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#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1])#1722. Pisani ۩ָϤǤס ([2014-01-13-1])#2006. ܿάˡ ([2014-10-26-1])#2008. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1]) ǥꥢ (neolinguistics) ɤˤĤƿ줿ػ˾οؤΩ˴ؿƤ뤬γɤԤϼ礿ꥢǽƤꡤưפǤϤʤΤᡤؤϡܤǤ⡤ޤذ̤Ǥ⤽ۤΤƤʤΤ褦ʾǿؤΥåˤϡػˤλͽӳؽѻ Language 蘆줿㤷ɤΤΩġϡ줿ػˤ路åˤ뵭Ҥ˰͵оطʤȡθѤҲ𤹤롥
ꥢؤϡMatteo Giulio Bartoli (1873--1946) 路ʸ "Alle fonti del neolatino" (Miscellanea in onore de Attillio Hortis, 1910, pp. 889--913) äƤȤ롥1925ǯˤϡBartoli ˤ Introduzione alla neolinguistica (Principi---Scopi---Metodi) (Genève, 1925) ȡBartoli and Giulio Bertoni ˤ Breviorio di neolinguistica (Modena, 1925) ѤǽǤ졤ؤδפۤVittolio Pisani Giuliano Bonfante ⤳γɤۤؼԤä
ؤλۤϡWilhelm von Humboldt (1767--1835)Hugo Schuchardt (1842--1927)Benedetto Croce (1866--1952)Karl Vossler (1872--1947) δǰȤ롥ˡȤƤϥեθؼ Jules Gilliéron (1854--1926) ¿äƤ롥ηϥɥĤŪǰȥեθؤͻˤꡤεŰŪǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ؤȽħŤ롥
ؤŪΩ¿ʣŪǤ롥åȴФСüԤ¤ŪФʤɡˤºšŪŪĶνŻ롤ʲǤϤʤ˸äθؤηФȤäȤå (66) εҤ˵
ʹ֤ϸʪŪΤߤʤ餺Ụ̄ˤƤ⡽ΰջ֡ϡ͡ˤäƤ⡽¤롥Ϥ¤Ԥʹ֤ȿǤǤ롥˴ؤΤϤ٤ŪʤӤŪεǤ롥
ؤǤϸؤβʪǤʤؤθݤ¤ݤνˤʤ츽ݤظˤ븶Ͽʹ֤ưǤ롥
äҲ speaking society ϸ¤¸ߤʤϡʿŪʹ֡פƱͤ˲Ǥ롥ºߤΤϤäĿ͡ speaking person Ǥ롥βϤɤäĿ͡פФڤ롥
ĿͤϻϤˤʤβϡѲϻϼԤפʿʪʹ⤤ҲŪϰ̤λ硤Ωä¤Ϥλ硤ýѤã͡ˤξˡäμ¡®˼ҲƤ롥
ˤʤȸʤΤϲĤʤ¸ߤΤϤ٤¸ߤȤ¸Τ
ϺŪˤŪФɽǤ뤬ϤĤ䤹ΤǤ롥¡ƱŪФ˰¸Ƥ¾̡ʷݽѡʸءˤˤƤƱ͡ˤƤήԤѲѻǤ롥
ñΰ̣ѲϻŪȤη̤Ȥ롥ѲθϿʹ֤¤ϤƯΤ꤬ȤͭפǤ롥
칽¤Ѳ̱²κη̤Ȥ뤬ϿͼκǤϤʤʸκΰ̣ˤƤǤ롥
¾ϡФߤ̷⤹͡ȯŸư濴Ȥʤ롥͡ȯŸưˤϡ͡λФ츽ݤܶᤷʤФʤʤޤˡġθοʲϤȤ櫓ŪŪĶ˵ꤵȤ¤θ٤Ǥ㤨СեˤϡեˡꥹȶαƶޥͤοʽС١ꥢαƶʷϵǥߡλŻե̿ޥưθʤƤŬڤ˸Ǥʤˡ
οؤϡθǯʸˡɤ˴ŤήɤϸΤƤ뤳ȤˤʤäꥢǤϼѤ뤳ȤȤʤä͡ȽϤäˡҲλȤ櫓ؤءʤ뤤ϰ "areal linguistics"ˤˤƤĤνפʹʤȤõ٤Ǥ롥㤨СȾ (wave_theory) ˾ܤŪ̩äظƶ (substratum_theory) ˿ͼκǤϤʤʸκȤͿȤʤɤɾ٤ˤĤƤϡ#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])#1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1])#1594. ΥޥȤϱѸޥ ([2013-09-07-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ߥ륫å Ρ ͺ ظؤή١ߤ˼1974ǯ
Hall, Robert A. "Bartoli's 'Neolinguistica'." Language 22 (1946): 273--83.
Bonfante, Giuliano. "The Neolinguistic Position (A Reply to Hall's Criticism of Neolinguistics)." Language 23 (1947): 344--75.
#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1]) ӡ#1998. The Embedding Problem ([2014-10-16-1]) Ǽ夲 Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog ˤѲˤĤƤʸκǸˡѲȤ٤ "SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE CHANGE" (187--88) Ƥ롥
1. Linguistic change is not to be identified with random drift proceeding from inherent variation in speech. Linguistic change begins when the generalization of a particular alternation in a given subgroup of the speech community assumes direction and takes on the character of orderly differentiation.
2. The association between structure and homogeneity is an illusion. Linguistic structure includes the orderly differentiation of speakers and styles through rules which govern variation in the speech community; native command of the language includes the control of such heterogeneous structures.
3. Not all variability and heterogeneity in language structure involves change; but all change involves variability and heterogeneity.
4. The generalization of linguistic change throughout linguistic structure is neither uniform nor instantaneous; it involves the covariation of associated changes over substantial periods of time, and is reflected in the diffusion of isoglosses over areas of geographical space.
5. The grammars in which linguistic change occurs are grammars of the speech community. Because the variable structures contained in language are determined by social functions, idiolects do not provide the basis for self-contained or internally consistent grammars.
6. Linguistic change is transmitted within the community as a whole; it is not confined to discrete steps within the family. Whatever discontinuities are found in linguistic change are the products of specific discontinuities within the community, rather than inevitable products of the generational gap between parent and child.
7. Linguistic and social factors are closely interrelated in the development of language change. Explanations which are confined to one or the other aspect, no matter how well constructed, will fail to account for the rich body of regularities that can be observed in empirical studies of language behavior.
ʸԤϡǯʸˡ (neogrammarian)¤ (structural linguistics)ʸˡ (generative_grammar) ³ػˤ̤ϢʤȼѤƤĿ (idiolect) ȶѼ (homogeneity) 뤹Ȥ櫓ֹ¤ѼפФơиŪΩ줫ȽäΤϡԶѼ (heterogeneity) ι¤ (structure) ǤȤ顤ɤȤƤ "orderly heterogeneity" "orderly differentiation" Ω롥Ω϶ǯ "variationist" ȤƤФ褦ˤʤäƤϾ7̤ȤäƤ
change variation ްդȤ3ܤˤĤƤϡ#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) #1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1]) ȡ
6ܤλҶײؤȽˤĤƤϡ#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Ѳ "multiple causation" 𤤾夲7ܤϡ#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) ǤѤmultiple causation ˤĤƤϡǶεȤơ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) ȡ#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) Ǥ
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ε#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1]) ǰѤ Moravcsik ϡɤΤ褦ʸबѤ䤹ʤɡѤˤĤŪʹͻäƤ롥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1]) Ǥ夲Ѽ (scale of adoptability) Ǥ롥
Moravcsik (110--13) ϡѤζȤ7ܤƤ롥ʲιܤʬΤߤվȴФ
(1) No non-lexical language property can be borrowed unless the borrowing language already includes borrowed lexical items from the same source language.
(2) No member of a constituent class whose members do not serve as domains of accentuation can be included in the class of properties borrowed from a particular source language unless some members of another constituent class are also so included which do serve as domains of accentuation and which properly include the same members of the former class.
(3) No lexical item that is not a noun can belong to the class of properties borrowed from a language unless this class also includes at least one noun.
(4) A lexical item whose meaning is verbal can never be included in the set of borrowed properties.
(5) No inflectional affixes can belong to the set of properties borrowed from a language unless at least one derivational affix also belongs to the set.
(6) A lexical item that is of the "grammatical" type (which type includes at least conjunctions and adpositions) cannot be included in the set of properties borrowed from a language unless the rule that determines its linear order with respect to its head is also so included.
(7) Given a particular language, and given a particular constituent class such that at least some members of that class are not inflected in that language, if the language has borrowed lexical items that belong to that constituent class, at least some of these must also be uninflected.
äƤޤäǤꡤ䤱ʣʰݤͿ뤬줾פȤФǸȤǤϤʤľŪˤ⤢ʤȤǤꡤŤ Haugen Thomason and Kaufman ŦƤतδްռ (implicational_scale) ؤθڤǤ롥(1) ϡùܤμѤʤùܡʸˡܤʤɡˤΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(2) ϡ«Ǥޤ༫ͳŵŪˤϸˤΩƼѤ뤳ȤϤʤȤ(3) ϡ̾μѤʤ̾ΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(4) ϡư줬Ọ̇̄ΤޤݤäޤѤ뤳ȤϤʤȤ㤨СܸΡ֥ܥåȤפʤɤϥưλ٤ư첽ƤΤǤꡤѸư boycott ΤޤưȤѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤˡ(5) ϡǤμѤʤǤΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(6) ϡ㤨ֻβỌ̇̄ΤߤѤ졤֤Ȥ쵬§ΤϼѤʤȤȤϤꤨʤȤʤĤޤꡤֻѤƤʤ顤ֻȤѤȤ褦ϤʤȤˡ(7) ϡǤ̵¸ߤˤ⤫餺¾줫μѸϰ̵ǤϤꤨʤȤϤʤȤ
Moravcsik ϰʾиŪƳФ줿ΤȤƤ뤫顤θθȿ㤬ĤʤѹɬפȤʤϤǤ롥ˤ Moravcsik Ƥ϶ˤƹ¤ŪʡŪȯۤ˴ŤǤꡤߤθܿǽŻ뤵ƤѼԸĿͤο䤽νĤμҲŪʤɤδϤܴۤ˼ξݤƤcf. #1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])ˡȤлʤΤŪؤδؿƤȤϤΤΡ¤Ūʻˤȿ;ϤϻĤƤΤǤϤʤȤפΩ줫顤ްռ٤εҤ̲ƤȤǤ
Moravcsik, Edith A. "Language Contact." Universals of Human Language. Ed. Joseph H. Greenberg. Vol. 1. Method & Theory. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1978. 93--122.
ε#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ǡּѡ (borrowing) ʤɤѸ˸ڤ̩ˤСˤּѡפȤѸ̷ϤǤ롥A줫BؤबּѡפȤBˤ錄ΤϤθʣʥԡˤǤꡤΤA˻ĤΤΡּѡפδŪȡѸ̷ˤĤƤϡ#44. ּѡפˤߤ ([2009-06-11-1]) ǸȤǤ롥
Ѥι¤Ū Moravcsik (99 fn) ⡤ѸȤƤμѤȡ̤ˤʪμѤȤΥˤĤưʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Needless to say, this use of the term "borrowing" is very different from the way the term is used in everyday language. Whereas, according to everyday usage, an object is borrowed if it passes from the use of the owner into the temporary use of someone else and thus at no point in time is it being used by both, according to linguistic usage the source language may continue to include the particular property that has been "borrowed" from it. Thus, what the latter implies is 'permanently' acquiring a copy of an object,' rather than 'temporarily' acquiring an object itself.'
ʤۤɡˤѤϡ֥ԡʵŪ˳뤳ȡפȤŦǼǤ롥ϡε ([2009-06-11-1]) (3) ˤĤƽҤ٤ΤƤ褤顤ѲγȻȤϳŪʸΥԡüԤ餽ٿͤذư뤳ȤϢ³ǤȤǽȤʤ롥
ˤѡʤ뤤ϤŪ˸ѲγȻˤȤϡԡʤϢ³ˤǤȤȴϢƻפФΤϡꥢο (neolinguistics) ΩϡѲγȻ˺ݤƤΤϥԡǤϤʤȸڤ롥üԤٿͤŪʸΡʣ (copy) äƤΤǤϤʤθ (imitation) 뤤ϡֺ¤ (re-creation) ƤΤȼĥ롥Bonfante (356) ۩
The neolinguists assert that linguistic creations, whether phonetic, morphological, syntactic, or lexical, spread by imitation. Imitation is not a slavish copying; it is the re-creation of an impulse or spiritual stimulus received from outside, a re-creation which gives to the linguistic fact a new shape and a new spirit, the imprint of the speaker's own personality.
ˤƼѤȤѸ줬̷ƤȤŪ꤫ȯơΤˤϥԡʣˤȸƤ֤٤Ȥ夤Ȼפ䡤ؤλ顤䤽Ǥ¤ǤȤƤФ줿#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ǤҤ٤ؤθѤˤϡüԸĿͤ¤Ż뤹롥ػˤˤƿؤϼήɤˤʤ뤳ȤϤʤȤʤäƤȾ˺줿¸ߤԻĤ̥Ϥäɾ٤ɤȻפ
Moravcsik, Edith A. "Language Contact." Universals of Human Language. Ed. Joseph H. Greenberg. Vol. 1. Method & Theory. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1978. 93--122.
Bonfante, Giuliano. "The Neolinguistic Position (A Reply to Hall's Criticism of Neolinguistics)." Language 23 (1947): 344--75.
ɸ˵ѸϡܿʬѽФѸǤꡤͤŪˤⶦͭƤ褦˻פ롥٤ߤФϸԤˤۤʤäƤꡤŪ˵뤿ˤϡǧƤɬפΤѸ췲Ǥ⤢롥㤨 (borrowing) ȤѸ1ĤȤäƤߤƤ⡤#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]) Ǽ褦ˡϤǤ롥
ε#2008. ܿάˡ ([2014-10-26-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡܿʬζ1ĤȤ Weinreich Languages in Contact 롥ƬˡɸѸͿƤ롥
In the present study, two or more languages will be said to be IN CONTACT if they are used alternately by the same persons. The language-using individuals are thus the locus of the contact.
The practice of alternately using two languages will be called BILINGUALISM, and the persons involved, BILINGUAL. Those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language, i.e. as a result of language contact, will be refereed to as INTERFERENCE phenomena. It is these phenomena of speech, and their impact on the norms of either language exposed to contact, that invite the interest of the linguist. (Weinreich 1)
ΰѤ³ǡ¤Ω줫顤"interference" Ϲ¤ȤؤްդΤǤȤΤ褦ʴްդĤȤϸ¤ʤ "borrowing" Ȥ϶̤٤ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥¤ȤؤȼʤɽŪʸäμѤʤɤؤ "borrowing" ȸƤ֤ȤϤǤȤƤ⡤äμѤȤƴ¸θạ̈ι¤˱ƶͿ뤳Ȥꤦʾ塤"borrowing" ȤѸλѤˤϿŤǤ٤Ȥ⼨Ƥ롥
ܽκμĥ1Ĥ嵭Ѥ2ʸʤʤܽ2ʸˤ˽Ƥ롥ܿξϡХĿͤǤȤȤޤХȤѸϺ¤˹ᤵƤ뤳Ȥˤդ줿̤鷺2ĤѼ˰ۤʤ줫˶ᤤޤˤ餫ͼǺ礷ؤꤹѤ bilingualism ǤꡤĿͤ bilingual Ǥ롥äơˤСñʤΡּѡפ⡤츫ȹ٤ʵѤˤߤ code-switching ⡤Ȥ bilingualism ȤȤˤʤ롥ơΰĤҤȤĤζŪʸθ줬ĤȤȤˤʤ롥
줯餤ȡϢƹͤ뤢븽ݤܿȤʤ롥ѸΥХȤ뤤ϵΤ褵ε ([2014-10-26-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʬ̵¤γƤȤȤ⤷ʤ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
#1993. Hickey ˤ쳰Ūװؤο ([2014-10-11-1]) εǡǯѲθܿ (language contact) ˵ͤƤƤ롥ܿˤ1970--80ǯϤषƤ1990ǯʹߡɤᤷƤ褦ؤǤθܿθˤϰƳȸŤϡȤ Drinka (325--28) γ˰͵ơܿάˤ
άˤΥȤȤơJohannes Schmidt (1843--1901) ̾#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1]) ʤɤεǸ褦ˡSchmidt ϡ֤δطȤ館뤿Ȥƻվ August Schleicher (1821--68) 1860ǯ Stammbaumtheorie (Family Tree Theory) й1872ǯ Wellentheorie (wave_theory) Schmidt ΤƤϸŪ濴դؤŪȵڤƤȤƤꡤܿ˴ŤƸѲ褦ȤǥȤʤä
λǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) 뤬Τʤǰۺ Hugo Schuchardt (1842--1927) ޤܿν鵤ŤƤ1ͤǤ롥Schuchardt ϡԥ䥯쥪ʤɺθüʪǤ⤢롥
20ȡեؼ Jules Gilliéron (1854--1926) ˤؤ롥1930ǯˤ Kristian Sandfeld ˤХ륫 (linguistique balkanique) ϻϤ졤ϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) ܤĤꥢǤϡ#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡMatteo Bartoli ˤ꿷 (Neolinguistics) 졤Ѳˤ濴ȼդΩطɵ椵줿1940ǯˤ Franz Boaz Roman Jakobson ʤɤθؼԤ춭ۤγȻˤĤ
ܿʬǺǽηŪŪʸȤСWeinreich Languages in Contact (1953) Weinreich ϡܿξϸǤҲǤʤ2üԤĿͤˤ뤳ȤȤǡ˾̾ĤƤ롥Weinreich ϡվ André Martinet ι¤ؤθȤʤ⡤Ҳؤ俴ؤδŻ뤷θθܿ˳ΤͿ1970ǯˤϡPeter Trudgill ŪγȻΤ⤦1ĤΥǥȤ "gravity model" cf.#1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])ˡ
1970ǯȾϡ˸ؤΥץȤʤäƤۤĿͤ뤤ϼҲ2 (bilingualism) ˴ؤ뿴Ūʴθ¿ʤäƤߤǤϸܿ͡ʬؤʬƤꡤʲϤ¿ɤĤΤǤ롥 (language_shift)ײ (language_planning)2ѤˤǾƯȽcode-switchingѤ亮ι¤ŪѲԥ (pidgin) 䥯쥪 (creole) ʤɤܿ (contact language)ϰ (areal linguistics) (linguistic_area) (Matras 203)
ǸˡǯθܿˤƵǰṲ̄Ƥ븦1褦Thomason and Kaufman ˤ Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (1988) Ǥ롥θθܿʬΤۤܤ٤Ƥθ椬¿ʤȤ⤳αƶƤȤäƤǤϤʤܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ĥε (cf. Thomason and Kaufman) Ǽ夲Ƥ̤Ǥ롥
Drinka, Bridget. "Language Contact." Chapter 18 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 325--45.
Matras, Yaron. "Language Contact." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 203--14.
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ܼȤΤϡʬϤΤˤäƤĤǤ롥Ѹ˳㳰ǤϤʤ㤨С#1301. Gramley αѸ˳Υѥ˥ȡ ([2012-11-18-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The History of English: An Introduction ܼ夲褦Gramley αѸ˳ѥ˥ΥڡܼΤǡʲܼξΩƤʬΤߤȴФΤžܤ롥
Chapter 1: The origins of English (before 450)
1.1. The origins of human language
1.2. Language change
1.3. Changes in Germanic before the invasions of Britain
1.4. The world of the Germanic peoples
1.5. The Germanic migrations
1.6. Summary
Chapter 2: Old English: early Germanic Britain (450--700)
2.1. The first peoples
2.2. The Germanic incursions
2.3. Introduction to Old English
2.4. The Christianization of England
2.5. Literature in the early Old English period
2.6. Summary
Chapter 3: Old English: the Viking invasions and their consequences (700--1066/1100)
3.1. The Viking invasions
3.2. Linguistic influence of Old Norse
3.3. Creolization
3.4. Alfred's reforms and the West Saxon standard
3.5. Monastic reform, linguistic developments, and literary genres
3.6. Summary
Chapter 4: Middle English: The non-standard period (1066/1100--1350)
4.1. Dynastic conflict and the Norman Conquest
4.2. Linguistic features of Middle English in the non-standard period
4.3. French influence on Middle English and the question of creolization
4.4. English literature
4.5. Dialectal diversity in ME
4.6. Summary
Chapter 5: Middle English: the emergence of Standard English (1350--1500)
5.1. Political and social turmoil and demographic developments
5.2. The expansion of domains
5.3. Chancery English (Chancery Standard)
5.4. Literature
5.5. Variation
5.6 Summary
Chapter 6: The Early Modern English Period (1500--1700)
6.1. The Early Modern English Period
6.2. Early Modern English
6.3. Regulation and codification
6.4. Religious and scientific prose and belles lettres
6.5. Variation: South and North
6.6. Summary
Chapter 7: The spread of English (since the late sixteenth century)
7.1. Social-historical background
7.2. Language policy
7.3. The emergence of General English (GenE)
7.4. Transplantation
7.5. Linguistic correlates of European expansionism
7.6. Summary
Chapter 8: English in Great Britain and Ireland (since 1700)
8.1. Social and historical developments in Britain and Ireland
8.2. England and Wales
8.3. Scotland
8.4. Ireland
8.5. Urban varieties
8.6. Summary
Chapter 9: English pidgins, English creoles, and English (since the early seventeenth century)
9.1. European expansion and the slave trade
9.2. Language contact
9.3. Pidgins
9.4. Creoles
9.5. Theories of origins
9.6 Summary
Chapter 10: English in North America (since the early seventeenth century)
10.1. The beginnings of English in North America
10.2. Colonial English
10.3. Development of North American English after American independence
10.4. Ethnic variety within AmE
10.5. Summary
Chapter 11: English in the ENL communities of the Southern Hemisphere (since 1788)
11.1. Social-historical background
11.2. Southern Hemisphere English: grammar
11.3. Southern Hemisphere English: pronunciation
11.4. Southern Hemisphere English: vocabulary and pragmatics
11.5. Regional and ethnic variation
11.6. Summary
Chapter 12: English in the ESL countries of Africa and Asia (since 1795)
12.1. English as a Second Language
12.2. Language planning and policy
12.3. Linguistic features of ESL
12.4. Substrate influence
12.5. Identitarian function of language
12.6. Summary
Chapter 13: Global English (since 1945)
13.1. The beginnings of Global English
13.2. Media dominance
13.3. Features of medialized language
13.4. ENL, ESL, and ELF/EFL
13.5. The identitarian role of the multiplicity of Englishes
13.6. Summary
ǯαѸ˳ˤ褽ͭħǤϤ뤬ḽαѸҲŪʵҤͤΩġGramley ǤϡѸνѼʥԥ䥯쥪ޤˤˤĤ¿λ䤫ƤꡤȤ櫓12--13ϤˤƤƤ¤Ƥ褦˻פ롥ޤENL, ESL, ELF/EFL ζ̤ˤ餺Ѹ줬 "identitarian role" ôäƤȤŦ֤Ƥդꡤ21ŪʱѸѤ롥ҲŪʿ̤ǻѸ˳ȤơFennell ¤Ǥᤷ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
ؤǤϡΤ˶̤뤳ȤϤۤԲǽǤ롥θŤˤĤƤϡ#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) #1523. Abstand language Ausbau language ([2013-06-28-1]) ΤۤϰˤĤơ#1499. ʥӥ "semicommunication" ([2013-06-04-1])#1636. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ([2013-10-19-1])#1658. 륯֥륯μҲء ([2013-11-10-1])#1659. ޥɥ˥μҲء ([2013-11-11-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲Ƥ
衼åѤ˸¤äƤ⡤ˤ֤СΧŪä줬¾ΧŪϰ̤žꡤդ¾ΧŪäΧŪʸϰ̤ؾʤȤȤ֤Ƥ㤨СԤˤǤϼΧƤ Provençal Low German ˤ줾 French German 1ؤž㤬롥ޤԤˤ϶ḽο¿㤬롥Trudgill (128) ˤС϶ˤƥ衼åѤǹȤοäȤεǤ롥
The rapid increase in the number of independent European nation-states in the past hundred years or so has therefore been paralleled by a rapid growth in the number of autonomous, national and official languages. During the nineteenth century the number rose from sixteen to thirty, and since that time has risen to fifty.
Trudgill (127--28) ꡤ衼åѤ1800ǯޤǤɸಽ줿졦Ѹ졦դȤǧΤ褦ˤʤäƤŪ˵СIcelandic, Swedish, Danish, German, Dutch, English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Polish, Hungarian, Greek, Turkish ʤɤǤ롥ˡ1900ǯޤǤˤϰ̤ƤΤϡNorwegian, Finnish, Welsh, Rumanian, Czech, Slovak, Slovene, Serbo-Croat, Bulgarian ʤɤǸˡ20δ֤˼ΧƤȤƤ Irish Gaelic, Scots Gaelic, Breton, Catalan, Romansch, Macedonian, Albanian, Basque, Luxemburgish ʤɤ롥
ѼθŪϡΧȤʤȸȤ礭ѤȤʤޤǼҲŪϰ̤ѤäȤȤˤʤĤޤꡤŪǤϤʤҲŪǤ롥ȴϢơ#1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1]) Ǽֹȡʳءˡפΰ̣ƴ̣Ʊ椫2ĤΰѤϽפǤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ɸˤĤơ#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) κǸǴñ˿줿üԺߤθѲηĹػˤͭ̾ʤȤȤƤϡ#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1]) Ǥߤ August Schleicher (1821--68) θͭ䡤#1579. ָϿʪǤפȡ ([2013-08-23-1]) ǰѤ Jespersen ʤɤԤ̾롥Milroy ϡŪüԺߤθѤηǤˤȡҲؤΩ줫üԸĿͤŻ뤹ŸƤΤ⤷Ȥ˼ҲؤǤüԸĿͤ䤬ɬŤƤ櫓ǤϤʤҲؤǤ⡤üԤνĤȤƤΡüԼҲפȾñ̤Ȥߤʤ¤ˤơüԸĿͤϼξݤ롥ޥҲؤǤϡüԸĿͤδ餬ˤʡ#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1]) ȡˡ
Milroy Τ褦ˡѲˤüԸĿͤνĥߥԤ1ͤ Woolard 롥λ (language_death) äʸΤʤǡWoolard ϸλΤ褦ʼҲŪʥɥޤϡüԸĿͤ濴˸ʤФʤʤʤ롥ζΤˤƤϡϰͥؤȹή« convergence θݤߤΤ¿θݤλ³ (maintenance) ȤΤˤشطȤŦФФʤ롥˵䤷ʤơͥؤιή«λλ³ȤΤ˰̴طȤĴ⤢롥Woolard ϤΤ褦ʴطǧ뤳Ȥ˿ŤǤ롥ȤΤϡΤ褦Ĵˤϡ켫ΤŬäƤȤͭȿǤǧ뤫ˤϤޤεͲȤüԸĿͤμξݤȤ꤬롥2ΰѤ̤ Woolard λʹ
When we deal with linguistic data as aggregate data, detached from the speakers and instances of speaking, we often anthropomorphize languages as the principal actors of the sociolinguistic drama. This leads to forceful and often powerfully suggestive generalizations cast in agentivizing metaphors: "languages that are flexible and can adapt may survive longer", or "the more powerful language drives out the weaker". If we rephrase findings in terms of what people are doing --- how they are speaking and what they are accomplishing or trying to accomplish when they are speaking that way . . . --- we may find ourselves open to new insights about why such linguistic phenomena occur. (359)
There is a wealth of evidence . . . that is suggestive of a causal relation, or at least a correlation, between language maintenance and linguistic convergence. In this most tentative of attempts to account for the intriguing constellations we find of linguistic conservatism and language death or linguistic adaptation and language maintenance, I have suggested we best begin by anchoring our generalizations in speakers' activities. Human actors rather than personified languages are the active agents in the processes we wish to explain . . . . (365)
Ūװȸ쳰Ūװζ̡ؤȼҲؤζ̡I-Language E-Language ζ̡θˤΩĤʤեϡۤʤüԤǤ롥üԤϸⲽƤƱ˳ƼҲǻѤƤǤ롥
Woolard ʸ⤦1礭ɤäΤǡոƤλ줬ͥعή«硤ι٤ "acts of creation" ʤΤ "acts of reception" ʤΤ뤤 "resistance" ʤΤ "capitulation" ʤΤȤɾ꤬롥ɾϤͥδˤλüԤˤȤäƤߤСή«ȼѲϡŪˤΤ褦ʼҲŪʰ̣礤ӤӤƤʤ¾θѲѤʤϤǤ롥˲餫ɾȤȤϡǤΩŪǤʤθǤϤʤҲؼԤɾŪǤ٤ݤ뤤ɾŪˤʤꤦ뤫ݤȤˤƿȼä
Woolard, Kathryn A. "Language Convergence and Death as Social Process." Investigating Obsolescence. Ed. Nancy C. Dorian. Cambridge: CUP, 1989. 355--67.
2014ǯ714--18˥٥륮Υ롼٥ (KU Leuven) dzŤ줿 ICEHL18 (18th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics) ˻äƤ "The Ebb and Flow of Historical Variants of Betwixt and Between" Ȥȥ (cf. ##1389,1393,1394,1554,1807) ǤĤʤƬȯɽƤϤȤ⤫ȤƱѸʬǤκιݳزŪ˻ä뤳ȤϡسĬήĤǤؤͭѤǤ롥زä֤äƱѸ˸ĬήˤĤƵŤʰȤƤޤȤ뵡ʢѸ˸ˤäΤǡܥ֥ˤǺܤƤƤʬϤʤΤǡޤǻͤޤǤˡ
(1) Plenary talks
1. Robert Fulk (Indiana University, Bloomington)
English historical philology past, present, and future: A narcissist's view
2. Charles Boberg (McGill University)
Flanders Fields and the consolidation of Canadian English
3. Peter Grund (University of Kansas)
Identifying stances: The (re)construction of strategies and practices of stance in a historical community
4. María José López-Couso (University of Santiago de Compostela)
On structural hypercharacterization: Some examples from the history of English syntax
(2) Rooms
Code-switching & Scribal practices
Discourse & Information structure
Dialectology & Varieties of English
Grammaticalization (Noun Phrase)
Grammaticalization (Verb Phrase)
Historical sociolinguistics
Lexicology & Language contact
Morphology & Lexical change
Phonology
Pragmatics & Genre
Reported speech
Syntax & Modality
VP syntax
(3) Workshops
Cognitive approaches to the history of English
Early English dialect morphosyntax
Exploring binomials: History, structure, motivation and function
(De)Transitivization: Processes of argument augmentation and reduction in the history of English
(4) ȯɽΥ
ʲϡICEHL18Ǥιֱ顤ĿȯɽåפǤȯɽݥȯɽޤ166ȯɽʥ뤵줿ΤˤƤ˴ؤ륭ɤȤʬۤΡɤϡȯɽˤĤȥ뤪ӡʼºݤ˻äΤˤĤƤϡƤƤǡĤۤŬʤΤƤäΤǡ¿쾯ʤǤиäƤΤȻפ롥
syntax (48) ********************************************************
ME (38) ********************************************
ModE (30) ***********************************
OE (27) *******************************
genre (23) **************************
pragmatics (22) *************************
corpus (16) ******************
morphology (14) ****************
grammaticalisation (13) ***************
semantics (13) ***************
construction (12) **************
dialectology (12) **************
discourse (10) ***********
sociolinguistics ( 8) *********
lexicology ( 7) ********
inflection ( 6) *******
phonology ( 6) *******
contact ( 5) *****
modality ( 5) *****
deixis ( 4) ****
derivation ( 4) ****
manuscript ( 4) ****
stylistics ( 4) ****
code-switching ( 4) ****
Chaucer ( 3) ***
cognitive ( 3) ***
grammatology ( 3) ***
scribe ( 3) ***
Caxton ( 2) **
etymology ( 2) **
generative ( 2) **
lexicography ( 2) **
OED ( 2) **
phonetics ( 2) **
runics ( 2) **
scottish_english ( 2) **
subjectification ( 2) **
variety ( 2) **
American_English ( 1) *
Canadian_English ( 1) *
Irish_English ( 1) *
diffusion ( 1) *
evidentiality ( 1) *
gender ( 1) *
methodology ( 1) *
metrics ( 1) *
onomastics ( 1) *
preposition ( 1) *
standardisation ( 1) *
typology ( 1) *
Germany (34) ***************************************
Poland (18) *********************
England (17) *******************
Switzerland (15) *****************
Belgium (13) ***************
Japan (13) ***************
Netherlands (13) ***************
Scotland (11) ************
Finland (10) ***********
Spain (10) ***********
US ( 9) **********
Norway ( 5) *****
France ( 4) ****
Austria ( 3) ***
Italy ( 3) ***
Canada ( 2) **
Hungary ( 2) **
Sweden ( 2) **
Bulgaria ( 1) *
Greece ( 1) *
Hong_Kong ( 1) *
UAE ( 1) *
Ukraine ( 1) *
Wales ( 1) *

#1633. ٤̱ۤ²ء ([2013-10-16-1])#1644. ٤̱ۤ² (2) ([2013-10-27-1])#1646. ȯù٤ʸ ([2013-10-29-1]) ǡΤĤʸˤ뤪٤ȯù٤Ӥϡؤγ路 Foley ȤȥꥢΥܥꥸˡ (Aborigine) ȡͥΥ² (Wolof) ɲä٤̱² (ethnography_of_speaking) Υꥨ̣襤
衼åѷϤʸѤȥꥢͤϡäˤܿͤȤ礭ۤʤʤϢδ˽äƤ롥̾ȯäʹ˸졤ܤ碌뤳Ȥ¿ȯäϤ褽緫˰ͤҤȤ֤äƤơƱʣüԤȯä뤳Ȥ뷹롥äؤäƤȤȴȤˤϡ餫ΰ蘆Τ̤Ǥ롥ơμϹͭ٤ȤDzäʹԤ롥Τ褦ʤ٤δϡƤԤˤȤäƤϤޤΤ褦˻פ졤ƱΤ褽٤Ƥθʸˤ⤢ƤϤޤȿƤ롥
ȥꥢΥܥꥸˡϰۤʤ뤪٤κˡȯäʹ˸ȤϡïˤȤʤ "broadcast" 졤ߤ˻碌뤳Ȥᤵʤʹ⼫ʬ˸줿ȯäǤϤʤΤ顤ɬ̳ʤˤʤޤ٤֤ˤ̤ʵϤϤʤäؤؤν˺ݤƤ⡤ߤ˰魯ǤʤŤꡤŤȴƤΤ̾Foley (253) ̤θԤѤܥꥸˡŵŪʲʤƸ褦
A group of men is sitting on a beach facing the sea. They are there for some hours and little is said. After a long period of silence someone says: "Tide's coming in." Some of the group murmur "Yes" but most remain silent. After another very long pause someone says "Tide's coming in". And there is some scattered response. This happens many times until someone says: "Must be tide's going out."
ơȥꥢǤϡ衼åѤδ§äˡʾ٤ԤƤ롥Τ褦ˡʾ٤ϡۤʤ뤪٤ʸĥܥꥸˡˤȤä餫ޤǤ롥ܥꥸˡڿͤȤΩ졤Ƥ̤ꤷ褦ڿͤϡ䤬ʬФƸƤȤϰռɬפʤ⤷ʤɤ˵İԤ̤ΥܥꥸˡƤޤǽ롥̤ξˤϡڿͤĹȤäï˸ƤȤʤϤƤޤȤ⤢ꤦ롥ι٤ϡܥꥸˡΤ٤˴ؤ봷ؤƤСˡؤ٤Ȥߤʤ줦롥ˡܥꥸˡʸǤϡμ븢ϡ²طεˤäƵĤ줿ԤΤߤͿ뤿ᡤθ⤿ʤڿͤϡȤפʾڵΤäƤȤƤ⡤ˡdz뤳Ȥफ⤷ʤơΤ褦ʾڿͤϡŪǤȤߤʤ줫ͤʤȤ٤٤ʸΰ㤤ˤꡤפäƤߤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꤦΤǤ롥
䤿ˤȤäưۼ˸뤪٤ʸ2ܤȤơͥΥ²夲褦Ȥ櫓νвΰ˴ؤҲŪάϡʹƤȡ©줷ۤɤFoley (256--58) ˤȡ²2ͤвȤˤɬΤɤ餬ɤݤ뤫ˤꡤ2ͤδ֤μҲطŪ뤤ϻ³Ū˷ꤷƤޤȤդμҲǤϡ²Ƚ̱2ؤ̤졤ԤˤϼưŪǤȤʤ䤬ԤˤǽưŪǤ٤䤬줾ҲŪͿƤ롥ˤƤ⡤ȤŪˤǤ2ͤδ֤ξ岼طꤷʤؿʤळȤǤʤᡤ٤äƲ˽ФԤ鰧θդȯ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥줿ϡۤǾ餸뤳ȤԤ졤˱Ȥʰ¦䤷줿¦Ȥʬôʤɡˤ³Ȥˤʤ롥ϡ鵻Τߤʤ餺ºŪˤҲŪ˾̤Ǥ뤳ȤްդΤǡ㤨зкŪʱܤȤʤɤԤƤޤνˤäƤȤꤢꤷ岼طϡä̤ơ̤άʰΰ줫ΤľռʤɡˤˤäƵžǤ뤬ʣʸĤȿ郎Ÿ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫⤷ʤϤߤȡҤȤĤ¤ʽȤʤꤦΤǤ롥
2ͤδ֤δطǧ礤ߥ˥βϩΤȤǽʤ phatic_communion ôäƤ뤳ȤϡդǤܤǤⲤƤǤƱǤ롥դǤϡϤäѶŪ2ͤμҲŪʾ岼طꤹȤôäƤðۤǤ롥
ոˤĤƤϡ#1623. ͥ¿Ծ --- ޥȥߥμҲء ([2013-10-06-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Foley, William A. Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997.
#1939. 16ˡᤰ ([2014-08-18-1]) #1940. 16ֻԤη ([2014-08-19-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ16ˤֻ͡װƤФơֻθ경ϳ趷褷Mulcaster ɽȤϩǽŪ˼褦ˤʤȡ1617ˤơֻפǮƤä͡ϡ褷ƤۤӤξʤʤŪֻηϤȾζϤǼ뤳Ȥӡष˸Ψ褯餷ƤȤºŪؤȴؿܤƤäΤǤ롥Τ褦ʶԤΤʤˡEdmund Coote (fl. 1597; see Edmund Coote's English School-maister (1596)) Richard Hodges (fl. 1643--49) Ȥ֤줬ä
Hodges ˤĤƤϡ#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡֻˤؤδͿΤۤˤ⡤ȯ˴ؤ뵮ŤʻƤƤȤӤ롥㤨 Hodges ΥꥹȤˤϡcox, cocks, cocketh; clause, claweth, claws; Mr Knox, he knocketh, many knocks ʤɤȤꡤ-eth -s ƱͤȯƤȤ (Horobin 129) ޤ͡ȯʹ (diacritical mark) ֻղäȤˤꡤHodges ϻ¾ȯɽƤ줿ΤǤ롥㤨Сgäte, grëat Τ褦첻˥饦ȵդȤˤĹ첻ɽ魯䡤garde, knôwn Τ褦ۻǤ뤳ȤƳ (The English Primrose (1644)) Τ褦ˡHodges Τ줿ؼԤȤäƤ褯Shakespeare λȯ1λƤ줿
Hodges ϡʤȯΤ餷뤳ȤǤϤʤäϡޤֻˤäηϤȤƤɬŪȤϤʤŪֻҶ˸Ū˶餹뤿ˡζϤȤơҤΤ褦ȯղäƤΤǤ롥̣ΤϡƤȤϡ1ɽֻ William Bullokar (fl. 1586) ƤΤȤۤƱݤäȤǤ롥Bullokar 쥢ե٥åȤ˿εղä뤳ȤˤꡤɽܻؤΤäHodges ƤΤۤʰפǰӤƤꡤŪֻפǤϤʤֻˤäǡʤߤäϤǤֻפֻؤȰܤѤäƤꡤ˼褿٤ֻ§ ("Spelling Regularizers") νиͽʳؤȿʤǤΤǤ롥
λΰܤѤˤĤơ (96) ϡBullokar ƱפäŪΤˤʤƤȤˡĤޤ17դֻ꤬Ρ֥ӿפ˻ϤˤʤäƤˡĬѲǧᤶʤפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥Hodges ȯӿˤʤ館ΤǤ롥ӤʸΰǤϤʤŪθޤǤ롥äơȤƤϤۤƱΤǤäȤƤ⡤ʸΰԲķǤȤ Bullokar Ƥϡ褷ƥӤȤϸƤ٤ʤӿȤˤꡤBullokar η Hodges ν餫ŪǤ褦ʵƤ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
졡رѸػˡ١Ѹ13罤۽Ź1975ǯ
ε#2000. ˸ʬȲ ([2014-10-18-1]) ǡ˸͡ʸҲ𤷤˸츦¾¿Ʊͤˡ˸⤫ĤƤθ졤Ȥ櫓äդǽʸ¤Τ˵Ҥ뤳ȤܻؤƤ롥äȤ⡤˸ϡäդǤդǤ졤뤬äǤ졤修Ǥ졤Ǥ졤줾1Ĥͭ (discourse) ȤơΩоݤȤ뤳ȤʤƤΤǤꡤɬäդˤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤϤ˸Ǥ⡤äդפʲ1ĤǤ뤳ȤˤϤʤ
Ǥϡ¾դ̤ƤθΤ褦Τ뤳ȤΤǤʤ˸ޤ˸츦ǤϡɤΤ褦ˤäդ˴ؤФ뤳ȤǤդޤƤäդǤФˤϡޤξԤδط˴ؤɬפǤ롥褯ΤƤ1Ĥˡ#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1]) Ǽ夲 Koch and Oesterreicher ˤֱȤС (Sprache der Distanz) ȡֶᤤȤС (Sprache der Nähe) ˴ؤ롥ʹֱ顤ӥ塼ʤɳƼäաʸˤäաʲˤδطΤʤǤ줾ɤդ˰֤ΤǥǤ롥ˤꡤäդ˶ᤤդȿǤ줿äӽФȤǤ롥
Jucker and Taavitsainen (23) ˡJucker Ƥ⤦1ĤΥǥ뤬Ƥ롥"Data in historical pragmatics: The 'communicative view'" ꤵ줿ޤγפƸ롥
monologic books, poems
Genuinely written data
dialogic letters, pamphlets
retrospective reports, protocols (e.g. legal); in diaries
in narratives or poetry
Written representations fictional in academic texts
of spoken language
drama
in conversation manuals
prospective
in language textbooks
#545. ˸ ([2010-10-24-1])#1991. ˸ȯŸطʤˤؤ "paradigm shift" ([2014-10-09-1]) ǡǯ˸ (historical_pragmatics) ȯŸˤϡϤƤ˸ȤߤˤĤ Jucker ˵ʤάҤ롥ޤϡJucker (110) ˤ˸[2010-10-24-1]˵ Taavitsainen and Fitzmaurice ˤ⻲ȡˡ
Historical pragmatics (HP) is a field of study that investigates pragmatic aspects in the history of specific languages. It studies various aspects of language use at earlier stages in the development of a language; it studies the diachronic development of language use; and it studies the pragmatic motivations for language change.
츫Ȼ¿ꡤμήɸؤϡ֥ߡפȤ鸫Ƥ褦Ū˰ʬȤȤˤʤ롥˸ؤϡԤδؿ֤ˤäơ礭2ĤʬȤ (Jucker 110--11) Jacobs and Jucker ʬˤС̤ꡥ
(1) pragmaphilology
(2) diachronic pragmatics
a) diachronic form-to-function mapping
b) diachronic function-to-form mapping
ޤ˸ΡˡפΤȤ館ˤꡤΤŪˤߤ뤫 (pragmaphilology) 뤤ϻּ˱äȯãĤޤ̻ŪȯŸߤ뤫 (diachronic pragmatics) ʬ롥ԤϤˡ֤ꤷƤεǽ̻ŪѲߤ뤫 (diachronic form-to-function mapping)դ˵ǽꤷб֤̻ŪѲߤ뤫 (diachronic function-to-form mapping) ʬʵŪˤ semasiology onomasiology Ωˡ
嵭 Jacobs and Jucker ʬ̾դϡHuang "European Continental view" 뤤 "perspective view" ȸƤָΤȤ館ȿǤƤ롥ǤϡϡǽϤ1ĤȤƤǤϤʤưΤ¦̤˴Ϳ륳ߥ˥ǽȤƹƤ롥ή˸ϡʸŪʿ̤
Huang "Anglo-American view" 뤤 "component view" ȸƤָΤȤ館롥Ǥϡϡء̣ƱλʤǸǽϤ1Ǥȶ̣˲롥θθ˴Ť˸βʬȤơBrinton ΤΤ褦Ǥϡ˸ϡŪʿ̤
(1) historical discourse analysis proper
(2) diachronically oriented discourse analysis
(3) discourse oriented historical linguistics
(1) ϡΤˤ붦ŪʬϤǡJacobs and Jucker pragmaphilology ˶롥(2) ϡäηлŪѲѻ̻ʬϤǤ롥(3) ϡäȤ̣ѲѲʤɤθѲ褦ȤΩǤ롥
˽Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡ˸ˤΥ٥ǥΰ㤤Ϥ뤬ΤȤƤ촶äʬȤĹƤƤ褦դˤС˸ϳغŪʿ̤¿쾯ʤ¾ΰȤϢȤȤƤʬȤ⤤롥ä European Continental view ˤС˸ŪʸؤȤ⤯ѤƤθʤȯŸƤȤǤ̥Ϥ롥
ȯŸӾʬǤˡ⾯ʤʤJucker (18) ϡĤŦƤ롥
ʬȤƤޤ㤯ʬˡȶ礹٥˻äƤʤ
ƤμܸС¾θؤαѤҤäƤʤ
δäȤʤ롤Ū speech_act ΰ discourse types/genres ΰʤɤޤƤʤ
δäȤʤ롤"the larger communicative situation of earlier periods" ȤǤ뤳Ȥ¿
˸ϡͭ˾ǤϤ뤬ޤ˽ФʬǤ롥
˴ؤ European Continental view Anglo-American view ΩˤĤƤϡ#377. ѸˤȤʤꤦʬ ([2010-05-09-1])#378. ϸδܹ礫ݤ ([2010-05-10-1]) ⻲ȡ
Jucker, Andreas H. "Historical Pragmatics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 110--22.
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
ߥꡦ饤俷ʹˡؤȯ˥塼 Chuo Online 롥Τʤ Chuo Online شƤ֥ʸΩŪ˻ꤹε2014ǯ1016դǸ줿ΤǡؿΤϤȤ礦ɺαѸ˳μȤǡαѸǤȤ⤤ѸΥ (inkhorn_term) ˤĤƼ夲äΤǡȤƤ⥿ָ˵αѸǤͽꡥ *
Ƶ˴ϢƤܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤夲ƤΤʤΤǡط볰ȹ碌ơε˥ĥäƤ
ʸģˤʿ25ǯֹ˴ؤĴ
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])
#296. 轡ѸܸͿŪƶ ([2010-02-17-1])
#478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ ([2010-08-18-1])
#576. inkhorn term ȱѸ켭 ([2010-11-24-1])
#609. 켭17 ([2010-12-27-1])
#845. Ѹθäεȳ ([2011-08-20-1])
#1067. Ѹȸܸθüѡ ([2012-03-29-1])
#1202. Ѹθäεȳ (2) ([2012-08-11-1])
#1408. ([2013-03-05-1])
#1410. Ƚ ([2013-03-07-1])
#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1])
#1493. Ѹʤ̱ ([2013-05-29-1])
#1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ ([2013-07-01-1])
#1606. Ѹ캹̡ѸƸ ([2013-09-19-1])
#1615. 礹ߡ2 ([2013-09-28-1])
#1616. ʸ礹ߡ2 ([2013-09-29-1])
#1617. ܸˤ볰 ([2013-09-30-1])
#1624. Ѹΰ ([2013-10-07-1])
#1629. ([2013-10-12-1])
#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1])
#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) Ȥĥä
#1869. ܸˤʩá ([2014-06-09-1])
#1896. ܸäθ ([2014-07-06-1])
#1927. ʩ ([2014-08-06-1])
ʸ嵭2014/10/30(Thu)ѸǤε *
ε#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1]) ˰³Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog θѲ˴ؤŪʸꡥϡάҤѲ5Ĥ¦̤ΤʤǤȤ櫓Ԥ⤹ The Embedding Problem ˴ؤ (p. 186) Ѥ롥
The Embedding Problem. There can be little disagreement among linguists that language changes being investigated must be viewed as embedded in the linguistic system as a whole. The problem of providing sound empirical foundations for the theory of change revolves about several questions on the nature and extent of this embedding.
(a) Embedding in the linguistic structure. If the theory of linguistic evolution is to avoid notorious dialectic mysteries, the linguistic structure in which the changing features are located must be enlarged beyond the idiolect. The model of language envisaged here has (1) discrete, coexistent layers, defined by strict co-occurrence, which are functionally differentiated and jointly available to a speech community, and (2) intrinsic variables, defined by covariation with linguistic and extralinguistic elements. The linguistic change itself is rarely a movement of one entire system into another. Instead we find that a limited set of variables in one system shift their modal values gradually from one pole to another. The variants of the variables may be continuous or discrete; in either case, the variable itself has a continuous range of values, since it includes the frequency of occurrence of individual variants in extended speech. The concept of a variable as a structural element makes it unnecessary to view fluctuations in use as external to the system for control of such variation is a part of the linguistic competence of members of the speech community.
(b) Embedding in the social structure. The changing linguistic structure is itself embedded in the larger context of the speech community, in such a way that social and geographic variations are intrinsic elements of the structure. In the explanation of linguistic change, it may be argued that social factors bear upon the system as a whole; but social significance is not equally distributed over all elements of the system, nor are all aspects of the systems equally marked by regional variation. In the development of language change, we find linguistic structures embedded unevenly in the social structure; and in the earliest and latest stages of a change, there may be very little correlation with social factors. Thus it is not so much the task of the linguist to demonstrate the social motivation of a change as to determine the degree of social correlation which exists, and show how it bears upon the abstract linguistic system.
ƤˤԤμĥ "orderly heterogeneity" οɽƤ褦˻פβС(a) θ칽¤ؤߤȤϡѲӤȼѹȤμͤuse varieties user varieties ʤʣŪʸ칽¤ΤʤˤɤΤ褦˼ޤ뤫ȤǤ롥ޤ(b) μҲ¤ؤߤȤϡѲΤΤˤƼҲˤܼŪѹȤʤäƤ椯뤤ܼŪѹǤϤʤʤäƤ椯ȤǤ롥ϡҲ¤칽¤˱ƶͿȤˡġɤǡŪïθ칽¤ΤɤʬˤɤΤ褦ʱƶͿƤΤ餫ˤ뤳ȤˤĤʤꡤSapir-Whorf hypothesis (cf. sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ܼŪ䤤Ϣʤ롥츦δϡŪʡ˸ؤȼҲؤζϤɤȤ䤤ˤؤʤʤ̼ҲؼԤϡҲؤŪʸؤޤ뿿θؤȤΩȤäƤˡ
1ϡҲؤΤƸΤȤ館ΤΤ˴ؤŦϢơ#1372. "correlational sociolinguistics"? ([2013-01-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog ˤ "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change" ϡҲؤδޤѲŪʸȤơθθ礭ʱƶͿƤ⤪˴줿1ͤǤꡤܥ֥Ǥϡ#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])#520. ˸ؤϸεȿʲθȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 ([2010-09-29-1]) ǿƤϡиŪ˼Ȥ٤ѲˤĤƤ5ĤάҤ롥
(1) The Constraints Problem. ѲƱꤹȤꡤʤ "to determine the set of possible changes and possible conditions for change" (183) θ¿ŪƱꤷ褦ȤƤꡤβˤ˴ؿƤ롥
(2) The Transition Problem. "Between any two observed stages of a change in progress, one would normally attempt to discover the intervening stage which defines the path by which Structure A evolved into Structure B" (184) transition ȸƤФ뤳βϡA B ξ¤碌üԤΩȤƿʹԤ¾üԡʤȤ櫓ǯüԡˤȵڤ롥βˤϡ3̤ޤޤȤ롥"Change takes place (1) as a speaker learns an alternate form, (2) during the time that the two forms exist in contact within his competence, and (3) when one of the forms becomes obsolete" (184).
(3) The Embedding Problem. 칽¤ؤߤȼҲ¤ؤߤ̤롥̻ŪʸѲ (change) ϡŪʸѰ (variation) бѰۤϸŪӼҲŪޤ줿ѹ (variable) ¸ߤˤΤ롥ѹϡ칽¤ˤȤäƤҲ¤ˤȤäƤܼŪǤǤ롥Ҳ¤ؤߤˤĤƤϡΰѤȡ"The changing linguistic structure is itself embedded in the larger context of the speech community, in such a way that social and geographic variations are intrinsic elements of the structure" (185) ǤϸѲˤҲŪװɵ椹Τߤʤ餺ҲȸߴطʤɤμҲŪǤɤٸȿǤ뤫ʤɡˤɵ椹뤳ȤפʲȤʤ롥
(4) The Evaluation Problem. Ѳ˼Ūɾ뤫ꡥ"[T]he subjective correlates of the several layers and variables in a heterogeneous structure" (186) . ޤѲѰۤФ빥˴ؤռ̵ռʤɤ⤢롥"[T]he level of social awareness is a major property of linguistic change which must be determined directly. Subjective correlates of change are more categorical in nature than the changing patterns of behavior: their investigation deepens our understanding of the ways in which discrete categorization is imposed upon the continuous process of change" (186) .
(5) The Actuation Problem. "Why do changes in a structural feature take place in a particular language at a given time, but not in other languages with the same feature, or in the same language at other times?" (102) . ѲεŪꡥ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡactuation θˤ diffusion ³ᡤ The Transition Problem ؤϢʤ롥
ԤƤκˤϡ"orderly heterogeneity" θѡѸǤ variationist 롥嵭θѲ5Ĥ¦̤ϡ̻ŪʸѲȶŪʸѰۤǷӤĤ褦ȤԤλ̿դƤǤ롥
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
٤ (speech) ˤ͡ʼब롥ä⤢Х䥸⤢뤷ռ⤢Ф⤢롥⡤Ƥⶵ١ԥåޤ͡ǤϡμΤ٤ʬहΤˡɤΤ褦ʴब̤ͤθС饳ߥ˥νɤΤ褦ˤɸãƤΤǴͿŪǤϲҲؼ Hymes ϡƬ SPEAKING ΤȤ8ĤǤǧƤ롥Hymes Wardhaugh (259--61) εҤˤäơñ褦
(1) Setting and Scene. ԤϤ٤꤬ԤƤ֤ȾؤԤŪǿŪʴĶؤ㤨СΥꥹޥΥåΤǯƬϡͭ Setting Scene äƤ롥ܤǤСŷŲοǯΤդͭ Setting Scene äƤ롥
(2) Participants. äʹꡥäǤξԤ֤ȯäΤֵ̾Ǥϼˤ٤ϰ̹ԤǡʹʣǤ롥αäǤϡäʹȤϡåȼȤΤŬˤƤϡʹϿǤ롥
(3) Ends. Τ٤̤ƴŪ˴ԤƤŪ뤤ä꤬ĿŪܻؤƤŪ㤨ˡˤȯϡȽ濳𡤸𡤾ڿͤΤˤäƤʤ뤫ˤä礭ۤʤŪġ뺧ˤȯäϡҲŪŪͭƤƱˡϺؤθĿŪŪͭƤ롥
(4) Act sequence. Ū˻Ȥ줿ɽˤĤơ줬ɤΤ褦˻Ȥ줿ΤԤȤɤΤ褦ʴطΤȤΤ٤ǤϡɤΤ褦ɽȯäƤꡤºݤ˲ԤƤΤȤǤ롥Ǥȯù (speech_act) ι̤ͤ롥#1646. ȯù٤ʸ ([2013-10-29-1]) ȡ
(5) Key. åݤΥȡͼ䵤ʬʤɡ٤꤬ڤ狼뤤ΤʳŪŪŪŪŪʹưȿꡤʤɤȼȤ⤢롥
(6) Instrumentalities. ߥ˥βϩ补äȤФդäſʤɤˤȤɤޤ餺Ѥ졤ɡѰ⤵code-switching ϡʣ instrumentalities Ȥʬ뤪٤λȤȤˤʤ롥
(7) Norms of interaction and interpretation. ٤տ魯ιưڤӤ˴ؤ뵬Ϥ礭ۡ碌äȤΩ֤˴ؤʪŪΥʤɤˤƤεϤʤɤޤޤ롥#1633. ٤̱ۤ²ء ([2013-10-16-1])#1644. ٤̱ۤ² (2) ([2013-10-27-1]) ȡ
(8) Genre. ȯäΥ롥Ȥ虜ʤʤⶵֵʤɤΤ˶̤ȯäμ
͡Ϥ SPEAKING γǤ˾դʧʤ餪٤ꤷƤȹͤ롥Wardhaugh (261) θ褦ˡ٤϶ˤʣʱİ٤Ǥ롥
What Hymes offers us in his SPEAKING formula is a very necessary reminder that talk is a complex activity, and that any particular bit of talk is actually a piece of 'skilled work.' It is skilled in the sense that, if it is to be successful, the speaker must reveal a sensitivity to and awareness of each of the eight factors outlined above. Speakers and listeners must also work to see that nothing goes wrong. When speaking does go wrong, as it sometimes does, that going-wrong is often clearly describable in terms of some neglect of one or more of the factors. Since we acknowledge that there are 'better' speakers and 'poorer' speakers, we may also assume that individuals vary in their ability to manage and exploit the total array of factors.
ʸˡäؽǤϸޥȤϤʤˤ٤ꤹ뤿ˤϡSPEAKING ҴǤ뤳ȤɬפǤ롥Ϣơ#1632. communicative competence ([2013-10-15-1]) ȡ#1652. 2콬Ǥ "communicative competence" ([2013-11-04-1]) ȡ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ε#1994. John Hart ˤ츻ŪֻؤȽ ([2014-10-12-1]) #1939. 16ˡᤰ ([2014-08-18-1])#1940. 16ֻԤη ([2014-08-19-1])#1943. Holofernes --- 츻Ūֻ黿ԡ ([2014-08-22-1]) Richard Mulcaster ̾#441. Richard Mulcaster ([2010-07-12-1]) ۤ mulcaster γƵǤˤƤνѸνʪϡԻˤδ⡤ɮͤ롥
Ѹ˾ǽαѱѼϡ#603. ǽαѱѼ A Table Alphabeticall (1) ([2010-12-21-1])#604. ǽαѱѼ A Table Alphabeticall (2) ([2010-12-22-1])#726. ǤȤ뤫⤷ʤŪ Cawdrey μ ([2011-04-23-1])#1609. Cawdrey μǡ١ ([2013-09-22-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡRobert Cawdrey (1537/38--1604) A Table Alphabeticall (1604) ȸƤ롥ä Mulcaster The First Part of the Elementarie (1582) ˤ8000θåꥹ "generall table" ǤƤȤõƤɬפ롥Mulcaster ϡŪʸϤѸ켭ԻɬʤлȤƤȤƤ "generall table" ˽ФCawdrey Mulcaster ˻ɷΤȻפ졤¿θäμ˺ϿƤ롥Mulcaster αѱѼνǤ᤹ڼ¤ʻפϡΰ˼Ƥ롥
It were a thing verie praiseworthie in my opinion, and no lesse profitable then praise worthie, if som one well learned and as laborious a man, wold gather all the words which we vse in our English tung, whether naturall or incorporate, out of all professions, as well learned as not, into one dictionarie, and besides the right writing, which is incident to the Alphabete, wold open vnto vs therein, both their naturall force, and their proper vse . . . .
ΰѤκǸˤ褦ˡԻ˾פʤ "generall table" ϡåꥹȤǤʾˡֻλȤʤ뤳ȤܻؤƤֻץ֡Τʤˤä Mulcaster βɤɽƤɤʤ final e ΤĤε§Ƥꡤθ̤ŪñֻˤäƼȤΤǤ롥
For the words, which concern the substance thereof: I haue gathered togither so manie of them both enfranchised and naturall, as maie easilie direct our generall writing, either bycause theie be the verie most of those words which we commonlie vse, or bycause all other, whether not here expressed or not yet inuented, will conform themselues, to the presidencie of these.
#1387. 츻ŪֻκѤ17 ([2013-02-12-1]) ǡMulcaster <doubt> Τ褦ʸ츻ŪֻˤŪäȽҤ٤ "generall table" ȤƳǧƤߤ褦EEBO (Early English Books Online) Υǥ The first part of the elementarie ˤꡤĤŵŪʸ츻Ūֻɽ魯ȤȤauance., auantage., auentur., autentik., autor., autoritie., colerak., delite, det, dout, imprenable, indite, perfit, receit, rime, soueranitie, verdit, vitail ʤ¿θˤơ;ʬʡʸƤʤΤ Mulcaster ϸ츻ŪֻƤʤ褦˸롥¾θȤȡ;ʬʡʸƤ aduise., language, psalm, realm, salmon, saluation, scholer, school, soldyer, throne ʤɤǧ롥
ˤäưۤʤȤΤϤ̣ɤ Mulcaster 餷Ȥ⤤뤬Mulcaster ΰȤ⡤γƸֻ٤˰¸Ǥǽ롥ĤޤꡤǤ˸츻Ūֻ夷ƤФ줬ΤޤѤȤʤäȤȤ⤷ʤޤ夷ƤʤкѤʤäȤȤ⤷ʤMulcaster Τɾ뤿ˤϡƸˤ츻Ūֻλ䡤γȻλĴɬפ
"generall table" Υץ British Library Mulcaster's Elementarie ǤΤǡȡ *
Ѹθ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ˤĤơܥ֥ǤȵƤΤʤ1ġ#1942. 츻Ūֻνᤰäơ ([2014-08-21-1]) ǡ츻ŪֻȽŪäҤ1ͤȤ John Hart (c. 1501--74) ̾Hart ɽֻԤ1ͤ An Orthographie (1569) ǤȤΤ뤬ޤ˵ŪʲװƤΤ˼줺ֻ˱ƶڤܤȤϤۤȤɤʤäºݡHart ϸ츻Ūֻ˴ؤƤȽäΤΡǽŪˤϤȽ϶Mulcaster ʤβɤ˼ƳϤȤˤʤä
Hart θ츻ŪֻФȽϡαѸֻŪλŦΤʤ˸롥Hart ϡѸֻ "the divers vices and corruptions which use (or better abuse) mainteneth in our writing" ȤƤȤȤ diminution, superfluite, usurpation of power, misplacing 4Ƥ롥diminution Ϥ٤Ȥʸ礱Ƥ뤳ȤؤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥꡤޤη٤ȤǤ롥Ĥ3ĤϼºŪʤΤǡޤ superfluite Ϥ٤ǤϤʤȤʸȤǤ롥<doubt> <b> ŵǤꡤ츻ŪֻϡHart ˸碌 superfluite 1ȤȤˤʤ롥usurpation ϡ<g> /g/ ˤ /ʤ/ ˤб褦ˡ1ĤʸʣβƤƤꡥǸ misplacing ϡ㤨 /feɪbəl/ бֻȤƤ *<fabel> Ȥʤ٤Ȥ <fable> ǤȤʸؤ
嵭Τ褦ˡ츻ŪֻؤäƤΤϡ٤ǤʤȤʸƤ superfluite ˤƤǤ롥Hart (121--22) θʸꡤϢսѤ褦
Then secondli a writing is corrupted, when yt hath more letters than the pronunciation neadeth of voices: for by souch a disordre a writing can not be but fals: and cause that voice to be pronunced in reading therof, which is not in the word in commune speaking. This abuse is great, partly without profit or necessite, and but oneli to fill up the paper, or make the word thorow furnysshed with letters, to satisfie our fantasies . . . . As breifli for example of our superfluite, first for derivations, as the b in doubt, the g in eight, h in authorite, l in souldiours, o in people, p in condempned, s in baptisme, and divers lyke.
Hart superfluite Ȥ eight people ʤɤƤ뤬̾盧ϱѸˤˤƽѸŵŪʤ츻ŪֻȤƸڤΤǤϤʤäơָ츻Ūֻ superfluite פȤطƤΤŬڤ
Hart, John. MS British Museum Royal 17. C. VII. The Opening of the Unreasonable Writing of Our Inglish Toung. 1551. In John Hart's Works on English Orthography and Pronunciation [1551, 1569, 1570]: Part I. Ed. Bror Danielsson. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1955. 109--64.
ε#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) ޤᡤ2;Τ˸ܿѲˤ쳰ŪװνˤĤʣεƤ (cf. [2014-09-25-1], [2014-09-26-1], [2014-10-04-1]) ϡΥХ뤿ˡ쳰ŪװФ뿵ߤƤHickey (195) ϡ餬ܿԤǤۤɤҤ"Language Change" ꤹʸϤǡܿˤѲˤĤŤʸƤ롥
Already in 19th century Indo-European studies contact appears as an explanation for change though by and large mainstream Indo-Europeanists preferred language-internal accounts. One should stress that strictly speaking contact is not so much an explanation for language change as a suggestion for the source of a change, that is, it does not say why a change took place but rather where it came from. For instance, a language such as Irish or Welsh may have VSO as a result of early contact with languages also showing this word order. However, this does not explain how VSO arose in the first place (assuming that it is not an original word order for any language). The upshot of this is that contact accounts frequently just push back the quest for explanation a stage further.
Considerable criticism has been levelled at contact accounts because scholars have often been all too ready to accept contact as a source, to the neglect of internal factors or inherited features within a language. This readiness to accept contact, particularly when other possibilities have not been given due consideration, has led to much criticism of contact accounts in the 1970s and 1980s . . . . However, a certain swing around can be seen from the 1990s onwards, a re-valorisation of language contact when considered from an objective and linguistically acceptable point of view as demanded by Thomason & Kaufman (1988) . . . .
ܿϡѲʤǤϤʤѲɤ餭ˤˤθˤĤƤϲäƤʤȤȽˤθ˴ؤ¤ꡤΤˤȽŪͤƤ褦ˤפ롥θѲľܤΡָפȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤Ū˰ˤʤäƤꡤǤ̤θǻϤޤäƤѲ˰첡äʤɡ餫ηǻͿװפȤơ꿵ŤˤСֽװ1ġפȤơٵҴŪ˻Ŧ뤳ȤΤǤܿλϤ롥ιʰ̣ˤָ쳰ŪװפʸĬϡΰѤˤ⤢Ȥꡤ1990ǯ夫ƤҤ줿̡ܿ쳰Ūװ°פ˷뤭餤Τˤ褦˻פ졤ηǰ狼ʤǤϤʤεǸ褦˸ŪװǥեȤȤƤѲˤĹפСܿʸɤιϤ褦䤯ϤޤäФΤ褦ˤ⸫롥
˰Ѥ Hickey "Language Change" ϡ¤줿ʤ⡤Ѳݤ褯ޤȤɼβʸǤ롥ʲͤޤǤܼƤ
Introduction
Issues in language change
Internal and external factors
Simplicity and symmetry
Iconicity and indexicality
Markedness and naturalness
Telic changes and epiphenomena
Mergers and distinctions
Possible changes
Unidirectionality of change
Ebb and flow
Change and levels of language
Phonological change
Morphological change
Syntactic change
The study of universal grammar
The principles and parameters model
Semantic change
Pragmatic change
Methodologies
Comparative method
Internal reconstruction
Analogy
Sociolinguistic investigations
Data collection method
Genre variation and stylistics
Pathways of change
Long-term change: Grammaticalization
Large-scale changes: The typological perspective
Contact accounts
Language areas (Sprachbünde)
Conclusion
Hickey, Raymond. "Language Change." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 171--202.
Ѳˤ쳰ŪװȸŪװˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ ##443,1232,1233,1582,1584,1977,1978,1986 ʤɤεǵǶǤϡ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) Ǥƹͤ쳰ŪװνŦرĤˡ˯1 James Milroy 롥Milroy ϡΤˤС쳰ŪװŻ뤹ȤϡѲˤüԤä˽Ż뤹ԤǤ롥ָѲפȤηϤΤȤʤ褦ʸϤޤ깥ޤüԤˤפȤʹ֤ΤȤʤ褦ʸ֡"On the Role of the Speaker in Language Change" ꤹ Milroy ʸɤ
Milroy (144) ϡ褪ӸԤθѲˤơŪװǥեȤװǤȤǧ꤬ŪǤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
The assumption of endogeny, being generally the preferred hypothesis, functions in practice as the default hypothesis. Thus, if some particular change in history cannot be shown to have been initiated through language or dialect contact involving speakers, then it has been traditionally presented as endogenous. Usually, we do not know all the relevant facts, and this default position is partly the consequence of having insufficient data from the past to determine whether the change concerned was endogenous or externally induced or both: endogeny is the lectio facilior requiring less argumentation, and what Lass has called the more parsimonious solution to the problem.
ԶѹդʴطơŪװȸ쳰ŪװƱ̤֤ȤǤʤ뤤Ϥ˿ʤƸ쳰ŪװǥեȤȤ뤳ȤǤʤȤΤ Milroy λǤºݤΤȤξԤΥХɤ٤ΤΤʤΤʬʤΥХ϶ŪʸѲλˤĤƤʬʤȤ¿ŪˤϤʤʬʤǡΥХǤѤ뤿ˡMilroy ξװδͿȤȤΩΤäƤ褦˻פ롥Milroy (148) ۩
. . . seemingly paradoxically --- it happens that, in order to define those aspects of change that are indeed endogenous, we need to specify much more clearly than we have to date what precisely are the exogenous factors from which they are separated, and these include the role of the speaker/listener in innovation and diffusion of innovations. It seems that we need to clarify what has counted as 'internal' or 'external' more carefully and consistently than we have up to now, and to subject the internal/external dichotomy to more critical scrutiny.
ΤϡǤ롥ʤʤƱͤ˻ŪʼήɤΡҲ˸ؤȼҲؤȤŪǤꡤߤʬβǽȸ³ʬθ³ȲǽľܴؤȹͤƤ롥
Milroy (156) ʸνǡ쳰ŪװνŻϡɬ⤽켫ΤʳŪ˱뤳ȤϤǤοǰǤȼäƤ롥
There may be no empirical way of showing that language changes independently of social factors, but it has not primarily been my intention to demonstrate that endogenous change does not take place. The one example that I have discussed has shown that there are some situations in which it is necessary to adduce social explanations, and this may apply very much more widely. I happen to think that social matters are always involved, and that language internal concepts like 'drift' or 'phonological symmetry' are not explanatory . . . .
ѤκǸ˼Ƥή (drift) ʤüԺߤθѲؤȽˤĤƤϡǽŪεȴϢơ#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Milroy, James. "On the Role of the Speaker in Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 143--57.
#545. ˸ ([2010-10-24-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡǯ˸ (historical_pragmatics) Ƥ롥ǯιݳزȯɽʪΥȥƤƤ⡤αƶϤƤƤ뤳Ȥϵʤ2013ǯ˱Ѹ˸路 Jucker and Taavitsainen ϡؤ "paradigm shift" ˤΤȰ֤ŤƤ롥 "paradigm shift" ϡʲ6 (5--9)
(1) From core areas to sociolinguistics and pragmatics
(2) From homogeneity to heterogeneity
(3) From internalised to externalised language
(4) From introspection to empirical investigation
(5) Renewed interest in diachrony
(6) From stable to discursive features
դˤС6ĤĬήιԤ夯įȡ˸˼ҲؤȤäβվǤ롥˸ؼԤμ̣Ȥ̣ʤǤϤʤȾθؤĬή褯ɽƤȤϻפ6˼ûˤޤȤСǯθؤǤϡֳ줿Τ¿̻Ūʿ뤤äФҲŪŪʴؿޤäƤƤꡤиŪʸˡŻ뤵褦ˤʤäƤפȤȤˤʤ˻Ūṳ̂ƤСָɤ餮ؤδؿιޤפǤ롥
6ĤĬήϸߤ̩ܤ˴طäƤꡤפ˰֤ƤʤȤơäŪʡŻҥѥŦƤȤϽפѥ˸θ˱Ѥ뤳ȤɬưפǤϤʤ㸦¤ƤƤ뤷ˡⳫȯƤƤ롥
ʬȯŸˤϡ˴ԤȤǤ롥ȤΤϡ"English historical sociopragmatic" ʤʬζδϡŪܤѸ츦椬ܻؤƤ "English philology" κȯŸؤȤĤʤϤऱѸʸؤ٤Ѹ˸ؤǤɬפ롥
Jucker, Andreas H. and Irma Taavitsainen. English Historical Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) ǿ줿Stern ͡ʼΰ̣̤Ƥ롥2ΩǤ狼䤹ΰ̣˴ŪʻΤȤɾǤ롥ΤʤǤŪʴˤȤΰ̣ζ̤褦 (Stern 68--87)
(1) actual vs lexical meaning. ԤϼºݤȯäΤʤΰ̣Ԥϸʤˤʸ̮Ω֤ñΤȤƤỊ̇ԤϼŪʰ̣Ȥ⤤ʸˡʸȤƤʸΰ̣⡤ʸ̮ΩƤȤǡlexical meaning ह롥̣̾ϼºݤȯäΤʤˤƸΤǤꡤñΤǸΤϾ嵭Τ褦˼ʸˡʤɸؤ˴ؤ̤Ƥۤˤʤactual meaning (definiteness) Ĥlexical meaning (indefinite) Ǥ롥
(2) general vs particular meaning. 㤨 The dog is a domestic animal. μϽŪŪʰ̣ĤThat dog is mad. μϸ̤ΰ̣ġ٤Ƥ̾ϡΤ褦˼ɽ魯ŪˡȸΤɽ魯Ūˡġ̾Ȥϼ㴳ϰۤʤ뤬ƻưˤƱζ̤롥
(3) specialised vs referential meaning. λؼоݤĤͭȤüԤϤ1Ĥ뤤ϤĤ˾Ƥʤ餽θѤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨 He was a man, take him for all in all. Ȥʸˤ man ϡƻŪäƤΤȤƤ롥Τ褦ʻؼλʤȤѤƤ specialised meaning ͭƤȤߤʤ롥He had an army of ten thousand men. ȤȤ men ϡơθäƤꡤޤǻؼŪʰ̣ (referential meaning) ͭˤʤ̩ˤϡreferential meaning specialised meaning ΩȤϡüʸ1ĤȤȤ館٤ particular meaning ܹ specialised meaning ϺƱ䤹particular meaning ϸλؼоݤϰϤθȤơspecialised meaning ϸΰ̣ϰϤθȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
(4) tied vs contingent meaning. ԤϸȸŪʸ̮ˤؼоݤꤹΰ̣ǤꡤԤϤǤϻؼоݤꤻüԤ䤽¾ξθʤФʤʤΰ̣Ǥ롥Ԥϰ̣Ūʰ̣ԤϸŪʰ̣ȤäƤ褤
(5) basic vs relational meaning. 줬ָ촴פäƤ硤촴ΰ̣ basicΰ̣ relational Ȥ롥㤨Сƥ lupi ϡϵȤỤ̄ͭ촴 lup- ñ°ʤȤطỤ̄ (syntactical relational meaning) ͭ -i ʤ롥طỤ̄ˤäɽ蘆Ȥϸ¤餺촴첻 ( Ablaut or gradation ) ˤäɽ蘆줿 (ex. ring -- rang -- rung) ˤäɽ蘆줿 (ex. Jack beats Jill. vs Jill beats Jack.) ⤹СˤäƤɽ蘆ʤȤ⤢롥طỤ̄ (derivational relational meaning) ϡ㤨 like -- liken -- likeness Υˤߤ褦 -en -ness ˤäɽ蘆Ƥ롥绨ĤˤäơطỤ̄طỤ̄ϡ줾ܼܼбȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
(6) word- vs phrase-meaning. δѶ (idiom) 䴷Ūʸ (ex. How do you do?) פ⤫٤Ф狼褦ˡΰ̣ϡФФʣñΰ̣¤ˤϤʤʤ
(7) autosemantic vs synsemantic meaning. ʹ˥տޤȯɽŵŪˤʸ̾ˤϡautosemantic meaning ĤȤ롥ֻ졤³졤ƻ졤ưη (ex. goes, stands, be, doing) °ᡤгʤ̾졤ʣγǤ synsemantic meaning ĤȤ롥
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
ܿʬǤϡѤ䤹Ϥ뤫ȤꡤʤѼ (scale of adoptability, or borrowability scale) äƵ깭ƤThomason and Kaufman ϼѤʤϤʤƤ뤬ȤƤѤ䤹ܤȤǤʤܤ뤳ȤǧƤ롥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ʤɤǵΰüߤƤŪʴˤ٤ä褽ɽȤ뼫Ωι⤤֤ǤѤ䤹ǡǤʤɤι«줿֤³ȤäΤʤ˲졤̣ʤɤμѤ⺮äƤ뤬ϽȤƤŪΤۤǤ롥
Ω줬ǤѤ䤹ŪʸˡܤǤѤˤȤŪʼ٤ϡľŪˤ䤹ġ㳰ŪʻϤˤ衤褽ƱդƤȤäƤ褤ȤǡŪʴǤϤʤǽŪʴˤѼ٤ȤΤϤˤĤ Matras (209--10) ̣ŦƤ롥
. . . it was proposed that borrowing hierarchies are sensitive to functional properties of discourse organization and speaker-hearer interaction. Items expressing contrast and change are more likely to be borrowed than items expressing addition and continuation. Discourse markers such as tags and interjections are on the whole more likely to be borrowed than conjunctions, and categories expressing attitudes to propositions (such as focus particles, phrasal adverbs like still or already, or modals) are more likely to be borrowed than categories that are part of the propositional content itself (such as prepositions, or adverbs of time and place). Contact susceptibility is thus stronger in categories that convey a stronger link to hearer expectations, indicating that contact-related change is initiated through the convergence of communication patterns . . . . In the domain of phonology and phonetics, sentence melody, intonation and tones appear more susceptible to borrowing than segmental features. One might take this a step further and suggest that contact first affects those functions of language that are primary or, in evolutionary perspective, primitive. Reacting to external stimuli, seeking attention, and seeking common ground with a counterpart or interlocutor. Contact-induced language change thus has the potential to help illuminate the internal composition of the grammatical apparatus, and indeed even its evolution.
ղûϤȤɸ (discourse_marker) ٤ɽ魯ʤɡʹռߥ˥εǽɽΤۤ̿ŪؼŪʵǽɽѤ䤹ȤŦǤ롥ɸϤƤʸ¾ǤΩƤ롤뤤ϴΩƤϤʤȤ⡤٤ʬΥǽݻƤ롥ĤޤꡤεǽŪʴˤ٤ϡŪΩ伫ͳ٤ȴϢƤ¤ˤơηŪʴˤ٤Ȥ̷⤷ʤषηŪʴΤʤ˼ޤʹˤʤΤǤϤʤ
ȡޤǹͻȤǡΰѤθȾǽҤ٤Ƥ첻˴ؤѼ٤ΤǤϡʬ֤֤겻פǤαΧŪǤΤۤѤ䤹Ȥ롥ηŪʴǤϡʬ䲻ǤμѤؤθڤϤäΧŪǤμѤϤۤȤˤ줿ȤʤΤǤϤʤʺε#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1]) (6) ȡˡΧŪǤŪ˼Ѥ䤹ȤŦȹ碌ơѤȾʬƤɾȡǽŪʼѼ٤Ƥ˰롥äʹΥߥ˥ľܴͿࡤСʴ֡˼ޤबǤʤΤѤ䤹ȤΤϡεǽȤߤơΤ˹Ūοʲ (evolution) ؤƶˤڤǤꡤɷŪǤ롥
Τ褦˰츫ʤۤɤȻפ碌ǤϤ뤬Ѥ줿ܤοȤߤȡdiscourse marker μѤϡʳ̿ŪؼŪʵǽɽŵŪˤ̾ưˤ٤ơŪ˾ʤȤϵ褦ʤŪʴȵǽŪʴबߤˤɤΤ褦ʴطǺѤѼ٤ƤΤ¿λ㸦椬ɬפˤʤäƤ
Matras, Yaron. "Language Contact." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 203--14.
Treffers-Daller μѤ˴ؤʸ Meeuwis and Östman θܿ˴ؤʸɤߡ#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1]) դ٤ܤ¿뤳ȤΤäʲˡĤƤߤ롥
(1) ѤˤϸѲβ1ĤȤƹͻ٤¦̤뤬θǤϼȤƸŪ¦̤ܤƤܿǤˤ⤫餺쳰Ū¦̤ιͻҲŪʻʤäΤǤϤʤŪˤϡѤηȻɾθ椬٤Ƥ롥Treffers-Dalle (17--18) ΰʲλŦ狼䤹
. . . researchers have mainly focused on what Weinreich, Herzog and Labov (1968) have called the embedding problem and the constraints problem. . . . Other questions have received less systematic attention. The actuation problem and the transition problem (how and when do borrowed features enter the borrowing language and how do they spread through the system and among different groups of borrowing language speakers) have only recently been studied. The evaluation problem (the subjective evaluation of borrowing by different speaker groups) has not been investigated in much detail, even though many researchers report that borrowing is evaluated negatively.
(2) ѸΤߤʤ餺ܿΥơΤ˴ؤ뤬ǯϥͥåȤϤȤǥȯŸˤꡤѤεʪŪʾ¸ߤȤʤʤäƤĤޤꡤܿμѤäƤȤȤǤꡤѲϼѡʸˤμ̤ˤƶڤܤ
Due to modern advances in telecommunication and information technology and to more extensive traveling, members within such groupings, although not being physically adjacent, come into close contact with one another, and their language and communicative behaviors in general take on features from a joint pool . . . . (Meeuwis and Östman 38)
(3) Ūʸ桥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1]) Ǽ "scale of adoptability" (or "borrowability scale") βˤĤơ2ѼԤäեѥѤƸڤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäƤOttawa-Hull ΥեˤѸѤ䡤եȥ2쥳ѥˤѤηڥȥ奢2¸女ѥˤʬϤʤɤϤƤ롥
(4) ˤѤȤʥ뤬ڤ곫ĤĤ롥ޤοϾʤ2ѼԤˤɸ (discourse marker) õǽμѤλ㤬𤵤Ƥ롥
(5) 嵭 (3) (4) Ȥط뤬2ѼԤμѤ˺ݤ뿴ŪʥץŪʬǤ롥#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡcode-switching ȤδϢȤʤ롥
(6) ȥ͡ꥺʤɱΧŪǤμ̡
ƺǿμѸϡηϤȤδϢˤƸȤϡüԸĿͤ뤤ϼҲȤδϢˤƸؿܤƤƤ褦ޤ̤ȤƤμѸ (loanword) ܤȤϡȤƤμ (borrowing) ܤȤؿѲ⤢褦
ĿͤȤƤϡ跿θηϤȤδϢˤƤμѤθˤƤ⡤ޤʤȤϤȹͤƤ롥㤨С̣ (semantic loan) ʤɤϡ¿;ϤĤƤȻפäƤ롥
Treffers-Daller, Jeanine. "Borrowing." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 17--35.
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
ԥ (pidgin) ȥ쥪 (creole) ˤĤƤΰ̤ˤȡԤüԤ⤿ʤʰײˤȤɤޤΤФԤüԤηŪʣħŤȤȤǤ롥̤θСcreole pidgin ȯŸʳθɽ路ξԤϤθȯãΥ饤եΰʤθ塤post-creole_continuum decreolization ʳꤦȤˡξԤϢ³ΤǤϤΤΡ#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1]) Ǽ褦ˡħӤΩġ
#444. ԥȥ쥪ζܡ ([2010-07-15-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡpidgin creole ˤϾ嵭Υ饤եŪʸƤϤޤʤ㤬롥ԥΤʤˤϡüԤˡʤ creole ˡηϤʣ "expanded pidgin" ¸ߤ롥#412. 롼αѸ ([2010-06-13-1])#413. 롼ˤѸؤ language shift ([2010-06-14-1]) ǿ줿 Cameroon Pidgin English#1688. Tok Pisin ([2013-12-10-1]) Ǽ夲 Tok Pisin ΤĤѼ郎Ǥ롥ޤȿФˡΤ䥤Τˤ褦ˡԥʳФľܥ쥪줬Ȥߤʤ⤢ (Mufwene 48)
쥪츦κüǻŻƤ Mufwene (47) ϡŪˤԥȥ쥪Υ饤եФƲŪǤ롥Ȥ櫓 expanded pidgin creole δطˤĤơξԤϸäƤषդǤꡤϢ³ΤȤߤʤΤˤ̵ȤƤ롥
There are . . . significant reasons for not lumping expanded pidgins and creoles in the same category, usually identified as creole and associated with the fact that they have acquired a native speaker population. . . . [T]hey evolved in opposite directions, although they are all associated with plantation colonies, with the exception of Hawaiian Creole, which actually evolved in the city . . . . Creoles started from closer approximations of their 'lexifiers' and then evolved gradually into basilects that are morphosyntactically simpler, in more or less the same ways as their 'lexifiers' had evolved from morphosyntactically more complex Indo-European varieties, such as Latin or Old English. According to Chaudenson (2001), they extended to the logical conclusion a morphological erosion that was already under way in the nonstandard dialects of European languages that the non-Europeans had been exposed to. On the other hand, expanded pidgins started from rudimentary language varieties that complexified as their functions increased and diversified.
ǿƤ Chaudenson ƱݤƤ褦ˡcreole ϸ̾Ͽ̱ϻۼԤ衼åѤθˤ³Ǥꡤ줬ʰײΤǤȤ (cf. #1842. 쥪˼ҲŪ ([2014-05-13-1])) pidgin ϸȤ϶̤٤ǤꡤȯŸǤ expanded pidgin pidgin ¿ǽʣƤѼؤȤͤĤޤꡤƤ pidgin expanded pidgin creole ȤȯŸΥ饤եѤϡ¤ʤºݡ19ޤǤ pidgin creole δ֤ˤΤ褦ȯŸŪʴطȤƤʤäػŪˤϡ20äƤ Bloomfield ʤɤȯŸطŦϤˤʤ (Mufwene 48)
creole ñ㲽ή (drift) ŪǤȤĥܤڤ褦ʻMufwene μλŦˤܤγФפ롥"Had linguists remembered that the European 'lexifiers' had actually evolved from earlier, more complex morphosyntaxes, they would have probably taken into account more of the socioeconomic histories of the colonies, which suggest a parallel evolution" (48) .
Mufwene Υ쥪ä˿̱ϻˤˤ homestead stage plantation stage ζ̤ founder principle ˤĤƤϡ#1840. ڥ١Υ쥪줬ü˾ʤΤϤʤ ([2014-05-11-1]) ȡ#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) Ȥ줿
Mufwene, Salikoko. "Creoles and Creolization." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 46--60.
ε#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]) ǻȤ Meeuwis and Östman θܿ˴ؤʸˡָܿˤŪʱƶ (indirect influence in language contact) Ȥä (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (contact-induced interference) ˤƤϡABز餫θबư뤳ȤȤʤäƤ뤬ΰưɬȼʤ֤αƶȤΤ⤢ꤦ롥ŵŪȤƸܿȤʤäƴ¸θबפüꤹ븽ݤꡤѸˤǤťΥɸȤܿˤηϤοȤ꤬Фм夲롥Ǥϲ餫ζŪʸबťΥɸ줫űѸذư櫓ǤϤʤޤܿȤƸűѸŪʸѲʹԤˤʤΤ褦ʥϡִŪʱƶפȸƤ٤#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) Ǽˤ Thomason "Loss of features" ȸƤ֤ȤǤꡤ̤ñ㲽 (simplification) ² (neutralization) ʤɤȸڤǤ⤢ (cf. ##928,931,932,1585,1839)
ִŪʱƶפϡθܿʤФθѲʤäȤǡѲθˤäơľŪʱƶ˾Ȥ̽פäƤ롥ָܿȤŪװ˿ȯ줿ŪѲפȤڤӲϰΤʤƤꡤ줾ʬʬ뤳ȤϤǤʤäơŪŪװΤɤ餬פȤ䤤ϰ̣ʤʤǤϡMeeuwis and Östman θ褦 "multiple causation" 뤤 "synergy" Ȥɬפ롥
. . . there is a host of generalization, avoidance, simplification and other processes at work in second-language acquisition, language shift, language death and other types of language contact, which show no isomorphic or qualitative correspondence with elements in the donor language or in a previous form of the recipient, affected language. These seemingly internal 'creations' of previously non-existent structures occur simply due to the contact situation, i.e. they would not have occurred in the language unless it had been in contact . . . and could thus not be explained without reference to a linguistic and cultural contact. Also, in all these fields, the phenomenon of 'multiple causation' or, as it is also called, 'synergy' has to be taken into account. Synergy refers to changes that occur internally in a language but are triggered by the contact with similar features, patterns, or rules in another language. Here, some qualitative resemblances to features in the donor language or in a pre-contact state of the affected language can be observed: the contact has given rise to a change in existing features. . . . '[S]ynergy' is a widely observable phenomenon that is too often slighted by keeping the distinction between internally and externally motivated language change too rigidly separate. (42)
Τ褦ʸݤФƤ "synergy" ̡ˤȤѸϽ鼪äƤͤ˶䤹Ϣơʲε⻲Ȥ줿
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) Ǥ줾츫褦ˡ̤ܿ1ĤȤ contact-induced language change 롥Ϥ˼ (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ʬ롥Ԥ L2 θŪ L1 ذư븽ݡԤ L1 θŪ L2 ذư븽ݤǤ롥shift-induced interference ϡ2콬World Englishesظƶ (substratum_theory) ʤɤ˴طܿβȤ䤹⤷ʤ
2ĤۤʤΤdzǰ̤뤳Ȥưפ¤θܿλˤƤꤹΤ¿뤳ȤΤäƤɬפ롥Meeuwis and Östman (41) ꡤվǵ
(1) code-switching Ǥϡɤθ줫ɤθظबưƤȤߤʤФ褤ΤȽȤʤȤ¿#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡborrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡδ֤ˤϥ졼ȤäƤ롥
(2) (mixed language) ˤƤϡͿξθ줬褽Ʊ٤Ϳ¦Ǥ⤢ꡤ¦Ǥ⤢롥ŵŪˤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Russenorsk Michif ʤɤ pidgin creole/creoloid 롥Thomason ϡμθܿ contact-induced language change ȤܤǤϤʤextreme language mixture ȤܤΤȤǰäƤꡤüʤΤȤƶ̤Ƥ (cf. [2014-03-13-1])
(3) ߤ礨ۤɤѼ郎ܿȤˤ⡤ΰưꤹ뤳ȤŵŪΤϡɤκʤ koineization Ǥ롥#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ȡ#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1]) ȡ
(4) "false friends" (Fr. "faux amis") ꡥL2 dzؤħL1 ˤǤϤʤ̤˽褦ȤƤ L3 ˱ѤƤޤȤ롥㤨СܸüԤ L2 ȤƤαѸ magazine ʻˤˡL3 ȤƤΥե magasin ʾŹˤֻפΰ̣dzФƤޤ褦3Ȥ٤ǤꡤʬˡǤϰȤǤʤ
(5) ⤽⡤ĿͤˤȤäƲ L1 Dz L2 ȽȤʤ롥ХθĿͤˤäƤϡ2Ĥθ줬ۤƱ1ǤȤߤʤ礬롥Ϣơ#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1]) ⻲ȡ
borrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡϡζʬǤ뤳ȡƤޤǤθ¤ˤͭǤ뤳ȤƤ
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
#1976. ŪްդȤ¾͡ʴްա ([2014-09-24-1]) ǡۤʤδް (implicature) ΤʤǤäߤζ̤ȤʤΤϡGrice particularized conversational implicature, generalized conversational implicature, conventional implicature 3Ǥ롥δްդϡνǷ֤ȤηӤĤʤꡤ뤤ϥɲٹ礤⤯ʤ롥
ȤǡθŪʴްդỌ̇̄Ѳ¿Ȥ̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ롥̣Ѳ¿ϡ֡ʤǤϸˤȤˤȷӤĤƤ¸θˡդääꡤŤüƤǤ롥̣ѲŪʲˤ2Ĥ (Kearns 123)
(1) Fa > Fab: Form F with sense a acquires an additional sense b
(2) Fab > Fb: Form F with senses a and b loses sense a
(1) Ϥ F ˷ӤĤ줿 a ˡ b ä(2) Ϥ F ˷ӤĤ줿 a b a (1) (2) ѵС̤Ȥ Fa Fb ؤȸܤȤˤʤ롥ä˽פʤΤϡ餷ä (1) βǤ롥ˤơF ȴϢŤ줿 a ξ b äΤ
Ǿ嵭μδްդ˻äƤ餪particularized conversational implicature Ǥϡʸ̤ΰ̣ a Ȥˡˤäƴްաʤ a Ȥϰۤʤ̣ b ƳФ롥ϲäˤñȯδްդˤ֤ȤηӤĤϼ夤ᡤ꼰 F ȼʤa > abפȤconventional implicature ϡ֤ȶӤĤްաäȤи˥ɲ줿̣Ǥ뤫顤̣ѲδϡѲλΰꤷ֡Ǥ Fab Ȥ֤б롥Ǥϡ2Ĥδ֤̣ѲưŪʲʤ (1) 꼰줿Fa > FabפβбΤϲ generalized conversational implicature Ǥ롥generalized conversational implicature ϡ̣Ѳβ1ʳ˴ؤפʼδްդȤȤˤʤ롥
ŪްդỌ̇̄ѲϤۤˤ⤢롥㤨С̣ѲŵŪʥѥǤ̲ (generalisation) ü첽 (specialisation) (cf. #473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])) ϡĴθ§ (cooperative principle) ˴ŤްդȤ뤳ȤǤ롥Grice ƶĴθ§ȯŸ Grice (neo-Gricean) Horn ϡ̲㳰ʤü첽Ȥ R[elation]-principle ("Make your contribution necessary.") ˤäȤ (Kearns 129--31)
Kearns ϡimplicature metonymy metaphor ȤδطˤĤƤƤ롥ợѲˤ implicature ˤĤơΤ褦äƤ롥
. . . if implicature is construed broadly to subsume all the inferential processes available in language use, then most, perhaps all of the major types of semantic change can be attributed to implicature. Differentiating more finely, metaphor and metonymy (which are themselves not always readily distinguishable) produce the ambiguity or polysemy pattern of added meaning, in contrast to the merger pattern, which is commonly attributed to information-strengthening generalized conversational implicature . . . . On an alternative view, implicature (narrowly construed) and metonymy are grouped together in contrast to metaphor, on the grounds that the two former mechanisms are based on sense contiguity, while metaphor is based on sense comparison or analogy. (139)
Kearns, Kate. "Implicature and Language Change" Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 123--40.
ε#1982. -ick or -ic (2) ([2014-09-30-1]) ˰³ѸǤ -ic(k) ΰ֤ʬۡʿܡˤĴ롥Ѥ륳ѥϻΤΤΤǤϤʤĿŪ EEBO (Early English Books Online) ɤѤƥȽǤ롥ޤѥƤ餺ɽѹդݤƤʤñʤƥȤνȤΤʤΤǡĴ̤ϲΤΤȤƲᤷƤʬ1617绨Ĥʬ줾쥳ѥ923,115졤9,637,954Ǥʥѥ10ܰʾγԶѹդʼ֤աˡʲǤϡ100 (wpm) ǼƤ롥
| Spelling pair | Period 1 (1501--1600) (in wpm) | Period 2 (1601--1700) (in wpm) |
|---|---|---|
| angelick / angelic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.45 / 0.21 |
| antick / antic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 2.49 / 0.10 |
| apoplectick / apoplectic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| aquatick / aquatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.00 |
| arabick / arabic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.52 / 0.10 |
| archbishoprick / archbishopric | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.00 |
| arctick / arctic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.42 / 0.00 |
| arithmetick / arithmetic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 3.22 / 0.31 |
| aromatick / aromatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.83 / 0.10 |
| asiatick / asiatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.31 / 0.00 |
| attick / attic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.31 / 0.21 |
| authentick / authentic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 3.94 / 0.42 |
| balsamick / balsamic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.73 / 0.10 |
| baltick / baltic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.93 / 0.00 |
| bishoprick / bishopric | 1.08 / 0.00 | 4.25 / 0.00 |
| bombastick / bombastic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.00 |
| catholick / catholic | 5.42 / 0.00 | 38.39 / 1.97 |
| caustick / caustic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| characteristick / characteristic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.10 |
| cholick / cholic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.93 / 0.00 |
| comick / comic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 1.45 / 0.10 |
| critick / critic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.76 / 1.87 |
| despotick / despotic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.62 / 0.21 |
| domestick / domestic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 8.09 / 0.21 |
| dominick / dominic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 0.62 / 0.42 |
| dramatick / dramatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.83 / 0.10 |
| emetick / emetic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.31 / 0.00 |
| epick / epic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.10 |
| ethick / ethic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.00 / 0.10 |
| exotick / exotic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.73 / 0.10 |
| fabrick / fabric | 0.00 / 0.00 | 8.72 / 0.31 |
| fantastick / fantastic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 3.42 / 0.10 |
| frantick / frantic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 3.94 / 0.00 |
| frolick / frolic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 3.32 / 0.00 |
| gallick / gallic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 3.32 / 0.52 |
| garlick / garlic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 2.28 / 0.00 |
| heretick / heretic | 2.17 / 0.00 | 6.02 / 0.00 |
| heroick / heroic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 16.91 / 1.35 |
| hieroglyphick / hieroglyphic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.31 / 0.00 |
| lethargick / lethargic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.52 / 0.10 |
| logick / logic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 7.06 / 1.04 |
| lunatick / lunatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.66 / 0.00 |
| lyrick / lyric | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.42 / 0.10 |
| magick / magic | 2.17 / 0.00 | 3.32 / 0.10 |
| majestick / majestic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 4.88 / 0.42 |
| mechanick / mechanic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 4.15 / 0.00 |
| metallick / metallic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| metaphysick / metaphysic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.21 |
| mimick / mimic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.42 / 0.00 |
| musick / music | 7.58 / 627.22 | 40.98 / 251.40 |
| mystick / mystic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.45 / 0.10 |
| panegyrick / panegyric | 0.00 / 0.00 | 4.46 / 0.10 |
| panick / panic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.35 / 0.10 |
| paralytick / paralytic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.00 |
| pedantick / pedantic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.93 / 0.00 |
| philosophick / philosophic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.00 / 0.21 |
| physick / physic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 27.39 / 1.56 |
| plastick / plastic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| platonick / platonic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.93 / 0.00 |
| politick / politic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 15.98 / 1.14 |
| prognostick / prognostic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.52 / 0.00 |
| publick / public | 5.42 / 3.25 | 237.39 / 5.71 |
| relick / relic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.52 / 0.00 |
| republick / republic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 3.01 / 0.31 |
| rhetorick / rhetoric | 0.00 / 0.00 | 5.71 / 0.21 |
| rheumatick / rheumatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| romantick / romantic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.83 / 0.00 |
| rustick / rustic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.66 / 0.00 |
| sceptick / sceptic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.10 |
| scholastick / scholastic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.31 / 0.42 |
| stoick / stoic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.93 / 0.00 |
| sympathetick / sympathetic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| topick / topic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.45 / 0.00 |
| traffick / traffic | 3.25 / 0.00 | 8.61 / 0.42 |
| tragick / tragic | 3.25 / 0.00 | 2.91 / 0.00 |
| tropick / tropic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.04 / 0.00 |
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