաפȡֽաפΩˤĤơˤĤƤ¿פʤȤФɽ魯ʡʤ (medium) ΰ㤤ܤƤѸǤꡤѤƸƬǤʤΤäաפǤꡤʸѤƽǤʤΤֽաפǤ롥줾Τͭλ𤬤ꡤˤĤƤϡʲγƵǰäƤ
#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])
#748. äդȽա ([2011-05-15-1])
#849. äդȽ (2) ([2011-08-24-1])
#1001. äȤФȽȤ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])
#1665. äȤФȽȤ (4) ([2013-11-17-1])
#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])
#2301. äդȽդĤʤڥȥ ([2015-08-15-1])
#3274. äդȽ (5) ([2018-04-14-1])
䤹ΤϡָΡפȡʸΡפΩǤ롥줾Ρפάơָסʸפȸ뤳Ȥ¿ޤμȤʤꤦ롥ָסäաפȤˡʤǤϤʤŪˤϡָΡˡפʸΡˡפդ°복ǰǤ롥դˤƺѤ2ĤΰۤʤʸΤΤ褤ָΡˡפϡָŪʸΤνաסʸΡˡפϡʸŪʸΤνաפȤȤǤ롥
ǤϡָŪʸΤνաסʸŪʸΤνաפȤϲԤϡʸˡøäʤδؤˤĤơŪäդѤƤΤ˴Ťƽ줿դǤʴؤˤĤƤϡ#3312. ˤؤɽء ([2018-05-22-1]) ȡˡ䤿ϸߡŪ˸ܸʸˡøä˴ŤäƤ롥Ʊʸˡøä˴ŤܸɽСϡָŪʸΤνաפȤʤ롥ΤȤʤäաפȤʤ˶ᤤΤˤϤʤ뤬ƱΤǤϤʤäաפȡֽաפϺŪۤʤΤǤꡤƱؤ˾äƤȤϤƱνϤȤϤʤʤä褦˽פֽ褦äפʤɤȤϤޤŪʸǤꡤξԤδ֤ˤϤʤΥåפΤǤ롥
ʸŪʸΤνաפȤϡʸˡøäʤɤδؤȤơ߾ѤƤΤǤϤʤĤƾѤƤǤȤҿΤ¾ǤȤΤѤƽ줿ΤǤ롥ܸνϡʹߡ˻ޤǡʿ»ܸδؤ˴ŤʸϤƤ줬ʸŪʸΤνաפǤ롥νǤϡ¿ϡҿ롤ǤƥʸϤ줬ǤȤΡʸŪʸΤνաפǤ롥
ʾޤȤмΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) ä ա (3) Ρ (2) ա (4) ʸΡ
ε#3409. ܸˤٹξü ([2018-08-27-1]) ǡٹ֥ס֥ײľаޤܤٹ [kw], [gw] ȤֻҲȾҲפʬܤСȤƤϡӸؤǤȤ (labiovelar) ȤĤʤäƤ (cf. #1151. ¿ ([2012-06-21-1]))
ѸǤϰĸ̤Ȥ [kw] [gw] Ū褯¸ƤꡤǤܸβȤоŪǤ롥ֻȤƤŵŪ <qu>, <gu> ɽ蘆졤queen, quick, liquid, language, sanguine ʤɤǡǤ롥ˤСѸǤ [k], [g] Ԥ벻Ķ˸¤餺̤ [w] Ϥ褯¸Ƥ롥
ȤϤΤΡΤ褦ʱѸǤŪ [w] Ƥ륱Ϥ롥#383. ֥ΥޥȡפǤʤ֥Υޥȡס ([2010-05-15-1]) Ǹ褦ˡեѸΤʤǤ⡤Norman French ޤ줿ΤϡβħȿǤ /kw/ ݤƤ뤬 (e.g. conquest /ˈkɒŋkwɛst/) Central French ΤΤϡħѤ /w/ Ƥ (e.g. conquer /ˈkɒŋkə/)
ޤ#51. 5W1Hפʤ̡6Hס ([2009-06-18-1])#184. two /w/ ȯʤΤϤʤ ([2009-10-28-1]) Ǹ褦ˡ첻³ [w] æ䤹ȤĴŪʻ𤬤ꡤˤ how, who, sword, two ʤɤȯʤֻȤΥåסˤƤ롥
[w] ȾҲȸƤФȾüʲŪüäƤꡤܸǤѸǤ⤽εưʤˡˤʣǤ롥
ٹȤϸŤܸǡ֥ס֥פʤɤɽ줿 [kwa, gwa] ΤȤǤ롥ȤܸˤϹٹʤ벻ϤʤäȤȤ˴ȤƤιٹƳ졤ܸβؼޤƤäΤǤ롥ˤʤȡܸŪʲز뤫ΤȤƤӹٹǤ˻äĤƤιٹ֥ס֥פϡľ֥ס֥פع줷Ƥ롥
(319--20) ˤСٹľλˤĤƤä
ٹΥ [kwa] [gwa] ϡֲлפְ̡פȤ褦˴ˤѤƤλˤľƥ [ka] [ga] ȤʤäȹǤϤѲλϰۤʤäƤ뤬ǤΡϤ١ˤ˸롤ȹͤνդˤĤƸ褦̤ǡνͤǤϥȯƤ뤳ȤƤ
θʤ礰襤ˤ⡤褲ءѲʤˤޤ⡤ΤޡʤΤĤʡ
ʤǤϽˤϤǤľƤΤФơǤϤޤľʤǤʤäȤʪäƤ롥Ǥϡزʶʥ٤ˡ֤λȤޤ̤䤦ˤդ٤ȡפ褦ˡ⤤ȬˤϹٹľƤȤ狼롥ФơǤϽäƤ٤Ѳ褦Ǥ롥
ٹľιȤѲ˴ؤơʣĶ̣Τϡ˼ҲŪ¦̤⤢ä餷ȤξԤ̤뤫줹뤫ϡüԤζܤ٤䡤ոǫˤ¸ȤҤΤ褦˹ٹϴ˴ŤΤǤꡤμʤԤˤȤäơζ̤ưפǤϤʤäºݡƱ˴Ť13ڤ褦ʲpp. 320--21ˡ
ٹξüܸΰŪʲ˱褦ΤǤ뤳Ȥϡ͡˻ŦƤ롥ȤС[kwa, gwa] ȾҲ [w] ȤȤϡФܸΥ륢륿Ūʤɽ魯Τȸ2ŻҲδ1Ȥ뤳ȤǤʡܸɴŵ pp. 256--57) (318) ϡΤ褦ˡܸ첻ˤΤ깭ֿಽפΰĤȤư֤Ť뤳ȤǤȤcf. #1271. ܸಽȤθ ([2012-10-19-1])ˡ
ϹԻҲ [ɸ] [h] [çi]ʤξƬ̥ޥޡؤȤѲϡĴǿδͿڸΤǤ롥 [e] ˡ [o] ˡơ߿첻߿첻ѲΤƱηˤ롥ˤСŤˡ𡦥 [i][je] ѲΤξ w ӼǤꡤҤٹľ [kwa] [ka] ƱήǤ롥ζĥˤѲƤȤˤ礭ήȤơֿಽפȤȤ롥ȯôڤ褦Ȥߵ˴ŤΤǤ롥
ʤǤ⡤Φ彣ʤɤľȹٹζ̤¸³Ƥ⤢롥
ܸɴŵ١İ ɧۤ ԡ罤ۡ1988ǯ
顡ܸˡ١˼Ҥӡ2017ǯ
ɸ Elizabeth ϡѹˤκǤ2ͤνɽŵŪʱѸν̾Ǥ롥˸뤿ؤŤ̾Ǥꡤ츻褯ʬäƤʤ褦إ֥饤ǡֿסֿϴʤפɽ魯 Elisheba ͳ褹ΤǤϤʤȸ롥
ѹǤ16Ⱦ Elizabeth I μȤʤꡤ3֡Ѹ̾ȤƤʿ͵ؤä20ˤʤȡElizabeth II μˤ⤫餺˸Ťᤫ̾ɾ褦ˤʤä餫ĤƤΤ褦ʿ͵Ƥʤ褦
ˤ⸽Ť̾ˡѹΤߤʤ餺衼åѽƱ̾Ӥ̾̾ȤƹѤƤ뤬餬ƱѸ̾ȤƱѸҲäƤȡElizabeth եߥȸƤ֤٤ΰ̾Ԥʤ뤳ȤˤʤäޤĤѸǾάη (hypocorism)ȯãƤΤǡѸǤ¿¿ͤ Elizabeth ή̤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʲˡCrystal (148) ˵äơɽŪʤΤ褦
Short forms: Bess, Bet, Beth, Eliza, Elsa, Liza, Lisbet, Lisbeth, Liz, Liza
Pet forms (hypocorism): Bessie, Bessy, Betsy, Bette, Betty, Elsie, Libby, Lilibet, Lizzie, Lizzy, Tetty
Regional forms: Elspet, Elspeth, Elspie (Scottish)
Foreign forms: Elizabeth (common European spelling); Babette, Elise, Lise, Lisette (French); Elsa, Else, Ilse, Liesel (German); Bettina, Elizabetta (Italian); Isabel, Isabella, Isbel, Isobel, Izzie, Sabella (Spanish/Portuguese); Elilís (Irish Gaelic); Ealasaid (Scottish Gaelic); Bethan (Welsh)
Ūˤϡΰ̾γơФֻ͡櫓ǤꡤȤ櫓ɸŪֻڤ18ˤϡĿ̾ΡֻؤΤϵäΤǡֻ¿#1720. Shakespeare ֤ ([2014-01-11-1]) ǼȤǤ롥Elizabeth ʤ¾¿̾ˤˤĤơŪˤɤ¿ΥꥨäȤƣסֺƣסƣסƣפǤϤʤ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
̾Ū˰̾ (anthroponomastics) ˤĤƤϡ#1673. ̾¿ȿ̾ء ([2013-11-25-1]) ϤȤơpersonal_name γƵǴϢ夲Ƥ
Ѹο̾ϡĿ̾ȤƤ first name (forename, Christian name, or given name) Ȳ²̾ȤƤ last name (family name or surname) ̤ۤФ middle name դä롥
ܸο̾δФˤȤơŵŪ last name ǤΤ first name ȤƤѤȤȤ롥㤨СܸǤϡڡפ־ӡפȤŵŪ̾ȤѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤѸǤϷ褷ƾʤʤåץ (740) ˤСƤҶ̾žѤ륱¿Ȥ
Ǥʲ²̾ˤĿ̾Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿äƤĹˤͿȤˤΤǤ롥ξ硤Ƥեȥ͡ȤͿ⤢Сߥɥ͡ȤͿ졤˥եȥ͡Ȥ鷺ˡĿ̾Ȥ⤢롥㤨 Mary Addison Ȥ̾ν Henry Jones Ȥȷ뺧硤©Ҥ Addison Jones ̾Ť뤳Ȥ롥Ŀ̾ȤʤäȤơꥫͥСǥ ([Oliver] Bergess Meredith, 1907--97)Dzĥʥʥ (Nunnally [Hunter] Johnson, 1897--1977)ͥӥե ([John] Robinson Jeffers, 1887--1962)ѹηȥСʡɡ硼 ([George] Bernard Shaw, 1856--1950) ʤɤ롥ѹȥ㡼 (Winston [Leonard Spencer] Churchill, 1874--1965) ȥꥫξ Winston Churchill (1871--1947) ƱƤϤʤʤ
ۤˡŪ̾ˤ̾ˤѤȤȤϡ19ˤ̤ä褦Crystal (150) ˤСBaron, Beverley, Fletcher, Maxwell ϤᡤäˤȤ̾ȤѤƤ Clifford "ford near a slope", Douglas "dark water", Shirley "bright clearing" ʤɤ̾ȤƺѤ뤳ȤϴŪäȤ
硼 T. åץ ƻ ϻ إåץѸ츻ŵ١罤ۡ2009ǯ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ʸ٤٤¬ͭ̾ʻɸ1Ĥˡɸ "Levenshtein distance" ȤΤ롤#3397. Ѹ through Υֻ ([2018-08-15-1])#3398. Ѹ such Υֻ ([2018-08-16-1])#3399. ֻٷ ([2018-08-17-1]) ǤȤƤɸǤꡤ#1163. 饤åǡ١ DICT.ORG ([2012-07-03-1]) Ǥ⤳λɸѤֻФץ롥
ͤʤȤʸɸʸѴˤϡĤԽִˤɬפФ褤㤨Сkitten sitting Ѵˤϡkitten k s ִˢ sitten e i ִˢ sittin g ˢ sitting Ȥ3ƧɬפΤǡξֻ֤ Levenshtein distance 3ȤȤˤʤ롥ִ̾Խˤ줾1ͤƤ뤬ơ˰ۤʤͤͿλ⤢롥
ʲˡ̾νŤߤŤ Levenshtein distance ¬ CGI ֤Ƥˡ#1720. Shakespeare ֤ ([2014-01-11-1]) 25ΰֻФơڤʤɤDzϤƤߤƤפ˰ʲԥڡˡShakespeare, Schaksp, Shackespeare, Shackespere, Shackspeare, Shackspere, Shagspere, Shakespe, Shakespear, Shake-speare, Shakespere, Shakespheare, Shakp, Shakspe?, Shakspear, Shakspeare, Shak-speare, Shaksper, Shakspere, Shaxberd, Shaxpeare, Shaxper, Shaxpere, Shaxspere, Shexpere
ֻ֤٤٤η¬ϡۣ渡䥹ڥåʤɤμŪŪˤѤƤ롥ɸŪֻʤäŤѸθˤ⡤ȤΩĤȤꤽ
#1585. ĺŪʶƱΤθʣ ([2013-08-29-1]) "esoterogeny" Ȥǰ˿줿춦ƱΤ¾ζƱΤФ¾Ū٤Ȥ褦ˤʤȡθˤäʣʤΤؤȡʤ "esoteric" ʤΤؤѲȤ֤С¾ζƱΤФƿ̩٤Ȥ褦ˤʤСⳫ줿ñʤΤؤȡʤ "exoteric" ʤΤؤѲȤꤵ뤫⤷ʤβοˤĤƤ̤Ȥ٤ɷŪʹͤǤϤ롥Campbell and Mixco Ѹ콸ꡤξѸβѤ롥
esoterogeny 'A sociolinguistic development in which speakers of a language add linguistic innovations that increase the complexity of their language in order to highlight their distinctiveness from neighboring groups' . . . ; 'esoterogeny arises through a group's desire for exclusiveness' . . . . Through purposeful changes, a particular community language becomes the 'in-group' code which serves to exclude outsiders . . . . A difficulty with this interpretation is that it is not clear how the hypothesized motive for these changes --- conscious (sometimes subconscious) exclusion of outsiders . . . --- could be tested or how changes motivated for this purpose might be distinguished from changes that just happen, with no such motive. The opposite of esoterogeny is exoterogeny. (55)
exoterogeny 'Reduces phonological and morphological irregularity or complexity, and makes the language more regular, more understandable and more learnable' . . . . 'If a community has extensive ties with other communities and their . . . language is also spoken as a contact language by members of those communities, then they will probably value their language for its use across community boundaries . . . it will be an "exoteric" lect [variety]' . . . . Use by a wider range of speakers makes an exoteric lect subject to considerable variability, so that innovations leading to greater simplicity will be preferred.
The claim that the use across communities will lead to simplification of such languages does not appear to hold in numerous known cases (for example, Arabic, Cuzco Qechua, Georgian, Mongolian, Pama-Nyungan, Shoshone etc.). The opposite of exoterogeny is esoterogeny. (59--60)
exoterogeny esoterogeny Ȥ2ĤΩ복ǰϡΤ#1521. ȷ ([2013-06-26-1]) ΩȤ礦ʿСֳ줿ʼҲˤȡĤ줿ʼҲˤΩȤäƤ줬ñ㲽ʣȤɤӤĤΤϡŤʵפȤ#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1]) ǤϡϤ佼ˡˤĤ esoterogeny ιͤФȤˤʤ뤷#1247. ɸѸϸŪˤꤽˤʤѼǤ ([2012-09-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Hope ε⡤ɸѸжʸˡ esoterogeny ˤäΤΤ褦˻פ롥1βʳˤȤɤޤȤȤϰռƤʤФʤʤ
⤽Ρñ㲽 (simplification) ȤϲؤΤˤĤơȤδ֤ǵ뤳ȤŦƤ (cf. #928. ޤ neutralization simplification ([2011-11-11-1])#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#3228. Joseph θѲ˴ؤƶ5 ([2018-06-07-1])) ޤɤΤ褦ʾñ㲽뤫ˤĤƤ⡤ܿ (contact) Ȥδط͡ʹͻ (cf. #1788. Ķ̱²νиȳ˴Ϳװ ([2014-03-20-1])#3151. ܿˤ줬ñ㲽뵡˻ˤϤޤʤä ([2017-12-12-1]))
Campbell, Lyle and Mauricio J. Mixco, eds. A Glossary of Historical Linguistics. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2007.
98ڡˤ15:00?18:15ˡī㡼ɶˤƹֱֺѸΥåϤȤ虜˳ؤ١֤ޤΤͤΤ롤Ȥ虜ϱѸɽ̣̣臘ΤˤäƤĤǺʤΤǤʲμݤǤäͽǤ
ɤʸˤƤ⡤Ȥ虜ϿεߤɽΤȤơŤ͡˸ʤ蘆ƤޤѸʸˤƤ㳰ǤϤʤűѸꤳȤ虜ºФ졤Ȥ虜ԤޤƤޤѸΤȤ虜ؤ֤ȤˤꡤѸʸݤƤηạ̈廊ФǤϤʤѸ줽ΤΤοã뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥϡޤ굤ŤƤޤȤ虜αѸˤϡŤ¸³ƤѸͭαΧꡤűѸѸ˵ıѸ餷ʸˡˡ©ŤƤޤ
㤨СֿФѤлȤʤפб Many a little makes a mickle. ϡűѸŵŪƬȤˡȶ岻η֤ȤΧĴ¤Ūˤͥ줿Ȥ虜ǤϹκ⼡פ Money makes a mare to go. Ǥϡ make ˤ⤫餺 to 줬ѤƤꡤʸˡϰæƤ褦˻פޤˤⱤΧθ̤ǧ뤳ȤǤޤ
ֺܹ¤ȾǤϡǯʾˤ錄ѸΤȤ虜ˤȤȤˤҤȤȾǤϸޤǼѤƤѸΤȤ虜ѤƤ͡ʸŪʵˡɤ߲Ȥˤꡤ˻ĤΤȤ虜ޤǰʾ˳ڤळȤܻؤޤ
ѸˤγפϤΤäƤ뤱ɤ⡤μιȤߤ˶ŪդƤȤСűѸѸθʸɤǤȤޤȤϤΤΡ¿αѸؽԤˤȤäơθʸɤ߲ʤɤȤȤϡޤߵ郎⤤ȻפΤǤϤʤǤ礦Ǥ褤ȤʤΤȤ虜ǤȤ虜ˤϡФиŤոĤäƤޤΤ褦ʤȤ虜ˡŤ֡졤ạ́ˡʤɤĤޤ߿ĤġѸˤؤܤȤݤǤѸθʸˡˤΩޤѸˤȤϤ߽ФơѸءƸذ̤ؤƳˤʤޤ
Ȥ虜ƼΤ⤪̣臘ͽǤɤڤߤˡ
ܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ȥ虜ˤĤƼ夲ƤΤǡʲε
#564. Many a little makes a mickle ([2010-11-12-1])
#780. ٥ꥢ meat ([2011-06-16-1])
#910. ʤ (1) ([2011-10-24-1])
#948. Be it never so humble, there's no place like home. (1) ([2011-12-01-1])
#955. ʸϤ碌2।ǥ ([2011-12-08-1])
#970. Money makes the mare to go ([2011-12-23-1])
#978. Money makes the mare to go (2) ([2011-12-31-1])
#2248. ;̾ȤƤ you ([2015-06-23-1])
#2395. ե줫ζμѡ ([2015-11-17-1])
#2691. ѸθμƤˡ ([2016-09-08-1])
#3319. Handsome is as handsome does ([2018-05-29-1])
#3320. Ѹθʬ ([2018-05-30-1])
#3321. Ѹθεա ([2018-05-31-1])
#3322. Many a mickle makes a muckle ([2018-06-01-1])
#3336. ܸθѤƤ ([2018-06-15-1])
ε#3402. presupposition trigger Υס ([2018-08-20-1]) presupposition ˤˤĤƼ夲ˤϤȤ櫓פ3Ĥ롥(1) constancy under negation, (2) defensibility or cancellability, (3) the projection problem Ǥ (Huang 67--75)
(1) constancy under negation
ʸꤵƤ⡤̵Τޤޤ˻ĤȤ̣롥εǤСThe king of France is bald. Ȥʸϡ"There is a king of France" Ȥ뤬Ʊʸꤷ The king of France isn't bald. ȤƤɤ뤬ʤνפ˴ŤơפȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
An utterance of a sentence S presupposes a proposition p if and only if
a. if S is true, then p is true
b. if S is false, then p is still true
(2) defeasibilty or cancellability
ˤϡطʤȤʤꡤ¤μäδް (conversational implicature)äʸ̮ˤäƤ̵ȤʤȤ롥㤨СJohn got an assistant professorship before he finished his Ph.D. Ǥ "John finished his Ph.D" Ω뤬ۤƱʸ John died before he finished his Ph.D. ǤƱΩʤʤ롥ˤϲǤʤȤ¤μ뤫餳ǧΤǤ롥
ޤThere is no king of France. Therefore the king of France isn't bald. Ǥϡ1ʸ¸ߤˤꡤ2ʸ̾Ϥ "There is a king of France" ȤΩʤʤ롥
ۤˤϡThe president doesn't regret vetoing the bill (because in fact he never did so!) Ǥϡbecause ʲʤʸǤ "The president vetoed the bill" Ȥ뤬because ʲäʸǤϡŪꤵ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ȯư줬Ѥˤ⡤ΩʤȤ롥John said that Mary managed to speak with a broad Irish accent. Ǥϡ"Mary managed to speak with a broad Irish accent" Ȥʤ
(3) the projection problem
ñʸȤ߹蘆äʣʸȤʤȤñʸˤä߽Ф줿ϡʣʸˤƤ (projection) 졤ѤΤȻפ뤫⤷ʤΤˤΤ褦ʾ¿ (2) Ǥߤ褦ˡñʸǤʣʸΤμݤ礷ʤˤϡ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ɤΤ褦ʥͤ졤뤤ͤʤΤ뤳Ȥͤ "the curse and the blessing of modern presupposition theory" ȤƤФƤ롥ιۤǤ뤳Ȥ "curse" ǤꡤŪȯۤäƤʤнǤʤȤǡΰ̣ΩٻΤȤ "blessing" Ȥ櫓Ǥ롥
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
μפʥȥԥåǤ presupposition ˤȤϡñˤСʸȯȤΤ褦˿ȤƼ̿ΤȤǤ롥㤨СֻηȿȤǤפǤϻ˷뤳ȤȤ뤷ֱߤʪפǤϱߤäȤȤ롥ʸˤƷ߽Ф presupposition trigger ȸƤ֡ǤϡֻηפȤֱ̾ߤˡפȤ칽¤ presupposition trigger ȤʤäƤ롥
Huang (67--68) ϡѸ presupposition trigger ȤƤĤμƤ롥ʲ ">>" ε "presuppose" ΰդǤ롥
(1) Definite descriptions
The king of France is/isn't bald.
>> There is a king of France
(2) Factive predicates
a. Epistemic or cognitive factives
John knows/doesn't know that Baird invented television.
>> Baird invented television
b. Emotive factives
John regrets/doesn't regret that he has said the unsayable.
>> John has said the unsayable
(3) Aspectual/change of state predicates
Mary has/hasn't stopped beating her boyfriend.
>> Mary has been beating her boyfriend
(4) Iteratives
a. Iterative verbs
John returned/didn't return to Cambridge.
>> John was in Cambridge before
b. Iterative adverbs
The boy cried/didn't cry wolf again.
>> The boy cried wolf before
(5) Implicative predicates
John managed/didn't manage to give up smoking.
>> John tried to give up smoking
(6) Temporal clauses
After she shot to stardom in a romance film, Jane married/didn't marry a millionaire entrepreneur.
>> Jane shot to stardom in a romance film.
(7) Cleft sentences
a. Cleft
It was/wasn't Baird who invented television.
>> Someone invented television
b. Pseudo-cleft
What Baird invented/didn't invent was television
>> Baird invented something
(8) Counterfactual conditionals
If an ant were as big as a human being, it could/couldn't run five times faster than an Olympic sprinter.
>> An ant is not as big as a human being
(1)--(5) ϸѤ lexical triggers(6)--(8) ϹʸѤ constructional/structural triggers Ǥ롥
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
ε#3400. Ѹ˸ä˼Ѹ줬ɤǤ뤫 ([2018-08-18-1]) Ǽ夲 Durkin ʸǤϡѸûˤμ¾ŪĴϡOED HTOED Ȥ2ġȤäƤǤ礭ʺȼȤơˡ꤬Ƥ롥 (405--06) ˡ꤬Τ褯ޤȤޤäƤΤǰѤ롥
One of the most striking and well-known features of lexical data is its extreme variability: as the familiar dictum has it 'chaque mot a son histoire', and accounting for the varied histories of individual words demands classificatory frameworks that are flexible, nonetheless consistent in their approach to similar items. Awareness is perhaps less widespread that the data about word histories presented in historical dictionaries and other resources are rarely 'set in stone': sometimes certain details of a word's history, for instance the details of a coinage, may leave little or no room for doubt, but more typically what is reported in historical dictionaries is based on analysis of the evidence available at time of publication of the dictionary entry, and may well be subject to review if and when further evidence comes to light. First dates of attestation are particularly subject to change, as new evidence becomes available, and as the dating of existing evidence is reconsidered. In particular, the increased availability of electronic text databases in recent years has swollen the flow of new data to a torrent. The increased availability of data should also not blind us to the fact that the earliest attestation locatable in the surviving written texts may well be significantly later than the actual date of first use, and (especially for periods, varieties, or registers for which written evidence is more scarce) may actually lag behind the date at which a word or meaning had already become well established within particular communities of speakers. Additionally, considering the complexities of dating material from the Middle English period . . . highlights the extent to which there may often be genuine uncertainty about the best date to assign to the evidence that we do have, which dictionaries endeavour to convey to their readers by the citation styles adopted. Issues of this sort are grist to the mill of anyone specializing in the history of the lexicon: they mean that the task of drawing broad conclusions about lexical history involves wrestling with a great deal of messy data, but the messiness of the data in itself tells us important things both about the nature of the lexicon and about our limited ability to reconstruct earlier stages of lexical history.
츻ϾήưŪǤ뤳ȡǯϾ˹ˤ餵Ƥ뤳ȡǯϸʤɤˤ뿿νǯ٤Ƥǽ뤳ȡŵȤʤäƤʸΩǯѤ뤳˻ŦƤڵ (evidence) ˡνϡѸûˤʤ餺Ȥ̤ʸؤθԤʤݤ˾˰ռƤ٤ΤФǤ롥OED3 ԼԤ1ͤǤ Durkin ϡOED Ǥ顪˸ǽʥġǤϤʤ⤤Ƥ뤳Ȥΰյ礭
Durkin, Philip. "The OED and HTOED as Tools in Practical Research: A Test Case Examining the Impact of Loanwords in Areas of the Core Lexicon." The Cambridge Handbook of English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Merja Kytö and Päivi Pahta. Cambridge: CUP, 2016. 390--407.
ѸäˤѸγ礬⤤Ȥϡܥ֥¿εǼ夲Ƥλ¤˴ؤƤȤ櫓ܤ٤ŪħȤơѸ줬ܸäˤޤǤƤȤ㤨С#2625. ťΥɸ줫μѸ ([2016-07-04-1]) ȡˡӸˤСѸ줬ܸäȤϡ˵ȤФǤʤ٤ϴѻΤ¤Ǥꡤ褷ФлŦƤ褦ˡѸ줬ðۤǤɾ뤳ȤϤϤǤʤȤϤΤ褦ʻ㤬̸Ūˤ "unusual" (Durkin 391) ǤȤΤⷹȤƤϳΤǤ롥
Durkin ϡɸ䤤٤ OED HTOED ѤƼ¾ŪĴԤʤäޤ'Leipzig-Jakarta list of basic vocabulary' ȸƤФ̸ŪͭȤܸäΥꥹȤȤ100γ˿Ūʰ̣Фˡγơΰ̣ѸûˤˤƤɤΤ褦ñʷˤˤäôƤξˤäƱꤷñθ츻ʼѸ줫ݤʤɤξܺ١ˤϿƤơߡѸ줬100γ˿Ūʰ̣Τɤ줯餤СƤΤФη̤ϡDurkin (392) ˤм̤ꡥ
To summarize the results of this exercise very briefly . . ., looking in detail at the 100-meaning 'Leipzig-Jakarta list of basic vocabulary' in this way suggests that, while only twenty-two of these meanings appear never to have been realized by a loanword in the data of the OED as summarized in the HTOED, there are only twelve cases where a good case can be made for a loanword being the usual realization of the relevant core meaning in contemporary English:
(from early Scandinavian): root, wing, hit, leg, egg, give, skin, take; (from French): carry, soil, cry, (probably) crush
ѤС100γ˿Ūʰ̣Τ78ޤǤʬŪǤ첿餫μѸˤäôƤȤȤ顤Ѹ줬˿Ūʰ̣ΰʤäƤȤȤʬ롥μѸ줬Τ褦ʳ˿Ūʰ̣ΰɽ魯ñ췲ΤʤǤŵŪɽŪʸǤ뤫ɤǤꡤΤ褦ʿȡ嵭12ۤɤ˸ꤵȤȤ
äȤ⡤ạ̈ˤĤƲäơֳ˿פִܡפȤߤʤΤǤꡤˤäƷ̤οͤѤ뤳ȤϤޤǤʤꤽ¾ˤĤơʲΤ褦ʵ͡˼夲ƤΤǻȤ
#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1])
#1961. ܥ٥ơ ([2014-09-09-1])
#1965. Ūʸǡ ([2014-09-13-1])
#1970. ¿٤شط ([2014-09-18-1])
#2659. glottochronology lexicostatistics ([2016-08-07-1])
#2660. glottochronology ȴܸá ([2016-08-08-1])
#2661. Swadesh (1952) ǯѤ200 ([2016-08-09-1])
#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1])
#202. Ѹδܸ600εȳ ([2009-11-15-1])
#429. ѸκѸ10000εȳ ([2010-06-30-1])
#845. Ѹθäεȳ ([2011-08-20-1])
#1202. Ѹθäεȳ (2) ([2012-08-11-1])
Durkin, Philip. "The OED and HTOED as Tools in Practical Research: A Test Case Examining the Impact of Loanwords in Areas of the Core Lexicon." The Cambridge Handbook of English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Merja Kytö and Päivi Pahta. Cambridge: CUP, 2016. 390--407.
2֤ε#3397. Ѹ through Υֻ ([2018-08-15-1])#3398. Ѹ such Υֻ ([2018-08-16-1]) ǡֻ֤륹ץȤѤơthrough such ֻ͡ӤΥץȤϡٻȤ꤬뤫⤷ʤȻפŪʷ CGI ȤǤߤ
ȤץȤŪʻͤδطǥоưʤȤȤȯСǰ̵ǰƤ̵̣Ǥ뤳ȤΤΤʲ֤ƤȻפޤʤääΤ伫ȤΥPCǤưƤΤǡˡߤޤ
ȡǤϤޤʤΤǡShakespeare ΰֻӤ̤ϪƤޤ#1720. Shakespeare ֤ ([2014-01-11-1]) ǵ25ΰֻ Shakespeare, Schaksp, Shackespeare, Shackespere, Shackspeare, Shackspere, Shagspere, Shakespe, Shakespear, Shake-speare, Shakespere, Shakespheare, Shakp, Shakspe?, Shakspear, Shakspeare, Shak-speare, Shaksper, Shakspere, Shaxberd, Shaxpeare, Shaxper, Shaxpere, Shaxspere, Shexpere ϤơȤȡΤ褦ʽϤ줿
| Similarity | Spellings |
|---|---|
| 1.0000 | Shakespeare |
| 0.9565 | Shackespeare, Shake-speare, Shakespheare |
| 0.9524 | Shakespear, Shakespere, Shakspeare |
| 0.9091 | Shackespere, Shackspeare, Shak-speare |
| 0.9000 | Shakspear, Shakspere |
| 0.8571 | Shackspere |
| 0.8421 | Shakespe, Shaksper |
| 0.8000 | Shagspere, Shaxpeare, Shaxspere |
| 0.7368 | Shaxpere, Shexpere |
| 0.7000 | Shakspe? |
| 0.6667 | Schaksp, Shaxper |
| 0.6250 | Shakp |
| 0.5263 | Shaxberd |
ε#3397. Ѹ through Υֻ ([2018-08-15-1]) ˰³ such ΰֻˤĤơ#2520. Ѹ134 "such" ΰֻ ([2016-03-21-1])#2521. Ѹ113 "such" ΰֻ ([2016-03-22-1]) Ǹ褦ˡĴ٤¤ꡤѸΤǤ such ɽֻ212ۤɳǧ롥Τ208ˤĤơƱˡǸɸֻ such ˤɤƤ뤫ƤƤߤ
| Similarity | Spellings |
|---|---|
| 1.0000 | such |
| 0.8889 | sƿuch, shuch, succh, suche, sucht, suech, suich, sulch, suuch, suych, swuch |
| 0.8571 | suc |
| 0.8000 | sƿucch, sƿuche, schuch, scuche, shuche, souche, sucche, suchee, suchet, suchte, sueche, suiche, suilch, sulche, sutche, suuche, suuech, suyche, swuche, swulch |
| 0.7500 | sƿuc, scht, sech, shuc, sich, soch, sueh, suhc, suhe, suic, sulc, suth, suyc, swch, swuh, sych |
| 0.7273 | sƿucche, sƿuchne, sƿulche, schuche, suecche, suueche, suweche |
| 0.6667 | hsƿucche, sƿche, sƿich, sƿucches, sƿulc, schch, schuc, schut, seche, shich, shoch, shych, siche, soche, suicchne, suilc, svche, svich, swche, swech, swich, swlch, swulchen, swych, syche, zuich, zuych |
| 0.6154 | swulchere |
| 0.6000 | asoche, sƿiche, sƿilch, sƿlche, sƿuilc, sƿulce, schech, schute, scoche, scwche, secche, shiche, shoche, sowche, soyche, sqwych, suilce, sviche, sweche, swhych, swiche, swlche, swyche, zuiche, zuyche |
| 0.5714 | sec, sic, sug, swc, syc |
| 0.5455 | aswyche, sƿicche, sƿichne, sƿilche, sƿi~lch, scheche, schiche, schilke, schoche, sewyche, sqwyche, sswiche, swecche, swhiche, swhyche, swichee, swyeche, zuichen |
| 0.5333 | sucheȝ |
| 0.5000 | sƿic, sɩͨh, scli, secc, sick, silc, slic, solchere, sulk, swic, swlc, swlchere, swulcere |
| 0.4444 | sƿilc, sclik, sclyk, suilk, sulke, suylk, swics, swilc |
| 0.4000 | sƿillc, sclike, sclyke, squike, squilk, squylk, suilke, suwilk, suylke, swilce, swlcne, swulke, swulne |
| 0.3636 | sƿilcne, suilkin, swhilke |
| 0.3333 | swisɩͨhe |
| 0.2857 | sik, sli, slk, sly, syk |
| 0.2500 | selk, sike, silk, slik, slyk, swil, swlk, swyk, swyl, syge, syke, sylk |
| 0.2222 | sƿilk, selke, sliik, slike, slilk, slyke, swelk, swilk, swlke, swyke, swylk, sylke |
| 0.2000 | slieke, slkyke, swilke, swylke, swylle |
| 0.1818 | sƿillke, swilkee, swilkes |
#53. Ѹ through ֤515̤ ([2009-06-20-1])#54. through ֤٥10ʥ10ˡ ([2009-06-21-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡѸ through ֻϡꥨ˭٤Ǥ롥ǤϤΤ515ֻ̤ϥեʸΰǤΡˡåΡʾάʤɤŸΡˡդʸʸʸΰ㤤̵̵ͭ뤹С444̤Ȥʤ롥444ֻ̤ˤĤơɸֻ through ˤɤƤ뤫String::Similarity Ȥ Perl Υ⥸塼ѤƷƤߤ٤륢르ꥺϡʸѴι (Levenshtein edit distance) ˴ŤΤǤ롥˰פƤ 1.0000 ͤꡤޤäۤʤ 0.0000 ǤϡֻƤ褦
| Similarity | Spellings |
|---|---|
| 1.0000 | through |
| 0.9333 | thorough, throughe, throught |
| 0.9231 | throgh, throug, throuh, thrugh, trough |
| 0.8750 | thoroughe, thorought |
| 0.8571 | thorogh, thorouh, thorugh, thourgh, throȝgh, throghe, throght, throwgh, thrughe, thrught |
| 0.8333 | thogh, throu, thrug, thruh, trogh, trugh |
| 0.8000 | thoroghe, thoroght, thorouȝh, thorowgh, thorughe, thorught, thourghe, thourght, throȝghe, throghet, throghte, throighe, throuȝht, throuche, throwght, thrughte |
| 0.7692 | þrough, thorgh, thorou, thoruh, thourh, throȝh, throch, throuȝ, throue, throwg, throwh, thruch, thruth, thrwgh, thrygh, thurgh, thwrgh, troght, trowgh, trughe, trught |
| 0.7500 | thorowghe, thorowght |
| 0.7273 | thro |
| 0.7143 | þorough, þrought, thorȝoh, thorghe, thorght, thorghw, thorgth, thorohe, thorouȝ, thorowg, thorowh, thorrou, thoruȝh, thoruth, thorwgh, thourhe, thourth, thourwg, thowrgh, throȝhe, throcht, throuȝe, throwth, thruȝhe, thrwght, thurgeh, thurghe, thurght, thurgth, thurhgh, trowght, yorough |
| 0.6667 | þorought, þough, þrogh, þroughte, þrouh, þrugh, thorg, thorghwe, thorh, thoro, thorowth, thorowut, thoru, thour, throȝ, throw, thruȝ, thrue, thuht, thurg, thurghte, thurh, thuro, thuru, torgh, yrogh, yrugh |
| 0.6154 | þorogh, þorouh, þorugh, þourgh, þroȝgh, þroghe, þrouȝh, þrouhe, þrouht, þrowgh, þurugh, thorȝh, thorch, thoroo, thorow, thorth, thoruȝ, thorue, thorur, thorwh, thourȝ, thoure, thourr, thourw, thowur, throȝe, throȝt, throve, throwȝ, throwe, throwr, thruȝe, thrvoo, thurȝh, thurch, thurge, thurhe, thurow, thurth, torghe, trghug, yhurgh, yorugh, yourgh |
| 0.5714 | þoroghe, þorouȝh, þorowgh, þorught, þourght, þrouȝth, þrowghe, þurughe, thorowȝ, thorowe, thorrow, thorthe, thourȝe, thourow, thowrow, thrawth, throwȝe, thurȝhg, thurȝth, thurgwe, thurhge, thurowe, thurthe, yhurght, yourghe |
| 0.5455 | þrou, þruh, thow, thrw, thur, trow, yrou |
| 0.5333 | þorowghe, þorrughe, thorowȝt |
| 0.5000 | þorgh, þorou, þorug, þoruh, þourg, þourh, þroȝh, þroth, þrouȝ, þrowh, þurgh, þwrgh, ȝorgh, thorȝ, thorv, thorw, thowe, thowr, threw, thrwe, thurȝ, thurv, thurw, thwrw, trowe, yhorh, yhoru, yhrow, yorgh, yorou, yoruh, yourh, yurgh |
| 0.4615 | þhorow, þorghȝ, þorghe, þorght, þorguh, þorouȝ, þoroue, þorour, þorowh, þoruȝh, þorugȝ, þoruhg, þoruth, þorwgh, þourȝh, þourgȝ, þourth, þroȝth, þrouȝe, þrouȝt, þurgȝh, þurghȝ, þurghe, þurght, þuruch, dorwgh, dourȝh, drowgȝ, durghe, tþourȝ, thorȝe, thorȝt, thorȝw, thorew, thorwȝ, thorwe, thurȝe, thurȝt, thurew, thurwe, yorghe, yoroue, yorour, yourch, yurghe, yurght |
| 0.4286 | þorouȝe, þorouȝt, þorouwȝ, þorowth, þrouȝte, thorȝwe, thorewe, thorffe, thorwȝe, thowffe, trowffe |
| 0.4000 | þro |
| 0.3636 | ðoru, þorg, þorh, þoro, þoru, þouȝ, þour, þroȝ, þrow, þruȝ, þurg, þurh, þuro, þuru, ȝoru, ȝour, torw, twrw, yorh, yoro, yoru, your, yrow, yruȝ, yurg, yurh, yuru |
| 0.3333 | þerow, þerue, þhurȝ, þorȝh, þorch, þoreu, þorgȝ, þoroȝ, þorow, þorth, þoruþ, þoruȝ, þorue, þorwh, þouȝt, þourþ, þourȝ, þourt, þourw, þroȝe, þroȝt, þrowþ, þrowȝ, þrowe, þruȝe, þurȝg, þurȝh, þurch, þureh, þurhg, þurht, þurow, þurru, þurth, þuruȝ, þurut, ȝoruȝ, ȝurch, doruȝ, torwe, yoȝou, yorch, yorow, yoruȝ, yourȝ, yourw, yurch, yurhg, yurht, yurth, yurwh |
| 0.3077 | þorȝhȝ, þorowþ, þorowe, þorrow, þoruȝe, þoruȝt, þorwgȝ, þorwhe, þorwth, þourȝe, þourȝt, þourȝw, þourow, þouruȝ, þourwe, þrorow, þrowȝe, þurȝhg, þurȝth, þurthe, ȝoruȝt, yerowe, yorowe, yurowe, yurthe |
| 0.2857 | þrorowe |
| 0.2000 | þor, þur |
| 0.1818 | þarȝ, þorþ, þorȝ, þore, þorv, þorw, þowr, þurþ, þurȝ, þurf, þurw, ȝorw, ȝowr, dorw, yorȝ, yora, yorw, yowr, yurȝ, yurw |
| 0.1667 | þerew, þorȝe, þorȝt, þoreȝ, þorew, þorwȝ, þorwe, þowre, þurȝe, þurȝt, þureȝ, þurwȝ, þurwe, dorwe, durwe, yorwe, yowrw, yurȝe |
| 0.1538 | þorewȝ, þorewe, þorwȝe, þorwtȝ |
罤ۤλرѸ춵9ˡ۹ơѤʵ뤿αѸˤΥĥܡפƤޤ91ýּȤ˳褫رѸ١פ1ȤƷǺܤƤޤýΤμݤȥ饤ʥåפϰʲ̤Ǥ
Ȥ˳褫ֱѸ
ΤäƤ褦ǰճΤʤֱѸסѸˡ츻顤о줷ɽʤɡȤdz褫ƦμҲ𤷡ƳΰФ䤷Ƥޤ
ֱѸפïȤäƤ롩 ʾӤᤰߡ
Ѥʵ뤿αѸˤΥĥ δ
ФƤѸθ̾ ʴĽ
Ωġָ츻Ūؽˡ (Etymological Learning) Ĺʿ
ݱѸλ顧ѸοѸɽ ƣ
ָڡפȡֶܡפ롡DzαѸؽؤγ ʳҵΡ
̥Ϥ붵ࡡޥꥺȥ饤DZѸ˿Ƥ Ļҡ
䤵դȿ̣Ȥ˳褫륷ԥ ͳůȡ
¿λֱѸפį ʿҡ
Υ
Ѹν˺ˤĤ ʱ߷
عǤΥ㡼γѤդ ôҡ
ʸȽ īϺ
۹ƤǤϡ(1) Ե§ưȸƤФƤΤĤƤϡֵ§פΤΤäȤäȸ碌ʡ˥ͥ(2) ֽפɽ魯 fall ơ vs autumn ʱѡˤΤ褦λϡѸŪˤϼ¤Ϥ줬줽ʤۤǤ뤳ȤҲ𤷤ޤξԤȤּȤdz褫ƦμפǤϤޤʾΰյȿƤޤʸϤκǸǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ޤ
Ҳ𤷤ѸˤΥĥݤϡȤ˥ѥäƤͥȤΩĤǤʤѸοΤΤȤȤʬäƤȻפޤäˡұѸˤƧƤߤƤ
ؿΤϡ
δ졡Ѥʵ뤿αѸˤΥĥܡסرѸ춵١罤ۡˡ676桤2018ǯ12--13ǡ
ꥹǤϡ1712ǯ Jonathan Swift (1667--1745) Ƥ Academy ߤλߤܺäΤŪ˸褦ȤưΩʤʤä181920Ƹߤ˻ޤǡȤϸ鷺Ȥⲿ餫ΰ̣Ǹ褦Ȥߵ˾ä櫓ǤϤʤˤĤݼŪŪʿ͡Ͼ˰¸ߤϤ뤤ϻŪʥ٥Τ夲뤳ȤϤä1ĤȤơ1913ǯΩ줿 Society for Pure English (S.P.E) 褦
S.P.E 1913ǯΩ줿ºݤ˳ưϤΤ1εΤȤǤ롥ΰѰϡСä餸˴ Robert Bridges̾ʸؼ Henry Bradleyåեرʸض Sir Walter Raleighʸؼ Logan Pearsall Smith Ǥ롥Ūϡ͡θʻѡˤ˲뤳ȤǤϤʤޤ "to agree upon a modest and practical scheme for informing popular taste on sound principles, for guiding educational authorities, and for introducing into practice certain slight modifications and advantageous changes" (qtd. in Baugh and Cable, p. 328) ȤȤä͡θѤषºŤƤȤȤĴξΩäƼ㴳ԤʤȤȤä
Ǥ⤽˥ǥߡݤ̣äΤ⤤㤨СRobert Graves ȤԤ1926ǯ Impenetrability, or The Proper Habit of English ˤơΤ褦 S.P.E ȽƤ롥ˤȤäƤϡSociety for Pure English Ȥ̾餷Ƹջפ줿
The 'Society for Pure English,' recently formed by the Poet Laureate, is getting a great deal of support at this moment, and is the literary equivalent of political Fascism. But at no period have the cultured classes been able to force the habit of tidiness on the nation as a whole. . . . The imaginative genius of the uneducated and half-educated masses will not be denied expression. (qtd. in Baugh and Cable, p. 328)
ɤλˤ⡤˷ȶȼͳʤȶ롥ǥߡʤɤΩεϡ褷1712ǯäƱʵפĤ櫓ǤϤʤ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
#2547. 奤ɷǯΰ ([2016-04-17-1]) Ǥ褦ʰꥢ1ʹߤˤĤơܤֹڤӲޡ̻˰ɽפ (626--31) ˸ĤΤǷǤƤޡ̻ˤξޤǴޤޤƤΤĶ̣
| ڤӲޡ̻ | ǯ | 뺧 | ߰ | ǯ | ޡ̻ˤνп | |
| Υޥ | ||||||
| ꥢ1 | 1027? | 1050? | 1066--1087 | 1087 | ||
| ޥƥ֡ե | 1031 | 1050? | 1083 | եɥ | ||
| ꥢ2 | 1060? | 1087--1100 | 1100 | |||
| إ1 | 1068 | 11000 | 1100--1135 | 1135 | ||
| (1) ޥƥ֡åȥ | 1080 | 1100 | 1118 | åȥ | ||
| (2) ǥ饤֡롼 | 1102 | 1121 | 1151 | ե | ||
| ƥ | 1097? | 1115 | 1135--1154 | 1154 | ||
| ޥƥ֡֡˥ | 1103? | 1115 | 1152 | Υޥ | ||
| ץ˥åȲ | ||||||
| إ2 | 1133 | 1152 | 1154--1189 | 1189 | ||
| ʡ֡ơ | 1122? | 1152 | 1204 | ե | ||
| 㡼1 | 1157 | 1191 | 1189--1199 | 1199 | ||
| ٥ꥢ֡ʥ | 1174 | 1191 | 1230? | ڥ | ||
| 1167 | 1189 | 1199--1216 | 1216 | |||
| (1) ٥롦֡ | ? | 1189 | 1217 | | ||
| (2) ٥롦֡졼 | 1188 | 1200 | 1246 | ե | ||
| إ3 | 1207 | 1236 | 1216--1272 | 1272 | ||
| ʡ֡ץ | 1226? | 1236 | 1291 | ե | ||
| ɥ1 | 1239 | 1254 | 1272--1307 | 1307 | ||
| (1) ʡ֡ƥ | 1244 | 1254 | 1290 | ڥ | ||
| (2) ޡåȡ֡ե | 1282? | 1299 | 1318 | ե | ||
| ɥ2 | 1284 | 1308 | 1307--1327 | 1327 | ||
| ٥롦֡ե | 1292 | 1308 | 1358 | ե | ||
| ɥ3 | 1312 | 1328 | 1327--1377 | 1377 | ||
| եåѡ֡Ρ | 1314? | 1328 | 1369 | եɥ | ||
| 㡼2 | 1367 | 1382 | 1377--1399 | 1400 | ||
| (1) ֡ܥإߥ | 1366 | 1382 | 1394 | ܥإߥ | ||
| (2) ٥롦֡ | 1389 | 1396 | 1409 | ե | ||
| | ||||||
| إ4 | 1367 | 1380 | 1399--1414 | 1413 | ||
| (1) ᥢɥ֡ | 1370 | 1381 | 1394 | | ||
| (2) 祢֡ʥ | 1370? | 1403 | 1437 | ڥ | ||
| إ5 | 1387 | 1420 | 1413--1422 | 1422 | ||
| 㥵֡ | 1401 | 1420 | 1437 | ե | ||
| إ6 | 1421 | 1444 | 1422--1461, 1470--1471 | 1471 | ||
| ޡåȡ֡ | 1429 | 1444 | 1482 | ե | ||
| ƥ塼 | ||||||
| إ7 | 1457 | 1486 | 1485--1509 | 1509 | ||
| ꥶ٥֡衼 | 1465 | 1486 | 1503 | | ||
| إ8 | 1491 | 1509 | 1509--1547 | 1547 | ||
| (1) 㥵֡饴 | 1485 | 1509 | 1536 | ڥ | ||
| (2) ֡ | 1507? | 1533 | 1536 | | ||
| (3) ⥢ | 1509? | 1536 | 1537 | | ||
| (4) ֡졼 | 1515 | 1540 | 1557 | եɥ | ||
| (5) 㥵ϥ | 1521? | 1540 | 1542 | | ||
| (6) 㥵ѡ | 1512? | 1543 | 1548 | | ||
| ɥ6 | 1537 | 1547--1553 | 1553 | |||
| ᥢ1 | 1516 | 1554 | 1553--1558 | 1558 | ||
| եڡ֡ڥ | 1527 | 1554 | ʥڥ1556--1598 | 1598 | ڥ | |
| ꥶ٥1 | 1533 | 1558--1603 | 1603 | |||
| ƥ奢Ȳ | ||||||
| ॺ1 | 1566 | 1589 | 1603--1625 | 1625 | ||
| ֡ǥޡ | 1574 | 1589 | 1619 | ǥޡ | ||
| 㡼륺1 | 1600 | 1625 | 1625--1649 | 1649 | ||
| إꥨåޥꥢ | 1609 | 1625 | 1669 | ե | ||
| ƶƥ奢Ȳ | ||||||
| 㡼륺2 | 1630 | 1662 | 1660--1685 | 1685 | ||
| 㥵֥֡饬 | 1638 | 1662 | 1705 | ݥȥ | ||
| ॺ2 | 1633 | 1660 | 1685--1688 | 1701 | ||
| (1) ϥ | 1637 | 1660 | 1671 | | ||
| (2) ᥢ֡ǥ | 1658 | 1673 | 1718 | ꥢ | ||
| ᥢ2ʶƱ | 1662 | 1677 | 1689--1694 | 1694 | ||
| ꥢ3ʶƱ | 1650 | 1677 | 1689--1702 | 1702 | ||
| 1665 | 1683 | 1702--1714 | 1714 | |||
| ץ硼֡ǥޡ | 1653 | 1683 | 1708 | ǥޡ | ||
| ϥΡ | ||||||
| 硼1 | 1660 | 1682 | 1714--1727 | 1727 | ||
| եɥƥ | 1666 | 1682 | 1726 | ɥ | ||
| 硼2 | 1683 | 1705 | 1727--1760 | 1760 | ||
| 饤֡ѥå | 1683 | 1705 | 1737 | ɥ | ||
| 硼3 | 1738 | 1761 | 1760--1820 | 1820 | ||
| 㡼åȡ֡å֥륯ȥå | 1744 | 1761 | 1818 | ɥ | ||
| 硼4 | 1762 | 1795 | 1820--1830 | 1830 | ||
| 饤֥֡å | 1768 | 1795 | 1821 | ɥ | ||
| ꥢ4 | 1765 | 1818 | 1830--1837 | 1837 | ||
| ǥ쥤ɡ֡ޥ˥ | 1792 | 1818 | 1849 | ɥ | ||
| ȥꥢ | 1819 | 1840 | 1837--1901 | |||
| ץС | 1819 | 1840 | 1861 | ɥ | ||
| С | ||||||
| ɥ7 | 1841 | 1863 | 1901--1910 | 1910 | ||
| 쥰ɥ顦֡ǥޡ | 1841 | 1863 | 1925 | ǥޡ | ||
| | ||||||
| 硼5 | 1865 | 1893 | 1910--1936 | |||
| ᥢ֡ƥå | 1867 | 1893 | 1953 | ɥ | ||
| ɥ8 | 1894 | 1937 | 1936--1936 | 1972 | ||
| ʥꥹץ͡ | 1896 | 1937 | 1986 | ꥫ | ||
| 硼6 | 1895 | 1923 | 1936--1952 | 1952 | ||
| ꥶ٥Х饤 | 1900 | 1923 | åȥ | |||
| ꥶ٥2 | 1926 | 1947 | 1952-- | |||
| ץեåסޥȥХåƥ | 1921 | 1947 | ǥޡ | |||
ߥ˥ (communication) ϡؤǤ褯ȤѸŪ˹ȤѸǤ⤢롥ºݡؤǤ⤫ʤˤѤƤ롥ΤƤȻפCrystal θؼŵƤߤˤȡcommunication Ȥϼ̤Ǥ (89--90)
communication (n.) A fundamental notion in the study of behaviour, which acts as a frame of reference for linguistic and phonetic studies. Communication refers to the transmission and reception of information (as 'message') between a source and a receiver using a signalling system: in linguistic contexts, source and receiver are interpreted in human terms, the system involved is a language, and the notion of response to (or acknowledgement of) the message becomes of crucial importance. In theory, communication is said to have taken place if the information received is the same as that sent: in practice, one has to allow for all kinds of interfering factors, or 'noise', which reduce the efficiency of the transmission (e.g. unintelligibility of articulation, idiosyncratic associations of words). One has also to allow for different levels of control in the transmission of the message: speakers' purposive selection of signals will be accompanied by signals which communicate 'despite themselves', as when voice quality signals the fact that a person has a cold, is tired/old/male, etc. The scientific study of all aspects of communication is sometimes called communication science: the domain includes linguistics and phonetics, their various branches, and relevant applications of associated subjects (e.g. acoustics, anatomy).
Human communication may take place using any of the available sensory modes (hearing, sight, etc.), and the differential study of these modes, as used in communicative activity, is carried on by semiotics. A contrast which is often made, especially by psychologists, is between verbal and non-verbal communication (NVC) to refer to the linguistic v. the non-linguistic features of communication (the latter including facial expressions, gestures, etc., both in humans and animals). However, the ambiguity of the term 'verbal' here, implying that language is basically a matter of 'words', makes this term of limited value to linguistics, and it is not usually used by them in this way.
Ƥ뤬˿ʬüŪ˲᤹Сߥ˥Ȥϡ2Դ֤ˤ뿮ηϤѤΤʤȤפȤʤϡΤ褦ʥߥ˥ã뤿μʤ1ĤȤȤˤʤ롥ϥߥ˥ΤѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤϡФо嵭Υߥ˥æ褦Ѥ⤹롥νǽ (function_of_language) ˤĤƤϡʲεȤ줿#523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1])#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1])#1776. Ogden and Richards ˤ5Ĥεǽ ([2014-03-08-1])
ߥ˥˴ޤޤ־ (information) ȤϲȤ礭꤬ĤäƤ롥̤ϡ#1089. ȸ; ([2012-04-20-1])#1098. ؤͿƤ뼨2 ([2012-04-29-1]) ޤ information_theory γƵȤ줿
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
ɸ2ĤѸϸؤǤϤ褯Ȥ뤬ϤƱΤʤΤȤۤʤΤΰ̣ˤޤĤǤꡤƳǤ롥Ѿϡ̩ͿʤޤޤˡξѸŬˡQŪˡѤʬˤƤΤȻפ롥ºݡѸ synonym ϡƱפˤפˤΤ
Ūˤϡ˰פִƱ (absolute synonym) ΥڥϡʤۤȤɡˤʤȸ (cf. #1498. taboo ŪȤʤͳ (3) ([2013-06-03-1])) ȤȤϡsynonym ȤѸ줬̣ͭȤʤ뤿ˤϡִƱפǤϤʤԴƱפʤפۤɤؤƤ뤳Ȥ˾ޤѸˤ near-synonym 뤤ϤŪ plesionym (< Gr. plēsios ʶܤ + onoma ̾) ȤѸ⤢롥顤synonym, near-synonym, plesionym ȤѸϡ줳ߤ synonymous ʴطˤȲǤǤ롥λƤٹ礤ȤΤϿͲǤ櫓Ǥʤʤ̯ˤʤ뤳ȤϤʤ
Cruse (176--77) ΰ̣Ѹ켭ŵƤߤ褦
synonymy, synonyms A word is said to be a synonym of another word in the same language if one or more of its senses bears a sufficiently close similarity to one or more of the senses of the other word. It should be noted that complete identity of meaning (absolute synonymy) is very rarely, if ever, encountered. Words would be absolute synonyms if there were no contexts in which substituting one for the other had any semantic effect. However, given that a basic function of words is to be semantically distinctive, it is not surprising that such identical pairs are rare. That being so, the problem of characterising synonymy is one of specifying what kind and degree of semantic difference is permitted. One possibility is to define synonymy as 'propositional synonymy': two words A and B are synonyms if substituting either one for the other in an utterance has no effect on the propositional meaning (i.e. truth conditions) of the utterance. This is the case with, for instance, begin: commence and false: untrue (on the relevant readings):
The concert began/commenced with Beethoven's Egmont Overture.
What he told me was false/untrue.
By this definition, synonyms will typically differ in respect of non-propositional aspects of meaning, such as expressive meaning and evoked meaning. Thus, begin and commence differ in register; the difference between false and untrue (indicating lack of veracity) is rather subtle, but the former is more condemnatory, perhaps because of a stronger presumption of deliberateness. However, while this is a convenient and easily applied way of defining synonymy, it does not capture the way the notion is used by, for instance, lexicographers, in the compilation of dictionaries of synonyms or in the assembly of groups of words for information on 'synonym discrimination'. Certainly, some of the words in such lists are propositional synonyms, but others are not, and for these we need some such notion as 'near-synonymy' ('plesionymy'). This is not easy to define, but roughly speaking, near-synonyms must share the same core meaning and must not have the primary function of contrasting with one another in their most typical contexts. (For instance, collie and spaniel share much of their meaning, but they contrast in their most typical contexts.) Examples of near-synonyms are: murder: execute: assassinate; withhold: detain; joyful: cheerful; heighten: enhance; injure: damage; idle: inert: passive.
synonyms ʬϤˤäơ̿Ụ̄ (propositional meaning) ̿Ụ̄ (non-propositional meaning) ̤ȤˡϳΤˤ狼䤹ϳǰỤ̄ (conceptual meaning) ǰỤ̄ (non-conceptual meaning) ζ̤ˤᤤʡ#1931. ǰỤ̄ ([2014-08-10-1]) ȡˡ̿Ụ̄䳵ǰỤ̄ϥ̿Ụ̄ǰỤ̄ۤʤäƤˡ2 synonyms ȸƤܤȤ櫓
켭ŵʤɤ˵ƤꥹȤñϡƤ˴ˤ̣ǡֻƤñ췲ˤʤǤ濴Ūʰ̣ΤߤͭƤꡤĸߤ˰ۤʤŪʰ̣Ϥޤ2ŪʤΤȤơ̤ϤääƤۤɤδطǤ (near-)synonyms ȸƤ٤ȤȤˤʤ䤳ǤϤ롥
Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
#3049. ѸǤ⥢ե٥åȤϤޤ26ʸǤϤʤä ([2017-09-01-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡ1755ǯ˱ƶϤΤ뼭ä Samuel Johnson (1709--84) ϡե٥åȤʸξ26ʸȤʤ⡤ºݤμˤƤ i/j, u/v γơ勞ˤ˽äI, V θФΤȤˡ줾켡Τ褦롥Crystal ȴǤѤ롥
I
is in English considered both as a vowel and consonant; though, since the vowel and consonant differ in their form as well as sound, they may be more properly accounted two letters.
I vowel has a long sound, as fine, thine, which is usually marked by an e final; and a short sound, as fin, thin. Prefixed to e it makes a diphthong of the same sound with the soft i, or double e: thus field, yield, are spoken as feeld, yeeld; except friend, which is spoken frend. Subjoined to a or e it makes them long, as fail, neight; and to o makes a mingled sound, which approaches more nearly to the true notion of a diphthong, or sound composed of the sounds of two vowels, than any other combination of vowels in the English language, as oil, coin. The sound of i before another i, and at the end of a word, is always expressed by y.
J consonant has invariably the same sound with that of g in giant; as jade, jet, jilt, jolt, just.
V
Has two powers, expressed in modern English by two characters, V consonant and U vowel, which ought to be considered as two letters; but they were long confounded while the two uses were annexed to one form, the old custom still continues to be followed.
U, the vowel, has two sounds; one clear, expressed at other times by eu, as obtuse; the other close, and approaching to the Italian u, or English oo, as obtund.
V, the consonant, has a sound nearly approaching to those of b and f. With b it is by the Spaniards and Gascons always confounded, and in the Runick alphabet is expressed by the same character with f, distinguished only by a diacritical point. Its sound in English is uniform. It is never mute.
ʸŵŪʲˡǫ˵ҤƤΤ狼롥ǤƤ褦ˡJohnson ϤϤ i j, u v Τ˶̤٤ʸȤߤʤƤ롥Ǥ⡤ޤǤδѤ˽虜ʤȤΩˤޤƤ롥դˡȴѤζ֤ɤ뤳λͭ褯ɽ蘆Ƥ褦˻פ롥
ΡֻͤIJ̾פʤ̥ե٥åȤΡֻͤʸפŪطʤˤĤƤϡ#373. <u> <v> ʬ (1) ([2010-05-05-1])#374. <u> <v> ʬ (2) ([2010-05-06-1])#1650. ʸǤȤƤ j Ω ([2013-11-02-1])#2415. Ūɽֻ John Hart ˤפơ ([2015-12-07-1]) Ȥ줿
Johnson, Samuel. A Dictionary of the English Language: An Anthology. Selected, Edited and with an Introduction by David Crystal. London: Penguin, 2005.
ܸưˤϡֳѡפȸƤФΤ뤬̾ˤ⤽Τ롥פñȤǤϡ֤פȯ뤬פʤɤʣǤϡ֤ߡפȤʤ롥Ρ֤פȡ֤פϡ줾ΩΩ뤤ϪзʤȸƤФ롥Ʊطϡסʤդ͡ˤȡסʤդʤΤˡֱסʤˤȡֱסʤޤˡڡסʤˤȡڱסʤˡַסʤĤˤȡַסʡ̸ŸͤĤˤˤ⸫롥̾ΡֳѡפȤߤʤȤǤ롥
ΥڥδطϡϪзʤ *iפȤꤵ롥*i ϡΤˤϾü첾̾ǤȤ *i ΤȤǤ롥ϡñΩܼȹͤ롥ǶŪˤС
ama + *i ame
ko + *i ki
tuku + *i tuki
Ȥʤ롥첻ȤˤСa e, o i, u i ȤʤäƤꡤòβ꤫ǤϤʤΤΡѸޤॲޥˤƹ i-mutation θ̤ˤʤٻƤ롥źν̤ˤߤ첻Ĵ (vowel harmony) ΰǤꡤޤܸȱѸ˻褦ʸݤǧ뤫Ȥäơޤääˤʤ櫓ǤϤ뤬
ʾ塤 (45) ȤƼɮ
顡ܸˡ١˼Ҥӡ2017ǯ
ܼΰĤȤơǯǤ줿Ūܸ˳ˡܸ٤夲ʸˤǤʤ鶵ʽŪȤݤǡҤøȤƤ롥̤˾ΩƤƤ뤬ƾϤǤʬ̤εҤʤƤꡤƾϤγäƤСʬȤνĤήⲡ褦˹Ƥ롥äơܼɤäƤܸˤǤȤߤȤʤäƤ롥ʲܼƸ褦
ʤߤ˱Ѹ˳ܼϡ#2089. Baugh and Cable αѸ˳ܼ ([2015-01-15-1])#2050. Knowles αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-12-07-1])#2038. Fennell αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-11-25-1])#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1]) ȡ
Ρ#3381. ֺ¡ˤؤֱñθ츻ס ([2018-07-30-1]) ιֺ¤ǤϡȥȤƱѸûˤˤĤƳ⤷ΤȤ˳ñͤοʹ֤ˤȤäʹ֤νޤˤȤοϡΤ褦ʤΤ
ͤҤȤοʹ֤ϡޤޤ2018ǯκȤ餷Ƥ롥줾˸ꡤˡʿꡤ롼Ĥ롥Τ褦ʿ͡˽ޤäơ70Ͱʾ夫ʤʹּҲƤꡤΩƤΤȤϤäƤ⡤ߤΤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤषƿͤδ֤դ礨ͤοϸ¤Ƥ롥ޤʹ֤ޤƤϻ̤Ȥ֤Ƥ뤿ᡤȺȤǤϼҲιϤ줾㴳ۤʤ롥ϹѲƤΤǤ롥
ĤҤȤĤñʱñȤȤˤˤϡޤޤ2018ǯκȤ˸ñȤѤƤ롥줾˸ꡤˡˤꡤ츻롥Τ褦ñ줬˽ޤäơɴ줫ʤѸäƤꡤѸΩƤΤȤϤäƤ⡤٤Ƥñ줬ߤ˸ήƤ櫓ǤϤʤषñ줬ñϸŪǤ롥ޤñޤƤϻ̤Ȥ֤Ƥ뤿ᡤȺȤǤϸäιϤ줾㴳ۤʤ롥ѸϹѲƤΤǤ롥
ѤƤʤ뤤Ѥ˱ñνϡֺαѸáפǤꡤû¸ߤǤ롥ޤǤˤñν꤬¿ʤȤ⤢뤿ᡤֺαѸáפȤϰۤʤαѸáפޤƤݡȤֳִ֤ǤϹ뤫⤷줺֡ʬäʤɤȤֳִ֤ǤȤ館٤꤫⤷ʤäϤνִ֤ˤѲƤΤ礦ɿʹνִ֤ѲƤ褦ˡ
ε#3886. Ѹ˾μפʻҲѲ ([2018-08-04-1]) Ǹڤ̤ε#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ȴϢơʤѸ첻ˤˤ첻ѲҲѲΩʤΤȤˤĤƹͤƤߤ
Ritt (224) Ϥη "rhythmic isochrony" "fixed lexical stress on major class lexical items" 2˵Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤѸߤꥺ¤뤤ϲΧˤꡤ첻Ҳ岽ȤդʤƤȤ
(67) ˤСѸϳƱ (foot) ֤ۤȯ뱤ꥺ (foot-timed rhythm) θ°ʤʤߤܸϲ (syllable-timed rhythm) 뤤ϥ⡼ (mora-timed rhythm) ȤФ륿פθˡ̤˱θϡ첻ܡϢŪܡ첻첻岽ʤ첻ˤޤĤܤŪˤä¿ȤΤƤ롥ƱӤݻ뤿ˡϤȤ櫓̵ϤȤ櫓夯ȯȤоŪʷʤ첻Ѳˤ餵䤹ʤȤ𤬤褦
Ūʴ餤СΥꥺ¤ϡθβѲ˻פΤۤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤꡤ٤ޤǤϤꤷƤȤ餤Τ⤷ʤ (48) ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
Ѳȯüϼºݤȯäˤ롥ȯƤ٤ƲѲȤƳΩ櫓ǤϤʤȯüϤޤǼ»־ȯȹͤ롥ȯä˺ݤơη֡칽¤äùܡʤϢˤºݤȯäˤꥺ¤ (rhythmic structure) ˼롥ꥺ¤¾Χ (prosody) Ļθˤʬ뤳ȤΤƤꡤʬŪˤۻʳϤޤȤƤ롥λ¤餫ʤ褦ˡꥺʤӡ¾βΧ˹¤ϡ̤˹ͤƤʾˡʬηϤȿӤĤƤꡤ줬ȯäݤˤϡΥꥺ¤˹碌ʬϢ֤Ƥꤵ롥κݡӱfootᤫ鼡ζľޤǤޤȤˤñ̡ˤ (syllable) ʤɤΥꥺñ̤γФ䤹ʬϢĴưפ褦ʷdzƼﲻƯ¿ε§ŪѲװϸ첻ĴγФˤäưŤƤȤäƤ褤
ϡַϴʥꥺ¤ȡ˽°ʬפȤ¿ʲѤ˴ŤǤ롥
Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.
3ϡѲ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ47--70ǡ
ѸˤǤϰ̤ˡ첻äĹ첻ˤѲϿ¿ƤΤΡҲѲŪޤäȤcf. #1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1])ˡ첻ȻҲηоˤĤƤϡѸαΧ (prosody) 礭ؤäƤȤ롥Τ˻ҲѲˤΩäΤʤǤ⤢ƥ㡼ʤΤȤСMinkova and Stockwell (36) ˰͵ơʲ5ܤ
Simplification of long consonants
Phonemicization of the voiced fricatives [v, ð, z]
Vocalization or loss of [ɣ], [x], [ç] and distributional restrictions on [h]
Loss of [-r] in some varieties of English
Simplification of the consonant clusters [kn-], [gn-], [wr-], [-mb], [-ng]
1ܤ "Simplification of long consonants" Ȥ degemination Ȥ⤤ǡűѸ줫ѸˤˤꡤűѸ gyldenne "golden" Ѹ gyldene ʤɤȤʤäθѸؤαƶȤƤϡ#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1]) #1284. û첻ܻҲξˤϻҲŤͤ -ing ղäȤֻ§ ([2012-11-01-1]) Ȥ줿
2ܤ "Phonemicization of the voiced fricatives [v, ð, z]" ϡfricative_voicing ȸƤФǤ롥#1365. űѸˤ뼫IJˤϤޤ줿̵ͭ ([2013-01-21-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̵ͭΥڥñʤ۲δطäեѸʤɤαƶˤꡤξԤۤʤ벻ǤȤΩ뤳Ȥˤʤä/v/ βDzˤĤƤϡ#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])#2230. Ѹ̵ͭʸ ([2015-06-05-1]) ȡ
3ܤ "Vocalization or loss of [ɣ], [x], [ç] and distributional restrictions on [h]" ϡĶˤʣѲ뤲Ȥؤ㤨СűѸ dragan, sagu; hlot, hræfn, hnecca; boh, heah, sohte; toh, ruh, hleahtor 줾Ѹ draw(en), saw(e); lot, raven, neck; bow(e), hei(e), sout(e); tuf, ruff, lauhter ʤɤȤʤäƤheir, honest, honour, hour ʤɤθƬ h ꤵ⡤ȴؤʡ#214. ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1]) h γƵȡˡ
4ܤ "Loss of [-r] in some varieties of English" ϡnon-prevocali r Ǥʡ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) γƵȡˡ
5ܤ "Simplification of the consonant clusters [kn-], [gn-], [wr-], [-mb], [-ng]" ϡƻҲüλҲæ벻Ǥ롥λҲбʸߤֻ˻ĤäƤΤǡǧ䤹#122. /kn/ ǻϤޤñ ([2009-08-27-1])#34. thumb ֤ȯ ([2009-06-01-1]), #724. thumb ֤ȯ (2) ([2011-04-21-1]) ΤۤŪˡ#1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1])#2518. Ҳۻ ([2016-03-19-1]) ȡ
ʾΤ褦ˡ첻٤ƼϾʤȤϤҲѲ⤳ߤƤߤȸѸβֻˤʤαƶڤܤƤΤȴ롥
Minkova, Donka and Robert Stockwell. "Phonology: Segmental Histories." A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 29--42.
ưΡֶܹԡפβϡѸηˤˤƥ㡼Ǥ롥ˤĤơ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
礭Ĭή˵դ餦ʵήʤּ嶯ܹԡפλ⤷ФлŦƤꥹѸ dive -- dived (-- dived) Ф륢ꥫѸ dive -- dove (-- dived) 㤬褯ΤƤ뤬ŪˤϤ¾롥
ȤСWełna (425) ˤСѸ˼嶯ܹԤʤʬˤƶѲԵ§˷Ѥ³ƤΤȤơΤ褦㤬ȤѸθǵˡ
| INFINITIVE | PAST | PAST PARTICIPLE |
|---|---|---|
| chide | chidde, chōde | chidden |
| ring | ringde, rongen (PL) | runge |
| sawe | sawed, sew | sawid, sown |
| sew | sowed | sewed, sowen |
| shew, show | showed | showed, showen |
| stycke | stiked, stacke | sticked, stōken |
| weer | wēred, wōre | wēred, worn |
#1949. ²ȤθüԿ ([2014-08-28-1]) #398. ²Ⱦʬ ([2010-05-30-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡ² (indo-european) θˤƶϤ¾ɿʤ
¸ǸŤʸ Hittite ΤǤꡤ4000ǯۤɤ̤롥2000ǯۤϸ奮ꥷ졤ƥ졤åȸʸ¿ꡤʹߤˤʤȡ¿θǵ줿ʸǽȤʤ롥ĤޤꡤǺǤ褯Ͽ˻ĤäƤ²ʤΤǤ롥
üԿδߤȡ2003ǯפǤϤ뤬²θȤüԤ25ͤȤɸѼ100ͰʾüԤʤϡ70ʾ夢롥400ǯۤޤǤϡ褽ΦȾʬˤüԤʬۤƤʤäǤˤʬۤȤƤ롥ޤ˶ḽɽ²ȤäƤ褤
ʾϡClackson ˤΥȥˤ롤²εҤޤȤΤǤ롥Clackson (2) θʸѤƤ
The IE language family is extensive in time and space. The earliest attested IE language, Hittite, is attested nearly 4,000 years ago, written on clay tablets in cuneiform script in central Anatolia from the early second millennium BC. We have extensive textual remains, including native-speaker accounts of three more IE languages from 2,000 years ago: Ancient Greek, Latin and Sanskrit. Also from the beginning of the Christian Era we have much more limited corpora of many more IE languages. The stock of recorded IE languages further increases as we move forward in time. In 2003, over 2.5 billion people spoke an IE language as their first language, and there were at least seventy codified varieties, each spoken by a million or more native speakers. Four hundred years ago nearly all speakers of IE lived in Europe, Iran, Turkey, Western Asia and the Indian subcontinent, but migrations have now spread speakers to every part of the world. The wealth of historical material makes IE the best-documented language family in the world.
Clackson, James. Indo-European Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 2007.
#2502. ʤˤ to ȸ2बΤ ([2016-03-03-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡto ȸϡߤ˵ϰۤʤΤΡˤβǤۤƱǽͭ褦ˤʤꡤФжɤƤʤĶǤϰᤵ졤̤δĶǤ¾ᤵΤ̻ŪˤⶦŪˤ⸦椵Ƥꡤ٤ηϸФΤΡŪʵ§ĤФȤ
Ѹͤȡ#971. help + פε ([2011-12-24-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡhelp θϤɤη֤ǤƤȤ롥ޤ#970. Money makes the mare to go ([2011-12-23-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʸˤƤǽưʸǤϸѤ뤬ưʸǤ to ѤȤäϥ츽ݤ롥⡤ξζɤˤȿǤƤȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ
ˤĤơ (237--38) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ˡΩޤǤˤĹˡưɤƤꡤޤ to Τʤ줬ҤѤ줿ꥶ٥īǤ
you ought not walk (Cæsar, I. i. 3)/you were wont be civil (Othello, II. iii. 190) ʤɤ㤬ꡤΤۤ Shakespeare Ǥ
I command her come to me/entreat her hear me but a word/let one be sent to pray Achilles see us
ʤ command, entreat, pray, desire, charge Τ褦ưΤȤǤ to Τʤ줬Ф롥դ˺ʤ to פʤȤƤ⤢롥It makes my heart to groan Τ褦ˡǤˤ Money makes the mare to go Ϲκ⼡ˤˡĤäƤ뤷help ξι¤ǽ롥I helped him (to) find his things. 줫ƱʸƱطΩĤ桤Ԥ to Ȥ뤳ȤԤ롥άShakespeare
and would no more endure
This wooden slavery than to suffer
The flesh-fly blow my mouth. (Tempest, III. i. 61--63)
ƱǤ롥
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