01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ɸγѤϸѸǤԵ§Ȥ뤬ʬǻ (dental suffix) 뤳Ȥ顤Ե§٤㤤ȤߤƤ褵Ǥ롥ưϸűѸǤϼѲ1°ޤ˵§ŪưǤꡤ hīeranñ˷ hīerdeʬ (ge)hīered ȳѤ
űѸưζηϤȤդ٤ϡѲ1ưΤʤ hīeran פΤΤϲλľ첻礱Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥Ʊ1° fremman (to perform) fremede 첻ȼnerian (to save) nerede 첻ȼϡűѸΩĻ hīeran פ fremman פ nerian פȤϰۤʤ벻ФƤǤ롥Ѹ *heared ʤ heard βʬθˤϡűѸ̤ǤϽʬǤʤ˸ŤޤʤФʤʤ
Ѳ1ư˶̤Ūطʤϡ⤫ĤƲʬΤ *-ida Τ褦 i ղäȤǤ롥 i Ȥʤäơ촴첻 i-mutation 뤳ȤȤʤä i ϡܺ٤Ͼά뤬 fremman ФƲ fremede Τ褦 m ñҲȤʤäƤ뤳ȡ nerian ФƲ nerede Τ褦 i üƤ뤳ȤȤط롥
ˤȤäƽפʤΤϡhīeran פ fremman nerian פȰۤʤꡤĹ첻˻Ҳ³촴äƤȤΤĹ̵ι첻 (/i/ /u/) ³ˤϡι첻æȤ "High Vowel Deletion" (high_vowel_deletion) űѸλƤʤ*hauzida > *hīridæ > hīerde ȤȯãꤵƤ (Hogg, Vol. 1 222--23) High Vowel Deletion θ̤ˤĤƤϡ#1674. ѲȶοʿˤĤƤŪͻ ([2013-11-26-1])#2017. foot ʣϤʤ feet (2) ([2014-11-04-1]) Ǥ̤ʤ鿨ƤΤǡȤ줿
ƸűѸβ hīerde Ϥ줿衤ƱϩɤϤäʬϡͽۤ *(ge)hīerd ǤϤʤʸڤΤ첻줿 (ge)hīered Ǥ롥ϡfremman nerian פη̤ȹͤ (Hogg, Vol. 2 263)
ơűѸѸˤơʤƲʬˤˤƤϡĹ첻2ҲפȤŤäƤȤ顤#1751. ʣ1Ǥβû̡ ([2014-02-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡĹ첻û礿븽߶Ǥϡ d 礱Ƥ뤿˲ϽŤʤ餺ûƤʤˤꡤߤ hear heard 첻㤬롥
ʤƱṽ¤ hīeran פ¾ư줬űѸʹߡhīeran Ʊ褦˿äƤȤȡǤϤʤdēman ƱפǤϤ뤬ˤʬ deemed ǤꡤŪ˴˵§ŪǤ롥ϡѤƯ̤Ǥ롥
Ѳ1γѤˤĤƤϡ#2210. think -- thought -- thought γѡ ([2015-05-16-1]) ⻲ȡ
Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. 1992. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ΤĽˤĤơ#1327. ҥȤθ˶̤7Ĥ ([2012-12-14-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ塼뤬Ȥ櫓פȤơʡ縶פȤƵΤϡ (arbitrariness) (linearity) Ǥ롥ϡ2ĤˤĤơľܥ塼뤫鸶ʸѤ̣襤
ˤĤƤϡ#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1]) ۤǴñ˿줿٤äSaussure (100) ǤϡΤ褦˾Ҳ𤵤Ƥ롥
PREMIER PRINCIPE : L'ARBITRAIRE DU SIGNE.
Le lien unissant le signifiant au signifié est arbitraire, ou encore, puisque nous entendons par signe le total résultant de l'association d'un signifiant à un signifié, nous pouvons dire plus simplement: -le signe linguistique est arbitraire-.
Ansi l'idée de «sœur» n'est liée par aucun rapport intérieur avec la suite de sons s-ö-r qui lui sert de signifiant ; il pourrait être aussi bien représenté par n'importe quelle autre : à preuve les différences entre les langues et l'existence même de langues différentes : le signifié «bœf» a pour signifiant b-ö-f d'un côté de la frontière, et o-k-s (Ochs) de l'autre.
ˤĤƤϡ#766. ([2011-06-02-1])#2114. ϡ ([2015-02-09-1]) ۤlinearity γƵǹͻSaussure (103) ȤθդˤС̤Ǥ롥
SECOND PRINCIPE ; CARACTÈRE LINÉAIRE DU SIGNIFIANT.
Le signifiant, étant de nature auditive, se déroule dans le temps seul et a les caractères qu'il emprunte au temps : a) il représente une étendue, et b) cette étendue est mesurable dans une seule dimension : c'est une ligne.
Saussure, Ferdinand de. Cours de linguistique générale. Ed. Tullio de Mauro. Paris: Payot & Rivages, 2005.
̾ (53--54) Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡطˤǡҲͭ¾̵ʤСͭưΤۤǤפȤ§롥ʲͿƤꡤۤȤɤư̾ФǤ롥
[f] <f> vs [v] <v>: life--live, proof--prove, safe--save, belief--believe, relief-relieve, thief--thieve, grief--grieve, half--halve, calf--calve, shelf--shelve
[s] <s> vs [z] <s>: close--close, use--use, excuse--excuse, house--house, mouse--mouse, loss--lose
[s] <s> vs [z] <z>: grass--graze, glass--glaze, brass--braze
[c] <s> vs [z] <s>: advice--advise, device--devise, choice--choose
[θ] <th> vs [ð] <th>: bath--bathe, breath--breathe, cloth--clothe, kith--kithe, loath--loathe, mouth--mouth, sheath-sheathe, sooth--soothe, tooth--teethe, wreath--wreathe
close--close Τ褦λҲֻƱΤ⤢Сadvice--advise Τ褦˰ۤʤΤ⤢ (cf. #1153. ̾ adviceư advise ([2012-06-23-1])) ޤưϸ e ĤΤ⾯ʤʤ (cf. #979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1])) <th> ˴ؤΤˤĤƤϡԤ첻βۤʤΤ¿
ФθҲ (voicing) Ωˤϡ¿ξ硤ŪʲͿƤ롥١̵̾ưͭפΥѥΩȡ줬פȤʤä (analogy) ˤ㤬ȤȤ⤢줾ФΩǯʤɤĴɬפ롥
ߤطˤ̾ưΤβ֤ˤƤˡƱ (homonymic_clash) 뤿ΩѤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ƱưŤϡ֤㤨 récord vs recórd Τ褦ʡ̾ưפΥڥ (diatone) ˤѻ褦˻פ롥
̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Υޥȥ (onomatopoeia) 䲻 (phonaesthesia) Ȥäħ (sound_symbolism) ϡ쵭 (arbitrariness) ȿȤƤФиڤ롥쵭椬ФŪǤʤưŤäƤ餷ȤϡŤƤƤ⤭奮ꥷǤϡ#1315. analogist and anomalist controversy (1) ([2012-12-02-1]) ȡ#1316. analogist and anomalist controversy (2) ([2012-12-03-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ礭ȤʤäܤǤϡ#1876. ġ ([2014-06-16-1]) Ȥƿ줿
ħʸؼԤϡߤǤפ䤿ʤܥ֥Ǥ⡤ޤǡ#242. phonaesthesia 羮 ([2009-12-25-1])#243. phonaesthesia ߡ ([2009-12-26-1])#800. you ˤ ye ִ phonaesthesia ([2011-07-06-1])#1269. ؤˤ벻ħΰ֤Ť ([2012-10-17-1]) ǻҲ𤷤ꡤƤ̤Ǥ롥ǡΤ褦ʵȿФԤ⾯ʤʤ
ʸɤϾʬ䤹㳰ߤĤ뤫ȿɤϡĥ餺Ȥ롥ϤۤñǤϤʤϤβħʸɤϡΤ٤ƤħǤʤɤȤϼĥƤ餺ħλ㤬ʤƤפΤۤ¿ˤȼĥˤȤɤޤ뤫Ǥ롥ʸɤϺǽ餫㳰פ̤ˤ뤳ȤϰǧƤΤǤꡤȿɤΤ褦ʡ㳰פФƤȤǤޤƤʤΤǤ롥ʿɤꡤŪʵȯŸܤߤĤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥奮ꥷ³ѥ
ξˤĤƤϡUllmann (87) ʸƤ롥
The principle of harmony between sound and sense explains some apparent anomalies which have often perplexed students of onomatopoeia. It is, for instance, generally agreed that the vowel |i| is admirably adapted to convey an idea of smallness and is frequently found in adjectives and nouns of that meaning: little, wee, French petit, Hungarian kicsi; bit, tit, whit, jiffy and many more. Yet this tendency seems to be contradicted by the adjectives big and small, and also by such examples as German Riese 'giant' and Hungarian apró 'tiny'. The explanation is quite simple: where a sound happens to occur with a meaning to which it is naturally attuned, it will become onomatopoeic and will add its own expressive force to the sense by a kind of 'resonance' effect. Where there is no intrinsic harmony the sound will remain neutral, there will be no resonance, the word will be opaque and inexpressive.
It has often been suggested that the vitality of words may be affected, among other things, by phonetic motivation The Latin word for 'small', parvus, for example, was ill fitted by its form to convey that meaning and was therefore replaced by more expressive rivals such as French petit, Italian piccolo, Rumanian mic, etc. This sounds plausible enough, but the undiminished vitality of English small, which must have suffered from the same handicap and has yet withstood the pressure of its more expressive synonym little, is a warning that too much importance should not be attached to such factors.
ħεΤ⤦1Ĥϡ벻˲餫ΰ̣뤫ݤδĿͤˤäưۤʤΤǤꡤƱĿͤǤĶʸ̮ˤäưۤʤΤǤ뤳ȤפˡѤ餶ʤUllmann (88--89) ۩
More than half a century ago, Maurice Grammont enunciated an important principle concerning onomatopoeia: 'Un mot n'est une onomatopée qu'à condition d'être senti comme tel.' This introduces a subjective element into the study of phonetic motivation. While there would be a fair measure of agreement on the more obvious types of onomatopoeia, such as imitative interjections, the more subtle and more interesting cases will often be a matter of personal opinion; their evaluation will depend on the speaker's sensitivity, his imagination, his cultural background, and other imponderables. It might be possible to devise some statistical method . . . to establish a kind of average reaction to specific words, but there would still be the influence of context to reckon with, and one may wonder whether the statistical net would be fine enough to catch these delicate and elusive phenomena.
Ullmann, Stephen. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. 1962. Barns & Noble, 1979.
#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1]) ȡ#2220. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1]) ǡvixen ʻĥ͡ˤȤ˿줿ɸѸθäΤʤǡƬͭŪðۤǤȽҤ٤ƤθˤϤ⤦1Ūðۤ롥ϡŤޥν̾ͳ褹 -en ȤɤƤ
ߡ̾줫б̾礿Ȥ -ess 롥ϡꥷ -issa ƥ줬Ѥ -issa եͳ -esse ȤƱѸäƤΤǤꡤǤ롥ޥϤΤΤȤƤϡ#2188. spinster, youngster ʤɤˤߤ -ster ([2015-04-24-1]) ǿ줿ޥ췲ˤߤ -estre 뤬˽ɽ魯ΤȤƸΤ spinster ΤߤǤ롥ˤƤ -en ⥲ޥɤˤߤǤꡤޥĸ *-inī, *-injō űѸ -en, -in ȯŸΤǤ롥űѸȤƤϡgod (god) Ф gyden (goddess)munuc (monk) Ф mynecen (nun), wulf (wolf) Ф wylfen (she-wolf) ʤŪ˴ޤޤƤ i ˤ i-mutation θ̤աˡ
vixen ˴ؤƤСḥ̂ͤ̾ȤƤϡűѸˤϼгʤȤƤ fyxan 1ΤʸڤˤʤMED fixen (n.) ˤȡѸǤ fixen 뤬fixen hyd (fox hide) ȤѤƤ뤳Ȥ顤η֤ϸűѸν̾ǤϤʤƻ fyxen (of the fox) ͳ褹Ȥͤ뤫⤷ʤѸǤ̾ȤƤ ffixen Τʸڤ졤رѸ츻ŵ٤ˤС16ʹߤˤϸƬͭߤ vyxen Ϣʤ֤褦ˤʤOED ˤ15ˤˡ
ɥĸǤϽȤƤ -in ϸǤꡤFuchs vs Füchsin Τߤʤ餺Student vs Studentin, Sänger vs Sängerin ʤɰŪѤ롥ѸǤϽκפ vixen ˻ĤΤߤȤʤäƤޤäޥθȤơѸˤƤ뵮ŤǤ롥Ƭ v ȹ碌ơѸŪ˴ǽ
ε#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1]) ǡѸˤƬͭȤѲҲ𤷤ǤϤͭʤäᡤפȤʤäƸȯãɸѸˤ⡤θ̤ȿǤƤʤˡɸѸä vane, vat, vixen ŪˤϰۼʤΤǤ롥
Ǥ̤ǤʤäѲȤΤϡѲ˸¤餺¿¸ߤ롥षΤ褦Ѳ̵ͭŪơʬߤƤȤäۤμεҤȤƤΤäơʤƬͭˤơˤʤäΤȤ䤤ϡ⤽פĤ⤷ʤä䤦ȤƤ⡤̾ϡʤ̵ͭΤȤ˰ռΤǤꡤʤ줬ǵʤäΤȤˤ
Knowles (41--42) ϡԤΤꤽˤʤۤε "speculative" Ȥʤ⡤ͳθȤơťΥɸˤƬͭԺߤƤ롥
Danish may also have influenced the pronunciation of an initial <s> or <f> in words such as fox and sing. In the Danelaw, as in North Germanic, these remain unchanged [s, f], but there is widespread evidence of the pronunciation [z, v] in the area controlled by Wessex (Poussa, 1995). The distribution is confirmed by placename evidence (Fisiak, 1994). Similar forms are found on the European mainland: for example, the <s> of German singen is pronounced [z], and the <v> of Dutch viif ('five') is more like an English [v] than [f]. Some [v]-forms have become part of Standard English: for example, vat (cf. German Faß), and vixen alongside fox, but otherwise the [s, f] forms have become general, and [z, v] survive only in isolated pockets.
ͤ٤ȤưʲΤΤƤ
Poussa, P. "Ellis's 'Land of Wee': A Historico-Structural Revaluation." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 1 (1995: 295--307).
Fisiak,J. "The Place-Name Evidence for the Distribution of Early Modern English Dialect Features: The Voicing of Initial /f/." Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 97--110.
ѲǵʤäȤ˴ؤťΥɸδͿȤǽȡϡǤɾǤʤƤϡѲˤפʥåޤǤȹͤ롥#2115. ݻȸѲؤ ([2015-02-10-1]) Milroy θѲҲ𤷤ʤѲΤƱͤˤʤѲʤäΤȤϡä٤ѸǤϸƬ˴ؤƸűѸθݻ줿ˤ䤦Ȥʤ˸뤬ʤݻ줿Τ䤦ɬפȤΤ Milroy ŪȯۤʤΤǤꡤKnowles ⤽Τ褦˸ƤȤȤˤʤ롥ӸƤƤʤФʤʤѲФžȯۤ⤷
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
ɸ3ϡŪ˵ʷϩ̤ɸѸꡤ夷Ǥ롥vane סˡvat ʾ¤Ѥʤɤβˡvixen ʻĥ͡ˤϡƬͭ v äƤ롥Ƭ v ǤϵǤⲿǤʤΤͺ˥ĥͤɽ魯 fox Фƻĥ vixen ٤Ƥߤ褦ˡ3ˤƤϸ츻Ū̵ f ͽۤȤͭðۤʤΤǤ (cf. OE fana, fæt, fyxen) ŪˤϡѸǤΤ߸Ƭ̵ΧͭʬۤŪ˸¤Ƥ3ˤĤƤϤɤ櫓ɸѸؤȯŸѼ˼ޤ졤̲ΤǤ롥ȤʤäƤϤۤȤɵŤʤ3ϻҲΡ¤äȯͳ褹ΤǤ (cf. vixen ˤĤƤϡAmerican Heritage Dictionary ˤ vixen ⻲ȡˡ
Ρ¤פϡΥɤǤ¸³Ƥ롥ǤϸƬ [f] Τ٤Ȥ [v] Τߤʤ餺[s], [ʃ], [θ] Τ٤Ȥdzơ [z], [ʒ], [ð] Ȥä褦ˡΤбߤ롥Upton and Widdowson (52) Ͽޤꡤfinger θƬˤĤʬۤ

ɤκüCornwall üǤɸŪ [f] ԤƤ뤬 Cornwall αѸήΤǤϤʤ˽Υȷϸ Cornish ֤ɸѸ˥롼ĤĤΤǤ (cf. #779. Cornish Manx ([2011-06-15-1])#2025. ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])ˡ
ơߤǤϸƬ [f] [v] ʬۤ˸¤Ƥ뤬Ѹˤϥ˹äƤιϰϤǡ餯Ǥ˸űѸƬͭϤޤäƤΤȻפ롥ѸǤ fader vader ʬۤ Plan and Bibliography (9) ˴Ť (101) ϿޤǤߤƤߤ褦

űѸǤϡǷѲޤǤϡˤ餺 [v] [z] ϸƬ뤳ȤϤʤäȤѸǤϡѲΤߤʤ餺̤ξƬ뤳ȤǽȤʤäLass (58--59) ϡθƬȤƤ [v], [z] ΰŪʵƤͳ1ĤϡޤͭˤȤߤƤ (cf. #1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]))
A third factor, perhaps the most likely, was the existence in Middle English of varieties that had in Old English times undergone voicing of initial fricatives. Many southern dialects had voiced at least initial /f s/ --- a development whose relics survive still in the rural West Country ('Zummerzet'). This parallels, and may well stem from, the same process in continental West Germanic: the <v> in G Vater 'father', now pronounced with /f/, and Du. initial <v> and <z> in vader and zon 'sun' (/f s/ in more innovating dialects, still /v z/ in conservative ones) reflect this. While the voicing in England was mainly southern, it did extend well up into the midlands in Early Middle English, and the standard still has a number of forms with voiced initials like vat, vixen, vane (OE fæt, fyxen, fana). Contact between speakers of these dialects and others without voicing may have facilitated borrowing of French /v z/, making them less 'outlandish'.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 23--154.
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
Kurath, Hans, Margaret S. Ogden, Charles E. Palmer, and Richard L. McKelvery. Plan and Bibliography. U of Michigan P, 1954.
סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ38ǡ
Ullmann (43--44) ˡ (word) ߤȤơɸΩƤ롥츫ȡΩϸΰ̣ŪŪ̾Ǥж̾줫̾줫ȤΩΤȤ뤬ºݤˤ Ullmann ϷŪʴ concrete abstract ȤƻѤƤ롥Ullmann (43--44) "the contrast between 'concrete' and 'abstract' word-structure" ˴ؤߤƤߤ褦
In Latin and other highly inflected languages it often happens that a word does not exist in an abstract state, as a pure designation of the thing it stands for: there is annus, nominative singular, annum, accusative singular, annorum, genitive plural, etc., but no single form denoting the idea of 'year' as such, without specifying its function in the sentence. In this sense, the Latin word is concrete, i.e. grammatically determined, whereas the French an or the English year are abstract, grammatically neutral until they are embedded in a specific utterance.
δ餹ȡƥӤͭűѸθϤƤ concrete ǤꡤФ븽ѸθϤƤ abstract ȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹ stone ϷŪŪˡСסܸθ⤿ƤŪʤΤǤΤޤޥѥƤ뤳ȤǤˤɽ魯ȤǤ뤬űѸ stān ϡСפɽ魯Τߤʤ餺Ūʾʤʡʤ뤤гʡˤǤ뤳ȤƱ˼Ƥ롥षŪʾȤʤñŪˡСפɽ魯ˡʤȸäƤ褤ˤŪ¿ξޤޤʤȤǡűѸ stān ʤꡤζǤ stānes, stāne, stānas, stāna, stānum ʤϡŪʸǤȤ롥
Τ褦ʶŪʸϡŪ˻ȤȤ㤨м䥰åԻȤˤϡǺޤ롥ɤηФȤ٤Ф褤ʤФʤʤ¿οͤˤȤäƼʤη֤֤Τ̾δФ⤷ʤϸسؽ̤Ƽʷ֤ɽǤȴ餵Ƥ⤷ʤΤŪˤʤ¾γʤ椷ۤƤ롤äɽȤФ٤Ǥ롤ȤȤϵǤΤ⤷ʤǤŬڤǤ뤫ɤϤɤΤ褦˷Ф褤Τ㤨СŪˤϺ뤫⤷ʤʸˡˤŪʴĤޤºݤȯäˤΤȤΤʤ֤θФΩƤȤȤϤꤦ롥ޤűѸưϡΥեɥĸʤɤƱͤˡФΩƤΤ㤨ľˡ1;ñߤη֤ǷǤưͳϤʤ褦˻פ롥
ͤƤߤСѸθűѸӤŪǤȤǡ̾ˤʣޤ⤢뤷ưˤϳƼζ롥äơФηˤϡϤꤢٶŪʸ줬ФƤȤͤ롥㤨Сstone ϡñͭʤƤ¤ˤơŪǤ롥ǤϡŪʸȤΤΤ⤷ʤʸˡȤǤСˤ餺 concrete word Ȥ surface form ΤȤǤꡤabstract word Ȥ underlying form ΤȤǤȰŪΤ
Ullmann, Stephen. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. 1962. Barns & Noble, 1979.
űѸζѲưŪ7˶ʬ롥Mitchell and Robinson (37, 40) ɽ䡤ȤơޤȤɽ2äƤߤޤ绨ĤʶʬɽǡɽŪư夲ƳѼ (principal parts) Ρ
| Class | Inf. | 1st Pret. | 2nd Pret. | Past Ptc. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | scīnan 'shine' | scān | scinon | scinen |
| II | crēopan 'creep' | crēap | crupon | cropen |
| brūcan 'enjoy' | brēac | brucon | brocen | |
| III | breġdan 'pull' | bræġd | brugdon | brogden |
| IV | beran 'bear' | bær | bǣron | boren |
| V | tredan 'tread' | træd | trǣdon | treden |
| VI | faran 'go' | fōr | fōron | faren |
| VII | (a) healdan 'hold' | hēold | hēoldon | healden |
| (b) hātan | hēt | hēton | hāten |
| Class | Example | Consonant Structure | Inf. | 1st Pret. | 2nd Pret. | Past Ptc. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | scīnan | ī + one cons. | ī | ā | i | i |
| II | crēopan | ēo + one cons. | ēo | ēa | u | o |
| brūcan | ū + one cons. | ū | ēa | u | o | |
| III | breġdan | e + two cons. | e | æ | u | o |
| weorpan | eo + r + cons. | eo | ea | u | o | |
| feohtan | eo + h + cons. | eo | ea | u | o | |
| helpan | e + l + cons. | e | ea | u | o | |
| ġieldan | palatal + ie + 2 cons. | ie | ea | u | o | |
| drincan | i + nasal + cons. | i | a | u | u | |
| IV | beran | e + one cons. (usu. a liquid) | e | æ | ǣ | o |
| V | tredan | e + one cons. (usu. an obstruent) | e | æ | ǣ | e |
| VI | faran | a + one cons. | a | ō | ō | a |
| VII | healdan | V1 | ēo | ēo | V1 | |
| hātan | V2 | ē | ē | V2 |
Ρ#2186. Webޥε֥ѥõѸαƺԡס ([2015-04-22-1]) ˰³520դǡּԡפޤWEBޥ Lingua ꡤ *
ϡʣΥѥѤ뤳Ȥ䤪⤷ФޤޤѸαƺȤ츫Ūˤ⡤ưŪ뤤̻Ū뤳ȤˤꡤʸĴޤ
ΤʤǤޤºݤˤϺΡּԡפǽҤ٤˻ˤϡäȾܤĴʤФʤޤѥѤơ㤨ФΤ褦ʸѲħȤ館뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤȤǽäƤ館СȤǼɮޤԡԤǻμɮôϴǤʹߤ³WEBޥ Lingua εˤܤХåʥСͭѤǤʲWEBޥ Lingua γƵؤΥʺǿǡˤĥäƤޤ
1. ʤѥ ֿܡ
2. Ѹ쥳ѥθĥ BNCweb Ƥߤ ԡ а桡
3. Ѹ쥳ѥθĥ BNCweb Ƥߤ ʸԡ а桡
4. Google ѥ˸ΩƤ ʿβʡ
5. פδáԡˡ ٺθ ʾӡͺϺ
6. פδáʸԡˡ ʾӡͺϺ
7. ѥѤŤƿΰ衧ե쥤 ʰ塡͡
8. ѥѤŤƿΰ衧ե쥤 ʰ塡͡
9. ؽԥѥȤϲ ʳҡΡ
10. ؽԥѥDzǤΤ ʳҡΡ
11. ѥ륳ѥβǽ ʿβʡ
12. ܸ쥳ѥ˸봷Ѷˡ ġץꥷ
13. ܸ쥳ѥ˸봷ѶѲǽ ġץꥷ
14. COCA Ȥäθ ġ͡
15. COCA Ȥäθ ġ͡
16. ѥäդõ롡 ڡ
17. ѥäդõ롡 ڡ
18. ؽԤäեѥȤäʬϡ1ɸ well, I mean, kind of, like λȤ ʻ
19. ؽԤäեѥȤäʬϡ2㤤ʪǤɽ ʻ
20. ǧθؤѤƥѥ̣õ롽 ëľ
21. ǧθؤѤƥѥ̣õ롽 ֻ졦ư ëľ
22. ѥõѸαƺԡ ġδ
23. ѥõѸαƺԡ ġδ
ʤμԤܤ gorgeous ˴ؤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεǰäƤޤΤǤȤ
#476. That's gorgeous! ([2010-08-16-1])
#477. That's gorgeous! (2) ([2010-08-17-1])
#607. Google Books Ngram Viewer ([2010-12-25-1])
ޤѸʸˤ˽ˤĤƤ gender_difference γƵǰäƤޤä˸˽ȥѥѤȤơ#913. BNC ˤä˽Ĵ ([2011-10-27-1])
522ʶˤ23ڡˤˡʡ縩來Ԥǡ來ʿΡ祵ߥå2015פ롥ܡȥꥢޤᡤʿνä륵ߥåȤǡʿϰ߳뤳ȤȤ롥ۥȹǤܤϡߥåȳŤ˹碌콵515˶ߤǥ˥塼ɼΤΥ˥ (Niue /niˈuːeɪ/; ̱̾ȷƻ Niuean /n(j)uːˈ(w)eɪən/) Ⱦǧ뤳ȤꤷܤǧȤϤ195Ȥʤ롥˥塼ɡɤʤɤäƹȾǧƤ뤬ϢˤϲƤʤ
˥ϡ˥塼ɤ2400km˰֤Ѥ259ʿkmʼ縩ǷȤۤƱˡ1,500ͤǤ롥Ԥ AlofiʲˡϿޤȹ

άˤCaptain James Cook 1774ǯ˾Φ̱μŨդˤʤ "Savage Island" ̿̾1830ǯ붵Ĥ礷1852ǯ̱ꥹȶ1900ǯ˱ѹ⥢ʬΰȤƥ˥ʻ礷1901ǯˤϡ˥塼ɤåΰȤƱʻ礷1904ǯˤʬΥƼΤȤʤä1974ǯ˥˥塼ɤȼͳϢȤ༫ܤΩŪˤϤΤȤ˻¾ΩäƤ褤̱ϥ˥塼ɻ̱Ǥꡤɱҡϥ˥塼ɤǤդǰ¸Ƥ˥塼ɤؤΰܽԤ¿
ѤƤˤĤƤСEthnologue Niue ιˤС˥ (Niuean) ȱѸ줬ѸȤʤäƤ롥̱ΤۤȤɤ˥äѸѤ롥˥ϡȥͥ²ݥͥɤ°ܤȥ䥵⥢롥
ѸˤδˤǤ뤳Ȥ1Ĥ롥˥깭Ū˹ȾǧΤϺΤȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤ˾ǧ뤳Ȥǡ˥ϡֱѸѸȤƤĺǾιפΥȥʥåȤˤʤ롥#1747. ѸѸȤƤĺǾι ([2014-02-07-1]) Ǽ夲ʥϡѤǤϥ˥⤺äȾΰ̣ǤϤޤֺǾפˤĤƤХʥ1ͤΤФ˥ɴͤȤϤǤ뤫ֺǾפȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥ѸȤʬۤ˴Ϣפ¾ξɬפƤ
Ϣơľܥ˥ꤳޤޤƤʤ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1])#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) ʤɤȤ줿ѸγȻȤδϢǤϡ#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ȡ
˥˴ؤ볰ȤƤϡʲΤΤ롥
̳ʤˤ˥åǡ
CIA: The World Factbook ˤ Niue Υǡ
Wikipedia ˤ Niue ε
ѸǤϡؼ̾Ǥ this, that, these, those ϳơñȤǡͤؼ뤳ȤǤ롥ñˤϤħ롥ñ this, that ñȤǿͤؤˤϡ§ȤƷŪʴްդȤΤܵǤϡThis is John. Τ褦ʿͤҲ𤹤ʸ̮ǤˡϽΤȤˡˡ˴ؿ Poussa (401) ϡthat ΤˡνȤ OED 1905ǯʸƤ롥
'Would you like to marry Malcolm?' I asked. 'Fancy being owned by that! Fancy seeing it every day!' (Eleanor Glynn, Vicissitudes of Evangeline: 127).
Poussa ϡΤ褦 thatʤ thisˤˡѸ˾塤ŪǶˤʤäƸ줿ΤȤҲŪľ "comic-dishonourific" ˡȸƤ20ƬǤϤˡϤޤۤȤɵŤƤʤä褦ǡ㤨 Jespersen (406) ϡthis that ⤽ñȤǿͤɽ魯ˡϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
While in the adjunctal function the plural forms these and those correspond exactly to the singulars this and that, the same cannot be said with regard to the same forms used as principals, for here this and that can no longer be used in speaking of persons, while these and those can. The sg of those who is not that who (which is not used), but he who (she who); similarly there is no sg that present corresponding to the pl those present
this, that ñȤǿͤؼ뤳ȤǤʤäȤȡˡȤƿͤؤ褦ˤϤʤäΤΡŪʼҲŪľްդƤ뤳ȤȤϡ̵طǤϤʤthis, that ñȤǿͤؤΤˤϡޤ餫ΤȻפ롥
˸Ťˤ̤ȡűѸǤѸǤ⡤this, that ϡΤˤǤϤʤΤΡʣ these, those ȤȤñȤǿͤؤȤǤΤǤ (Jespersen 409--10) ǡñȤǿͤؤ this, that ΤĤƤˡʤѸľޤǤ˰öä뤳ȤˤʤäΤȤ̤꤬夬뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Poussa ϡgender ȤճʴФơä3;̾줬ñǤ he, she ˽̤ʣǤ϶̤˶̤ they Ѥ¤ȡؼ̾ʬۤطŤΤǤ롥

ο (Poussa 405) ˼褦ˡȤ̤ʤʣǤϡ;̾ they Ϥؼ̾ these, those ñȤǿͤؤȤǤ뤬ñǤ̤Ǥ;̾ he, she Τߤǽǡ̤Ǥʤؼ̾ this, that Ѥ뤳ȤϤǤʤñǤϡthis, that ̤뤳ȤǤʤ椨ˡ֥åȤ櫓ΤȤϡʸˡȤȽ̤ƤűѸʬۿ (Poussa 407) Ӥȡ餫ˤʤ롥

űѸǤϡñǻؼ̾줬Ƚ̤ˡñȤǿͤؤȤʤƤ줿ȲǤ롥δ餹ȡޤ [-HUMAN] ΰ̣ƤʤȤȤǤ롥
Poussa ϡḽѸˤĤʤ "HUMAN" Ȥ̣ȯϡűѸ줫ѸˤƤʸˡηϤȴϢΤǤꡤؼηϤοʸϽФȿǤǤȤߤƤ롥Ѹˤ his its ȯŸ䡤ط̾ which who Իȯã⡤Ʊ˰͵ƤȤ (cf. #198. its ε ([2009-11-11-1])#1418. 17 its μơ ([2013-03-15-1]))
Poussa εȤСűѸ줫βѲˤäʸˡηϤ졤Ѹ˷ŪѲ뤳ȤȤʤä˶Ѹʹߤˡ;Ȥ̣ˤڤǤȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹˤʥɥޤʤ
Poussa, Patricia. "Pragmatics of this and that." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 401--17.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 2. Vol. 1. 2nd ed. Heidelberg: C. Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1922.
ε#2212. ͭ̾ϥ˥եʤ˥եǤ ([2015-05-18-1]) Ǥ⡤¾¿εǤ⡤塼ε (signe) ΤȤ館ȤƤ塼ˤ뵭ŪŪѸȤƤΡֵ (signe) ȡιǤǤ֥˥ե (signifié) ȥ˥ե (signifiant) ˤĤơñ˲⤷Ƥ
ѸˤơֵפȤϡ̾뤤ϲΤȤǤƤꡤ줬ֻʪפؼֳǰפ̣ꤹȤȤ館Ƥ롥塼ѸǤϡ (signe) Ȥϳǰ (concept) İб (image acoustique) Ȥ߹蘆äåȤΤȤؤξԤԲʬ˷ӤĤΤʤΤǤ롥

塼뤬2Ĥֻʪפȡ̾פȤϸƤФˡֳǰפȡİбפȸƤ֤Τϡ⿴Ūñ̤Ǥꡤ¸ߤʪŪñ̤ǤϤʤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ֲפȸƤФˡİбפȸƤ֤Τϡȯ줿ΤȤǤϤʤŪ˥줿ǤĤ֤䤯ȤΤ褦ʲΤȤؤƤ뤫Ǥ롥
塼ϡΡֳǰפȡİбפ̾Ȥơ֥˥ե (signifié) ȡ֥˥ե (signifiant) ͿѸˡѤ뤳Ȥˤꡤsignifier ʰ̣ˤȤư濴ˤơ̾촴 signe, ʬ signifiéʬ signifiant 3Ԥδط뤳ȤˤʤԹ礬褤塼뼫ȤϡѸƳΤ褦Ƥ (99--100)
Nous proposons de conserver le mot signe pour désigner le total, et de remplacer concept et image acoustique respectivement par signifié et signifiant ; ces derniers termes ont l'avantage de marquer l'opposition qui les sépare soit entre eux, soit du total dont ils font partie. Quant à signe, si nous nous en contentons, c'est que nous ne savons par qui le remplacer, la langue usuelle n'en suggérant aucun autre.
Saussure, Ferdinand de. Cours de linguistique générale. Ed. Tullio de Mauro. Paris: Payot & Rivages, 2005.
ܼͭ̾ŪʵǽϡʪĿͤꤹ뤳Ȥˤ롥ΤȤ˰ϤʤΤˤ John Smith ڰϺϤ뤫⤷ʤξ줽ξǤϡʪꤹΤ John Smith ڰϺȤ̾ǽʬʤȤۤȤɤǤ롥ͭ̾κǤϡidentification Ǥ롥
ͭ̾ˤϡεǽ̤ŪȴϢοտ路ħĤ롥Ω (100--08) ϡˤƸͭ̾줬˰ƤˤѤʤ顤ͭ̾ħȤưʲ4ۤɤ˿Ƥ롥
(1) ͭ̾ϰ̳ǰȤƤΥ˥ե⤿ʪĿͤľŪ˻ؼ롥ʤ˥ե (signifié) ʤ˥ե (signifiant)ʥ˥եǤ롥
(2) ͭ̾ԲǽǤ롥
(3) ͭ̾ϸΤʤˤ볰θƤ롥
(4) ͭ̾ϰ̣εǤ롥
(1) ϡüŪ˸иͭ̾ˤϰ̣ʤȤȤ̾ΤäƤ褦ʾħǽ礤ƤȤȤǤ롥ǡؼоݤΤǤ롥ؼоݤꤹΤͭ̾Ǥ뤫顤ΤʤΤǤ롥̣뤤ϥ˥ե⤿ˡؼоݤľܤ˻ؤȤǤȤΤͭ̾κǤΩäħȤ#1769. Ogden and Richards semiotic triangle ([2014-03-01-1]) οޤǤСդľܤǷФ褦ʥ
(2) ʲħ⡤(1) ήФΤǤ롥(2) θͭ̾Բǽϡͭ̾ˤȤỌ̇̄ʥ˥եˤʤǤ롥ȤΤϡ˥եϡʤۤȤɡƱ˥եˤäưۤʤ褦2ĤεɤδϢŤǤ롥äơ˥եʤͭ̾ˤϡȤ̵Ǥ롥̾ Smith ϡ결סڤϡڡפǤ뤫顤̣ȵ뤳ȤǤ̾ȤѤȤ˰̣ϰռ뤳ȤϤʤ¾ؤˤäợ̾äȤϤʤ
(3) ϡͭ̾줬ʶʤǤˤ⤫餺塼ξ褦ʺۤηϤȤƤθηϤˤϤޤ֤ŤʤȤҤ٤ΤǤ롥줬ηϤǤȤȤϡäǤС¾θȤμȤựŪʴطˤŪ¸ߤˤʤȤȤǤ롥㤨СˡפȤ̾ϡֽפȤ̾Ȥΰ̣ˤƸηΰ֤ƤΤǤꡤդޤǤ롥ηϤϡȤựˤΩܸȤƤΤȤͭ̾ϰ̣⤿ʤΤǤ뤫顤ȤựΩӤηϤˤȤ߹ޤ줨ʤͭ̾ϡŪʰ̣ͳˡľܤ˳λؼоݤȤǡˤʤ⳰ȤϢΤǤ롥ͭ̾Ȥϡ塼ŪʸηϤΤʤΤʰ֤Ť⤿ʤȥФȥΤζ֤ˤðۤ¸ߤǤ롥
(4) ϵŪǶ̣ŦǤ롥ͭ̾ϡΤ˥˥եϤ⤿ʤ˥եäƤʾ塤Ū˵κۤݤäƤ롥ȾȤǤƤ֤٤ΤǤꡤʤȤθǤϤΤ褦ˤߤȡͭ̾ˤϰεȤʤ٤餫Υ˥ե褦ȤϤƯΤʤΤǤϤʤȤ⵿Ƥ롥ͭ̾Υ˥եб륷˥ե̵Ǥ뤫餳η٤餫Υ˥ե鲡Ƥ롤ȤͤǤ롥ϡ̣ (signifiance) βˤۤʤʤΩ (104--05) ϡͭ̾ΰ̣ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ʸʸ˵ϲؤƤˡ
˶̣Τϡˤͭ̾Ǥ롥̾θ줬˰̣ˤäƽƤΤˤợ⤿ʤҶʥ˥եӤǤͭ̾ϡζ˥եᤶƲƤΤΤޤޤʾǰˤȤ館졤ǥΥ٥Ǥϵդ¿ƤޤĤޤꡤͭ̾ϥΥ٥ǥ˥ե⤿ʤ椨ˡΤΥեޤ졤ƱˤߤˤȤʤäƥեƤΤǤ롥
#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1])#1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1])#1185. ͭ̾첽 (2) ([2012-07-25-1]) ʤɤǡ̾θͭ̾첽ϰ̵̣ﲽȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤȼöͭ̾ˤʤȡ٤ϰ̣Ŷ褦Ȥͭﲽ˸ưȤȤͭﲽ̵ﲽΤαʱΥפ鷺ˤʤ
Ω (100) ϡָͭ̾Ȥʻ뤫ϡ줾θ⤫Ӥ餻ƤޤФǤȤäƤ褤פȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Ω ظ١˼ҡ1990ǯ
Ѹ angel ϡűѸ engel ̤ꡤ켫Τϸƥ angelus μѸǤ롥ˡangelus ϥꥷ ággelos (one that announces) μѤǤ롥ѸǤȯ [eɪnʤəl] Ǥꡤ<g> 2κǽλҲ˻Ȥʤ뤬űѸǤϤɤΤ褦ȯ줿ΤűѸΤΤǤϡ<g> ͿƤꡤ¾ΤΤǤ <ġ> ͿƤ롥ԤǤ [g] ǤꡤԤǤϤ줬餫λҲʤФܶ [j] ˤǤꤵ롥ޤHogg (37) ˤС<n> ˸³ <g> ѸƱ褦˻ [ʤ] ȤƼ¸줿 (ex. OE singe (> PDE singe [sɪnʤ])) ĤƤΤǡȯ˰ [ʤ] Ĵʤ롥˻⡤ʤȤȤΤ1ǤϤ
ŪŵäƤߤ褦رѸ츻ŵ٤ˤСOE /-g-/ 13CޤǻĤ뤬ME OF angele, angel (F ange) (▭ LL) αƶ /ʤ/ ȤʤäפȤ롥ޤűѸ첻 Lass and Anderson (136) ˤСűѸ ġimm (gem; < L. gemma) 椷ƸűѸ engel ͿƤȤ顤[g] ꤷƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
⤦1ĤθűѸ첻 Hogg (223) ϡenġel ɽƤꡤꤷƤ롥μ¸ܶ [j] ʤΤ [ɟ] ʤΤϤޤ˻ [ʤ] ʤΤȽȤʤ
ΡرѸ I (100) ˤСűѸǤ en- yn- θ֤ [ɟ] 줬űѸ˻ [ʤ] ѲȤȤơޤ enġel (angel) lenġr (longer), hynġran (be hungry) ȤȤ˵Ƥ롥
̤˸űѸβŪ¸ˤĤƤ͡ʵꡤ狼ʤȤ¿ΤηˤĤƤϡˤ줿 Lass and Anderson (136) ڤ줬褤ΤǰѤƤűѸ <g> βˤĤƸѸΤȤϢŤʤ⤷ƤսǡűѸ engel λҲ˻ [ʤ] äϤϤʤȤƤֻʬȡˡ
. . . the 'normal' developments:
(a) [j] before original front vowels: ġeolu 'yellow', ġieldan 'yield'.
(b) [g] before original back vowels: gōs 'goose', gāst 'ghost'.
(c) [g] before umlauted back vowels: gēs 'geese', gyrdels 'girdle'.
Some of the major anomalies are these:
(a) [g] before original front vowels: give, get, gate, gallows, OE ġ(i)efan, ġ(i)etan, ġeat, ġealga. The simplest answer here is the traditional one of 'Scandinavian influence'---however that may have operated. The most likely way would seem to be by direct borrowing of forms, i.e. ON gefa, geta, gata, galgi. Since Old Norse did not at that time have a palatal softening rule, these foms, if they were borrowed as is, would be 'synchronically foreign' in OE dialects that had palatal softening: an OE form beginning with the 'impermissible' sequence [ge] would then be the equivalent of a form like Dvořak, or Vladimir in Modern English. That the OE forms did indeed have [j] is borne out by survivals like yett in place names from OE ġeat, and by the Middle English spelling distributions: basically non-northern forms like yeve, yive, as against northern ones like gyve, give, gyff.
(b) [ʤ] before original front vowels: gem, OE ġimm < L. gemma. The answer here, as in angel (OE engel) is undoubtedly reborrowing from French after the Conquest.
(c) [j] before original back vowels. We know of only one clear case of this type, which is yawn. The vowel suggests OE gānian 'gape, yawn', rather than the apparently synonomous (sic) verb ginian (gynian, gionian). The consonantism, however, suggests the latter. The OED (s.v. yawn) proposes, perhaps correctly, a sort of 'conflation': [j]-forms 'influenced by' (whatever that means) the vowel of now obsolete [g]-forms.
Τ褦ˤĤŵäƤϤߤɤΤȤʶȤƤꡤʤҲäꤹ뤳Ȥ
Ϣơ#1651. j g ([2013-11-03-1])#1914. <g> ֤ ([2014-07-24-1])#1828. j ʸȲбˤĤƺˬ ([2014-04-29-1]) ⻲ȡ
Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. 1992. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Lass, Roger and John M. Anderson. Old English Phonology. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.
С סرѸ I١Ѹ8罤۽Ź1980ǯ
ɸ think γѤΤߤʤ餺bring, buy, seek, teach ʤɤγѤǤϡʬ˷˸Ȥϰۤʤ첻롥ۤʤ첻˲äơֻξ ght ʤҲϢ³졤Ե§פȤΰݤϷŪǤ롥Ūˤϵ§ŪưǤꡤ-ed դƲʬ˷¿ư֤Ǥ롥¿ΤΤ¿βѲŪ˷иƤˡ̤ȤơԵ§ޤʤɤΤѤȤˤʤäƤ롥
Mitchell and Robinson (48--49) ˽äơŪаޤ⤷褦ޤthink ưθűѸǤηɽ˼ߤޤǤѸȤʤäΡʵ§ѲؤȰܹԤΤޤޤƤ롥
| Inf. | Pret. Sg. | Past Ptc. |
|---|---|---|
| brenġan 'bring' | brōhte | brōht |
| bycgan 'buy' | bohte | boht |
| cwellan 'kill' | cwealde | cweald |
| reċċan 'tell' | rōhte | rōht |
| sēċan 'seek' | sōhte | sōht |
| sellan 'give' | sealde | seald |
| streċċan 'stretch' | strōhte | strōht |
| tǣċan 'teach' | tǣhte, tāhte | tǣt, tāht |
| þenċan 'think' | þōhte | þōht |
| þynċan 'seem' | þūhte | þūht |
| wyrċan 'work' | worhte | worht |
ε#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1]) ȴϢơĸˤư̤ޤˤĤƤ夲롥
Fortson (81) ˤСĸ˳μ¤ˤäǧϡpresent, imperfect, aorist 3Ǥ롥ŪˤϤΤۤ perfect ǧƤ뤬ŪȤŪʻȤߤʤ롥 pluperfect future ¸ߤĥԤ⤤롥ƱͤˡSzemerényi (231) ϡ"three to six tenses" ⤿ǡ"present, aorist, perfect; perhaps also future, imperfect, pluperfect" ǧƤ롥ˤ衤̤¸ߤϡ֤餯٤ǧƤˤʤ
ĸ̤äȼĥԤϡ̤ܼȤ *-s- *-sy- ƷƤ롥*-s- Greek, Latin, Celtic ȿǤߤ졤 "aorist subjunctive" ɽ路ΤȤƱܼ Old Irish ˤߤ졤Ūˤ "desiderative" εǽͭΤȤ롥*-sy- Old Indic, Lithuanian, Slavic ʤɤ satem Ͻˤߤ졤*-s- ȤΩε "desiderative" ɸüȯΤȹͤ롥
*-s- *-sy- Ϥ餯ߤΩƤ뤬ˤܼŪʵǽ̤ɽ魯Ȥ⡤subjunctive desiderative ɽ魯Ȥˤꡤ줬̤ŪžѤ줿Τȹͤ (Fortson 91; Szemerényi 287) Ū˰ջ֡˾̳ʤɤɽ魯ˡư줬̤ɽ魯ưؤžѤϡεǽҤ٤褦ˡޤ˱ѸǤߤ줿ȤǤꡤƱȤĸʤ¿ΰˤˤĤƤǽȤȤϼŪǤ롥ĸˤܼŪ켡Ūʰ̣Ǥ̤뤳ȤΤ⤷ʤ
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. "An Approach to Semantic Change." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003. 648--66.
Szemerényi, Oswald J. L. Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Trans. from Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft. 4th ed. 1990. Oxford: OUP, 1996.
ɸμݤμ䤬줿ΤǡˤĤŪʴͤƤߤѸưˤϡνɽ魯ΤŵŪѤ롥Ʊͤˡߡʤ뤤סˤνŪɽ魯ˤϡưŵŪ˸߷dzѤ롥̤ν˴ؤƤϡư̤Ȥƶޤ褦ˡ¸ߤʤ will, shall, be going to ʤɤΡʽ˽ưѤȤŪˡȤƤ롥ĤޤꡤѸˤṲ̄Ϥˤ衤Ṳ̄ϤʤȤäƤ褤ñˡ̤פȤѸǤϡ졤֤ΤΥ٥ˤַפˤĤƸǽ뤳Ȥ顤ѸʸˡǤϤѸ줬뷹ΤǤϤʤ
ʽ˽ưѤŪ뤤ϱṲ̄ɽϡ餯űѸʹߤ will shall ʤɤŪˡŪʵǽĽư줬ջ֤̳ΰ̣ᡤñ˻֤ȤƤ̤ɽ魯ˡؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ȥˤλˤϡñ̤ɽ魯ΤòɽϡŪˤŪˤʤˡŪʰ̣ȼ鷺̤ɽʤϷ礱ƤȤäƤ褤űѸǤϡŪˤϸ߷ʤ뤤ΤˤˤѤ뤳ȤǸߤΤߤʤ餺̤ΤȤɽ魯ȤǤΤǤꡤƥˤơ丽ߤȶ̤٤ʬȤƤ̤Ȥȯۤϴäθ will ʤɤѤ̤ɽиǤ⡤夫λƥΤȤ館礭Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѸǤ̤Ȥʬ⤤Ƥ봶롥Ѹ̤Ȥǰ¸ߤʤȸڤΤϡŪˤϸΤ餤褦˻פ
嵭Τ褦ˡűѸλƥϡŪˤСʤФСָߡפȸƾΤˤ2ʬʤäƤǸѸδ뵿ʤƼºݤ˴줿ˤϡʤűѸǤ̤ʤäΤʤư̤ζޤȯãʤäΤȤ䤤Ǥ롥μľΤϤ䤹ʤŪʳ٤4ŦƤ
ޤμˡߡ̤3ʬˡȤḽŪʻ֤δǰȻפ뤬֤ΤȤ館뤤ϤθؤȿǤǤƥǡɬ⤳ȤƤ褤Ϥʤܿͤޤ¿θͤˤȤäơ3ʬˡλִФ϶ˤƼ˻פ뤬줬ˤȤäƤ̵ͣλִѤǤȤߤʤȤϤǤʤޤ˷3ʬˡλִѤѤ줿ȤƤ⡤3ʬˡ줤ˤΤޤξˡƥȤȿǤΤʤΤɤǤ롥ϥԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ˴ؤǤꡤ̤ǤȽҤ٤ˤȤɤƤ
2ܤˡ¾ΰˤ⡤ܸˤߤ褦ˡ̤ɽϡƤջ֤̳ʤɤˡŪʵǽķʸˡ뤳Ȥˤȯ뤳Ȥ¿Ҥ̤ꡤϱѸˤˤƤѻ줿Ǥꡤɤ̸ŪˤߤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥ߡ̤3ʬˡǤϡ̤Ťߤäξˤ֤Ƥ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ뤬⤷ȸ첽ǤξԤνŤߤϡФаۤʤΤ⤷ʤʤȤ⤤ĤμˤȤ¤ꡤ̤ϲ椷ƸȯŪǤꡤŪǤ뤳Ȥ¿
3ܤˡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡȤ2ʬˡϡʸš˱Ѹ˸¤餺ޥ˶̤פħ1ĤǤ롥ޤƱ²ϸŤҥåȸƱ2ʬˡäƤꡤĸˤƥƷä褷Ƥ롥̤ưĸ̤ȸƤӤΤäΤʤäΤ뤤ϡäȤơŪʤΤʤΤŪΤʤΤĤޤꡤ嵭μϡűѸФ٤ˤȤɤޤ餺ĸФƤ٤Ǥ⤢롥ĸ餫餭줤ʲߡ̤3ʬˡλäƤΤɤȤδ֤褬롥
ǸˡʤȤ뤳Ȥ餬ʲǤȤǡʤȤʤä뤳Ȥ϶ˤΰ̣ǡűѸˤƤʤ̤ȯãʤäΤȤϡ˾ŪʺȼѲŪΩ줫ϡϤפǤϤ롥#2115. ݻȸѲؤ ([2015-02-10-1]) Milroy θѲ˸ڤʤ褦ˡʤѲΤƱͤˤʤѲʤäΤȤ⡤ä٤
#2185. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο ([2015-04-21-1]) ȡ#2206. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο (2) ([2015-05-12-1]) ˰³ƤꡥѸʹߡƵ̾ȼưɽषƤƤ롥θݤϢɽȤζȤĴˡ (118--48) 롥ϡcontent oneself with ʤɤΡưܺƵֻ̾פȤѥȤδϢɽŪʤäơOED 1700ǯʹߤ줾ʬۤä
content oneself with ǤСΥѥϸѸǤϸƤƤꡤäƳƼζȤ櫓 be content to V be content with NP ƤƤȤbe contented with NP be contented to V Ȥ٤ʤѤƤꡤΤȤƺƵ̾ѤɽϳƼζޤޤΩʤʤäƤƤȤcontent oneself with Τۤˤ⤤ĤɽƤꡤ㤨 apply oneself to Ϥ¤˸ƤƤꡤäƼưˡ apply to NP ư֤ be applied to NP ƤƤ褦8ưˤĤ̤ϡʲ̤Ǥʽp. 134) ̤ǤϤʤҤäͤƵɽǤϤʤŪͥǤ뤳Ȥ褯狼롥
| reflexive | passive | intransitive | other rival forms | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | content oneself with | 108 | 30 | 136 | |
| (2) | avail oneself of | 14 | 4 | ||
| (3) | devote oneself to | 70 | 191 | ||
| (4) | apply oneself to | 42 | 653 | 548 | |
| (5) | attach oneself to | 93 | 100 | 171 | |
| (6) | address oneself to | 62 | 207 | 11 | |
| (7) | confine oneself to | 69 | 592 | ||
| (8) | concern oneself with/about/in | 69 | 822 |
#2185. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο ([2015-04-21-1]) ơĴ٤ƤߤȤ𤹤롥Jespersen äƤߤεȤˤܤ˹ͤƤȤJespersen ȯդ줿褦ʵ-self κƵ̾βŪʽŤȤ˲äme him ʤɤñƵ̾ΰ̣Ūʷڤ뤤 "dative of interest" ˡ (cf. #980. ethical dative ([2012-01-02-1])) ȤƤΰʬϤͿƤΤǤϤʤȤĹʬ䤹ʤΤǰѤ褦 (Jespersen 325)
Omission of Reflexive Pronouns
16.21. In a great many cases the verb as used intransitively represents an older reflexive verb. The change of construction may have been brought about in two ways. In the older stages of the language the ordinary personal pronoun was used in a reflexive sense, but me in I rest me, originally in the accusative (he hine reste), might easily be felt as representing a 'dative of interest' (cf I buy me a hat, etc.) and thus be discarded as really superfluous. In the second place, after the self-pronouns had come to be generally used, the reflexive object in I dress myself might be taken to be the empathic pronoun in apposition to the nominative (the difference in stress not being always strictly maintained) and thus might easily appear superfluous. The tendency is towards getting rid of the cumbersome self-pronoun whenever no ambiguity is to be feared; thus a modern Englishman or American will say I wash, dress, and shave, where his ancestor would add (me, or) myself in each case. One of the reasons for this evolution is evidently the heaviness of the forms myself, ourselves, etc., while there is not the same inducement in other languages to get rid of the short me, se, mich, sich, migh, sig, sja, etc. Hence also the development of the activo-passive use . . . in many cases where other languages have either the reflexive or the passive forms that have arisen out of the reflexive (Scand. -s, Russian -sja, -s.)
ΰѤθǡJespersen ŪȤƤκƵ̾줬ά줿ưɽѸ¿ƤįƤȡ¿ư줬Ѹˤơּư첽פƤǧǤ롥դˤСδФϡɽ⤢ɽ⤫ĤƤϺƵ̾ȼäƤΤȶäФ˺Ƶ̾ѤȴФƤߤ롥
we bowed our selves towards him (Bacon A 4.34)
may I complain my selfe (Sh R 2 I 2.42)
they drew themselves more westerly towards the Red sea (Raleigh)
I dress my selfe handsome, till thy returne (Sh H 4 B II.4.302)
I though it would make me feel myself a boy again, but . . . I never felt so old as I do to-day (Barrie T 65)
Both I do repent me and repent it (Sh)
[he] retyr'd himselfe To Italy (Sh R 2 IV 1.96)
He . . . hath solne him home to bed (Sh Ro II 1.4)
Jesus turned him about (AV Matth. 9.22)
yeeld thee, coward (Sh Mcb V 8.23)
Ƶ̾ξάȴϢơ̾ (each other, one another) ξάѥʷȤƤߤ뤳ȤǤ (Jespersen 332) we meet, we kiss, we marry Τ褦Ūʰ̣ˤƼưȤƻȤ뤬ŪȤ each other ȼäƤembrace, greet, hug ʤɤ⤳롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part III. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1954.
ɸθϡ츻Ūˤ϶̤θ촴ƬۤʤʤΤѸǤϤ줾 <proceed>, <recede> ȰۤʤֻѤ롥ϰΤʤʤΤȡαԤ䤬줿
ʤۤɸ촴ϥƥ -cedere (go, proceed) 뤤ϤΥե -céder ͳ褹Τǡ츻Ūˤ <cede> ֻդ路Ȥˤä <ceed> <cede> ޤäƤ롥Upward and Davidson (103) ϡ10Ƥ롥
-<ceed>: exceed, proceed, succeed
-<cede>: cede, accede, concede, intercede, precede, recede, secede
θ⡤ѸѸ˺ǽ˸줿Ȥֻ -<cede> äΤФơξ˼ޤäȤѸǤ interceed, preceed, recead/receed ʤɤԤƤɸŪˤϤʤʤä֤äƤߤ -<cede> ͥä褦˸뤬ȵη֤ˤꡤơۤȤɥ˷ޤäȤäƤ褤ΤǤϤʤֻȯΰ¿δط褯ɽ魯
Τ褦ʺ˾褸ơƱñ줬2ʬ줿㤬롥discrete discreet ƥ discretus ̤뤬ֻκռ˼뤫Τ褦ˤơ2ĤΰۤʤʬȤäƲʬ䤹ʤä櫓Ǥʤ
ѸǤ <e>, <ee>, <ea> λäκʤcomplete, compleat, compleet ʤɤܤޤ뤷äκȤҤȤ⤤٤Τspeak vs speech Τ褦Ω˻¸Ƥ (Upward and Davidson 104; cf. #49. /k/ θڥ ([2009-06-16-1])) Ϣơ#436. <ea> ֤ε ([2010-07-07-1]) ȡ
-<cede> vs -<ceed> ˸¤餺Ĺ첻 /iː/ бֻ¿ܤĥ롥ĤƤߤ褦
<ae>: Caeser, mediaeval
<ay>: quay
<e>: be, he, mete
<ea>: lead, meat, sea
<ee>: feet, meet, see
<ei>: either, receive, seize,
<eigh>: Leigh
<eip>: receipt
<eo>: feoff, people
<ey>: key
<i>: chic, machine, Philippines
<ie>: believe, chief, piece
<oe>: amoeba, Oedipus
õСۤˤ⤢Ȼפ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ɸϡ#481. father ˵ä ([2010-08-21-1]) ʬŪ˼夲ѸˤǤϡð > d 뤤Ϥεդ d > th Ф줬뤬 (157) ϴϢ22ƼƤ롥ͭפʥꥹȤʤΤǡʲ˵Ƥεǵ⻲ȡˡ
| OE ð [ð] | ModE. d [d] | OE d [d] | ModE. th [ð] |
| byrðen | burden | fæder | father |
| cūðe | could | gad(e)rian | gather |
| Cūð(wi)nes dūn | Cuddesdon | ġeard | garth[θ] (? yard) |
| fiðele | fiddle | hider | hither |
| ġeforðian | afford | hwider | whither |
| morðor | murder | mōdor | mother |
| nǣðl | needle | sweard | swarth [θ] (? sward) |
| rōðor | rudder | ME teder | tether |
| spīðra | spider | tōgæd(e)re | together |
| staðol | staddle | þider | thither |
| swæðel | swaddle | weder | weather |
12IJ [ð] [d] ž뷹
15ήɡԤ [d] [ð] ž뷹
嵭Τ褦˲ĶꤹȡۤȤɤ٤ƤδͿ㤬ޤǤȤ2ĤβϻۤʤäƤꡤߤ˴ͿʤΩѲǤ롤ȡ
סOE byrðen "burden" vs. fæder "father"Ѹˤ˻ȯŪ˸ [d] [ð] θؤˤĤơסظդΤʿءˡ˶ǰʸ١ҡ2015ǯ155--66ǡ
-th 롥ǽ3Ĥν first, second, third ϡ#67. ˤ佼ˡ ([2009-07-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦˸üǤꡤfifth, twelfth #1080. ʤ five ν fifth ʤΤ ([2012-04-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦˴θ촴Ҳ̵Ƥ㳰Ūˤߤ뤬¾ϴŪˤϴ -th ĤФ褤fourth, tenth, hundredth, millionth ΤȤ§ŪǤ롥
§ΤʤԵ§ȸƤӤΤˡtwentieth ninetieth ޤǤ8Ĥ -ieth 롥twentieth ǤСȯ */ˈtwentiθ/ ʤ /ˈtwentiəθ/ Ǥꡤ e ȯ뤿ˡΤȤ3Ȥʤ뤳Ȥդʤľ twenty + th ֻȯˤʤʤΤ
űѸǤϡ20, 30, 40 . . . δ twēntiġ, þrītiġ, fēowertiġ Τ褦ˡȾҲ ġ ǽäƤδˤˤϡĤʤ첻Ƭˤΰ۷ -oða, -oðe ղätwēntiġoða, þrītiġoða, fēowertiġoða Τ褦ˤˤƤϡˤȾҲԤ첻 /i/ ˵ۼƾüˤƤϡȾҲΤĤʤ첻Ϣۣ첻 /ə/ ȤĤäΤȹͤ롥Ĥޤꡤtwentieth ΤԵ§ֻȯϡŪˤϡ10ܿɽ魯줬ˤλҲŪ ġ ݻƤȤʬŪ˵Ȥ롥
ºݤŪȯŸϡűѸ줫鸽Ѹˤƾˤ褦ľŪä櫓ǤϤʤ褦ȤΤϡűѸǤĤʤ첻Τʤ twentigþa Τ褦ֻϤäѸǤ twentiþe, twentythe ʤɤľֻ̤ˤߤ줿 (cf. MED twentīeth (num.)) षߤη֤ϡ16ˤʤäƤ鸲ˤʤäƤ㤨СShakespeare ǤϡQuarto ǤǤ twentith1st Folio ǤǤ twentieth (MV 4.1.329, Ham 3.4.97) ֤Ƥꡤ̻ŪѲƤ롥餯ϡˤäơˤäơĤʤ첻̵ͭϤФиؤȻפ졤ѸˤɸಽήΤʤǡĤʤ첻Τ֤줿ȤȤʤΤǤϤʤ
ʲͤޤǤ OED ˤ -th, suffix2 βŽĤƤ
Forming ordinal numbers; in modern literary English used with all simple numbers from fourth onward; representing Old English -þa, -þe, or -oða, -oðe, used with all ordinals except fífta, sixta, ellefta, twelfta, which had the ending -ta, -te; in Sc., north. English, and many midland dialects the latter, in form -t, is used with all simple numerals after third (fourt, fift, sixt, sevent, tent, hundert, etc.). In Kentish and Old Northumbrian those from seventh to tenth had formerly the ending -da, -de. All these variations, -th, -t, -d, represent an original Indo-European -tos (cf. Greek πέμπ-τος, Latin quin-tus), understood to be identical with one of the suffixes of the superlative degree. In Old English fífta, sixta, the original t was retained, being protected by the preceding consonant; the -þa and -da were due to the position of the stress accent, according to Verner's Law. The ordinals from twentieth to ninetieth have -eth, Old English -oða, -oðe. In compound numerals -th is added only to the last, as 1/1345, the one thousand three hundred and forty-fifth part; in his one-and-twentieth year.[ | ѥڡ ]
ΤƤ褦ˡ塼 langage langue parole 2ǧŪоݤؤȶʬߤ֤Ѹˤϥե langage б¸ߤʤlangue parole ˤĤƤ Ullmann Ϥ줾 language, speech Ullmann (21) ˡ줾ħŪ˼ƤɽΤǡǤ褦
| Language | Speech |
|---|---|
| Code | Encoding of a message |
| Potential | Actualized |
| Social | Individual |
| Fixed | Free |
| Slow-moving | Ephemeral |
| Psychological | Psycho-physical |
轵ѹΥ٥ӡ Princess Charlotte ꤬ѹܤʨƤ롥Prince William Kate Middleton ʤեȥ͡ Charlotteߥɥ͡ϡ褯ͤȴ졤֤ˤɾ Elizabeth Diana Ǥ롥̤ˤϡιդ Her Royal Highness Princess Charlotte of Cambridge ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤ (cf. #440. ˻ĤɾΤ you ([2010-07-11-1]), #1952. Ųפ Your Majesty ˤߤɰա ([2014-08-31-1]))

Charlotte ϡCharles θ캬˽ܼĻؾ (diminutive) դ֤ͳ褷־Ƥ襤 Charles פۤɤǤ롥θ캬ϵŪˤϥޥĸ *karlaz (man) ͳ褷줬ƥ Carolus ȤƼѤ졤˸ťեȯŸǸƬҲ [k] [ʧ] ȸ (palatalisation) θҲäťեβѸؼѤ졤ߤ [ʧɑːlz] ϢʤäƤ롥
եäեǤ13˻ [ʧ] [ʃ] ؤ (fricativisation) ʸä s ȯߡƱ̾ [ʃaʁl] ȯƤ롥ƱͤˡCharlotte ⸽եǤȯǻϤޤ [ʃaʁlɔt] Ǥ롥αѸΥ٥ӡ̾⡤ǻϤޤ [ʃɑːlət] 顤եŪȯȤȤˤʤ롥嵭ޤȤȡѸ̾ Charles ˻äƸťեŪʶ̾ Charlotte äƸեŪʶΤȤ롥
ѸˤեѸ <ch> ֤Τ˻ [ʧ] [ʃ] ȤϡФмѻˤΤѤ롥㤨 chance, charge, chief, check, chair, charm, chase, cheer, chant ϤѸ˼Ѥ줿ΤǤꡤchampagne, chef, chic, chute, chaise, chicanery, charade, chasseur, chassis ϤѸäΤǤ롥㤨ƤκƼѤͿʤɡɬ⤳ε§ˤƤϤޤʤ⤢Τǡܰ¤ˤȤɤƤCharles Charlotte λҲκۤˤĤƤŪ˾ܤĴ٤櫓ǤϤʤΰ㤤Ȥϡͭ̾˿ȼ䤹ήԤϹȿǤǤϤʤȵäƤ롥
ʤޥĸ *karlas (man) ϡľܤ뤤ϴܤ˸Ѹ churl carl ޤƤ롥̣Ρˡפֿʬ㤤ˡפؤȲƤΤ⤷դˡ̾ Charles Charlotte ϡѹο͵ˤꡤषͤޤäƤȤʡˡ
եѸǯ˴ؤƤϡ#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])#1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1])#1291. եѸμѻκ ([2012-11-08-1])#1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1])#678. ƥ衼åŪ18ΥեѸ ([2011-03-06-1])#594. ѸʹߤΥեѸħ ([2010-12-12-1]), #2183. ñȥեñ (1) ([2015-04-19-1]), #2184. ñȥեñ (2) ([2015-04-20-1]) Ȥ줿
ɸΤ褦ˡѸ have Ե§ѲưǤ롥has -s 뤷, had -d ⤢뤫顤Ե§Ȥϼ㴳Ե§Ȥ٤ʤ *haves *haved ǤϤʤΤ
ŪˤߤСߤǤϵƤʤ haves haved ¸ߤűѸ˾Ȥ餷ƤߤȡưϽ˵§ŪʶޤưǤϤʤä٤˵§ŪǤꡤ̤ϻ¾ε§ѲưȹͤƤƺ٤ʤűѸ䡤Ȥ櫓ѸǤϡhaves haved ֵ§Ūפʽ֤Τ˹ԤƤΤǤ롥
űѸ habban (have) ζɽϡ#74. /b/ /v/ ְ㤨!? ([2009-07-11-1]) ǷǤʲ˰۷֤ޤɽƷǤ褦
| habban (have) | Present Indicative | Present Subjunctive | Preterite Indicative | Preterite Subjunctive | Imperative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st sg. | hæbbe | hæbbe | hæfde | hæfde | |
| 2nd sg. | hæfst, hafast | hafa | |||
| 3rd sg. | hæfþ, hafaþ | ||||
| pl. | habbaþ | hæbben | hæfdon | hæfden | habbaþ |
ػŪˤߤСꥫ¤ؤ餫˷ֽŻθؤäˤ̣˴ؤƤϡưδΤΡܳŪ˹ͻ뤳ȤϤʤạ̈ڻ뤷Ƥȸ虜ʤꥫ¤ؤµ Bloomfield Ȥϡ³粼ۤɡ̣ڻ뤷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤष褯ͤƤ餳Ƥ̣ϻϤʳؤ˻Τ˿ŤäΤǤ롥
Ω (58) Bloomfield Τ褦ɾʤ顤֤ޤޤǤΤɤθȤˤޤơҰ̣ӤܼĤФΤۤʤ̤Υ֥롼եɤäפȤޤǽҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤϡʲΤǤ롥
When anything apparently unimportant turns out to be closely connected with more important things, we say that it has, after all, a "meaning"; namely, it "means" these more important things. Accordingly, we say that speech-utterance, trivial and unimportant itself, is important because it has a meaning: the meaning consists of the important things with which the speech-utterance . . . is connected, namely the practical events . . . . (Bloomfield 27)
üԤˤȤäƤפǤʤȤ̤ƤפǤ뤳Ȥɽ魯ѡξԤδط̣ǤȡBloomfield Ϲͤ㤨С[ai] ȤΤĤʤϡ켫ΤʪŪʲȤˤʤΤǤ롥ܸǤϡְסѸǤ I ȤפȤߤʤǤʪ䳵ǰ˷ӤĤƤ롥ηӤĤ [ai] ΰ̣Ǥȹͤ롥
Ω (58--59) ʹƤߤ褦
顤Ұ̣ӤȤΤϡΤ븽ݤʤǤ줽ֽספबߤʤۤʪŪʤŪʻʪ˷ӤĤݤδطΤȤȤȤˤʤ֥פʪפоݤǤ뤫ǰǤ뤫ưǤ뤫ΤȤϤǤǤϤʤʤʤߤˡ֥롼եɼȤϡҰ̣ưӤΩäƤˡʤΤϡΤİƤ벻Ƥ俧ʤɤ뤳ȤʤԺߤΡ֥פʪפ˴طŤȤΥץǤ롥
Τ褦ˡ̣ȤϲͤγŪʴطƤ롥פǤʤפϡʸˤäƤۤʤΤǤ뤫顤θ¤ˤựʺѡˤȤŪʤΤȤʤ餶ʤȤȤˤʤ롥Bloomfield ϡ̣ΤäƤ椨ˡ֤Ʊ˰̣뤳ȤκˤⵤŤƤΤ
̣ΰ̣ˤĤƤϡ#1782. ̣ΰ̣ ([2014-03-14-1])#1863. Stern ˤΰ̣Ť3ǡ ([2014-06-03-1])#1769. Ogden and Richards semiotic triangle ([2014-03-01-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Ω ظ١˼ҡ1990ǯ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
źȾΰˤơr μ¸ϡԤդ뤨 (alveolar trill) [r] ȤƤʤ롥褯ΤƤ褦 r ѰۤȤ櫓פʰˤɸŪʼ¸ [r] ǤϤʤȤܤͤ롥ѸǤϻܶ (alveolar approximant) [ɹ] 䤽ܶ (retroflex approximant) [ɻ] ŵŪʼ¸ǤꡤեǤϸ (uvular fricative) [ʁ]ɥĸǤϸդ뤨 (uvular trill) [ʀ] ɸŪǤ롥ѰŪ r ⡤ȤȤ [r] ŪȯŸΤȹͤƤꡤŪˤϼΤ褦ʲȤƼƤʿp. 34 )
(1) Ѹˤơ첻³ʤ r [r] 17ޤǤ˻ܶ [ɹ] ˼ޤꡤθ塤Ԥ˰̲ơ첻Ԥ r ޤǤ⤬ [ɹ] ȯ˻ä
(2) եˤƤϡ17դ˥ѥʸإ˽ήԤüˤäֺͽ (les précieuses) ˸դ碌롤 r [ʀ] ήԤήԤ˥ե˹ޤꡤǥɥĸȥǥޡʬŪ˥ǥʥȾꥢȵڤ
(3) (2) β塤r դ뤨 [ʀ] ˸ [ʁ] ˴Dz̵ܤˤƤϡ̵ΰ۲ [χ] Ѥ˻ä
(2) ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ#1055. uvular r θ춭ۤ ([2012-03-17-1]) ǿ줿ޤѸˤ r ˤĤƤϡ#1817. Ѹ /l/ /r/ (2) ([2014-04-18-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
嵭Ǥϡ(2) (3) ϻŪϢ³ƤΤΡ(1) ϤȤΩѲȤƤ롥Τ褦ˡ r ΰ۲ʬۤŪȯŸϡޤʬŪ˴ϢŤ뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤ΤȤƷӤĤ褦ȤߤϤʤäϤ餹٤Ƥ1Ĥ r ȯŸήΤʤ˰֤Ť褦ȤƤ롥ꤹС (60) ϼΤ褦ȯŸꤷƤ롥ʸǤϡȯŸĴŪ˲ǽǤ뤳ȤƤ롥
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [r] | > | [z̺] | > | [ɹ] | > | [ɻ] | > | [ʁ̙] | > | [ʁ] | > | [ʀ]/[χ] |
塼ˤ붦֤̻֤ζ̤ΩˤĤƤϡ#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1])#1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1]) ȡ#1076. 塼뤬֤̻֤ͥ褵3Ĥͳ ([2012-04-07-1])#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1])#1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1])#2134. Ѳ̷ǤϤʤ ([2015-03-01-1]) ʤɤεˤƤ#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡ䥳֥ϥ塼2ʬˡ˰۵ĤΩƤΩ (42) ˤХ䥳֥ȽƤʤȤ䥳֥ϸоݤȤƤȤ館ƤꡤΩ줫顤ˤ϶Ū¦̤̻Ū¦̤ꡤξԤʬӤĤƤƤ롥塼ϡоݤȤƤǤϤʤǧоݤȤƤȤ館Ǥ2ʬˡƤΤ䥳֥ϡ塼2ʬˡˤʳǧƤʤΤȡ
Ǥϡ塼2ʬˡˤʳǧȤϲϡָΤΰռפǤ롥ˤĤơˤΤ֡γˤΤ̻֤ȤǧǤ롥ĹѤȤʤ뤬Ω (43--45) Υ塼˼褦ʸʸ˵ϲؤƤˡ
塼ˤСΤΰռΤˤİΤռˤȤäƤϡŻߤ֤¸ߤƤʤǤ⾯ѲĤŤƤ뤷ĿͤΰĤƤ⤢٤ϿܤƤ櫓ĿͤϤѲޤäռˡʬϰƱİäƤȿƤΤ褦ˡİΤռӤȤե륿Ĥ줿ǧоݤҶ֡ӤǤꡤƨΤ̻֡ӤȤΤǤ롥äơ֤ƱפȤΤϸŵʪŪʻּΰִ֤ȤƤƱǤϤʤİΤռӤˤȤäƤƱäŪƱȤǤ⤤٤ΤǤ롥бơ塼뤬äƤ̻֤ȤΤŵʪŪŪ֤ǤϤʤΤռƨ褦ʡ쥷ƥѲưθưϡʤΤäơ塼ϺŪ˿ֳǰˤȤŤƶ̻֤֡ζ̤ʤǧоݤۤΤǤäơ䡼֥Τ褦˸ŵʪŪʻֳǰŪʻ֡ˤˤȤŤƤȽ褦ʤȤϡޤäΤޤȤϤǤꡤȽȤΩʤΤǤ롥Τ褦ʴ餹ȡǽˤ x y ʤɸΤ褦ʿޤϡͿΤǤä⤷ʤĤϡ塼뼫ȡΤβŪʻֳǰޤ뤳ȤǤΤ褦ʸμޤƤΤǤäơۤȤɤθؼԤϤ٤ˤȤɤޤäƤ롥ϡΡֲǽ濴פɤޤʤФʤʤ
ƤʤҶ֡ӤȤϡָΤΰռפ䤦ȤˤäƼФʥˤŻ߾֤ΤȤǡŪͤΥƥƤ롥ŪͤΥƥȤΤϡСŪʴطΤȤƤεΥƥࡤɽŪۡʡΩˤΥƥȤȤ̤ΤȤǤϤʤˤơ̻֡ӤȤϡָΤΰռפƨꡤΤ̵ռΤˡ֤ΤʤξǤ롥Ҷ֡ӤΤΡҰռռӥƥͿƤΤˤơ̻֡ӤϼΤΡ̵ռӥƥˤΤͿƤȤȤǤ롥塼ϡξԤθϳؤӤơѹվ֤ˤȤƤζ֤θֳưĤĤȤƤ̻֤θưƤ롥ʾ夫餫ʤ褦ˡ̻֤֡ζ̤ȤΤϡ褯褦ʸ츦ˤˡ̤ʤɤǤϤäƤʤȼΤץ뤿ǧŪ֤ˤۤʤʤĤޤꡤҰռռӥƥȡ̵ռӥƥȤʬΤŪˡϤޤˤΤ褦ʡդؤȤƸΤǤ
֤̻֤ϡȤоݤ2¦̤ǤϤʤФФᤵƤ褦ˡѻݤ2ĤλǤʤǤϤʤ֤̻֤ȤϡҸΤΰռӤˤ뤫ˤ뤫ȤǧʤΤΩĤϡΤ褦˥塼ᤷƤ롥
Ω ظ١˼ҡ1990ǯ
ΩѴdzŤƤޥåŸ13ǯ֤ŸȤ
René Magritte (1898--1967ˤϥ٥륮ι̱ŪȤǡΥȤǥˤ礭ʱƶͿ쥢ꥹεǤ롥դȥꡤ뤤ϵˤ³ȤǡޥåȤγϡָŪˡ״վޤ뤳ȤǽǤ롥
ޥåȤ metaphor metonymy ռŪ¿Ѥ¿ѤȤϡΥơޤȤƷǤƤmetaphor metonymy ȤդΤ˻ߡܤ˸Ĥޤꡤܤ˸ηݽѲȤǤ롥
̣ˤ metaphor (similarity) ˴Ťmetonymy (contiguity) ˴ŤȤ졤2Ĥ֤뤳Ȥ¿֤طǤϤʤȤ⤷Фʹ롥ޥåȤ⡤Τʤ metaphor metonymy ΩȤϡФƱ蘆ͻ礵뤳Ȥˤäơε˻äƤ뤫Τ褦Ǥ롥
㤨СޥåȤγˤϡܤڤΩƤ줿դسԤȤƤΤ⤢롥ڤդδطΤʬδطǤꡤŵŪ metonymy ƱξԤسԤƤȤˤơγ metaphor ȤʤäƤ롥įƤȡmetonymy Ǥ⤢ metaphor Ǥ⤢ȤԻĤʴФƤΤ⤦1ȡLe Viol ͿˤȤʤǤϡζΤޤδȤ⸫褦Ƥ롥ΤȴȤϾ岼˸ߤܤƤ metonymy δطʤγˤƤϤȤ⸫뤳ȤǤȤ metaphor Ǥ⤢롥Dubnick (417) ˤСޥåȤϡγΤʤǻŪ metaphor metonymy ɽΤߤʤ餺ƱظǸͷӤ⤷ƤȤ
Le Viol (The Rape, 1934) which substitutes a woman's torso for her face, is predominantly metonymic though relationships of similarity are also important. The breasts are substituted for eyes, the navel for the nose, and perhaps a risqué pun on the word labia is intended. This monstrous image is both funny and grotesque. But even though this image may convey a metaphorical and moral message about the sexual basis of a woman's identity, especially in the eyes of the rapist, the core of the painting is really the vulgar synecdoche which replaces the word "woman" with a slang term for a female's genitals. Thus, this is both a verbal and a visual pun.
Dubnick (418) ϡؼ Roman Jakobson 礤˽Фʤ顤ޥåȤΤ褦ɾɾäƤ롥
Jakobson's linguistic theories about metaphor and metonymy suggest that the phrase "visible poetry" was not an empty metaphor for Magritte, who created figures of speech with paint.
Dubnick, Randa. "Visible Poetry: Metaphor and Metonymy in the Paintings of René Magritte." Contemporary Literature 21.3 (1980): 407--19.
ε#2194. ե쵬ϼѸŨ롤̱Ūե ([2015-04-30-1]) ǡե1994ǯꤵ줿 Toubon ˡ (Loi Toubon) ˿줿Toubon ˡȤ¯Τϡʸեեˡ (Le ministre de la culture et de la francophonie) Jacques Toubon ˡƳȤˤʤࡥŪʾǤΥեλѤˡʤȤ櫓Ѹռơ˳λѤ¤ˡȤäƤ褤եθڤӸؤλθˡȸ뤳ȤǤ롥
Toubon ˡϡŪϼʤɤμҲŪʴΤ˶̣ǤϤ뤬ŪʴȤ뤳ȤϾʤʸΤʤ˸Ū˹θ٤1Ĥ롥Article 5 ˼Τ褦ˤ롥
Quels qu'en soient l'objet et les formes, les contrats auxquels une personne morale de droit public ou une personne privée exécutant une mission de service public sont parties sont rédigés en langue française. Ils ne peuvent contenir ni expression ni terme étrangers lorsqu'il existe une expression ou un terme français de même sens approuvés dans les conditions prévues par les dispositions réglementaires relatives à l'enrichissement de la langue française.
ŪʷǤϡƱ̣ ("même sens") Υեɽ礬ˡб볰ѤƤϤʤȤʸǤ롥ǤƱ̣פȤɽϡ̣ŪޤǤ롥#1498. taboo ŪȤʤͳ (3) ([2013-06-03-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ褯ΤƤȤꡤ˸̩ʰ̣ǤƱ¸ߤˤθȰ츫ƱȤܤ¾θ礬Ѥ¸ȤƤ⡤ξԤ̯˵ǽ㤨Τ̤Ǥ롥ǡֵǽפȸƤΤϡdenotation connotation ޤƤΡְ̣פƱΤǤ롥ʸ "sens" denotation ΤߤؤƤ褦 "sens" ζλüԤȤѸȤˤϡdenotation Τߤʤ餺 connotation θƤΤǤꡤξԤϸߤ˴ƱǤϤʤ
1Ĥ signifié б signifiant 2ĤꡤʸϤǤդ˸ؤȤΤϡΤˤ˸ǽǡŪʸˤդ路ʤ1Ĥ signifié б signifiant 2ĤפȤϡҤΤ褦˵Ǥ롥ǤϤ뤬ˤϤȤΤȤǤηǰƤΤǤС֤˸ȤΤʤ褦ˡפʤɤȤʸʸ˴ޤФ褤ΤˡƺԤδؿϡľܤΤ褦ʴˤȤϡ¤ "l'enrichissement de la langue française" ˤ褦Ǥ롥
ξʸϡ"même sens" ȤѸѤƼݤ褦ȤƤ뤬ǸˤϸŪȤϸŪȤ٤ "l'enrichissement de la langue française" ǽƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥դˤ롥
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow