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ͤθոϡǤѲ롥θոѲиĿͤ⤽˱ѲȤȤϡïŪθƤ̤Ǥ롥ʤɤθäϤ˵ڤФȯˡʸˡѲˤⵤŤʤ˱Ƥ롥ʤɤǤϡĿͤʸˡϰٽꤵ졤ʸˡѲϼλҶˤʬϤ̤ƤΤߵꤦȹͤƤ뤬ºݤθ챿ѤˤƤϡҲǿʹԤƤѲϡΤ˸ĿͤθȿǤƤ롥̻Ū˸ѲʤǤΤǤСƱߥ̻ŪƤüԤƤθոȿǤȤΤϡԤ
嵭ΰ̣Ȥϰۤʤ̣ǡֺФȤȤ˸ոѤפȤ롥㤨С̻Ū˵äƤѲȤľܤˤϴطˡФȤȤ˻ѸäѲȤȤϡߤʷиĻˤĻͭäشˤϽشħŤոҲͤˤʤмҲͤ餷ɽǯˤʤǯˤդ路Τθ롥ĿͤϡФȤȤˤǯˤդ路ոȤˤĤƤ椯Υѥϡ̻ŪʸѲ˽ΤʤǸոѲƤ椯ΤȰۤʤꡤ̾巫֤ΤǤꡤĹȤȤ˵ѲǤ롥ҲؤǤ age-grading ȸƤǤ롥γǰѸˤĤơ2Ѥ褦
age-gradingA phenomenon in which speakers in a community gradually alter their speech habits as they get older, and where this change is repeated in every generation. It has been shown, for example, that in some speech communities it is normal for speakers to modify their language in the direction of the acrolect as they approach middle-age, and then to revert to less prestigious speech patterns after they reach retirement age. Age-grading is something that has to be checked for in apparent-time studies of linguistic change to ensure that false conclusions are not being drawn from linguistic differences between generations. (Trudgill 6)
. . . it is a well attested fact that particularly young speakers use specific linguistic features as identity markers, but give them up in later life. That is, instead of keeping their way of speaking as they grow older, thereby slowly replacing the variants used by the speakers of the previous generations, they themselves grow out of their earlier way of speaking. (Schendl 75)
Wardhaugh (200-01) ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ륫ʥѸˤ age-grading 褦ʥ Ontario Toronto ǤϡҶϥե٥åȤκǸʸꥫȯ̤ػΥƥȤαƶ "zee" ȯ뤬ͤã "zed" ؤȥʥ롥ϲˤ錄äƷ֤ƤꡤŵŪ age-grading Ȥ롥
ޤθϡΤѤƤݼŪʷ֤ƤȰ̤˸롥ŤͷѸʤɤϢʤ³ƤΤǤ롥ޤǯˤϼʬȿоڤȤκ̲ϤꡤŪʸո߽ФĤλˤ⸫롥ʹˤʤȡŻŪޤ "linguistic market-place" ΰϤΤȤǡ¿쾯ʤɸŪʷ֤Ѥ뷹Ȥ⤤ (Hudson 14--16) Τ褦ˡǯ̤θŪϡ˴ؤ餺η
(91--92) ꡤ#1529. ʤϸŪݼŪʤΤ (3) ([2013-07-04-1]) Ǵñ˿줿 age-grading ˤĤưѤ롥
ޤޤʼҲǡǯȸΥХꥨδط椵Ƥ뤬⤷ȯ1ĤϡɤμҲΥ롼פˤĤƤ⤤Τմʤ뤤Ϥ⤦㤤ǯμԤϼҲŪ㤯ߤƤХꥨͤˤ˹ǻȤȤȤǤꡤ covert prestige ŪҡˤȸƤФƤ롥ά̤ʸСǯ𤬾夬ˤĤơҲŪ㤤ȹͤƤʸˡѤϾʤʤäƤȤȤˤʤʤ age grading ȤФƤˡ
ǯؤˤϼҲŪˤؤˤդ路ȹͤƤ뿶Ԥ졤͡ϳͤ˽äƼҲĤǤ롥οΤʤˤϡոޤޤƤꡤ줬 age-grading ζưϤȤʤäƤΤ
Ϣơ#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) ⻲ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Schendl, Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2001.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ
#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ˰³ƤꡥAAVE 3ñ -s æ뷹ˤĤơ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1]) ǤҤ٤æҤ뤳ȤϤޤäñǤϤʤAAVE ȤäƤǤϤʤϰˤäưۤʤ뤷Ŀͺ礭Ȥ롥æ뤫ʤΥѥʣ¸ߤ줾θѰۤ롥
㤨СSchneider (100) ϡĤԸȤ3ñ -s æΥѡơޤȤƤ롥Harlem ǯĤĴ42--100% ʿѤ 63%ˡDetroit βήϫƯԳĴ71.4%5лĴ72.5%Oakland βήνĴ57.7%Washington, D. C. λҶĴ84%Washington, D. C. βήĴ65.3%ήⶵդĴ17--78%Maryland γĴ83.3%ʤɤǤ롥-s æŪǤ뤳ȤϳΤǡ绨Ĥˤä31 -s ƤȤȤǤ⤢ꡤæ§ŪǤȤȤϤǤʤ
AAVE ˤ3ñ -s Τߤʤ餺ư츽߷ -s ˴ؤ뽾θǤϡ͡ʡʼҲ˸ŪʥѥƤɸѸ˸褦ʿ;ΤξϤȤꡤbe ư is ʣѤ븽ݤȤδͿɸѸεϤؤν١dialect mixture ʡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ȡˡꥹŪʱƶʤɡ͡Ǥ롥
͡ʥѥΤʤ Bailey et al. Ȥ櫓ܤդΤ줬̾ (PRO) ̾ (NP) ζ̤Ǥ롥ԸǤϡAppalachian English, Alabama White English, Samaná, Scotch-Irish English, black and white folk speech in Texas ʤɡAAVE ˸¤餺Ѽ䥤ꥹѼǤ⡤δबѤƤ뤳ȡʤ߷ NP 줬 PRO -s 뤳ȤŦƤηϡ#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) ǿ줿 "Northern Personal Pronoun Rule" ("Northern Present Tense Rule") θ̤Ƥ롥Bailey et al. ϡ "NP/PRO constraint" 1472--88ǯ˥ɥӾȤĤʽ the Cely Letters 17--18ΥꥹҳΤѤ "Ship English" ˤߤ뤳ȤŦǡŪĴ̤ơƱ̤ AAVE νѼˤѤƤ뤳ȤƤ롥Bailey et al. (298) ϡ"NP/PRO constraint" Ǥ줤˵ҤǤۤñǤϤʤȶĴʤ⡤˾ߤäƼΤ褦äƤ롥
By examining data from EME and looking at parallels in present-day black and white vernaculars, we have shown that the NP/PRO constraint is a powerful one that has affected English for quite some time and that currently affects a wide range of processes. Although it is important to stress that this constraint does not account for all of the variation in the present tense verb paradigms of the black and white vernaculars in the South (for instance, -s used to mark historical present), it does play a major role in a number of previously unconnected phenomena.
Schneider, Edgar W. "The Origin of the Verbal -s in Black English." American Speech 58 (1983): 99--113.
Bailey, Guy, Natalie Maynor, and Patricia Cukor-Avila. "Variation in Subject-Verb Concord in Early Modern English." Language Variation and Change 1 (1989): 285--300.
ε#1887. ˤͤݤ4Ĥλ ([2014-06-27-1]) ǡѸˤˤʸˡ鼫ؤѲפͤݤ˴ͿΤϡgrammatical gender, lexical gender, referential gender 3ǤȽҤ٤ΤʸǤϤʤ⤷ʤˤ social gender ⤷äȴͿƤ롤ȤȽ뤫⤷ʤCurzan ϡѸˤȤƤʸˡ鼫ؤѲפȤ⤤ΤŦƤ롥
(natural gender) ȤѸ줬̣̾ƤΤϡϡ줬ؼƤоݤʪŪ (biological sex) ȰפȤȤǤ롥㤨Сgirl ȤϿͤνؼоݤȤΤǡȤƤ feminine Ǥꡤfather ȤϿͤؼоݤȤΤǡȤƤ masculine Ȥʤ롤ȤäǤ롥ޤbook λؼоݤǤǤʤΤǡȤƤ neuter Ǥꡤperson λؼоݤ˽ؤˤĤΩŪʤΤǡȤƤ common gender Ȥ롥Τ褦ˡιͤñǤꡤ츫Ϥʤ褦˻פ롥ƳѸȤСȤϡreferential gender Τޤ lexical gender ȿǤ줿Τȸ뤳ȤǤ
Curzan ϡּפΤΤ褦ûŪʤȤ館˵褷Ƥ롥Curzan ϡJoschua Poole, William Bullokar, Alexander Gil, Ben Jonson ʤɽѸʸˡȤˤϡؤθڤ¿ȤŦƤ롥㤨СJonson ϡ1640ǯ The English Grammar ǡAngels, Men, Starres, Moneth's, Winds, Planets ȤI'lands, Countries, Cities, ship ϽȤޤHorses, Dogges ŵŪEagles, Hawkess ʤɤ Fowles ŵŪ˽Ȥ (Curzan 566) Τ褦ʵʤʼȤϼΰۤʤǤꡤҲŪ˶ͭƤѡѡȿǤƤ褦˻פ롥Сεϡ social gender Τޤ lexical gender ȿǤ줿ΤǤϤʤ
εƧޤȡѸˤϳΩƤȤ뤤ּפϡºݤˤ (1) Ṳ̄ꡤreferential gender (biological sex) Τޤ lexical gender ȿǤ줿Τȡ(2) social gender lexical gender ȿǤ줿Ρ2 gender ͻ礷Ρʤ "lexical gender based on referential and social genders" ǤϤʤĹ뤿Υ硼ȥåȤȤơּפ뤤 "natural gender" ȸƤ֤ΤǤСϤǤ褤⤷ʤŪƤּפ뤤 "natural gender" ȤƤ礭ۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥˤդ
Curzan (570--71) ʸϤѤ롥
The Early Modern English gender system has traditionally been treated as biologically "natural", which it is in many respects: male human beings are of the masculine gender, females of the feminine, and most inanimates of the neuter. But these early grammarians explicitly describe how the constraints of the natural gender system can be broken by the use of the masculine or feminine for certain inanimate nouns. Their categories construct the masculine as representing the "male sex and that of the male kind" and the feminine as the "female sex and that of the female kind", and clearly various inanimates fall into these gendered "kinds". Personification, residual confusion, and classical allegory are not sufficient explanations, as many scholars now recognize in discussions of similar fluctuation in the Modern English gender system. An alternative explanation is that what the early grammarians label "kind" is synonymous with what today is labeled "gender"; in other words, "kind" refers to the socially constructed attributes assigned to a given sex.
ε˴ŤʤСѸˤˤѲĬήϡΤˤϡgrammatical gender natural gender ءפǤϤʤgrammatical gender lexical gender based on referential and social gender ءפȤȤˤʤ
Ѹˤ뵼ˤĤƤϡϢơ#1517. ([2013-06-22-1])#1028. ʤ̾ȤߤʤƤΤ ([2012-02-19-1])#890. ƬǾ acronym Ͻ̾¿ ([2011-10-04-1])#852. ̾̾ she (1) ([2011-08-27-1]) ڤӡ#853. ̾̾ she (2) ([2011-08-28-1])#854. ̾̾ she (3) ([2011-08-29-1]) ⻲ȡ
Curzan, Anne. "Gender Categories in Early English Grammars: Their Message in the Modern Grammarian." Gender in Grammar and Cognition. Ed. Barbara Unterbeck et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 561--76.
#1883. ˤγѡ ([2014-06-23-1]) ǡHellinger and Bussmann ȤǡˤθȤ櫓ΤˤȤ˿̤٤ȤθǤ롥Ūˤ grammatical gender, lexical gender, referential gender, social gender 4̤ɬפ롥ʲHellinger and Bussmann (7--11) Ȥʤ鳵⤹롥
ˤȤˡޤפ⤫֤Τ grammatical gender űѸǤ3ꡤ٤Ƥ̾줬§ŪˤϤ줫˳꿶Ƥ̾Υ饹ΰȤơ̾2?3ۤɤ̤졤Ūʰפȼʤɤħ롥The World Atlas of Language Structures Online Number of Genders, Sex-based and Non-sex-based Gender Systems, Systems of Gender Assignment ʤɤθʬۤϤƤ⡤Ȥƥϡ²ʤɤθ²˸ꤵ줺ϤߤƤ롥
ˡlexical gender Ȥʬ롥쳰°Ǥ뼫ʪŪȤ뤬ܼŪˤϸỤ̄Ū˵ꤵǤ롥㤨Сfather mother ϡ줾 [+male] [+female] Ȥ̣"gender-specific" ʸȤ롥ǡcitizen, patient, individual ʤɤˤơlexical gender "gender-indefinite" 뤤 "gender-neutral" Ȥ롥gender-specific ʸϡ̾ǼȤ he 뤤 she ̣ˤäΤ̤Ǥ롥grammatical gender lexical gender ϤƤפ뤬ɥĸ Individuum (n), Person (f) Τ褦ξԤפʤΤ롥Τ褦ʾ硤ˤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ̾ grammatical gender ˤäƤʤ롥
3ܤϡreferential gender Ǥ롥ϡ줬ǻؼоݤʪŪǤ롥㤨С˵ɥĸ Person grammatical gender Ͻlexical gender θ줬ºݤʸ̮ˤƤؼƤСreferential gender ȤȤˤʤ롥Ʊͤˡɥĸ Mädchaen für alles "girl for everything" ʲǤⲰˤˤĤƤѤ뤬ξ Mädchaen grammatical gender lexical gender Ͻreferential gender ȤȤˤʤ롥̾Ǽݤˤϡgrammatical gender ˤ referential gender ˤ礬롥
Ǹˡsocial gender ȤϡҲŪ䡦Ȥ蘆˽ʬˡǤ롥ͤɽ魯̾졤ä˿Ȥ˴ؤ̾ϡ˽줫 social gender 蘆Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿㤨бƤǤϡlawyer, surgeon, scientist ϤФǤ뤳ȤԤ졤secretary, nurse, schoolteacher ϽǤ뤳ȤԤ롥pedestrian, consumer, patient ʤɤΰŪ̾ϡ̾ he Ǿȱ뤳ȤŪʴǤ뤳Ȥ顤 social gender ǤȲǤ롥social gender ˤϡμҲˤΥƥ쥪פ褯ɽ蘆롥
ѸˤˤȤƤϡʸˡξüȤ꤬롥ʸˡִ줿Ȥ褦ʾ˴ͿΤϡgrammatical gender, lexical gender, referential gender 3generic 'he' singular they ꤬طΤϡlexical gender, referential gender, social gender 3ȤˡָפˤޤĤܤפϰۤʤäƤȤȤˤʤ롥
Hellinger, Marlis and Hadumod Bussmann, eds. Gender across Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001.
ε#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1]) ǡAAVE ħȵ˴ؤͤ⤷Ѽ֤θŪʺۤϤüԽĤμҲŪʺۤбȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤǤСꥫǼȤƹͤѤ AAVE ȼȤͤѤ Standard English ˤᤤѼȤθŪʺۤϡꥫιͼҲͼҲκۤɽ路ƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ۤȤϸˤäƤЪΥȤȤ館졤羮ϼҲŪŪǥŪͼŪʴްդĤȤˤʤ롥
Creolist Hypothesis ϡɸѼ狼礭ЪΥƤ쥪줬æ쥪벽 (decreolization) β̤ɸѼ˶ŤƤȲꤷƤ롥ĤޤꡤξѼʤƴްդǤξѼüԽġˤˤϹή (convergence) ƤȤˤʤ롥Anglicist Hypothesis ϡꥹꥫˤ⤿餵졤ѼѼȤ礭2Ĥήؤʬߤ˻ޤǤʬ֤ݤƤΤȤ롥ĤޤꡤξѼʤƴްդǤξѼüԽġˤˤʬ (divergence) ƤȤˤʤ롥
ǤϡߤΥꥫҲˤơŪˤϤɤĬήѻΤƤ뤳ȤҴŪȽǤ뤳ȤϾѼѼʬˤȾ "divergence hypothesis" ŪȤʤäƤ롥Trudgill (60) Ѥ롥
Research carried out in the 1990s appears to suggest that, even if AAVE is descended from an English-based Creole which has, over the centuries, come to resemble more and more closely the English spoken by other Americans, this process has now begun to swing into reverse. The suggestion is that AAVE and white dialects of English are currently beginning to grow apart. In other words, changes are taking place in white dialects which are not occurring in AAVE, and vice versa. Quite naturally, this hypothesis has aroused considerable attention in the United States because, if true, it would provide a dramatic reflection of the racially divided nature of American society. The implication is that these linguistic divergences are taking place because of a lack of integration between black and white communities in the USA, particularly in urban areas.
ŪʻСPhiladelphia ʤɤǤѼǤ첻 [aɪ] > [əɪ] ѲʹƱԻԤιѼˤϤ줬ƤʤAAVE Ǥ̤ɽ魯 be done ʸ (ex. I'll be done killed that motherfucker if he tries to lay a hand on my kid again.) ȼȯãƤƤ뤬ѼˤȿǤƤʤ
ԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) äƤޤȼҲδطɤľŪǤ뤫ȽǤ뤳Ȥ䤹ʤȤͤС¨Ҳ경褦Ȥ뷹ˤϿŤǤʤФʤʤä˥ꥫǤϡꡤͼꡤǥؤȲ䤹ҴŪʸؤδ顤2ĤѼθѲĬήˤ٤ɬפǤ롥ϰפǤϤ뤬
̻ؤˤ divergence convergence ˤĤƤϡ#627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ ([2011-01-14-1]) ӡ#628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ (2) ([2011-01-15-1]) ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) ȡ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) Ǽ夲AAVE (African American Vernacular English) ȤϥꥫѸ1ѼȤƤΤͱѸ (Black English) ؤ"Black" "African-American" θƾΤդ路ΤȩοŪʵ˾ƤۤŬڤǤ뤫顤"Vernacular English" θƾΤդ路ΤϡɸѸ (Standard English) ФɸѸ (Non-Standard English or Substandard English) ȸƤ֤ΤϤͥްդƤޤǤ롥Ūˤ AAVE Ȥ̾Τ夷Ƥ롥
AAVE ˤϡʸˡܤ˸¤äƤ⡤ɸѸ˸ʤħ¿ǧ롥ΤȤƤϡʼȤͤˤää˥ꥫ䡤ֳߤαѸȤ륯쥪ȶᤤħȤ롥ꥹ˵ĤȹͤΤʸˡܤ⤢롥Ūˤϰʲ˼ͤΤ褦ʻ𤫤顤AAVE ʸˡŪħȤεä2Ĥ⤬ΩƤ롥ߡꥫѸѼ˴ؤȤƤϡܤƤ1ĤȤäƤ褤
1ܤβ Creolist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥ѸեꥫνȤ̤Ȥޤ줿쥪졤뤤ϤѸѼ郎AAVE εǤȤ줬ɸѸȤܿݤĤʤǡɸѸؤȶŤƤĤޤæ쥪벽 (decreolization) ƤȹͤƤ롥ˤȡꥫ AAVE ƤΤϡԤԤ˱ƶͿ롥AAVE ħŪʸùܤΤʤˤϡvoodoo ʥ֡ɥ, pinto ʴ, goober ʥԡʥåġˤʤեꥫͳ褹Τ¿βؤɤȤʤäƤ롥
2ܤβ Anglicist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥AAVE ħεϥꥹ礫⤿餵줿ѸѼˤȤǤ롥ꥫǹѼѼ郎ۤʤΤϡ300ǯˤ錄ˤΤʤǤ줾줬ȼθѲ뤲ǤꡤξѼߤܿŪʤäǤ롥ѻ߸ιͤذ̱ȡԻԤǤϹѼѼȤκۤݤäưռ졤줾̱²ѼȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤä
Τ褦2ĤβϱԤΩƤ뤬ܤӤƤ AAVE μ礿ʸˡŪħ7褦
(1) 3ñ -s ηǡAAVE üԤ¿ϡhe go, it come, she like ʤ -s Τʤ֤Ѥ롥ѸȤԥ䥯쥪ƱݤߤȤǤ Creolist Hypothesis ͭǥɤ East Anglia ǤƱħߤȤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ˤ⸫ߤ롥Ϣơ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ⻲ȡ
(2) ߷ˤϢ (copula) be ηǡShe real nice. They out there. He not American. If you good, you going to heaven. Τ褦ʹʸϢξάϡ¿θǤߤ뤬Ȥ櫓ֳΥ쥪ŵŪǤȤ Creolist Hypothesis μĥǤ롥ꥹˤϰڤߤʤħǤꡤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ϻٻʤ
(3) Ѥ beɸѼΤ褦ˡis, am, are ʤɤȿ;Ѳ be Ȥ롥He usually be around. Sometime she be fighting. Sometime when they do it, most of the problems always be wrong. She be nice and happy. They sometimes be incomplete. ʤɡ(2) Ϣ be ηǡ̷⤹褦ˤߤ뤬be ѤΤϽ (habitual aspect) ɽ魯ȤǤꡤbe ǡȤΩ롥Ѥ be Τ¾αѸѼˤߤ뤬줬ôäƤȤΤ AAVE ͭǤ롥He busy right now. Sometime he be busy. ˴ؤʸˡŪΩƤꡤΩɸѸɽʤСHe's busy right now. Sometimes he's busy. Τ褦ʶˤѤʤ쥪Ǥϻ (tense) (aspect) ʸˡƥȤͥ褵뤳Ȥ¿ᡤѤ be Creolist Hypothesis ˤȤäͭʺȤ롥ˤĤƤСAAVE ǤϡۤˤɸѸŪ I have talked. I had talked. Ȥä˲äλ I done talked. I been talked. Τ褦ߤ롥
(4) 2ܤι¤ˤƽưΤߤά뷹ɸѸǤ We were eating --- and drinking too. Τ褦2ܤǤ we are ޤ뤴ȾάΤ̤AAVE Ǥ¿Υ쥪Ʊͤ are άWe was eatin' --- an' we drinkin', too. ȤΤ̤Ǥ롥
(5) ܵʸˤư֡I asked Mary where did she go. I want to know did he come last night. ʤɡ
(6) ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) there ǤϤʤ it Ѥ롥It's a boy in my class name Joey. It ain't no heaven for you to go to. ʤɡ
(7) ư֡ʿʸȤʿʸΥȥ͡ǡDoesn't nobody know that it's a God. Cant't nobody do nothing about it. Wasn't nothing wrong with that. ʤɡ
1980ǯޤǤγسˤƤ Creolist Hypothesis ͥäʻ¤Τ褦ˤʤˤĤ졤٤Ƥ Creolist Hypothesis DzǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ餫ˤʤäƤ㤨С AAVE ȤƥꥫذܽĤ㤬 Nova Scotia (Canada) Samaná (Dominican Republic) ǸߤäƤѼϡν AAVE ħ¿¸Ƥ뤳Ȥͽۤ뤬Ѥ be ʤɤηŪħ礤Ƥ롥ϡ AAVE ŪħAAVE νäƤΤǤϤʤŪ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ߽Ф
ޤdo otherwise ȤѤˡ AAVE ˤ뤬ɤ East Anglia ˤƱˡꡤ줬ǤȹͤʤAAVE Dat's a thing dat's got to be handled just so, do it'll kill you. East Anglia You lot must have moved it, do I wouldn't have fell in. Ӥ줿
ʳȻפͤϡCreolist Hypothesis Anglicist Hypothesis ŪΩ벾ǤϤʤȤ߹碌ƤȤ館٤ȤȤǤ롥줾βˤäƤŪʤħ⤢СξԤȤȤʤꤦ褦ħ⤢롥ޤºݤˤϴͿƤʤ褦ħ⤢뤫⤷ʤñ˵ƤޤȤϡष
ʾ塤Trudgill (51--60) ȤƼɮ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ε#1883. ˤγѡ ([2014-06-23-1]) ˴ϢơѸǤ generic 'he' ꡤƤβȤƻ̱ƤƤ#1054. singular they ([2012-03-16-1]) ꤬פФ롥singular they ˤĤơǶᥦ־ A Linguist On the Story of Gendered Pronouns ȤĤΤǾҲ𤷤singular they 㤬 Chaucer ʤѸߤ뤳ȡgeneric 'he' 18ȾεʸˡȤˤФ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥʤɡ˱ѸŪʴäƤꡤɤβͤ롥
θȾˤǡե줬ѸʸˡξüʬŪ˴ͿƤȼƤսˤĤƵ䤬ɮԤˤСΥɤˤѸ Norman French Ȥ2Ѿ2ĤΰۤʤʸˡηϤͤ줬ȤʤäƱѸʸˡηϤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤäȤμ礿븶ȹͤƤ褦ǤϤ뤬Τ褦ʵϰŪ˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤʤ#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥եαƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) 䡤Ѹ줬űѸȥեκǤȤ륯쥪첾ε ##1223,1249,1250,1251 Ȥ줿ˡ
So what you really have is an extended period of several centuries in which many people were more-or-less proficient in both Norman French and Anglo Saxon, which in actual fact meant speaking the highly intermingled versions known as Anglo-Norman and Middle English. But words that belong to one gender in one language don't necessarily belong to the same gender in the other. To use a modern example, the word for "bridge" in French, pont, is masculine, but the word for "bridge" in German, ''Brücke, is feminine. If you couple this with the fact that people had begun to stop pronouncing altogether the endings that indicate a word gender and case, you can see how these features became irrelevant for the language in general.
ޤΥɤ¿οͤ٤κϤ2üԤäȤȤɤٻ¤ȹäƤΤȤ䤬롥²Υեϥɿͤμο͡¿쾯ʤХäǽϹ⤤¿ν̱ϱѸΥΥäʡ#338. Norman Conquest ΥɤΥեüԤγ ([2010-03-31-1]) ӡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) εȡˡѸθѲĬή褷ΤϤ¿ΥΥѸüԤä˰㤤ʤҲŪʸϤϤˤ辯ΥХ뤬˸ŪƶڤܤΤϤʤϤǤ롥
ˡ#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̤˥եαѸؤľŪʸŪƶϺ٤ǤȤϤΤ롥äֻСե줬ѸηŪ˱ƶͿܤϿʤŪʱƶҲŪʱƶϿäɾƤ롥ϡ#1171. եȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1]) #1208. եαʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1]) ̤Ǥ롥
ξüȤФˤϡեˤ뤳δŪʸ̡ξüŪ¥Ȥ̤ŦǽʬǤϤʤ
(gender) ˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ gender gender_difference εǹͻƤΤʤˤϡʸˡ (grammatical gender) Ȥ (category) ΰ (agreement) ;̾ (personal_pronoun) λؼоݤʤɡŪŪ⤢С˴ؤ political_correctnessMiss/Mrs./Ms. ʤɤξι (title) ä˽θѲؤδͿʤɡʸŪҲŪ⤢롥ˤϤΤ褦˹ΰʤäƤ롥
Τ褦˹Ƹ̤ʤʬȤݤäƤΤHellinger and Bussmann Gender across Languages νϤɤǡƬꥢˤʤäΩ (1) įǤ⡤ΰʤϰϤ褽Ǥ褦ʡ줿ȤʤäƤ롥
1. Aims and scope of "Gender across languages"
2. Gender classes as a special case of noun classes
2.1 Classifier languages
2.2 Noun class languages
3. Categories of gender
3.1 Grammatical gender
3.2 Lexical gender
3.3 Referential gender
3.4 "False generics": Generic masculines and male generics
3.5 Social gender
4. Gender-related structures
4.1 Word-formation
4.2 Agreement
4.3 Pronominalization
4.4 Coordination
5. Gender-related messages
5.1 Address terms
5.2 Idiomatic expressions and proverbs
5.3 Female and male discourse
6. Language change and language reform
7. Conclusion
"Gender across languages" ꤹ븦ץȤΰĤȤƽǤ줿ΤΥץȤμ礿ؿ5ˤޤȤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ (Hellinger and Bussmann 2)
(1) ܤʸˡäƤ뤫äƤʤСס̡̾첽ʤɤˤηŪħϲ
(2) ʸˡʤʤСꡤꡤ뤤οʪؼΤˤɤΤ褦ˡ뤫
(3) ΩŪʸ̮ǿͤؤȤǥեȤǤ褦ɽѤʤɤо뤫
(4) ˴ؤҲʸŪʳؤ䥹ƥ쥪פɽ魯Ѷ硤ȡȤ虜ʤɤ뤫
(5) ȸѰۡѲϤɤΤ褦˴ؤäƤ뤫פˤĤƤϤɤ
ԼԤϡˤϡؾˤȤɤޤ餺ҲŪʴްդΤǤ뤳ȤĥƤ롥礭ʻͿƤɽɤ
Hellinger, Marlis and Hadumod Bussmann, eds. Gender across Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001.
ѸˤϡѸ move prove Ф <meven> <preven> Τ褦˸촴첻 <e> θֻŪ˹ԤƤ줬 <o> ˼ä뤳ȤˤʤΤطʤõäƤߤ
move prove ϥեѸǤꡤեǤϤ줾 mouvoir prouver б롥prouver ľˡߤο;Ѳ̤Ƹ촴첻Ѥʤmouvoir Ͽ;Τ˱첻 <eu> ȸ첻 <ou> δ֤Ѱۤ롥ƱѰۤ mourir, vouloir ȤȤ˳ɽǤ褦
| mouvoir ư | mourir ʻ̡ | vouloir ˾ | |
| 1st sg. | je meus | je meurs | je veux |
| 2nd sg. | tu meus | tu meurs | tu veux |
| 3rd sg. | il meut | il meurt | il veut |
| 1st pl. | nous mouvons | nous mourons | nous voulons |
| 2nd pl. | vous mouvez | vous mourez | vous voulez |
| 3rd pl. | ils meuvent | ils meurent | ils veulent |
ε#1880. -ee εȯŸ (1) ([2014-06-20-1]) ³θѸˤƤμŪѲŪȯŸˤĤơIsozaki ˵ʤͤ롥
Isozaki ϡOED ۤλͻꡤѸ줫500Ķ -ee ơǯ塤졦̣μ̡촴θ츻ˤʬϤѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤĬή2ͤߤενǽҤ٤(1) ޥϸ촴ǤϤʤ촴³뷹ƤƤ뤳ȡ (2) standee Τ褦ưʼ˥פƤƤ뤳ȡ2ĤǤ롥
(1) ˤĤƤϡOED ѤĴ̤ղȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ (Isozaki 7)

ե촴³뷹ӤƶȤ餫Ǥ롥촴³㤬긽ƤȤܤͤ롥ʤ19ȯθ20̣˸ΤϡOED θüϿħˤȤ礭⤷ʤ
(2) ˤĤƤƱ OED Ѥơʰ̣Ūʴʬष̤ϰʲ̤Ǥ (Isozaki 6) դΤʤǡDO ưľŪ졤IO ϴŪ졤PO ֻŪ졤S ϼ졤Anom. ưȤľܤ˴طʤ§ŪʤΤǤ롥

跿 DO פͥǤ³Ƥ뤳ȤǤꡤS פγĥäΩʤ褦ˤߤ롥OED Υơ1900--2005ǯμܤ仲ͿǤνиθȡDO 117㡤IO 23㡤PO 4㡤S 32㡤Anom. 18ȡS ʼ쥿סˤοĥ (Isozaki 6)
-ee ŪʻȤ¿졤Ѱΰ̲ʤǤ褦˻פ롥ϸŪĴɬפȤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤܼ (productivity) Ȥ⡤ƥʤĥäƤǤ롥
Isozaki, Satoko. "520 -ee Words in English." Lexicon 36 (2006): 3--23.
emplóyer ʸۤˤФ employée ʸۤƤ͡ˤȤڥϤ褯ΤƤ롥appóinter/appointée, exáminer/examinée, páyer/payée, tráiner/trainée ʤɤΥڥƱͤǡ줾Ȥ -er ԤǽưŪư-ee ĸԤưŪưɽ魯
absentee ʷʼԡ, escapee æԡ, patentee õͭԡ, refugee ̱, standee Ωҡˤʤɡ̣Ū˼ȤȤϲǤʤ¸ߤ롥ºݡstandee stander ƱǤϤʤȤƤ⡤ʤȤǤϤ롥-ee ȤƬƯϤɤΤ褦ʤΤ
-er ŪʸűѸ -ereˤ-ee ϥե줫ѤǤ롥ե -é(e) ưβʬǤꡤ¾ư³мȤΰ̣Ȥʤä켫Τϥƥ1Ѥưβʬܼ -ātus ̤Τǡcommunicatee, dedicatee, educatee, legatee, relocatee ʤɤǤƱ2ĤղäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ-ate ˤĤƤϡ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) #1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) ȡˡ
-ee δŪʵǽϡư촴ͤͭʪɽ魯ư̾뤳ȤǤ롥¾ħȤƤϡ -ee /ˈiː/ ˶뤳ȡջηǡȤ̣뤳ȡˡΧѸȤѤ뷹ȡʤɤ롥ˡΧȤѰ (register) ˤĤƤСAnglo-Norman ˡΧѸ apelour/apelé Ѹä appellor/appellee ʾʿ͡ʿ͡ˤʤɤΥڥȤʤꡤѸʹߡΤθ츻ˤ餺 -or (or -er) -ee ˤˡΧѸڥ³ޤ줿
ưȤҤȤˤäƤ⡤ŪˤϴΤưľŪ졤Ū졤ֻŪΡ˼Τ䡤ưȤľܤ˴ϢʤΤޤơ͡ʼब (Isozaki 5--6)examinee "someone who one examines" ľŪpayee "someone to whom one pays something" ǴŪlaughee "someone who one laughs at" ֻŪ standee attendee "someone who stands" "someone who attends something" Ǽ롥¾§ŪʼȤơamputee "someone whose limb was amputated" ʣطpatentee, redundantee, biographee ̾ƻΤȤƤġ
ˤĤƸѸ줫鸽ѸؤƤ̻Ūܤߤȡޥϸ촴ǤϤʤ촴³뷹ƤƤ뤳ȡstandee Τ褦ưʼ˥פƤƤ뤳ȤŦ롥ĬήˤĤƤϡεǡ
Isozaki, Satoko. "520 -ee Words in English." Lexicon 36 (2006): 3--23.
ޥե٥åˤˤĤƤϡե٥åȤä#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])#1853. ʸη (2) ([2014-05-24-1]) εdzѤƤƥɽȯŸޥե٥åȤϡθ塤衼åѤ濴˹ꡤˤηаޤȤȤ˥衼åѳسȻ#1861. Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤñ㤵 ([2014-06-01-1]) ޤäơߤǤƤʴϢơ#1838. ʸ ([2014-05-09-1]) ͡ˡܸˤλѤϼĮ̤뤬ޥե٥åȤŪȻˤΰ쥳ޤǤ롥ʲܸˤˤƣ (118--24) ˵ä褦
ܤ˽ƥ줿Τϡ16ȾĮǤ롥ꥹȶ붵դȤȤˤ⤿餵줿1590ǯŷ18ǯˡꥢͤΥ˥㡼 (1539--1609) 縶˳⤿餷ǥˤνإȥθȤȴ (1591) Ԥ³ơĹꡤŷ𡤵Ԥʤɤǿ¿ΥΡ֥ꥷפǤ뤳Ȥˤʤäإɥʡꥷʵðˡ (1592) ʤɤǤϡݥȥȯ˴Ťܸ줬ɽƤꡤܸȯΤǵŤʻȤʤäƤ롥
³ͻˤϺԤ졤ڤ˸뤳ȤȤʤäδ֤ˡ (1657--1725) 1708ǯ5ǯˤ˲ɺή붵եɥå䤷ƥ¾μơθФƽưӤƥʤƤεʹ٤äܤˤȯŸľܤϹʤäͻˤؤˤʤȤȤ˥켰ΥѤ졤䤬ƥɥĸ켰ե켰⸽줿ݿΤˤϱѸ켰ǤͥȤʤäƤѸ켰̲Τϡ1767ǯʷı3ǯˤ˥ꥫδʰ塦붵դΥإܥ (James Curtis Hepburn; 1815--1911) 路ܽ±Ѽŵ±Ѹӽ٤餦Ȥ礭3ǤǺѤ줿ɽ֥إܥɸ༰ˡפ̾ǹڤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
ˤʤȡˤ褦ȤưޤäѸɽ˶ᤤإܥɸ༰ˤ褷ȤܸɽòܼפѤ٤۰ (1856--1952) ˻ꡤξȶΩϤޤäΩϤθĹ³Ȥˤʤꡤˤʸʡ̳ʤʤɤإܥΦʤʤɤܼ줾ٻܤܻؤĴȿ6ǯε1937ǯܼä˥إܥ¿줿ַἰפۤ
ϼޤ餺1954ǯˡܤɽʡᷱἰˤɽʡإܥɽˤ줿ܼˤϿ֥ΤĤŤȤƹ뤳ȤˤʤäǤ˱̾ѥݡȤο̾˺ѤƤإܥˤθĤĤŪäθ塤٤ξǧȤϤߤζǤϡϾع4ǯdzؤ֤ȤˤʤäƤ롥
ĮδĤ˥դʡ#1746. ɽΥ ([2014-02-06-1])ˡԥ塼ΥѴڤܸιݲʤǤ븽ߡʴܸˤѤƤ褦˻פ롥
ƣ ͧҡܤʸΤդդ١ꥹۡ1997ǯ
6ϥΤǤ롥ιФ椨˹ȤƤФ졤ѸǤ sweetfish (or ayu) ȾΤ롥ǤϡְפȽ֥פɤΤϤʤ뤤·ˤǤꡤǤλ̤øʥޥǤ롥ۤˡǡּŤ֡פϥĥȥ롤פϥ⥮ּҡפڿֶפϥĥ̥ԡפṇܸ̃Ǥΰ̣ȤϰۤʤäƤ롥Ρơסʥȥˡִסʥˡʦסʥɥˤ⤳तȹͤ롥ܸظŵ (118) ˤСȤϡִλ˴طʤ뤤ϸžѤܸƤΡפạ̇̄ǹΰȲ뤳ȤǤ褦
ȤѸܸˤžѤΤߤ˸ꤵ뤬ŪʴߤȡɽʸθžѤȤݤܸ˸ꤵʤѸޤɽ륢ե٥åȤϤ⤽ɽʸʤΤľܤθ줫õȤϺϢ븽ݤϤ롥#1823. ([2014-04-24-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡꥷʸΦ (khi) (theta) (phi) 3ʸϡȥꥢƥذܿ줿Ȥˡ줾 50, 100, 1000 οɽ魯ΤžѤ줿ޤ%ϰŪɴʬΨεԥ塼ǤϾ;α黻ҤȤѤ뤳Ȥ롥ƱǤϤʤह븽ݤȤϤΤǤϤʤ
˶̤Ƥ褦˻פħϡ˵沽 (signifié) Ȥˡɬ⿷ɽ (signifiant) 餺ˤȤǤ¸ߤƤʸФ˿ʰ̣ǽô碌ƤޤΤؤǤ롥ˤäƤϿΰ̣ǽΤ˾ͤξƤޤ⤷ʤƤ礭ȤϤʤ餺ؤΥåȤΤۤ礭⡤ǽϰϤǴ¸θΰ̣ڡͭѤΤʤΤƱǤ롥
Τ褦˹ͤƤȡȤϷ褷ðۤʸݤǤϤʤŪˤߤ뵭ΥꥵˤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ΤʸǤ첻Ǥ졤ȤΤϡ֤֤֤ƤưۤʤʸذܿȡεƤæƤޤǽʬˤ롥ºݤˡ̣Υ줬ФȤʤѸʡ#1624. Ѹΰ ([2013-10-07-1])ˤ¿뤷ĸθϤ֥֥סʡ#633. beech Ȱθζ ([2011-01-20-1])ˤǤϡbeech ΰ̣ؼоݤΥ줬Ǥä̤˴ΤϡΥꥵ뤬ʸȤƤ뤳ȡƸɽʸŪȤˤΤθݤȤƤϡʿޤʤΤ⤷ʤ
ܸظŵ١ ʸۤ ԡ2007ǯ
enlighten ַؤפȤưǤϡΤ light Ƭ en- -en ղäƤ롥̾줬ư첽ƤƱ褦ʵǽܼ2դƤΤ̯Ȥ̯Ǥ롥줫ΤߤǤɤʤΤºݤ -en Τߤղä lighten Ȥư줬¸ߤ롥ܼϤɤΤ褦˻ȤʬƤΤ
¤ϡƬ en- -en θ츻ϤޤäۤʤäƤꡤʤƬΤۤϡƥƬ in- ͳ褷ťեͳƱѸäܼǤ롥Ѹֻ in ȵŪˤƱǡءפȤספȤưΤǡưƬȤƵǽϤΤ̾δΤˤĤΤܤƻ䤹ǤưǤΤˤĤȤ⤢ (ex. encase, enchain, encradle, enthrone, enverdure; embus, emtram, enplane; engulf, enmesh; empower, encollar, encourage, enfranchise; embitter, enable, endear, englad, enrich, enslave; enfold, enkindle, enshroud, entame, entangle, entwine, enwrap) Τưξ硤ˤ̤ -en ȤʤäƤΤꡤembolden, enfasten, engladden, enlighten Τ褦ʷ֤ƤѸˤʤäΤȤơencolden, enlengthen, enlessen, enmilden, enquicken, enwiden, enwisen ⤢ˡenclose/inclose, encumber/incumber, enquire/inquire, ensure/ensure ʤ en- in- θؤ⤢뤬츻ŪˤԤϥեԤϥƥǤ롥
-en ϡ¾ưűѸ -nian ̤㤨СűѸηƻ fæst (fast) Фư fæstnian (fasten)ˡߤɡϡ -nian κǸ -n ǤϤʤǽ -n ĤäΤǤ롥ηƻ̾δΤˤĤ?ˤס?ˤʤפΰդɽ魯Ȥơdarken, deepen, harden, sharpen, sicken, soften, sweeten; heighten, lengthen, strengthen; steepen ʤɡΤΤϾ嵭Τ褦˸űѸ̤뤬˵¿ϸѸѸǤ˴Ťη̤Ǥ롥
ʤȤޡˤȤϡդ˽ɤϤؤܿͤϸդŪƯΤȿƤ (19) ˤ
ʤθդȤϰۤʤƯդˤϡԻĤϤɤȹͤƤ˽ФƸΩƤդϡΤޤ¤ȤƼ¸졤褤ադϥϥҡʹˤ⤿餷դϥ略ϥҡʲҡˤ⤿餹ȤȸɤȡȻɤƱƤΤǤ롥դ˽ɤϡʸˤФ뿮ĤĤȸƤǤ롥
Ȥϡս٤3㸽롥
ߤġʤޤȡˤιϡĿʤߡˤΡʤĤˤΡʤˤϤչȡѤҷѤҤꡡʴޡ岱ɤĹΤΰ
ΡȬʤ䤽ˤ͡ʤޤˤˡͼʤ椦աʤʤޤˤ˹ʤΡˤ롡ʤˤϤҴࡡʴ졦ܿϤν
ʤޡˤΡܡʤޤȡˤιϡΡʤϡˤչʤˤꤳʴܿϤν
ǽȺǸβΤϡⸯɸˤΤǤꡤгŪʶĥǡȰռܤȤȤˡҸӤؤοĤФ줿סʽp. 19ˤȤ롥ǸβΤȤơܤϡָιչסʸ̯ƯˤäƱɤˤȸƤФ뤳Ȥ뤬ºݤˤϸؤοĤܡʸˤ˸¤餺ź㤬롥षĿˤȤäưŪʸݤȹͤ롥
˻졤ʸϤȤ櫓ҲǽŻ뤵줿ĤȿǤǤ뤷 (taboo) δȡˤäưնʸˡ (euphemism) ȯãϡνˤ롥 (arbitrariness) ؤȿȤƹѻħ (sound_symbolism) 䥪Υޥȥ (onomatopoeia) ޤ奮ꥷǵä#1315. analogist and anomalist controversy (1) ([2012-12-02-1]) ⡤ȤλؼоݤȤƱ뤷褦Ȥ뷹ȿطƤ롥ޤ¤Ӥ˿ʰյ⤯ͻβ䡤䶵ȯŸ#1455. gematria ([2013-04-21-1]) ʤɤθꤤ⡤ĤθǤ롥Ogden and Richards Ρ#1770. semiotic triangle դľܤˤĤʤäƤȤθ ([2014-03-02-1]) ؤηپ⡤ֵ͡ؼоݡפƱ뤷ƤޤؤδǤäĤϡ褷ŪʴǤϤʤǤ©ŤƤָտפǤ롥
ˤդ줿ˤϡǡָԿפȤ꤬롥տԿȤ̣䵭ΩDz褷褦ȤʤСޤϵȻؼоݤȤδط뤳ȤϤɬפĤȤϡε乥κƤ롥
ʡ ͺˡظʸػˡ١ʸƲ2000ǯ
acrostic ȤϡƹƬʸ֤ȸˤʤͷӤ֤ʸ⤢ꡤΤΤ telestich ȤƤФ롥إϥ¼ŵ٤˷ǺܤƤ acrostic 褦Ƭʸ COMET Ȥʤ롥
Composed of vapors, shining bright,
Of wondrous size, yet harmless light.
Men view thee as a burning ball,
Expecting soon to see thee fall
To this world, kill us all. (R. Blackwell)
ΤǤϡacrostic ϥꥷä Sibyl ʥӥˤοΤʤ˽Ƹ졤ꥷͤδ֤ήԤȤ衼åѤˤꡤߤǤͷȤƿƤޤƤ롥OED ˤȡѸˤ acrostic Ȥκǽ16ȾˤϡSibyl ؤθڤޤʸ
1587 Sir P. Sidney & A. Golding tr. P. de Mornay Trewnesse Christian Relig. xxxii. 591 Cicero..maketh mention of Sibils Acrosticke [Fr. l'Acrostiche de la Sybille], that is to say, of certeyne verses of hirs whose first letters made the name of that King.
ߡacrostic ϰŵѤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨ХȲθβФΤˡ"Every Good Boy Deserves Favour" ƬʸѤˡʤɤ (Crystal 116)
ܸǤϡ²Ρж硦ʤɤ˻ȤƱͤͼȤơʤ꤯ˤ롥θήϺ߸ʿΡذʪ٤˱Ӥޤ줿֤ĤФפޤ²Ρ֤ĤĤʤˤʤФϤФ̤ιפաפˤꡤͻˤϻͼȤήԤƶޤޤ伷ƶޤޤʤ͡ʼब줿˼ιƬȹޤʤĤ֤ (=double acrostic) Ȥͼ⤢롥ʲϡķκʤǡơʤ͡ˤޤʤˡˤߤפɤ롥
⤹
Τ
ޤ
µ⽩
Ƥʤ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
ٸϷŪݼŪȤȤϡ褯롥٤Ѳ䤹Ȥδ֤شط餷ȤϡǶǤ#1864. ȴդٸ̡ ([2014-06-04-1]) Ǽ夲εƬˤ⤤ĤεؤΥĥä (##694,1091,1239,1242,1243,1265,1286,1287,1864) ٸϤƤŪʴøǤ⤢뤳Ȥ顤ϴøäݼȤˤ̤롥ºݡ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) ϡøäݼȤä
Ȥ (sign) ֤Ȥɽ (signifiant) ˤĤ٤ݼδطŦΤʤСΤ⤦1Ĥ¦̤Ǥ뵭 (signifié)ʤ̣ˤĤƤƱͤδطŦƤ褤Ϥ٤ΰ̣ǤСѲˤȤΤǤϤʤStern (185) ϡٸθݼ˿Ƥ롥
It is well known that the most common words of a language retain most tenaciously old and otherwise discarded forms and inflections. It is reasonable to assume that a strong tradition has similar effects on meanings. Note, however, that the retention of one or more old meanings is no obstacle to the acquisition of new ones: frequency is only a conservative factor for already established meanings.
٤θĸϤ켫Τ٤ǤꡤŪʴøǤΨ⤯ΤȤݼŪȤͽۤ롥ʤۤ Stern νҤ٤̤ꡤι٤θݼŪȤƤ⡤θŪŪʸղä뤳Ȥ˸櫓ǤϤʤष¿ξ硤ø¿Ǥ롥
Stern θ褦ˡ֤ˤĤƤ̣ˤĤƤ⡤٤ݼȤشطǧ褦˻פ롥1礭ʰ㤤롥֤Ѳˤϡ˼ä뤤ϾʤȤξ variants Ȥ¤ΩľȤ롥ΤȤ ơ variant Τ˶̤롥̣ѲˤϡŤɬ֤ΤǤϤʤξѤƤ椯Ȥ¿ variants ִΩȤϡ餬¿ȤѤ߽ŤʤäƤǤ롥֤ݼỌ̇̄ݼϡΰ㤤ռʤƤɬפϢơ#1692. ̣ȷ֤δط ([2013-12-14-1]) 3ѤȤ줿
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1])#1863. Stern ˤΰ̣Ť3ǡ ([2014-06-03-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1]) ạ̇̄Ọ̇̄ѲˤĤƹͻ Stern θҲ𤷤ƤStern (165--76) ϰ̣Ѳʬ꤬7ʬƤ
A. External Causes Class I. Substitution.
B. Linguistic Causes
I. Shift of Verbal Relation
a. Class II. Analogy.
b. Class III. Shortening.
II. Shift of Referential Relation
a. Class IV. Nomination.
b. Class V. (Regular) Transfer.
III. Shift of Subjective Relation
a. Class VI. Permutation.
b. Class VII. Adequation.
Class I (Substitution) ϡŪŪװˤ̣ѲǤ롥ФеѤʸȯŸؤäƤꡤ㤨 ship to travel ϡŪʾʪȯȸȤǤϡؼо (referent) ۤʤäƤ롥̣ѲΤΤȤߤʤϡؼоݤѲȼ̣ѹȤäۤŬڤ⤷ʤ
Class II (Analogy) ϡ㤨 fast ֤äȡפ®פؤȤɤạ̈Ѳˤбƻ fast ؤƶƻ fast ®פθȤ㤬롥տŪտŪξ롥üԼΡ
Class III (Shortening) ϡprivate soldier ξάȤ private Ѥ褦ʥǡ̤Ȥ private ΰ̣䵡ǽѲȤˤʤ롥տŪտŪξ롥üԼΡ
Class IV (Nomination) ϡȡȡȤʤɤޤžȤ櫓ͤʤɤտŪʤȤŪˤ˹ԤŪžؤüԼΡ
Class V ((Regular) Transfer) ϡտŪžɽ魯 Nomination ФơտŪžؤտޤ̵ͭȽȤʤ⤢롥üԼΡ
Class VI (Permutation) ϡcount one's beads Ȥֶפˤơ beads ϵ̣βΤ˥ꥪο̤äƤȤ顤beads ̤ΤΤ̣褦ˤʤäcount one's beads ϡξ˲ǤȤۣǤϤ뤬ʤ̤ƤΤؼоݤȤƤȤħ롥տŪʹ¿Ϳ롥
Class VII (Adequation) ϡưʪγѤɽ魯 horn Ȥָפʺʤ˳ụ̄褦ˤʤä㤬롥ؼоݼΤѲƤʤΤ Substitution ǤϤʤؼоݤλŪ˴ؤüԤѲħŪǤ롥տŪʹ¿Ϳ롥
Stern 7ʬϡ(1) 쳰ŪŪ(2) ʡؼоݡѤΤ˴ؤ뤫(3) տŪտŪ(4) 礿뻲ͿԤüԤΤߤʹޤफȤäʣδŤ碌ΤǤ롥1ĤΥǥȤƤȤ館Ƥ
Ϣơ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) #1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1]) ⻲ȡ
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
ѲοʹԤ®٤ϩˤĤƤϡŵŪ neogrammarian hypothesis lexical_diffusion ʤɤβ⤬ƤȴϢϤ뤬ۤʤ٤ѲΥ塼˸ƤƤ벾ȤơKroch ˤ "Constant Rate Hypothesis" 롥β Kroch ΤĤʸǸڤƤ뤬1989ǯʸꡤƱʬ2ȴ褷褦
. . . change seems to proceed at the same rate in all contexts. Contexts change together because they are merely surface manifestations of a single underlying change in grammar. Differences in frequency of use of a new form across contexts reflect functional and stylistic factors, which are constant across time and independent of grammar. (Kroch 199)
. . . when one grammatical option replaces another with which it is in competition across a set of linguistic contexts, the rate of replacement, properly measured, is the same in all of them. The contexts generally differ from one another at each period in the degree to which they favor the spreading form, but they do not differ in the rate at which the form spreads. (Kroch 200)
Kroch ϡʸǼȤƱŪ do (do-periphrasis) äܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤夲ƤȤ櫓#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Ellegård θ椬ƶϤ³Ƥ롥ǥդ˼褦ˡŪ do ϰۤʤĶ˥褦ʬۤȤƤܤ٤ϡĶб⡤ͻ̤äѥȤ٤㤤̵뤹ʤСŪ do γϡ٤ƤĶˤ "constant rate" ǿʹԤȤΤǤϤʤ줬Kroch μĥǤ롥
Kroch ϡˤƸŪơĶ˿Ʃٹ礤ϰۤʤäƤΤϡĶȤ˸̤˴Ϳ뵡ǽŪʸŪװ椨ǤꡤθѲΤΤΥ塼ϡƱߥǰΥѥȤƤ롥ʸˡȤߤ Kroch ˤȤäơŪѲȤϴˤ뵬§ѲǤʡ#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ȡˡѲϢĶΤƱ˿ƩȤΤϼȹͤƤ롥ƱʸǤϡŪ do ȯŸۤhave got have ִݥȥνͭ̾ˤ괧λѤáեˤư2ΰ֤ε§ξüȤäŪѲƱ Constant Rate Hypothesis ΤȤƤ롥
ʤConstant Rate Hypothesis Ȥ̾Τϡ̣롥"constant" ȤϳơĶɽ魯ߤƱѥȤ̣Ǥ "constant" ǤꡤSФƱ夬ľʷ˰ˤȤ̣Ǥ "constant" ǤϤʤäơConstant Rate Hypothesis S̷⤹ΤǤϤʤषKroch ϳѲΥ塼ȤƤSǧƤ褦Ǥ롥
Kroch, Anthony S. "Reflexes of Grammar in Patterns of Language Change." Language Variation and Change 1 (1989): 199--244.
Ellegård, A. The Auxiliary Do. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1953.
˴ؤ뺬¯1ĤˡָͼפȤΤ롥¯ˤϡ롥ʤϸŷŪǤꡤͼŷŪǤ롤ȸкѤʤʤǤΡָפȤϡҥȤθǽϤȤ̣ǤΡָפǤϤʤȤƽ̤ΡָפǤˡ͡ΰռΤʤǤϡФФ2ĤʬӤĤƤꡤۤɴñˤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ˤϡȿͼƱˤꡤϢ¿θޤƤ㤨С19ˤϥɡ衼åѸ (the Indo-European) ȤؾѸ줬ͼŪʴްդäѤ줿ɡ衼åѸȤϡӡ˸ؾιʪˤʤˤ⤫餺ǯˤĸäƤʹֽĤʤɡ衼åѿ͡ʼˤǤȤä߽Ф졤ȿͼȤӤĤ줿ĸθϤõߤʤüԽĤεõߤǤȲᤵ졤κǤʸѼԤɥ̱²ǤȤͤǤȤä20ɥĤΥʥˤƤ⡤ޥ줳ɡ衼åѸ²μĹǤꡤޥ̱²ɡ衼åѿͼɽԤǤȤơȿͼζƱ뤬ߤ줿
¯θäƤ뤳Ȥϡ͡ʷdzǧǤ롥ɡ衼åѸ²ǹͤС衼åѤΥɥĿͤ쥤ɤΥ٥ͤϡ줾̴طˤɥĸȥ٥äƤȤϤͼȤƶᤤϤȿԤϤʤޤǹͤƤ⡤ɤʿͼǤҥȤȤޤ줿ΤǤСޤĶˤäơɤʸǤ⽬뤳ȤǤȤȤԤϤʤ
Τ褦˾ͤʬ뤳ȤʤΤȤäƴñˤʤΤ¯ȤΤǤ롥㤨С롼ޥ˥ͤϥ롼ޥ˥ȤޥϤθäΤǡƥϤοͼ˰㤤ʤȤ褦ʹͤƤ롥ºݤDNAĴɤΤ褦ʷ̤Ф뤫Ϥ狼ʤ롼ޥ˥ͤϿͼŪˤϾʤȤ⥹ڥͤݥȥͤʤɤȴطŤΤƱ١뤤Ϥʾˡ٤ΥͤʤɤȤطŤΤǤϤʤδ֡٤ο͡ȺƤϤʤΤǡΤ褦ͽۤȤƤޤää٤ȤǤϤʤΤ¯⤬롥
ؤŪΰǤ顤κǰϱƤȤߡεήɤΰոǤϡεϡǯΥۥ⡦ԥνиȥۥ⡦ԥθȯãŸȴϢŤ뤳Ȥ¿ͼ郎ޤۤɳȻƤʤȻȤǤεǤȤϤƤ⡤ϤƤϷ¯˴٤äƤʤȸڤ
ϢơTrudgill (43--44) ε⻲Ȥ줿
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
#1803. Lord's Prayer ([2014-04-04-1]) ˰³̥ɤ٤Ƥߤ롥߷ΡǤɤѸˡ٤6Ϥǡ2:18--25 βս꤬ƱNRSV, KJ, Wycl, OEH 5֤ӤƤ롥ˤơ2ĤθɲäΤȤ7ǤӤǽȤʤ褦ˡѥ롦ƥȤ¤äƤߤɲä2ϡʿפƸΤ Good News Translation BibleGateway.com ˤȡøäΤߤѤ Basic English ǡThe Holy Bible --- Bible in Basic English ˤǤ롥γǤˤĤƤϡ#1709. ױǯɽ ([2013-12-31-1]) Ȥ줿
| Ʊ | ʤϸ줿ֿͤȤǤΤɤʤ˹礦Ԥ¤ |
| NRSV | Then the LORD God said, "It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a helper as his partner." |
| Good News Bible | Then the Lord God said, "It is not good for the man to live alone. I will make a suitable companion to help him." |
| Basic English | And the Lord God said, It is not good for the man to be by himself: I will make one like himself as a help to him |
| KJ | And the LORD God said, "It is not good that the man should be alone: I will make him an helpe meet for him." |
| Wycl | And the Lord God seide, "It is not good that a man be aloone, make we to hym an help lijk to hym silf." |
| OEH | God cwæð ēac swylce, "Nis nā gōd ðisum men āna tō wunigenne; uton wyrcean him sumne fultum tō his gelīcnysse." |
| Ʊ | ʤϡΤáΤĻڤǷŤꡤͤΤȤػäơͤ줾ɤƤ֤Ƥ줿ͤƤ֤ȡϤ٤ơʪ̾Ȥʤä |
| NRSV | So out of the ground the LORD God formed every animal of the field and every bird of the air, and brought them to the man to see what he would call them; and whatever the man called every living creature, that was its name. |
| Good News Bible | So he took some soil from the ground and formed all the animals and all the birds. Then he brought them to the man to see what he would name them; and that is how they all got their names. |
| Basic English | And from the earth the Lord God made every beast of the field and every bird of the air, and took them to the man to see what names he would give them: and whatever name he gave to any living thing, that was its name. |
| KJ | And out of ye ground the LORD God formed euery beast of the field, and euery foule of the aire; and brought them vnto Adam, to see what he would call them: and whatsoeuer Adam called euery liuing creature, that was the name thereof. |
| Wycl | Therfor whanne alle lyuynge beestis of erthe, and alle the volatils of heuene weren formed of erthe, the Lord God brouȝte tho to Adam, that he schulde se what he schulde clepe tho; for al thing that Adam clepide of lyuynge soule, thilke is the name therof. |
| OEH | God sōðlīce gelǣdde ðā nȳtenu, ðe hē of eorðan gescēop, and ðǣre lyfte fugelas tō Adame, ðæt hē forescēawode hū hē hī gecȳgde. Sōðlīce ǣlc libbende nȳten, swā swā Adam hit gecȳgde, swā is his nama. |
| Ʊ | ͤϤܡĻΤä̾դʬ˹礦ԤϸĤ뤳ȤǤʤä |
| NRSV | The man gave names to all cattle, and to the birds of the air, and to every animal of the field; but for the man there was not found a helper as his partner. |
| Good News Bible | So the man named all the birds and all the animals; but not one of them was a suitable companion to help him. |
| Basic English | And the man gave names to all cattle and to the birds of the air and to every beast of the field; but Adam had no one like himself as a help. |
| KJ | And Adam gaue names to all cattell, and to the foule of the aire, and to euery beast of the fielde: but for Adam there was not found an helpe meete for him. |
| Wycl | And Adam clepide bi her names alle lyuynge thingis, and alle volatils, and alle vnresonable beestis of erthe. Forsothe to Adam was not foundun an helpere lijk hym. |
| OEH | And Adam ðā genamode ealle nȳtenu heora naman, and ealle fugelas and ealle wildēor. Adam sōðlīce ne gemētte ðā gȳt nānne fultum his gelīcan. |
| Ʊ | ʤϤǡ̲ͤȤ줿̲ͤȡФΰȴꡤפǤդ줿 |
| NRSV | So the LORD God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and he slept; then he took one of his ribs and closed up its place with flesh. |
| Good News Bible | Then the Lord God made the man fall into a deep sleep, and while he was sleeping, he took out one of the man's ribs and closed up the flesh. |
| Basic English | And the Lord God sent a deep sleep on the man, and took one of the bones from his side while he was sleeping, joining up the flesh again in its place: |
| KJ | And the LORD God caused a deepe sleepe to fall vpon Adam, and hee slept; and he tooke one of his ribs, and closed vp the flesh in stead thereof. |
| Wycl | Therfore the Lord God sente sleep in to Adam, and whanne he slepte, God took oon of hise ribbis, and fillide fleisch for it. |
| OEH | Ðā sende God slǣp on Adam, and ðā ðā hē slēp, ðā genam hē ān rib of his sīdan, and gefylde mid flǣsce ðǣr ðæt rib wæs. |
| Ʊ | ơͤȴäФǽ¤夲줿ʤͤΤȤϢȡ |
| NRSV | And the rib that the LORD God had taken from the man he made into a woman and brought her to the man. |
| Good News Bible | He formed a woman out of the rib and brought her to him. |
| Basic English | And the bone which the Lord God had taken from the man he made into a woman, and took her to the man. |
| KJ | And the rib which the LORD God had taken from man, made hee a woman, & brought her vnto the man. |
| Wycl | And the Lord God bildide the rib which he hadde take fro Adam in to a womman, and brouȝte hir to Adam. |
| OEH | And geworhte ðæt rib, ðe hē genam of Adame, tō ānum wīfmen and gelǣdde hī tō Adame. |
| Ʊ | ͤϸä֤Ĥˡ줳錄ιι錄ʥ㡼ˤȸƤܤޤˡˡʥˤ줿Τ顥 |
| NRSV | Then the man said, "This at last is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; this one shall be called Woman, for out of Man this one was taken." |
| Good News Bible | Then the man said, "At last, here is one of my own kind---Bone taken from my bone, and flesh from my flesh. 'Woman' is her name because she was taken out of man." |
| Basic English | And the man said, This is now bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh: let her name be Woman because she was taken out of Man. |
| KJ | And Adam said, "This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shalbe called woman, because shee was taken out of man." |
| Wycl | And Adam seide, "This is now a boon of my boonys, and fleisch of my fleisch; this schal be clepid virago, for she is takun of man." |
| OEH | Adam ðā cwæð, "Ðis is nū bān of mīnum bānum and flǣsc of mīnum flǣsce; bēo hēo gecīged fǣmne, for ðan ðe hēo is of hyre were genumen." |
| Ʊ | 櫓ǡˤΥƽȷФ졤ͤϰΤȤʤ롥 |
| NRSV | Therefore a man leaves his father and his mother and clings to his wife, and they become one flesh. |
| Good News Bible | That is why a man leaves his father and mother and is united with his wife, and they become one. |
| Basic English | For this cause will a man go away from his father and his mother and be joined to his wife; and they will be one flesh. |
| KJ | Therefore shall a man leaue his father and his mother, and shall cleaue vnto his wife: and they shalbe one flesh. |
| Wycl | Wherfor a man schal forsake fadir and modir, and schal cleue to his wijf, and thei schulen be tweyne in o fleisch. |
| OEH | For ðan forlǣt se man fæder and mōdor, and geðēot hine tō his wīfe, and hī bēoð būta on ānum flǣsce. |
| Ʊ | ͤȺʤͤȤǤäѤϤʤä |
| NRSV | And the man and his wife were both naked, and were not ashamed. |
| Good News Bible | The man and the woman were both naked, but they were not embarrassed. |
| Basic English | And the man and his wife were without clothing, and they had no sense of shame. |
| KJ | And they were both naked, the man & his wife, and were not ashamed. |
| Wycl | Forsothe euer eithir was nakid, that is, Adam and his wijf, and thei weren not aschamed. |
| OEH | Hī wǣron ðā būta, Adam and his wīf, nacode and him ðæs ne sceamode. |
褬¦θƶڤܤȤˤĤơ#296. 轡ѸܸͿŪƶ ([2010-02-17-1]) Ǽ夲εǤϡѤˤƸ뤳ȤŦ桼饷ΦξüǡۤƱ6Ȥˡ줾ΦʩȥꥹȶäơȥƤܳŪʸʸϤޤꡤνȴϢʸʪäήϾʪȤƵǽƤꡤäϤ˾äơܤȥɤ夷ΤǤ롥
ꥹȶѸͿþαƶˤĤƤϡ#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1]) #1439. ͳ褹ɽ ([2013-04-05-1]) ǿ졤ѤθûˤоȤϡ#1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ ([2013-07-01-1]) #1049. Ѹ¿Ÿȴΰۤʤ ([2012-03-11-1]) ǸڤϡܸˤʩμƤˤĤƼ夲롥ʲܸظŵ (407--08) ȤƵ
6ȾФʩ褹ȡʹߡ¿ʩʤ뤤ʩˤܸήҰʸ塤ʩˤϡֹϧסϹס©סֹ¡סָסֶܡפʤɤꡤŷ桦αɤŤˤϡסֽˡסǰ֡סֿȯաסֻʩס̾סֿסֲûסʡסߡסۻܡסֲסֽвȡסޤƻסܰաסס֡סֹܡסաסƻסѲסֵͭסְɡסּǰפʤɤ줿ŤˤƤϡĤäޤꡤʩä¿졤̵ֽסɬסǺסֽסֽԡסֻסҷšסֲסޤȯססִʡסСסְ²פʤ300ʾ夬ѤƤ롥ˤƤϡѡƶʤɤȤȤ˻ѤγȤäְסְʿסָססƬסüŪסǵѡסƬסֹԵӡסִǷСפ˲äְ켺סּסּ͡ססdzסñľס糰סϷ̿פΤ褦ﲽΤ¿ޤɤηʸ˲줿סֲסհ̡ס´̡סספΤ褦ܸäƤƤ롥
ʩϤ¾¿뤬ʲˡسظָܸ츻ŵ٤˵Ƥʩ졦ͳ褹뤳ȤФ褦Ѥ줿ϤޤޤʩܸθäɽͿƤƶο礵Τ롥
ɡ̤礦̤͡ġ̤͡㤯͡ߡ̤̤̤͡͡ޡ̤̤͡͡Ф̤͡ޡ͡Եӡ̤͡¿̤͡ռ̤͡ʿ̤Ǥ̤͡͡ǰȯ̤ͤۤä͡ϡ̤礦͡ȭ̤Ϥġ̡̤͡͡ȡ̤͡Ƴ̤ɤ̤ͤͭ͡͡žѡ̤Ƥڤ̵ͭ͡ݡ̤ाͭ͡ĺŷ̤礦Ƥͥ͡ڡ̤ɤ̰ͥ͡С̺ͥɡ̤ФФ͡ߡ̤ܤ̤̤͡͡㤯͡ﵯ̤̤͡礦͡ѡ̤褦͡ܡ̤⤯̤͡ä̤͡͡ṳ̂Ȥ͡ա̤㤯̤̤͡͡ޤ͡ǰʩ̤֤ͤġ̤͡͡Ѳ̤礦Ӥ̤͡͡ǰ̤ͤ͡Ϫ̤̤͡͡ڡ̤礦͡Խ̤礦夦͡쳦̤͡ԡ̤̤͡ɤ͡ܡ̤褦̤͡͡ϡ̤͡á̤̤͡͡æ̤ġ͡ƻ̤ɤ͡ء̤͡ŵ̤Ǥ̤͡͡Ρ̤̤͡礦̤͡Ĥ͡ޡ̤餤͡ס̤䤯̤͡͡ƻǡ̤ɤ͡غݡ̤͡ڡ̤̤͡͡Ӥ̤Τ̤͡ޤ͡ͶȬ̤Ϥä͡ҿ̤夦Τष֤̤͡äڤ̤͡äݤ̤͡ҡ͡հ̡̤С̤̤͡͡ä̤͡͡ʡ̤礦͡ǰ̤礦ͤС̤͡礻͡ȯա̤ܤ̤͡͡Ƭޡ̤֤̤֡͡͡Ρ̤̤͡ä礦͡㱣̤ä̤͡Ĥʡ͡ǰ̤̤ͤ͡ɤ͡깥̤͡©ҡ̤̤͡⤵̣̤͡ߡ͡罰̤夦̤͡ӡ͡¾ܴ̤꤭ۤ͡ö̤ʡ̤͡ޤĤޡ͡ηá̤͡Ĺ̤礦ġ͡Ĺԡ̤礦͡Ƥ̤ĤޤϤ͡ƻ̤ɤ͡ƲƲ̤ɤɤᤰ͡ƻڡ̤ɤ餯̤͡ʤ̵̤͡ʤव̤͡ʤ餯͡ѡ̤ͤϤ͡С̤ͤߤ礦̤͡Τ͡ϼ̤Ф͡ߡ̤Ҥ̤֡͡ӤӤˡ͡ȡ̤Ҥ͡Фμ̤֡ҤΤޡ͡Իġ̤դ̤͡դ͡ۻܡ̤դ͡ʬ̡̤դ٤ġ͡ˡա̤ۤ͡˷̤ܤ͡ء̤ۤ٤̤͡ܤ͡ˡ̤ۤ͡Ǻ̤ܤΤ͡Իġ̤ޤդ̤͡ޤ̤͡ޤ͡פʤ̤ޤ٤ʤ͡С̤ߤ̤̤ͭ͡ߤ̤̽͡ߤ礦̤̤͡ߤ餤̵̤͡य̵͡ġ̤श̵̤͡स礦̵͡¢̤स̽͡ڡ̤ᤤɡ͡ʤ̤äʤ͡ˡ̤äݤ̤ۡ͡⤦̤͡䤳͡뺵̤䤷ͣ͡º̤椤ɤ͡ͷ̤椵͡Χ̤͡ز̤͡͡ήž̤Ƥ̤͡͡Ϸ̤̿Ф͡Ϥ̤錄ˤդ͡
ҤΤȤꡤܤǤʩ̱˿Ʃˡʩܸä˹Ǥʤž¯ȤʤäΤ¿Ѹ¦ǤƱͤˡ#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1]) #1439. ͳ褹ɽ ([2013-04-05-1]) θáɽꥹȤ˸褦ˡϥꥹȶѸȤƻϤޤäΤΡŪʶᡤѰ (register) Ȥ (ex. candle, master, noon, school, verse) ⾯ʤʤǤ⡤ξˤƽȸûˤδϢоȤ뤳Ȥϰյ
ܸظŵ١ ʸۤ ԡ2007ǯ
ԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ȴϢơʸˤܤݡʸˤθäϺʬ뷹롤Ȥ롥㤨СѸ rice ФܸǤϡ֤ס֤ᤷסơס֤Ϥס֥饤ס֤ߡפʤʣθ줬бȤ㤬褯礤˽Ф롥ܸǤϵ̾ʬƤꡤФδ¿뤳Ȥ⡤ܤεʸˤĤƤʪäƤȤ⤤롥
äκʬθʸθɽ魯ȤȤꤷʤǡ#1337. ְñʸաס ([2012-12-24-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡäκʬΤ٤Ƥ㤬ƱͤʸνľܤθƤ뤫ȤȡϤʤʤʸŪ˸Ȥä˴ʤˤ⤫餺äʬƤȤϤ롥ؼˤĤơ1ñ٥ǤСܸǤϡ֤ס֤ס֤פ3ब̤뤬ѸǤ this that 2ΤߤǤꡤեǤ ce 1ΤߤǤ롥ޤ4ʾ̤ˤ¸ߤ롥κʬ٤ΰ㤤Ϥ줾θȴϢŤʸΤʤˤȿǤƤ롤ȷŤ뤳Ȥϲ̤ƲǽʤΤܸƤ˴ؤä¿ϡʸȴϢŤ뤳ȤŪưפΤ褦˻פ뤬ΤݤΡְܡססֻۡפΤ褦ʽˤĤƤϡɤʸδϢȤϡñˤϽǤʤ
ϡɤθ⡤ʸ˻٤Ƥ뤫ݤ̤Ȥơ餫ǥեƥäƤȹͤƤ롥ؤνѸȤС줴ȤΥƥ (#1449. ˤơס ([2013-04-15-1]) ȡˤꤵƤȤ⤤롥㤨С¿¿ͤʽɸηϤäƤܸϡֿեסַɰեեפǤꡤñʣŪ˶̤Ѹʤ¿ΰڤӤ¾θˤϡʾʤȤܸüԤ鸫ȡˡֿեפǤ롥֤֤ססס֤Ĥפ̤ܸϡwear put on ǻȴѸüԤߤСեפȤǤ⤦ٷ֤θΥե줾ʸбʪˤäƵꤵƤΤɤΤ뤳ȤϡƳʸŪʻ٤ΤʤΥեȤǽ⽽ʬˤΤ
˵Ϥ⡤ѸǤ1ñ̤ܸǤʣñ̤бȤΤФäǤϱѸˤȤäԸʿʤΤǡդȤܸΡ֡ʿ͡ưʪΡ˷פб롤Ѹ¿ͤɽƤߤ褦
a bevy of quails, a cluster of stars, a covey of partridges, a crowd of people, a drove of oxen, a flight of birds, a flock of sheep, a gang of robbers, a group of islands, a herd of deer, a horde of savages, a pack of wolves, a pride of lions, a school of whales, a shoal of fish, a swarm of bees, a throng of ants, a troop of children
¾ˤ±Ѽŵ켭ŵС¿ͤɽФܸǤ켭ŵСַסָסַסֿͷסֿȡסְ췲סֲסֽ͡סֿͻס֥å֡ס֥ޥס罰פʤɤ뤬ưʪηˤĤɽ¿Ϥʤ
úʬ٤ΰ㤤ϡʸ˺ƤΤ⤢ǤʤΤ⤢롥ҤäơȤϥեǤ롤Τ褦ʤΤǤªΤΤǤϤʤ
Ѹˤϡư may Ѥιʸ롥ֽСפɽ魯ɸʸΤ褦ˡmay + + ưפȤˤΤ§Ǥ롥ߤǤϤƷĥäʸǤꡤ㤨 May you succeed! ФơǤ I hope you'll succeed. ۤɤǺѤޤ뤳Ȥ¿ŪʸȤơthat Τʤ may Ѥ I hope you may succeed. I wish it may not prove true. Let us pray that peace may soon return to our troubled land. Τ褦ʸ⸫롥may εʵڤӼˤˡ褦
May you be very happy! ʤ¿ޤ
May the new year bring you happiness! (褤ǯޤ
May it please your honor! ʶʤ鿽夲ޤ
May he rest in peace! ΰ¤餫̲Ȥ
May you have a long and fruitful marriage. ʤ¤ꤢ뺧ޤ褦ˡ
May all your Christmases be white! ʥۥ磻ȥꥹޥǤޤ褦ˡ
May I never see the like again! ʤʤ٤ȸʤ
May his evil designs perish! μٰʷײ褬ޤ褦ˡ
May you live to repent it! ʺ˸Ф褤
May you rot in hell! Ϲ
嵭θθ§æ롤Much good may it do you! ʤ줬ˤʤޤ褦ˡˡLong may he reign. बĹȤˡA merry Play. Which this may prove. ʷࡤ줬ȤˤΤ褦ʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
Ūʴߤȡˡư may εˡϡΩĻˤŪѤƤ³ˡưȤȯŸƤаޤ롥ޤҤ I hope you may succeed. Τ褦ˡư˸³ that ˤˡȯãȤή⤢롥ή1500ǯդ˹ήḽΡֵ mayפ줿OED Ǥ may, v. 1 θ12ˡ˳뤬16ΤΤǤ롥ǽοƤߤ褦
[1501 in A. W. Reed Early Tudor Drama (1926) 240 Wherfore that it may please your good lordship, the premisses tenderly considered to graunt a Writ of subpena to be directed [etc.].]
1521 Petition in Hereford Munic. MSS (transcript) (O.E.D. Archive) I. ii. 5 Wherefore it may please you to ennacte [etc.; cf. 1582--3 Hereford Munic. MSS (transcript) II. 265 Maye [it] pleas yo(ur)r worshipes to caule].
1570 M. Coulweber in J. W. Burgon Life Gresham II. 360 For so much as I was spoyled by the waye in cominge towards England by the Duke of Alva his frebetters, maye it please the Queenes Majestie [etc.].
it may please . . . may it please . . . 귿ʸФmay + ư + פθɬ⸶§ȤϤʤäƤʤ褦
θ塤ֹ¤ŪˤʤäƤ椯ηаޤͳˤĤƤϾܤ餫ˤʤḽѸˤ³ˡλ褬Suffice it to say . . ., Be that as it may, Come what may ʤɤθ˸뤳ȤȲط뤫⤷ʤ
Quirk et al. (3.51) ˤСˡ֤ may "pragmatic particle" ȤƵǽƤȤ3;ΤФ̿Ȥ Let them come here Let the world take notice. ˤʸƬ let ƱͤθŪʵǽ̤Ƥ롥̻ŪʸȤȤ館Ȥ⤷꤫⤷ʤ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
(299--301) ˤС[ʊ] > [ʌ] βϡ15ᤫϤޤꡤ17ȾФˤϳΩϰŪˤ Wash ¦˸¤졤̤ǤƤʤʡ#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1]) Ͽޤȡˡβ˻ߤ줿Τϡ(1) [uː] > [ʊ] β٤줿ù (ex. stood, foot, good) ޤ (2) [w, p, b, f] ԤƤù (ex. wolf, put, bush, full) ˤƤǤ롥(2) ˤĤƤϡ17ˤƤʤ [ʊ] ? [ʌ] ɤ줬㤷줫ؤȸꤷʤäùܤ¿äơĹɤ٤줿경ˤꡤĶȤƤϤۤƱǤ put but ۤʤ첻̤Ȥʤäȹͤ롥put vs but Τ褦첻첻ο㤤ڥʲ˵褦p. 301ˡ
[wʊ]: wool, wolf, wood, woman, worsted, Worcester, Woolwich, Wolseley, Wolsey, Wolstan, Wolverley
[wʌ]: won, wonder, worry
[pʊ]: pull, push, put, pulpit, pullet, pudding, puss, pulley, Pulborough, Pulman
[pʌ]: puttee, pulse Puck, pug, pun, puff, pulp, punish, impulse, pulmonary
[bʊ]: bull, bush, bullet, bushel, bullock, bullion, butcher, ambush, bully, bulwark, bulrush, bullace, bulletin, Bulwer, Boleyn, Bolingbroke
[bʌ]: bulb, but, bus, butter, bulk, buffet, bud, budget
[fʊ]: full, Fulham, Fulton, fulsome
[fʌ]: fulminate, fulgent, fulvous, fun, vulture
put 岽ˤĤƤϡܤä롥űѸ˽Ф put θϡֲͤɤǤġפǤꡤ̣ơ֤פȤʤää٤18ˤʤȥåȥǥѸȤƤΡ֥ѥåȡʷǡˡפޤ̾ȤƸ졤³19ư줬줿put ѷȤ뤬ֻ <putt> ʰ֤ <put> ⤢ˤȤʤꡤȯ岽 /pʌt/ ȤΤ⤷åȥɤǤϾҤ岽βƤʤΤǡ/pʌt/ 첻ϼȯãǤϤʤռŪʤʤˤѷ
Ϣơ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1])#1353. 첻Ĺû ([2013-01-09-1]) ⻲ȡʤ#1022. ѸγƲǤ١ ([2012-02-13-1]) dzǧ褦ˡ/ʊ/ ϸɸѸǤϡǤ٤㤤û첻ǤǤ롥
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
2;̾ you thou Ѹ˾ˤĤƤϡ¿εǼ夲Ƥ you thou personal_pronoun ȡˡѸѸޤǸ줿ɾΤ you ȿƾΤ thou λȤʬϡ#673. Burnley's you and thou ([2011-03-01-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡ٤ꤷ褦Ȥʣܥ롼ȤƤϡҲŪΩ줬μԤФƤϷɾΤ you Ѥ٤Ȥ롥Ȥꥹȶ̤ФƸƤӤˤϡѸǤϿƾΤ thou ѤΤǤ롥ΤȤҲŪΩ줬μԤɽΤ̯ǤϤ뤬ˤηɰդоݤȤơɾΤ you ͽۤ줽ʤȤʤʤʤΤ¤ϡѸǤϤʤΥեȥɥĸʤɤȤȡϤФƿƾΤ tu, du 줾Ѥ봷롥
Ūˤϡpoliteness ˴Ť T/V distinction ޤ¸ߤʤä塤㤨иűѸˤϡꥹȶΤͤοؤθƤӤϡʤñ thou ѤƤȤ¤롥ŪˡѸʹߤ³ȤȤϤꤽޤͣǤ뤳ȤĴ뤿ˡñǤ thou Ф줿Ȥͤ⤢롥夫ȤϤT/V distinction Ƴ夷ζŪʴФȤơФ thou ȸƤӤΤϼȤϤޤäפʤäΤѤʵ䤬襤Ƥ롥
Ф1Ĥβϡ#1564. face ([2013-08-08-1]) Ƴ positive face 뤤 solidarity-face ΩƤ褦Ȥ politeness ιͤǤ롥εǡֱѸ T/V distinction äοƤߤ thou ȷɤ you ϡۤʤ졤 face ºŤ politeness ι٤ȤȤˤʤפȽҤ٤褦ˡƾΤ thou λѤϡɾΤ you λѤȤϰۤʤäǤϤ뤬Ʊ褦˥ݥ饤ȤȤȤǤ롥Ԥʿˤ positive face ΩƤ٤Ǥꡤߤ solidarity ΤΩġʬΤȤ thou ȸƤӡƤߴäƤƤΤ顤οθդºŤƼ졤餫Ƥߤ thou ȸƤܤ褦Ȥˤʤpositive politeness negative politeness ˤĤƤϡWardhaugh (292) Τ褦Ƥ롥
Positive politeness leads to moves to achieve solidarity through offers of friendship, the use of compliments, and informal language use: we treat others as friends and allies, do not impose on them, and never threaten their face. On the other hand, negative politeness leads to deference, apologizing, indirectness, and formality in language use: we adopt a variety of strategies so as to avoid any threats to the face others are presenting to us.
(19) ϡɥĸǿɾΤ Sie ǤϤʤƾΤ du ǸƤִˤĤơpositive politeness ȤѸƳˡΤ褦˰פƤ롥
ȤСʤդ˹ͤƤϤɤǤ礦ꥹȶƤͤϡ俲ʤɡΤʾ̤ǿͤˤޤޤʤȤ䡤ʤǤȤɤƤ⤫ʤ˾Ȥ⡤ͤˤޤĤޤͤϡ͡ˤĤǤ⤤ơȶ˴Ƥ¸ߤʤΤǤϤʤǤ礦Ĥ⤽Фˤƿȶ顤֥ɥפĤΤȤ⤤ޤ
ȤȤϡɥĸǤϡ֥ɥפĤäȤäơɰդɽ路ƤʤȤˤϤʤʤΤǤƤߤɽºɤɽȤϤطʤơܸΤ褦ˡºɤɽĤȿƤߤʤʤäƤޤʤɤȤȤϤʤΤǤƤߤΤɽĤäơʤķɰդɽ魯ȤǤΤɥĸʤΤȤΤǤϤʤǤ礦
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ҡܸˤϤɤƷɸ줬¿Ρ١ꥹۡ1997ǯ
Ѳˤܤ (frequency) ˤĤơfrequency γƵȤ櫓#694. ٸԵ§ʣ ([2011-03-22-1])#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1])#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis ([2012-09-17-1])#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#1243. ٤θ̻ŪΤˡ ([2012-09-21-1])#1265. ٤ȲѲνδط˵ŤƤ Schuchardt ([2012-10-13-1])#1286. ֲѲΰۤʤ2ưŤ ([2012-11-03-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) ͡˵Ƥ
ŪʰȤƤ Phillips ˤ#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis ([2012-09-17-1]) ˴ؿƤ뤬̸ܸˤΤȴ (innovative potential) γȻ٤δĴʸĤƤ "Revised Frequency Hypothesis of Analogical Leveling (RFH)" ܤ줿
ʸǡԤ Matsuda ϤޤǤ˻ŦƤ͡ʸŪҲŪʸŪװ˴ͿŪŪ餫ˤ褦ȤθƤѿϰʲ̤Ǥ (12)
I. Linguistic
1. Length of the stem [measured in mora]
2. Conjugation type of the verb: i-stem/e-stem
3. Conjugation form following the potential suffix: Negative/Others
4. Morphological structure of the preceding stem: Monomorphemic verb/Compound verb/Auxiliary verb/Causative verb
5. Type of clause in which the potential form is embedded:
Main clause
Semi-embedded clause (Adverbial clause/Gerund)
Embedded clause (Quote/Relative clause/Predicate complement clause/Noun complement clause)
II. Social
1. Age
2. Sex
3. Area of residence: Uptown/Downtown
III. Style (taken from Labov & Sankoff, 1988)
Casual (narrative, group, kids, tangent)
Careful (response, language, soapbox, careful)
Matsuda ϤѿʤȤ߹碌ˤθܤŪ˳ΤƤͳơȴդγ˴ͿŪǤ뤳ȤSex Area of residence ʤͭպνФʤѿ⤢äơʬϤΤȤǡθǤϹθƤʤä٤ȤѿƳMatsuda ϡٸ̤ȤΤͤ褦ȤȤˡä٤θФ褤ΤȤܼŪ˸ڤƤ롥㤨 mirare(ru)/mire(ru) ʸʤˡʤˡˤξˤϡ촴 mir- ٤٤Τ뤤ܼ -are/-e ٤٤ʤΤԤǤСmir- Υȡ٤ȥ٤Τɤˤ٤ʤΤѸ drive--drove ʤԵ§Ѳư˸ݤ٤δʬϤˤϡޤΤΤ٤ˤФ褵Ūܸ mir-e(-ru) ʸʤˡˤξˤϡɤηǤ٤Ф褤Τ
ʾΤ褦ʹͻФơMatsuda ϶巿ȤǤϹθ٤٤ñ̤ۤʤäƤΤǤϤʤȤ롥줬Ҥ "Revised Frequency Hypothesis of Analogical Leveling (RFH)" (24) Ǥ롥
In analogical leveling, the token frequency of the unit undergoing the leveling and its degree/rate of leveling tend to show an inverse correlation, where the "unit" is defined according to the degree of fusion of the form undergoing the leveling with its neighboring morpheme(s). If the form is highly fused with the neighboring morpheme, the whole (morpheme, form) combination counts as a "unit" whose frequency is to be measured. If it is not, the form alone counts as a "unit," and its own frequency suffices as a correlate of the rate of leveling.
βѤСΤȴդĴη̵̤ʤǤȤĤޤꡤȴդγȻФơȿŪˡ˴ͿŪ٤Ȥϡβǽɽ魯ܼ -are/-e 켫ΤΥȡ٤Ǥꡤܤư촴Υȡ٤䥿٤ǤϤʤȡ
⤷Τ褦ˤפ뤬ѤʵȤơ٤㤤ܼȤäơʤ켫ȤοʿʤȴˤʤळȤˤʤΤ-are ˤƤ -e ˤƤ٤㤤ΤǤСʤԤԤִƤ椯ȤˤʤΤ
Matsuda, Kenjiro. "Dissecting Analogical Leveling Quantitatively: The Case of the Innovative Potential Suffix in Tokyo Japanese." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 1--34.
Stern ϸΰ̣ŤǤȤ3ĤƤ롥1ܤ "the objective reference", 2ܤ "the subjective apprehension", 3ܤ "the traditional range" Ǥ롥줾졤ؼоݤΤΤäʹ꤬ɤΤ褦ªƤ뤫ҲȤƤͭϰϤɽ魯̤δ餤Сε#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1]) ǵ Stern θ4ǽΤκǽ3ġsymbolic, expressive, communicative εǽˤ줾бȤ롥Stern (43--44) ľƤ餪
We have found, in the first place, that the objective reference is an indispensable element in any meaning, and that the qualitative characteristics of meaning are conditioned by the actual characteristics of the referent which the word is employed to denote. This factor conditions the symbolic function of the word.
We have found, secondly, that the meaning of a word is determined also by the subject's apprehension of the referent that the word is employed to denote, that is to say, the subject's thoughts and feelings with regard to the referent. This factor conditions the expressive function of the word.
We have found, thirdly, that the traditional range of a word serves to discriminate its meaning from concomitant elements of mental content, or mental context. The meaning of a word in speech normally lies within its range. This factor conditions the communicative function of the word.
ΰ̣Ť3ǤȤƤ̥ŪʤΤϡ12ǤƿŪʤΤǤΤФơ3ǤϡҲʤɡƼҲŪʳǰ˴طΤǤ̣ʬŪǤϤ뤬ؤæѤεʼҲ˸ؤΤʤذᤷƤ뤫Τ褦ʴ롥
³ Stern (45) ϡ嵭Ƨޤơΰ̣Τ褦Ƥ롥ʤȤȲȤɾǤǤ롥
The meaning of a word --- in actual speech -- is identical with those elements of the user's (speaker's or hearer's) subjective apprehension of the referent denoted by the word, which he apprehends as expressed by it.
Stern ΩϡOgden and Richards ΩȤۤɳ֤äƤʤ褦˻פ롥ԤˤĤƤϡ#1769. Ogden and Richards semiotic triangle ([2014-03-01-1])#1777. Ogden and Richards ˤ The Canons of Symbolism ([2014-03-09-1])#1782. ̣ΰ̣ ([2014-03-14-1]) ȡ
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
Stern (21) ϡ#1776. Ogden and Richards ˤ5Ĥεǽ ([2014-03-08-1]) ʬŪȽʤ⡤ŪʼĥˤƱĴĤġκǤפʵǽϡṲ̄ã뤳ȤǤȹͤƤ롥Stern ϡνǽ֤ߴطˤĤƤ̤ܤȤʤ⡤ "effective function" ̤ϰ̤ͿƤ롥
The effective function must, I think, be the most important of the primary functions, for if, for instance, the words I am writing here are to have the intended effect on the readers, they must (1) symbolize certain referents, i. e., the topic which I am discussing; (2) express my views of it, and (3) communicate this to the readers; only if these three functions are filled, can speech (4) perform its effective function, which is thus founded on the others. (Stern 20--21)
[2014-03-08-1]ε˼ Ogden and Richards νǽʬǤС褽 (i) Stern (1) (ii), (iii) (2) (iv) (3), (4) ȤȤˤʤˤ衤ؼо (referent)ä (addresser)ʹ (addressee) θư˴ؤ3Ԥ줾Ư3ǽȤޤȤƤ褤Ϣơ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) ӡ#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) εȤ줿
33ǽȤȤǤСStern (21) ǻȤƤ뿴ؼ Karl Bühler ⡤嵭ˤ褽б3ǽƤ롥Bühler ˤС3ĤȤ Kundgabe "expression", Auslösung (release), Darstellung (description) Ǥ롥줾졤Stern "expressive", "purposive", "symbolic" ǽ롥
Stern ˤ Ogden and Richards ˤ Bühler ˤ衤Ȥϡֻؼоݤʣ¤١˼λפʤưפƻȤȤˤʤ롥ɤʸʬϤ⤢θѤ˴ŤƤȤʤСεǽɤͤ뤫Ȥϡ٤ƤθʬϼԤˤȤäƺǽפβȤ
ŪΤƤνǽˤĤƤϡ#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) #523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1]) Ȥ줿ޤJakobson ؤȽӸνǽʬؤΰŪȿȤƤϡ#1259. Jakobson ˤ6ĤεǽפؤȽ ([2012-10-07-1]) ɤ
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])#1853. ʸη (2) ([2014-05-24-1]) ǥե٥åȤƤ̾ηޤǤϥޥե٥åȤ뤤ϥƥʸʹߤϾά뤳Ȥ¿ºݤˤϱѸ쥢ե٥åȡե쥢ե٥åȡɥĸ쥢ե٥åȤʤɸ줴Ȥ˶̤Ƥ椯ѸǤűѸ쥢ե٥åȡѸ쥢ե٥åȡѸ쥢ե٥åȤϤ줾ۤʤ롥
͡ե٥åȤΤʤǤ⡤Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤʸηϤȤƤñ롥Ūñʻ26ʸΤߤʤꡤüȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1])) ⸶§ȤѤʤΤˡʸȤ߹碌˴ؤ뵬§ʤֻˡʣʸȾʸζ̤ˡεϤ⤤餫Ϥ롥ޤǤʬ (hyphenation) (ligature) ʤɤθɬפ⤢롥ѾɬñʸηϤȤϤʤȤȤϻ¤ε§θƤ⡤źμפʸηϤӤСѸ쥢ե٥åȤȤʸηϤϤϤñȸ虜ʤ
ñ㤵ԥ塼Ŭ٤ñ㲽ɸಽ뾽Ȥ⤤ΤASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) Ǥ롥ȤȤϥꥫεʤߤǤƱƤ ISO 646 IRV (International Reference Version) դ줿ݵʤǤ롥 (45--46) ˤСASCII ñ㤵ϰʲν˵롥
(1) Ĺǡʸط˴طʤľܻǤ
ʸμबХȤ礭٤ƾʤ
ü鱦˽ǡ꤬ʤ
ʸοɽطѷʤʥꥬ㡼ʤ
(2) ʸʸб§ŪǤϤäꤷƤ
ʸʤ
(3) ʸʸζ̤뤫ʤȤơʸƱ꤬ǡΤϰϤˡŰ줷ǧ
(4) ʸʸζ̤뤫ʤơۤʤʸȤ߹碌Ʊʸȹͤɬפʤ
(5) ʸǤޤʤ
(6) ǥեȤѤǤ
ڤɸǤ
ASCII ñ㤵ϡμ礿빽ǤǤ븽Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤñ㤵ΤޤȿǤ줿ΤȤϡ줬Żҽˤդ路ʤñ줿̤ȹͤ٤Τ褦ˡѸ쥢ե٥åȤ ASCII ʸåȤȤϰΤȤ̤ƤȤ館ɬפϤ뤬ξԤΤñ㤵κäϡĤʤäƤ롥
ʸɤ븽νϡѼǤˤƤ櫓ˤϤؤ1ʬȤƤʸؤѶŪ˰٤ΰǤ롥ˤϡźʸεҤꡤʸꡤ¿ϤȤ¿ʸꡤʸ ([2014-05-09-1]) դäդν̤ʤɤ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤ롥
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