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ϢѤƤ Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading Saenger ϡʬ (distinctiones) δȯãƤطʤˤϡƥ줫ޥϽθθ경ǤΤǤϤʤƤ롥
Ūˤ䤫äƥθ礬եʤɤȯŸSVOδܸظ경ƤäȤˤꡤɼԤθʶ˶ФռʤäƤΤǤϤʤȤޤθ경¹ԤƶޤοȤѲʹԤƤꡤԤɼԤθʶˤǧλ˱ƶͿƤȹͤ롥ơ⤦ʬȯã⡤ʤʶ˶ǧ̩ܤ˴ؤ롥θݤϤʶ˶ƱŻ뤹ȤͭƤꡤߤ䴰礦طˤäΤǤϤʤˤϡΤ褦ʣŪװؤäɤ®ɤνȯãƤˤʤȤΤ Saenger ήεŸ
̣1ĤϡʸϤɲˤäƤû˴ؤΤǤ롥礬Ūͳǡ³ŵƥˤƤϡɼԤ1ʸĹʸäɤƤФʤʤʸǸޤɤǡΤΰ̣ǧɬפ롥ɤǤɼԤûˤŤô뤳Ȥˤʤǡϯɤ߾夲뤳ȤˤäƤô餫ڸ褦ȤƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ƥޥʤɤΤ褦ˡٸ礬ޤäƤꡤʬʤƤСʸǼˤɤΤ褦Ǥ뤫ͽۤ䤹ʤƱˡñ켫Ϥڤʬݤ뤿ˡûˤô˸롥虜虜ϯɤ߾夲ʤȤ⡤®䤫ɲǤΤμͳ³ʿŪǤꡤθ경ʬ⡤180ٰۤʤΤΡϤʿŪȤȤǤ롥
⤦1ĤΤ⤷ϡ礦ɶޤοʤȸθ경ˤʸˡȹͤƤΤƱͤˡ³ʬؤΥեȤȹͤƤȤȤȽˡϡΤ褦˥ڥǤȤ館Ƥ褦
Saenger (17) ΤޤȤʸϼ̤ꡥ
The evolution of rigorous conventions, both of word order and of word separation, had the similar and complementary physiological effect of enhancing the medieval reader's ability to comprehend written text rapidly and silently by facilitating lexical access.
Saenger, P. Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1997.
ε ([2020-01-29-1]) ˰³ʤꥷȥޤ泤̤˹ԤʤƤʬ (distinctiones) Τơ³ (scriptura continua) ѤȤˤĤơ
Saenger ˤСˤϡɤȤ٤Ф븽ŪȯۤƤ֤ɽȤμҲŪʸ̮ɬפȤüŪˤСͤϤߤɤ®ɤ˴Ƥꡤɤߤ䤹פŻ뤹뤬奮ꥷޤθ¤줿ɤˤȤäơɤ٤ȤϸƬβɤΤȤǤꡤŪʡɤߤ䤹פɵ᤹ϤʤäΤȤʲSaenger βʹƤߤ褦 (11--12)
. . . the ancient world did not possess the desire, characteristic of the modern age, to make reading easier and swifter because the advantages that modern readers perceive as accruing from ease of reading were seldom viewed as advantages by the ancients. These include the effective retrieval of information in reference consultation, the ability to read with minimum difficulty a great many technical logical, and scientific texts, and the greater diffusion of literacy throughout all social strata of the population. We know that the reading habits of the ancient world, which were profoundly oral and rhetorical by physiological necessity as well as by taste, were focused on a limited and intensely scrutinized canon of literature. Because those who read relished the mellifluous metrical and accentual patterns of pronounced text and were not interested in the swift intrusive consultation of books, the absence of interword space in Greek and Latin was not perceived to be an impediment to effective reading, as it would be to the modern reader, who strives to read swiftly. Moreover, oralization, which the ancients savored aesthetically, provided mnemonic compensation (through enhanced short-term aural recall) for the difficulty in gaining access to the meaning of unseparated text. Long-term memory of texts frequently read aloud also compensated for the inherent graphic and grammatical ambiguities of the languages of late antiquity.
Finally, the notion that the greater portion of the population should be autonomous and self-motivated readers was entirely foreign to the elitist literate mentality of the ancient world. For the literate, the reaction to the difficulties of lexical access arising from scriptura continua did not spark the desire to make script easier to decipher, but resulted instead in the delegation of much of the labor of reading and writing to skilled slaves, who acted as professional readers and scribes. It is in the context of a society with an abundant supply of cheap, intellectually skilled labor that ancient attitudes toward reading must be comprehended and the ready and pervasive acceptance of the suppression of word separation throughout the Roman Empire understood.
ѤκǸ˼Ƥ褦ˡͤ³˥եȤ뤳Ȥǡɤߤˤƹ褦ȤȤǤΤ⤷ʤδϡ˺ƤʬؤȲƤǤ⼨ŪǤ롥Ϣơ#1903. ʬˡ ([2014-07-13-1]) ⻲ȡ
Saenger, P. Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1997.
ե٥åȤʬ (distinctiones) ³ (scriptura continua) ˤĤƤϡǶǤϡ#3926. ʬɽɽ ([2020-01-26-1]) ǡˤ distinctiones γƵǼ夲Ƥ
Saenger (9) ˤȡե٥åȤ첻ɽδޤ泤Ǥϡڡˤ뤫ˤ뤫ΰ㤤졤ʬ̤˹ԤʤƤȤꥷˤ첻ɽǽȤʤ˵ڤӡ³ޤ줿ȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
ޤե٥åȻѤνʬ̤ˤäȤꥷˤ줬ѤȤʤꡤä³̲8ˤʤʬƳ졤θ˰̲Ƹ˻롥
ʬϸߤǤ뤵Ƥ뤬첻ɽϤŵδ֤ˡδѤ줿аޤȤȤǤϡʤ첻ɽƳˤꡤ䤿ˤȤä餫˻פʬѤȤʤꡤषɤߤˤȻפ³ȯãΤSaenger (9--10) ˤС첻ɽ³δ֤ˤ̩ܤʴطȤ
The uninterrupted writing of ancient scriptura continua was possible only in the context of a writing system that had a complete set of signs for the unambiguous transcription of pronounced speech. This occurred for the first time in Indo-European languages when the Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet by adding symbols for vowels. The Greco-Latin alphabetical scripts, which employed vowels with varying degrees of modification, were used for the transcription of the old forms of the Romance, Germanic, Slavic, and Hindu tongues, all members of the Indo-European language group, in which words were polysyllabic and inflected. For an oral reading of these Indo-European languages, the reader's immediate identification of words was not essential, but a reasonably swift identification and parsing of syllables was fundamental. Vowels as necessary and sufficient codes for sounds permitted the reader to identify syllables swiftly within rows of uninterrupted letters. Before the introduction of vowels to the Phoenician alphabet, all the ancient languages of the Mediterranean world---syllabic or alphabetical, Semitic or Indo-European---were written with word separation by either space, points, or both in conjunction. After the introduction of vowels, word separation was no longer necessary to eliminate an unacceptable level of ambiguity.
Throughout the antique Mediterranean world, the adoption of vowels and of scriptura continua went hand in hand. The ancient writings of Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, and Israel did not employ vowels, so separation between words was retained. Had the space between words been deleted and the signs been written in scriptura continua, the resulting visual presentation of the text would have been analogous to a modern lexogrammatic puzzle. Such written languages might have been decipherable, given their clearly defined conventions for word order and contextual clues, but only after protracted cognitive activity that would have made fluent reading as we know it impractical. While the very earliest Greek inscriptions were written with separation by interpuncts, points placed at midlevel between words, Greece soon thereafter became the first ancient civilization to employ scriptura continua. The Romans, who borrowed their letter forms and vowels from the Greeks, maintained the earlier Mediterranean tradition of separating words by points far longer than the Greeks, but they, too, after a scantily documented period of six centuries, discarded word separation as superfluous and substituted scriptura continua for interpunct-separated script in the second century A.D.
ŸƤˤĤơϤ褯ǤƤʤ첻ɽƳη̡Ʊꤷ䤹ʤäȤ褯狼ʤޤˤ줬äȤơʸɤ꤬ʬǤϤʤ³˥եȤȤƤⲿȤɤǤ롤ȤޤǤǤ뤬ʤ³ѶŪ˥եȤΤǤ롥εϡöŪŤˤʤ褦˻פ롥
첻ʸȯƥե٥åȤˤꥷͤɤߤˤ³˥եȤȤΤϡ̷⤷Ƥ褦˴롥ºݡ¿ԤǺޤ³Ƥ褦 (Saenger 10)
ꥷͤˤ첻ʸƳȤʸ˾βŪʽˤĤƤϡ#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1]) #2092. ե٥åȤ첻ľɽ魯Τ ([2015-01-18-1]) ȡ
Saenger, P. Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1997.
ѸΥڥȤСƤȯȤЪΥ (spelling_pronunciation_gap) ꤬濴Ȥʤ롥1Ĥʸ¿βбƤդ1Ĥβ¿ʸбƤޤۻ (silent_letter) ¸ߤʤɡ˻礫ʤܥ֥Ǥ spelling ¿εǼ夲Ƥ
ȯȥڥб§ϡ켫Ρɵ椷Ƥͤ롥ѸˤȤΩ줫鶯ĴƤΤϡб§˾Ȥ餺ڥΤļҲŪ¦̤ˤܤƤ餤ȤȤñΥڥ뤤ϸʤɤȤ硤ȤƤΤɸŪǵŪˡ (orthography) ¸ߤǤ롥䤿褯ΤäƤ褦ˡˡϷ褷ƹŪǤ§ŪǤʤΤγˤϼҲŪˡפȤΤդ롥
ǤϡïΤդͿƤΤõȤȡѸˡ夲ƤˡˤƤ˼ҲŪʰҿͿƤΤηаޤҤȤɬפƤ롥busy <u> /ɪ/ ȯ뤳ȡdoubt <b> ̵Ȥʤ뤳ȡcolour color ˤߤ륹ڥαƺʤɤϡб§ǤƱˡ䤽ʾˡʤΤ褦ʥڥƤΤȤ˼ҲŪʤΤǤ롥
ѸΥڥˤĤơCook (178) ⤽μҲŪ¦̤˸ڤƤ롥
Group loyalty manifests itself in several ways in the English writing system. At one level it becomes a matter of patriotism: your national identity is shown by whether you spell in a Canadian, a British or an American fashion. While people accept that speakers have different accents; they are far less tolerant about variations in spelling. A paper of mine was returned with the comment 'American spelling for an American journal': no one has ever required me to use an American accent for an American conference. As Jaffe (2000: 502) puts it, 'Orthography selects, displays and naturalises linguistic difference, which is in turn used to legitimise and naturalise cultural and political identity'.
At another level spelling can be a mark of regional or social group membership. The actual pronunciation of the group can be mimicked through unusual sound correspondences, as in dialect spelling such as 'Down Vizes way zom yoars agoo, When smuggal'n wur nuthen new . . .'. Or an arbitrary group standard can be adopted unrelated to pronunciation, for instance British 'colour' versus American 'color'. Particular conventions act as a way of excluding outsiders, say the chat-room convention of abbreviations such as 'LOL' ('laughing out loud'). Jargon makes insiders feel they belong and outsiders feel uncomfortable, whether the groups consist of teenagers, street gangs, football fans or syntacticians.
ѸѤʵȤ֤Ρ֡ȤñϤʤߡߤΤ褦̯֤ΤǤפФˤϡƤ˭˼ҲŪطʤǤ롥Ե§ʤΤޤްŵ褦פǺѤޤˤϤޤˤäʤŪɷ٤ͥˤǤ롥
Cook, Vivian. The English Writing System. London: Hodder Education, 2004.
Jaffe, Alexandra. "Non-Standard Orthography and Non-Standard Speech." Journal of Sociolinguistics 4 (2000): 497--513.
Cook (166) ˡ"Comparing older letter forms with Modern English" ꤹɽ롥绨ĤǤϤ뤬ѸΥޥե٥åȰ켰ʸϿ褯ޤȤޤäƤΤǡʲ˺Ƹ롥
| Shared letters | Extra letters | Variants of another letter | Rare letters | Unused letters | |
| Old English (tenth century) | b c d f h l m n p r s t | ȝ ƿ þ ð æ | x (used for -cs occasionally æx) | k q z | g j v |
| a e i o u y | |||||
| Middle English (fourteenth century) | b c d f g h k l m n p q r s t w x z | ȝ þ (later th) | u (medial v) | ||
| a e i o u y | j (initial i) | ||||
| Early Modern English (1500--1700) | b c d f g h k l m n p q r s t w x z | u/v (till 1630) | |||
| a e i o u y | j/i (till 1640) | ||||
| 'long' ʃ | |||||
| Modern English (1700--present-day) | b c d f g h j k l m n p q r s t v w x z | ||||
| a e i o u y |
ɤ߽˴ؤɸ3ĤΥɤϡߤ˴ϢƤ롥ȸδ֤˶ʬ (distinctiones) ȯãˤꡤɼԤϥե٥åȤΤĤʤɽŪ (phonographic) ɤ߲ΤǤϤʤɽŪ (logographic) ɤ߲ळȤǤ褦ˤʤä̤Ȥơ˽Ф벻ɤǤϤʤƬΤʤǸΰ̣ɤ®ɤʸŪ˻ͤꡤ̤ξ뤳ȤǽˤʤäΤǤ롥#3881. ʸɲΡ2ϩǥס ([2019-12-12-1])#3884. ʸɤΡ2ϩפ ([2019-12-15-1]) ǵѸ˽СɲѤвϩŤֲ롼ȡפָ롼ȡפؤȥեȤƤȤäƤ褤
ΤˤɽȯãλˤĤƤϡҤƥФ (vernacular) ؤεդäȤʤäߥȤơ8Ŧ븫롥θ˴ŤơCook (152--53) ҤβΤ褦ˤޤޤȤƤ롥
Punctuation marks started as an aid for reading Latin aloud, in the form of various dots and other marks. These were necessary because Latin was written without word spaces, making texts difficult to read aloud on sight. Around the eighth century AD, it became usual to put a space between words. According to Saenger (1997), this transformed reading from reading aloud to reading in silence. Without spaces, the reader had to test out loud what the text meant; with spaces, the reader could interpret the text without saying it aloud and they could read and write with greater privacy since their activity was not audible to other people; indeed Galileo saw the advantages of 'communicating one's most secret thoughts to any other person' (cited in Chomsky 2002: 45). Hence, once the lexical route became possible for reading European languages, authors became more daring individuals; and the speed of reading could be increased beyond the speed of articulation. As Harris (1986) put it, 'One is tempted to compare the introduction of the space as a word boundary to the invention of the zero in mathematics . . .'.
ˤƤʬȯϿؤˤ를ȯӤǤפȤΤ°̤ǤϤʤɾ
ܵȴϢơҰʲεˤܤ̤Ƥ
#2058. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (1) ([2014-12-15-1])
#2059. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (2) ([2014-12-16-1])
#2696. ʬɽꥹȶΥƥȲؤΤ ([2016-09-13-1])
#1903. ʬˡ ([2014-07-13-1])
Cook, Vivian. The English Writing System. London: Hodder Education, 2004.
Saenger, P. Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP.
Chomsky, N. On Nature and Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
Harris, R. The Origin of Writing. London: Duckworth, 1986.
äŻҥʸϤֿʤɤǰѤݤˡƹƬ浭Ρʤ ">" ("right angle bracket" or "greater than") դԤ夷Ƥ롥δԤϳƼΥޡåǤѤƤꡤͥåȻˤƿˡȯãƤȤʪΤǤ롥
äʤ졤ƥȰѤΤ ">" ˡϡ¤˵ĤΤǤ롥">" ˶ᤤ "diple" ȸƤФ뵭椬äϰѤƥȤγϤȤѤ줿˸Ūʰ (quotation mark) ؤȯãdiple ΤΤѤȤʤꡤ˺줿Ȼפ䡤ΥͥåȻ˿̿ޤ줿Ȥ櫓cf. Ϣơ#1097. quotation marks ([2012-04-28-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
Ȥ褷ȤǤäֳפΤߤѤĤפб뵭椬¸ߤʤȤΤ⡤ζˡ¤Ǥꡤ⤷δФȡ̤ˤˤ衤ֳפäɬڥǡĤפ¸ߤƤʤȵθŪʴ̲Τϡ#2969. Ĥʤ quotation marks ([2017-06-13-1]) Ǥ⸫Ȥꡤ٤18ΤȤǤ롥ǤϡֳäѤʤפäΤǤ롥ѾϤɤǡĤפΤʬˤȤϤϥԥ塼ǤϤʤ餫äΤ
ŻҥδǤ⡤ƹԤƬ ">" դˤϤ虜虜Ȥ "<" դȤݤʤȤϤʤΰ̣Ǥϡԥ塼θưǤʤ顤Ǥ⤪餫ȤФ餫
ǰѤΰѤȤ ">" 2ŤˤꤹȤΤϡ˸ŪȯŸˡȻפ뤬ˤƤˤ³Ϣ³Ϥ⤷
ޤܸȤ͡¿ϡѸȤƤαѸ (EFL) ȤǤߤƤ롥Ω줫顤ѸˡʤγؤӤ䤹ˤˤɾꡤ줳Τ̤Ǥ롥ˡ˴ؤ¤ꡤѸȤ (ENL) üԤλҶ⼫˽櫓ǤϤʤ٤βǰռŪ˳ؤФʤФʤʤENL λҶϤǤ˱Ѹβ餫dzؽפȤǡEFLؽԤȤۤʤäƤΤǡ#3889. ͥƥ֤褯ְ㤨륹ڥ ([2019-12-20-1]) Ǥߤ̤ꡤEFLؽԤߤäʥڥδְ㤨뤳Ȥ롥䤿ˤȤäƤߤСEFL֤ϿɤפȸȤͥƥ֤̤δENL֤ϿɤפȤܤ䤭ϤǤ롥
Ȥ櫓ƼϰʤɸѸˤȤͥƥ֤ˤȤäơɸѸ˴ŤѸɽŪˡʤȤϤȾüɽΤǤϤ뤬ˤǤ롥åˡ (cockney) ʤɤȤ롤 /h/ ⤿ʤѸüԤˤȤäơhit it ȯƱȤʤ뤬ݤˤԤ <h> ǡ <h> ʤ֤ȤȤŪ˳ؽʤФʤʤĤޤȤŵȤȤˤʤꡤ㤤 hit <it>it <hit> 㤤֤ꡤ֤ѤߤȤȤ⤢롥षη˴ؤƤϡ<h> βǤܸȤѸؽԤΤְۤ㤨ˤ
Ʊ褦ʤȤth-fronting ȤΤ븽ݤ˴ؤƤ⤤롥ϤѸѼĿͤȯˤơth /θ/ ǤϤʤ /f/ ȯΤǤ롥ȯΥͥƥ֤λҶˤ褯ߤ븽ݤCook (129) ϡ̤θԤˤ East Tilbury (Essex) 4--7Фȯ˴ؤĴ̤Τ褦˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
Children preferred 'fing' over 'thing' by 56% to 32%, 'nuffing' over 'nothing' by 37% to 34%. Overall they opted for the dialect spelling 30% of the time. Learning to spell English is a problem for any child who speaks English with an accent that is non-standard in a particular country, whether England or Australia. To make the spelling system work, children with non-standard accents have either to invent correspondence rules for their own dialect that are different from those they are taught, that is, <th> corresponding to /f/ or /v/ in East Tilbury, or have to imagine what a standard speaker would say rather than themselves and their parents. In other words to some extent they are in the position of second language learners, basing spelling correspondence on a phonology that is not their own.
ܸüԤϡѸˡɸѸ˥ͥƥ֤ФƤĤ¦̤ˤϡʤʤŤʤαѸ֤ϡˤ貿κľ̤뤳ȤˤʤΤ
Cook, Vivian. The English Writing System. London: Hodder Education, 2004.
ѸǤϡ?ʤ롿Ԥפ̣ˤϡŵŪˡcome/go + ʬ Ѥ롥ưưθ˸ʬźơư֤ˡǤ롥ʲ BNCweb 褦
Jack came rushing down from his room on the top floor and . . . .
The question came sneaking into her mind . . . .
She had contrarily thought that if he really cared he would have come running after her.
A great mammoth of an American truck went thundering past, forcing me on to the dirt shoulder.
He gulped and went rushing on.
. . . the crowd of silver helmets went flooding in pursuit, . . . .
űѸä˱ʸ䡤³ѸλˤϡΤ褦ʾ˸ʬǤϤʤ줬ѤΤŪäȤ櫓ưưȤ come Ȥ㤬¿ߤ롥Mustanoja (536--37) 褦 to ȼʤǤ뤳ȤݥȤǤ롥
þer comen seilien . . . scipes (Lawman A 25525)
þer com a wolf gon after þan (Fox & Wolf 108)
in him com ur Lord gon (Judas 25)
He comme flie too felde (Alis. Macedoine 995)
wiþ þat came renne sire Bruyllant (Ferumbras 2333)
nece, ysee who comth here ride (Ch. TC ii 1253)
on his hunting as he cam ride (Gower CA i 350)
ŻưȤ٤ lie stand ˤ㤬ߤ뤬ưˤĤƤ to ȼʤ⤢Сto ȼߤ (Mustanoja 537) ξ硤֤ǤϤʤŪɽ魯ˡȤƲǤ⤢ꡤξŪ
feowertene niht fulle þere læe þa verde þeos wederes abiden (Lawman A 28238)
ne þurve þa cnihtes . . . careles liggen slæpen (Lawman A 18653)
hu mynecene slapan liggen (Wint. Ben. Rule 63)
the fraunchise of holi churche hii laten ligge slepe ful stille (Pol. Songs 325)
þanne he lieþ to slepen, Sal he nevre luken þe lides of hise eȝen (Best. 15)
on a bed of gold she lay to reste Til that the hote sonne gan to weste (Ch. PF 265)
faire in the soond, to bathe hire myrily, Lith Pertelote (Ch. CT B NP 4457)
--- and in my barm ther lith to wepe Thi child and myn, which sobbeth faste (Gower CA iii 302)
ennȝless stanndenn aȝȝ occ aȝȝ To lofenn Godd (Orm. 3894)
--- he stood for to biholde (Ch. TC i 310)
Ѹˤʤȡcome + פ֤ɽ魯ˡϿषƤˤĤʤcome + ʬפä褦ˤʤ롥äȤ⡤ԤιʸűѸΤƤʤ櫓ǤϤʤäȤդäƤ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ǯ٤⡤ؤǯαѸ˳ιֵλޤǯ٤Ʊ͡˴ۤոäƤߤޤΤǡʲܤˤȤޤäȤȴƤޤ͡ʷDZѸˤߤƤ館褦ǡôԤȤƤϴ¤Ǥʥåץӥ¿ȻפΤǤñʤΤľ˼äƴǤޤˡǯ٤ιֵˤ褫ƤȻפޤ
ʤߤˡǯ٤ΥȤˤĤƤϡ#3566. 2018ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2019-01-31-1])#2470. 2015ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2016-01-31-1]) Ȥ
Ѹ׳Ф뤫ɤ̤졤ʸ̤Ƥ䤿ˤȤäơˤؤ֤ȤˤäơѸΡ뤤ϸ줽ΤΤܼŪ̵ʡˤˤĤ뤳Ȥϡμ¤ˤҤȤĤβˤʤȻפάͰ츫Ū˸ͿξȤŪ٤ϡǤܸˤĤƹͤݤˤԲķǤޤʳʸŪʥѡڥƥ֤ΤʤȽŪ˸ƤȤˤʤϤǤ롥
ָ塤ϵȤƸѸȤݥˤ뻺ʪǤꡤŪаޤ˸ΰ̰ʳΤΤ¸ߤʤפȤʬˤȤäƺǤפäάˤΤꡤѸΩį뤳ȤǤСŪʱѸҤȤäȤϰƻȻפ
ѸߤΤѸݸˤΤǤϤʤȤΤȤƳǧ줿
ΤޤȤƽ餻פΤǤʤǤ뤳ȤطʤΤ뤳Ȥ˭פΤ褦ʤΤ繥ʱѸˤĤƳؤ١ξس褫ȼ´褿ȤˤȤäƺǤͤΤΤǤä
פפȤ˵̣ƥʻǸ礦ȤνΤ줿ȤǤ롥
˹ͤͳõƤߤ褦Ȥ뽬ȤˤĤȤǤ롥
κѸؤǤ˴ƤꡤԼФƤ§Ե§Ѹˤؤ֤ȤǤʤˤǤΤ괶ư
դκǽμȤǡֱѸˤϡ̾ϤĤޤʤʹ뤱ɡ¤ϱѸˤȤ߹碌ĶʬʤפȤäạ̈ʬޤ
ޤǼʤɤǤϤ륤ߤ̶ʤäֱѸפȡˡפμȤˤӤĤ
ѸˤȤϳ̾ˤ˲ʤ⤷ʤ̤ϡػ˴롤ؼԤΤȤˤ뤳ȤΤǤʤҤȤƤΤǤäʬαѸΤޤǤζϫפФƤƱˡػ˴ŪɳȤƤȤϳڤä
ѸˤȤ̤̤Ȥˤäơޤˤ̤ǤߤƤʤä˾ΤǤȤä˸ƤΤȤˤäʪ¿Ū˸뤳Ȥڤؤ֤ȤǤά¿ΤΤĤȤǡʪ¿Ū˸뤳ȤǤΤˤϤʬΤȤؤ³ʤФʤʬäΤȤ2ǯΤ줿ȤϡͤΤ뤳Ȥǡޤβ̵̤ͤˤʤ褦ʪ͡ʸʤɤؤֻȤ³Ȼפä
㳰ˤ⤽ʤäаޤ뤳ȡޤǤ˳ФƤȤǤϤʤƤطʤˤ뤳Ȥؤ٤ȤǺޤDzȤפäƤʤäˤ⡤ؤˤʤäߤ뤳Ȥ˵դѸǤʤϤ뤳Ȥ˶̤ƤڤʤȤȻפΤǡΤ˵դɤä
ʸ졤ˢΰ̹ԤǤϤʤΤ褦ʸؼԤ좪ʸ좪ˤ餫ˤƤ뤫顤ãϺʤȤΤ뤳ȤΤ줿ȤϻγФơؤ˴ؤƤβʹѤꡤʤꡤȤƤͤ뤳Ȥȴޤ
ܸǸŵٶƤ⡤ήԸˤĤƤ⤽θդΡѤꤦפȤˤĤƤϤ鷺路뤳Ȥ⤢ä줬ѸˤٶκȤʤäƤϿʹ֤αĤߤ餷椨ΤȤǤȻפ褦ˤʤꡤѲ鴶褦ˤʤä
ǯѸˤؤФƤˡΥҥѥ˥åեꥫϰ̱ˤѲSNSоˤΡְפʤɤȸƤФƤݤȡѸˤˤλǤꡤạ̈ǤۤɤǤϤʤŤ˾ѻƤ뼫ʬ˵դޤ
عǤαѸμȤǤϡ֤ΤǤפȶ줬ʱѸμ¤͡ʤȤˤĤƵɵ᤹ڤǤȳؤ
߹ͤ뵿θõȤפˡ§䡤ȤʤȻפˤäƲǤȹͤƤޤǤ뤬Ǥʤ⤢äꡤޤϻפʤۤɾʸǤäꤹΤǡԤꡤפߤDz褷狼äˤʤäƤޤΤϡäʤϼʤȡޤ̵̤ʤȤǤȳؤ֤ȤǤޤ
ֱѸܼϡǤפȤθդǤ餯νˡääȻפΤǤ˰ݤ˻ĤäƤޤΤˤǼޤμȤƤǡޤޤǡʬѸФƤͤäʹѤȤΤɤ̣ǾIJƤޤξǡܼ⤦ٹͤȤθǤȤȤǤͤΤΤäȻפäƤޤ
ѸˤؤȤǡѸǤʤܸˤˤⶽ̣ʨ긺äꡤʸȲΥ줿ꡤޤʪΤ褦ѲդȤΤȤƤ̥Ū˴ޤ
ƤλˤĤơ֤ʤȤʤפǽ餻ʤμȤϡѤˤʤޤ
ѸˤΤ뤳ȤDZѸؤ֥١˾夬ޤ
ѤˡĹܤǤΤȤ뤳ȤäƲˤƤڤʤΤǤϤʤʤȸ졤Ѹˤ̤Ƴؤ
#3889. ͥƥ֤褯ְ㤨륹ڥ ([2019-12-20-1]) ǥͥƥ֤Ȥʥڥߥ1993ǯ NFER (The National Foundation for Educational Research) ˤĴǤϡ11--15ФΥͥƥ֤λҶȤ䤹ڥߥ餫ˤ줿NFER ϥڥߥʲ5ʬषƤʰʲΰѤȿͤ Cook (124) ˡ
insertion of extra letters, such as the <l> added to 'until'
omission of letters, such as the <r> missing from 'occurring'
substitution of different letters, such as <a> instead of <i> in 'definate'
transposition of two letters, such as <ei> for <ie> in 'freind'
grapheme substitution involving more than two letters but only a single cause, for example when an equivalent according to sound correspondence rules is substituted for the usual form, as in 'thort' for 'thought'
5ΥߥߤƤߤȡinsertion (17%), omission (36%), substitution (19%), transposition (5%), grapheme substitution (19%), ¾ (3%) ȤȤǤ롥οͤƤ褽ʤȤȤݤägrapheme substitution ͽۤ¿äΤǡäȤȯäͤοͤϤޤۤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤ˥ͥƥǤϤʤL2ؽԤʤСϤ̤οͤФΤǤϤʤȵ롥
L1, L2ؽԤˤ餺Υڥߥ5ʬñǡŪѤǤ褦˻פ롥ڥΥߥΤߤʤ餺ѲѰۤˤΩʬ
ʤڥκۤ¬ꤹˡȤƤϡۤ "Levenshtein distance" (levenshtein_distance) ȤΤ⤢롥ˤĤƤϡ#3406. Levenshtein distance ([2018-08-24-1])#3399. ֻٷ ([2018-08-17-1])#3397. Ѹ through Υֻ ([2018-08-15-1])#3398. Ѹ such Υֻ ([2018-08-16-1]) ȡ
Cook, Vivian. The English Writing System. London: Hodder Education, 2004.
([2020-01-18-1]) Ⱥ ([2020-01-19-1]) ε˰³Chibanian ȤˤĤƤꡥθ -ian ˤĤƹͤƤChiba -ian δ֤ˤ n ϤäΤʤΤɽŪˤ -nian ΤΤ褦ˤߤ뤬ϢߤƤ褦ˡ츻ŪˤФޤ -ian ʬǤ롥
ͥåȤĴ٤Ƥߤȡ n ޤ Chibanian ̾ΤˤĤƥȤƤ֡͡إХ˥٤Ǥ褤ΤΤۤTwitter Ǥǵ䤬ɽƤ롥ợʤƤ롥
ϥƥ츦Ԥ˲ꤤȤꤤȤäƤȾʬϾ̤Ǥ롥伫Ȥ⤳2֤εǥƥޤƸ츻ҤȤƤäƤޤ Chibanian ϤޤǸŪ Neo-Latin ¤Ǥ롥̿̾ˤäƤɤޤǸ̩ˡʸŵ˥ƥθƧޤ٤ʤΤ뤤϶ǯ¤촷ˤʤ٤٤ʤΤˤĤƤϡŪʵϤ櫓ǤϤʤChibanian ǤʤȤ⡤Chiban, Chibian, Chibean ʤɡ餷̿̾ǤвǤ褤ΤǤϤʤȻפäƤ롥#2979. Chibanian ϥƥ졩 ([2017-06-23-1]) Ǥ⼨褦ˡChibanian ˤܸ̾ޤޤƤΤΥƥƤƤꡤΤȤƤϱѸ֤ȯȤޤ˥ϥ֥åɤΤޤΤǤ롥3줬Ǹߤ˲Ȥä褷ƤӤߤʤΤʤΤ줫θθεϤĤȤǡʿ¤ˤ餻ʤǤ롥
ȤȤǡƤ n ˤĤƤ⼫ͳ˲ᤷƤ褤ȻפϢ첻Ȥ褤Romanian Iranian ʤɤˤʤä -nian ڤФȸƤ褤⤷ʤcf. #3488. С ([2018-11-14-1]) СˡȤ Panama Ф Panamanian Ȥ㤬롥OED ˤȡPanamanian 2ܤ n ˤĤơ"English -n-" 뤤 "-n-, connective element" ȤƤ롥פˡͳƤȤȤGuam -- Guamanian, Honduras -- Honduranian ƱͤΤ褦㤬ȤФΤǤ롥
ε ([2020-01-18-1]) ˰³ Chibanian -ian ˤĤơαѸϡƥǷƻ -(i)ānus ˤΤܤ뤳Ȥ˰ĸޤǤΤܤ *-no- Ȥ˹Ԥ夯촴첻 *-ā- ޤޤΤ˸³ȡ*-āno- ȤʤꡤΤȤڤФ줿ȤȤ -ian, -an, -ean ơѸ˼ޤ졤ŪʸŸƤȤϡ¿Ǽ̤Ǥ롥
ơĸ *-no- ϡޥɤΥ롼Ȥ̤ơѸΰճʬ˼ѤƤѲưβʬ˸ -en Ǻɽ魯̾դƷƻ -en Ǥ롥Ԥ broken, driven, shown, taken, written ʤɤ -en ؤԤ brazen, earthen, golden, wheaten, wooden, woolen ʤɤ -en ؤ (cf. ԤˤĤơ#1471. golden ߽ФѲ ([2013-05-07-1]) ⻲ȡˡƻʳƻȤǶ̤εǽ̤Ƥ롥
ĤޤꡤChibanian -ian golden -en ϡѸ˻ޤǤηϩϳơޤäۤʤΤΡΤܤäƤߤƱȤȤˤʤ롥
Ĥ Chibanian ʥХ˥ջˤܤ̾˴Ťϼ̾ȤơϼʳϢˤꤵ줿ܥ֥Ǥ#2979. Chibanian ϥƥ졩 ([2017-06-23-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ2ǯȾвᤷƤ뤬褦䤯ηǤ롥ոǤϿʹι泰ۤ줿Ȥ顤֤夬äƤ褦
Chibanian ϡ774ǯ?129ǯϼؤ̾ΤǤ롥λϡۥ⡦ԥ (homo_sapiens) о줷ǤꡤˤϽθǽϤƤǽ⤢Ƕ̣ԤʤεǤϡChibanian ʤ뿷ϡ褯ͤƤߤȥƥǤѸǤܸǤʤԻĤʸȽҤ٤̾ηǰơο˰äƸ츻Ū⤦Ƥߤ (suffix) -ian ˤĤƤǤ롥
ϡ?Ρ?°פ̣ƻƥ -iānus ˤΤܤ롥ʬС-i- Ϣ첻Ǥꡤ¼ŪʵǽäƤΤ -ānus ʬǤ롥ƥǸ촴 i ĸͭ̾줫顤ηƻΤ -ānus դ줿Τ -iānus ΤȤȴ褦ˤʤäΤ (ex. Italia -- Italiānus, Fabius -- Fabiānus, Vergilius -- Vergiliānus)
ѸϤΥƥθˤʤ餤-ian ˤͭ̾ηƻʤӤηƻб̾ˤȺФƤСAddisonian, Arminian, Arnoldian, Bodleian, Cameronian, Gladstonian, Hoadleian, Hugonian, Johnsonian, Morrisonian, Ruskinian, Salisburyian, Shavian, Sheldonian, Taylorian, Tennysonian, Wardian, Wellsian, Wordsworthian; Aberdonian, Bathonian, Bostonian, Bristolian, Cantabrigian, Cornubian, Devonian, Galwegian, Glasgowegian, Johnian, Oxonian, Parisian, Salopian, Sierra Leonian ʤɤǤ롥ͭ̾١ΤΤФǤʤʸ antediluvian, barbarian, historian, equestrian, patrician, phonetician, statistician ʤɡ¿
¤ϡƥ -ānus ˤΤܤǤ -ian -an -ean ƱǤ롥äơAfrican, American, European, Mediterranean ʤɤ⡤ŪˤϷطˤȤ (cf. #366. Caribbean ֻȯ ([2010-04-28-1])) οˤƤϡͭ̾ˤĤ硤-ian դΤŪΤ褦Ǥ롥 Chibanian ⡤ζǯ (productivity) ڵȤ褦
114ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ2ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ11Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤѸˤϾά줬¿ΤפȤǤ

ϢܵϡȥȤƤϾά˾ƤƤ褦ˤߤޤºݤˤϱѸθˤγѤܻؤƤޤʣ (compounding) (derivation) ʤɤ¿ѤűѸ졥¾줫 (borrowing) 뤳ȤܳФѸ졥ʻž (conversion) 뤤ϥ (zero-derivation) ȸƤФ븼ŪʵФѸ졥ơḽѸˤƬƤά (abbreviation) û (shortening) Ǥ
Ѹˤ̤͡ȯŸƤθ (word_formation) ή§ˤʤ館绨ĤˤޤȤȡ(1) ݤθűѸ졤(2) θѸ졤(3) 껻ζḽѸȤʤޤϾάṳ̂˱ɤƤ껻λȤȤˤʤޤ
Ѹθˤ嵭Τ褦˻§ˤʤ館ŤߤƼΤϡϢܵƤǤӺǤϤޤʤȤѸˤήƬˡ1ĤȤƤͭȻפäƤޤҸʸɤߤФȻפޤ
άṳ̂ˤĤơϢܵȴϢ֥إƤߤޤ碌Ƥɤ
#631. blending γ ([2011-01-18-1])
#876. Ѹˤ뤫Ф˹⤤ ([2011-09-20-1])
#887. acronym ʬ ([2011-10-01-1])
#889. acronym 20 ([2011-10-03-1])
#893. shortening ʬ (1) ([2011-10-07-1])
#894. shortening ʬ (2) ([2011-10-08-1])
#1946. ǽŪʴߤû ([2014-08-25-1])
#2624. Brexit, Breget, Regrexit ([2016-07-03-1])
#2982. ܸ˰륢ե٥åƬ ([2017-06-26-1])
#3075. άȰŹ ([2017-09-27-1])
#3329. ʤϾάʸˤ¿Τ ([2018-06-08-1])
#3708. άṳ̂Ϸ־Τߤʤ餺ǽˡǤ ([2019-06-22-1])
ֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ11ʤѸˤϾά줬¿ΤסرѸ춵2020ǯ2桤罤۽Ź2020ǯ11462--63ǡ
ε#3915. 첻ܤȼդ첻Ѳν۴Ū ([2020-01-15-1]) κǸ˼褦ˡ˱Ѹ첻Ǥϡ̵ͭꥺʤɤαΧ첻Ѳˤδ֤ˤ̩ܤʴطȹͤƤ롥
Ѹ¾ΥޥǤϡΤΤ褦ˡζζ̡ҤƤ첻ζζ̤ǽŪ˽Ż뤵롥ˤꡤΧΥꥺˤηи뤳ȤˤʤꡤηĴ¤첻⤽μ̤ѲѰۤƤȤθˤĤƤϡ#3387. ʤѸ첻ˤˤ첻Ѳ¿Τ ([2018-08-05-1])#3466. űѸ첻β̤Ѹʹߤ첻βŻ뤷 ([2018-10-23-1])#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ʤɤǾҲ𤷤ƤϱѸˤˤפĹ첻Ѳ˴ؤ븦路 Stenbrenden ηꡤݤεѤ (318)
. . . stressed syllables and vowels behave differently from unstressed syllables and vowels. Since stress in Gmc involves intensity (perceptual loudness and more muscular and respiratory force) in addition to pitch prominence, various articulatory features are a consequence of stress: stressed vowels are longer and usually more peripheral (in terms of the vowel space), fortis plosives have more aspiration, etc. Lack of stress, on the other hand, involves little muscular effort and perceptual 'softness', and often low/level pitch; unstress therefore has articulatory consequences like shorter and more centralised vowels (or at least loss of vowel contrasts . . .), vowel reduction, vowel and consonant elision, and little to no aspiration of fortis plosives, etc. Thus, what is known as the 'syncopation period' in early Gmc may be interpreted as only the beginning of a long process involving the gradual reduction and loss of unstressed vowels and syllables, the last major instance of which is witnessed (in English) in the loss of final schwa. Related to this reduction process are the lOE and ME processes that lengthen vowels in open syllables and shorten vowels in words of two or more syllables. Clearly, metrical considerations play a crucial role here . . . .
ΰѤκǸǡѸ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl) ʤɤ˿Ƥꡤ첻 (gvs) ˤƤʤΤΡԤޤƥޥɺή (drift) ͤƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤפ첻Ѳ¿餫ηǴϢƤꡤΰ̣ǤϤ٤ƤҤä "chain shift" ʤΤȤͤǤ롥
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling. Cambridge: CUP, 2016.
ε#3914. Stenbrenden ۩첻ܤĹɺήΰˤʤס ([2020-01-14-1]) ǰѤ Stenbrenden ϡ첻ܡ (gvs) ĹŪʻѻ礭첻Ѳɺή (drift) ΰǤȺɾǤϡɺήȤΤϡʤ¸ߤʤΤStenbrenden (316) ϡĴоݤȤĹ첻ȡ줬ŪˤɤäƤѲפʲΤ褦˰ˤĤѲפ֤¤ܤ
ME and eModE long-vowel shifts
OE vowel, PDE reflex Type of change Date of beginning of change ȳ > ī > /aɪ/ unrounding 950 diphthongisation 1250 ēo > ø̄ > ē > /iː/ monophthongisation 11th century unrounding 12th--15th centuries raising 1250 ā > ō̜ > ō > [ou] > /əʊ/ rounding 11th century raising 16th century diphthongisation 16th century ǣ > e̜ > ē > /iː/ or /eɪ/ raising /ɛː/ 11th c.; /eː/ 15th c.; /iː/ 16th c. (diphthongisation) (16th--17th centuries) ē > /iː/ raising 1225 ō > /uː/ or /ʊ/ ? /ʌ/ raising 1225 shortening; unrounding 14th--15th centuries; NF: ō > [üː] (often fronted in PDE) 15th--16th centuries NF: fronting and raising (late) 13th century ī > /aɪ/ diphthongisation 1250 ū > /aʊ/ diphthongisation 1250
֤ѲפȤ raising, fronting, diphthongisation, monophthongisation ʤɤΤȤؤ餬ߤ̵طƤȤϹͤˤषˤ "cyclical nature" ʽ۴ŪˤФȤǤˤСѸΤߤʤ餺¿Υޥˤ۴Ū첻Ѳɺήߤ뤳Ȥ顤ޥ줹ͤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
ҥȤȤʤΤϡRitt ʤɤμĥ "rhythmic isochrony" θʤȼ夤Τ˶̤졤餬ߤ˸뱤Ӥγơ褽ƱĹäȯȤΧħǤ롥rhythmic isochrony 첻ѲδطˤĤƤϡ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ȡ
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling. Cambridge: CUP, 2016.
첻 (gvs) ˴ؤǿθ Stenbrenden 롥ܤˤĤƤϡ#3552. 첻ܤ5Ĥ ([2019-01-17-1])#3659. 첻ܤ5Ĥ (2) ([2019-05-04-1]) Ǥñ˼夲ΤȤƼ٤ȯŪƤθǤ롥
Stenbrenden ϡǯξʤԤƱͤˡ첻ܡפ̣ͭñ̤ȤߤƤʤѸѸˤŸηŪ첻ѲȤޤߤä첻ܡפϡ¤ΤȤޤĹ֤Ϥߤ˴Ϣ첻ѲΰʤƤˤΰʬ夲ơ첻ܡפʤɤ̾դΤϥߥǥǤ롤ȤΩ
ŪˤСStenbrenden (312) ϰʲΤ褦ʼ첻ѲĴơѲλʬŪ˽ʣʤ⡤ΤȤƤ1118ȾФޤǤˤ錄äƤȷŤƤ롥13--15ˤ¿첻Ѳ椷ƤΤ̩٤ǻȤ뤬⤢ޤǤ礭ɺή (drift) ΰȤȤ
| 1000 | 1100 | 1200 | 1300 | 1400 | 1500 | 1600 | 1700 | |
| OE ȳ > [iː] | **** | **** | **** | *** | ||||
| OE ēo > [eː] | ** | **** | **** | **** | *** | |||
| OE ā > [ou] | ** | **** | **** | **** | **** | **** | **** | ** |
| OE ǣ > [iː] | ** | **** | **** | **** | **** | **** | *** | |
| OE ō > [üː] N | *** | **** | *** | |||||
| OE ō > [uː] S | *** | **** | *** | |||||
| OE/ME ē > [iː] | *** | **** | *** | |||||
| OE ū > [au] | *** | **** | **** | **** | **** | ** | ||
| OE ī > [ai] | *** | **** | **** | **** | **** | ** | ||
| lME ā > [ei] | *** | **** | **** | **** | **** | ** |
. . . this comprehensive ME long-vowel shift started in the eleventh century at the latest, and did not come to a halt (if indeed it did) until perhaps the mid-eighteenth century.
The findings summarised in 9.1 [= the table above] indicate clearly that the traditional 'GVS' is only one part of some long-term drift in English (and other Gmc languages), and that the conventional definition of the shift is untenable.
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling. Cambridge: CUP, 2016.
ε ([2020-01-12-1]) ˰³ʵΡ˸츻ŪֻŪɾˤĤơε#3911. ηϤϡƱŪʣλΤֽвä̤Ǥ ([2020-01-11-1]) ǰѤƤëϡ⤽ͤǤϡήԤ20ǯ٤ǿषͼη̤ۡˡֵפȾΤۡʡϥۥƥפˤˤĤơ֥顼ѤʤɾƤΤäλѸ˾ΡʵΡ˸츻ŪֻФƱѤƤߤ餪⤷ȻפεǻƤߤǤ롥
Dzë (91) ȡֵפܷۻˤΤʤ˹Ū˰֤Ť褦⤷Ƥս꤬ꡤϤäȤ줿ΤޤޡʵΡ˸츻ŪֻɾˤĤʤǤϤʤ
षȤդˤϡ̥Ūڤ롥ͼ¤ŵ魯Τߤʤ餺ޤޤʰվͼŪޤǤˤʤä褦ʷϵФȤǽǤ롥ʤȤͥ줿ۤڽФ衼åѤˤƤϡΤ褦ʿǰ¸ߤƤषΡֵפȤϡĤϤͼߤǽŪΤɽƤȤ롥
εۤŤä繩ãƤΤϡ夬ֳפȤۤȤƼȤ봶ФǤ롥Τϡޤ˹ԤȤΤʤήưΤʤǡѤǤʤޤޤͼŪҤĤʤ碌õȤߤƤϤʾΤ褦ʰ̣ǵۤͼŪʲǽͳΰ衤֥顼Τ줿³ƤΤǤ롥
ʵΡ˸츻Ūֻɽ路ƤΤϡƥ줫֤¯ʪʤɤǤϤʤǽɵǤ꼫ͳΤʤΤȯۤϡ줳ͥ餷ǡȴ뤤
ë ΡְۤG֥顼ηǯˤĤơסʸؤؤξԡ ԡˡҦ˼2012ǯ85--117ǡ
doubt <b> Τ褦ʸ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ϡŪˤϸѸƤȯֻЪΥθȤŪˤߤ뤳Ȥ¿ŵŻ뤹16αѹͥĬήΤʤǡƥθ츻¸ߤ <b> λҲ줿ѸֻΤʤᤷƤ뤳Ȥˤäơѡñ˸˥ƥ̣ȰҿղäȤ¯ʪŪʻλʪȤ뤳Ȥ¿Τ褦¯ʪ椨ˡαѸؽԤԿԤۻ (silent_letter) դ蘆뤳ȤˤʤäޤäΤȡ
ˡisland ˤ <s> Τ褦ˡƥθ츻Ȥ줺¯ʪȯƤޤäθ츻Ūֻ (pseudo-etymological spelling) 뤤ϡ츻Ūֻ (unetymological spelling) ⾯ʤʤ (cf. #580. island --- ʤֻȯ ([2010-11-28-1])ˡʤɡߡϡݽФѤ꽤 (hypercorrection) λȤߤ¿
ε#3911. ηϤϡƱŪʣλΤֽвä̤Ǥ ([2020-01-11-1]) Ǽ夲֥顼λۤˤСʵΡ˸츻ŪֻȤݤϡΡʸνפʥ⡼ȡפȤƹŪɾ뤳ȤǤ롥̤ȤȯֻЪΥȤǤʤʾˤθݤȤưξڤȤơֳ줿饹ʤפ䤷ʤĤߤȤƤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥αѸ줬ƤҿηǡȤפФơƥˤ䤫ȤֲפФ뤳Ȥˤäơʥ߽Ф줿Τȡ
ΥϤץ饤ࡦ֥Ȥ1ĤȤ doubt <b> Τ褦̾äǽ롥դ꤫鳫Ϥ줿Ϣήϡ䤬Ƶθ츻Ūֻ߽ФޤǤ˻ä⸽ݤȤߤɬפϤʤΧŪѰۤȤơʥΰȤƲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥ë (89) ѤС֥ץ饤ࡦ֥ȤϤޤϡʥԡǤϤʤषĤˤĤơȤ⡤Τ褦ԲŪѷή켫ΤΧŪѰ (mutant) ߽ФΤס
island <s> ʤɤؤơֵθ츻ŪֻפȤȤΥͥƥ֤ʽֵΡפϡ֥顼θˤСषߤ볫줿ǽ䡤ͳǼŪ¤Ȥƥݥƥ֤ɾΤʤΤȯۤž¥줿Ȼפ
ë ΡְۤG֥顼ηǯˤĤơסʸؤؤξԡ ԡˡҦ˼2012ǯ85--117ǡ
#3083. ֱѸΥڥƲΤ褦Ǥס ([2017-10-05-1])#3874. ֱѸˡϥѥΤ褦ԲǤס ([2019-12-05-1]) ǡѸˡʪԻԤˤʤ館븫Ҳ𤷤ʸؤؤξԡ٤ɤߤʤ顤θ岡ͤ˽вäëˤְۤG֥顼ηǯˤĤơפꤹ롤ѻ˳ؼԥ֥顼 (George A. Kubler) ɾǤ롥֥顼 The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things (Yale UP, 1962) ˮػΤ١ˤŸʬ䤹ƤƤ롥ʲë (87--89) Ѥ롥
ȤबҤ٤ʪȤϡĤǤ˴Ը뤳ȤϤǤʤصŪ̿̾ˤषмΰۤʤǤ饹«ˤʤΤǤ롥֥顼ˤäƿ˼줿ǰȤϡʪʬˡ֤ή줿ȤǤäޤλ֤ñ̤ϰͤǤϤʤ줾λʪǤϤ줾˸ͭλ֤äƤ롥Τᡤʪ粽쿷ʻʪȤƷ¤ȤλʪƱŪǤäʣλΤֽвäΤ褦ʷ̡֡ˤĤȼĥΤǤ롥ƥ֥顼ϡΤʤǤλʪؤϢή饹classӤȤǰˤäޤʪϡλʪФȤƸΤǤꡤƱˤϿ߽ФäƻʪήϡˤäƤĤʤ졤Ƥ椯ΤǤ롥֥顼Ϥ줿饹ʤsequenceӤƤ롥ޤդˡФĤʲˤ빭βǽäΤĤ饹ʤseriesӤƤ롥
ȤСƲΤ褦絬Ϥʹʪϡۤʤ륷°뵻ѤդʣΤǤ롥
ΤƤϡΤʤǤΡ饹ðۤʲƳФȤĤ饹⡤ȯˤäƺƤӳ饹ؤŸƤǽĤͤƤΤǤ롥ʸ楯֥顼ϥܥꥸˤμ鳨ȸݽѤˤŪȤζŦꡤޤᥭʸˤӤξħǤäå⡼ȥꥹθĦȤǤäإࡼ (Henry Moore) ĦȤζŦƤ롥ŪˤϤδ֤ˤʤɬŪƥȤߤʤषŪ뤤϶ΰפȤߤʤ롥ʤ饯֥顼ιͤˤСϤäĤ饹ήžΤʤǺƤӿʹ֤ˤߤ쿷饹ϤȤطʥˤˤäƺϢ뤵ƤΤǤ롥֥顼ϤΤ褦̾ŪŪϢ³Ķʹ֤ˤȯŪ٥Ȥʸνפʥ⡼ȤȤưꤳ⤦ȤΤǤäμ礭
˥֥顼ϼˡºݤλʪΡ鸽ߤޤǤ¤λˤƹͻƤ롥¿¿β𤹤ǤСߤޤǡ꤬Ѥ뤳ȤϤʤäƻʪˤϡ饹ȯüȤʤ̤ʪΡץ饤ࡦ֥ȡprime objectŪ¸ߤ¸ߤƬˡθˡʣʤʪĤʤ뤳ȤˤäơĤΥ饹¤ΤǤ롥ץ饤ࡦ֥ȤȤϡĤޤȯʪǤꡤФŪŪʲǤ롥ޤץ饤ࡦ֥ȤϤޤϡʥԡǤϤʤषĤˤĤơȤ⡤Τ褦ԲŪѷή켫ΤΧŪѰ (mutant) ߽ФΤ
ĹѤʸϤϡˡηϤηϤӤ̻ŪѲͤǡŪʻŦ٤Ǥ롥ȤСηϤϡְۤʤǤ饹«ˡפǤꡤֹǤϤ줾˸ͭλ֤äƤסʸˡͤƤߤСˡȤܤϰĸͳ褹˸ŤܤλϸűѸˤʤäƤ褦䤯ϤޤäܤǤꡤʸŪʡ˿ʹԷ϶Ѹˤ㤤ܤˤʤ줾ιܤΡǯפ礭ۤʤ뤬ѸʸˡηϤȤIJβǶƤ롥ƱŪʹܤäΤѸˤƶ˰ֽвȤˤʤꡤΰ֤̤䤿ϺįƤΤǤ롥
ޤΤ褦ʸαʸˡηϤϴʤΤǤϤʤ¿ΡפƤ롥ФơֿפФ졤ˤäƱʸˡή줬֤Ĥʤ졤Ƥ椯סΰ̣ǡʸˡηϤϡֳ줿饹ʤsequenceӡפǤ롥
ʸˡηϤˤˡηϤˤ衤˴ؤηϤϡƱŪʣλΤֽвä̡פȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥ɷŪ̥ŪʸѤǤϤʤ
ë ΡְۤG֥顼ηǯˤĤơסʸؤؤξԡ ԡˡҦ˼2012ǯ85--117ǡ
Ŭ (Optimality Theory; ot) ˤĤơ#3848. "Optimality Theory" ([2019-11-09-1])#3867. Optimality Theory --- äʹΥˡθ줿 ([2019-11-28-1])#1581. Optimality Theory Ρϡס ([2013-08-25-1]) Ǵñ˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ伫Ȥ˾ܤ櫓ǤϤޤäʤºݡOT äʵˡǤɽɤ⤪ܤĤʤΤǡCarr and Montreuil (259) ˰͵ơɤٶƤߤ
ʲñʤѡOT ŪʸϴΤǤϤʤȤȤǡ
The most common faithfulness constraints are I-O, i.e. they evaluate the matching between input and output. Any candidate which does not diverge from the input is considered the faithful candidate. Any candidate which diverges from the input in order to satisfy some markedness constraint (M) violates some faithfulness constraint (F).
The prototype situation runs like this. If /a/ is the input, but surfaces as [b] because [b] is easier to pronounce than [a], then there is some markedness constraint of the type *a (= avoid [a]). The faithful candidate is [a], but it is defeated by constraint *a, leaving [b] as the winning candidate. While [b] is unfaithful to /a/, and violates a faithfulness constraint IDENT-a, it still wins in a grammar where markedness dominates faithfulness (M >> F). Informally, IDENT-a says: 'do not change the features of /a/'. Constraints are universal, so both *a and IDENT-a will be found in all grammars, but a language where /a/ is realized as [a] will have the same two constraints in the opposite order: F >> M.
Tableaus read from left to right, with the dominating constraints on the left. Violations are indicated by an asterisk. Exclamation marks indicate fatal violations and the cells to the right are shaded to indicate that the information they contain does not play a role in the evaluation, i.e. the decision has been made on the basis of the information contained in the white cells. The hand ☞ indicates the optimal candidate, the winner. It is clear to see that in an F >> M scenario, the faithful candidate is selected as the winner . . . .
| Input /a/ | Markedness: *a | Faithfulness: IDENT-a |
| (faithful) [a] | *! | |
| ☞ (optimal) [b] | * |
| Input /a/ | Faithfulness: IDENT-a | Markedness: *a |
| ☞ (faithful and optimal) [a] | * | |
| [b] | *! |
#3905. ؤ˸ؤؤŬѤˤĤ (1) ([2020-01-05-1]) ȡ#3906. ؤ˸ؤؤŬѤˤĤ (2) ([2020-01-06-1]) ǡʪؤȸؤϢȲǽ˿줿ʪʲʬǵˤʤäƤѸ졦ǰˡƱ (homology) (analogy) 롥2ĤΤΤߤˡֻƤפȤƤͳˤ2बȤƶ (11) ˤ⤬ʷפƤ롥
A α äƤȤͳǻ¹ B C α ݻƤΤǤСη α ƱǤȤ롥¾ A α äƤ餺¹ B C 줾̸ĤĶŬƷ α Ƥ硤ηǤȤ롥
Encyclopaedia Britannica βƤ
Homologous structures develop from similar embryonic substances and thus have similar basic structural and developmental patterns, reflecting common genetic endowments and evolutionary relationships. In marked contrast, analogous structures are superficially similar and serve similar functions but have quite different structural and developmental patterns. The arm of a man, the wing of a bird, and the pectoral fins of a whale are homologous structures in that all have similar patterns of bones, muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and similar embryonic origins; each, however, has a different function. The wings of birds and those of butterflies, in contrast, are analogous structures---i.e., both allow flight but have no developmental processes in common.
2ΡֻƤפƤϤȤɤʤ2ĤθˤƷǽȤ˻ƤʤȤñˤߤ硤ϤƱ2ब̤롥Ʊ츻ˤΤܤ뤬椨˻Ƥ硤ȤбѸ one ȥե un ϡƱǤ롥Ѹ bow-wow ȥե ouah-ouah ϸĤ (cf. onomatopoeia) ΩϤ̡Ƥ륱ȹͤΤǡȤ롥
ʪˤϤۤȤɤߤ줺ˤ̤ˤߤ3ΡֻƤפ롥 (borrowing) ʤʪˤָפλϤˤϤˡѸ people ȥե peuple ϻƤ뤬ԤԤѤǤ롥Ѥˤְפ1ѥȤȤ館ΤǤаƱطȤ⤤ʤϤʤˤϰ⤢ѤǤϤʤƱȤ⤤ˤͭΡֻƤפ
Ϣơ#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬 ([2012-06-06-1]) ⻲ȡ
ʸβ뤳ȡʸʲΥѥȥץסʸؤؤξԡ ԡˡҦ˼2012ǯ1--16ǡ
ǯδ֡May the force be with you! Τ褦ʵ may ȯãˤĤơŪΩ줫ؿƤܥ֥Ǥ may 뤤 optative γƵǰäƤ̤1ǯۤ2018ǯ1215ˤϡض쥭ѥdzŤ줿˸زΥݥǧΤ˸ --- ʸˡʸǧΤδط ---פˤơֱѸˤ뵧 may ȯãפȤܤǾäƤ
ֵס뤤ʿäơֵפȤϲȤǽפˤϡޤǼĤˤȯù (speech_act) 1ǤȤǤäƤϤäɤΤ褦ʹ٤ʤΤܼȤΤʤ⡤˸椷Ƥ餤롥
Ƥȯù٤θϡ⤷褦ʾʤΤ⤷ʤϤ뤫ĶȤˤ䡤ޤˤˤȯŸβǽƤȤΤ⤷ʤ
ȤޤֵפȤϲɴʻŵ2ǤꡤǤᤤȻפֵ禱פιȤƤߤ
?禱
Ȥ
禱Ϲ˲С٤ƤνŪꡤǰ̣롥ΰ̣ε禱Ūˤߤ뽡ݤǤ롥ξ硤禱ȤϡʩȤäĶŪ¸ߤȿԤȤθήΰ֤Ǥȹͤ롥禱Ϥޤ̤ơ÷禱2ʬƹͤ뤳ȤǤ褦÷ȤѤƵդʤɤ֤뵧禱Ǥꡤ禱ȤϿΤʤǰƵ뷿Ǥ롥ξԤȤտŪˡĴ㡤羸ʤɤޤޤư¹Ūˤʤ뤳Ȥ⤪˵禱ĿŪפȽŪפ̤뤳ȤǽǤ롥Ԥ佡Ūܥǡ뤤Ͽˤפ⤫٤ƸĿŪ˹ԤΤԤǤ롥Ȥ줬귿콸ŪˤʤΤԤǤ롥ξ硤禱鲽ƤȤ褦
禱ϤޤǤⵧоݤäΩ롥ΤĶŪ¸ߤΩƤʤˤϵ禱䵧¸ߤʤȤͤ⤢롥ʩʩȤ롥衼ȤäԤΤʤˤϡͳʤοᤶȤạ̈ǤεǤƤȤ뤳ȤǤ롥ԤˤäƤϡΤ褦ʵ禱Ū禱ȤФƿȤθή濴禱¸ԽŪʤŪ禱̾ŤƤ롥
禱Ƥˤꡤաʤɤ롥ξ硤ʩФƶŪʸ̤ʤ餫ľŪƯԤΤϡʰ̣Ǥε禱䵧ǤϤʤȤΩ⤢롥ؼԤ佡Ȥθˤ褯ߤ뤷ޤĤƤ̤θԤˤƱͤθͭϤäǤϡṲ̄ԤΤϡѤʤʸǤȤ롥Ƽʸ鵧禱ӵؤȤʲ줿θθη̡ʸƤȤ줿̤ˤ⡤ˤߤ褦ʵ꤬¸ߤ뤳ȤȽޤε禱ʸŪʤ뤳ȤŦ褦ˤʤäꥹȶμεˤʩǰʩˤ衤줬쵡Ū˷֤뤳ȤˤäƼʸŪѤƤ뤳Ȥ⸽¤¸ߤ롥椨ǶǤϡʸ鵧禱ؤȤϤޤʤ
ܸε禱θϡȤˤ줬Ҹ浧禱ӤȤȡΰ̣ʤꤵƤ롥϶ŪŪãäƿʩ˵ꤹ뽡ư̰µʿ˭ʤɤ븽(䤯)ΤǤ롥̩ϻ濴Ϥϡϻ뤤ϿҤʤɤǹԤ롥̩ˤ൷ʤɤɽǤ롥Ͳû禱 ѵ
ࡤʸ may ˴ؤʤɤݵ˹ƤɤȴʤʤäˤʤäƤȯù٤ϡؤΰˤȤɤޤäƤϤʤ̤ƤʤιơޤΤ褦ǤϤʤǽ뷹Τθϡưפ cross-disciplinary Ȥʤ롥ƥľˤäưˤȥԥåǤϤ롥
ϤϤסָθפतνŸʽŤͤȤСˤϡѸǤ "redundancy", "pleonasm", "tautological expression" ʤɤȸڤ롥Usage and Abusage "TAUTOLOGY" ιܤβˡμζ礬ȵƤ롥ĹꥹȤ⤷Τǰʲ˰Ѥ褦
adequate enough, and etc., appear on the scene, ascend up, at about (e.g. 3 p.m.), attach together, attached hereto, both alike, burn down and burn up, classified into classes, collaborate together, connect together and connect up, consolidate together, continue on and continue yet, co-operate together, couple together, debate about (v.), descend down, discuss about, divide off and divide up, drink up and drink down, early beginnings, eat up, enclosed herewith (or herein), end up, equally as, file away (commercially), final completion, final upshot, finish up (v.t. and v.i.), first begin, flood over, follow after, forbear from, forbid from, free, gratis, and for nothing, fresh beginner, from hence, from thence, from whence, funeral obsequies, gather together, good benefit, have got (for 'have' or 'possess'), hoist up, hurry up, important essentials, in between, indorce on the back, inside of, join together, joint co-operation, just exactly, just merely, just recently, lend out, link together, little birdling, meet together, mention about, merge together, mingle together, mix together, more inferior, more preferable, more superior, mutual co-operation, necessary requisite, new beginner, new creation, new departure and entirely new departure, new innovation, not a one, (it) now remains, open up (v.t.), original source, outside of, over again, over with (done, ended, finished), pair of twins, past history, peculiar freak, penetrate into, plan on (v.), polish up, practical practice, (one's) presence on the scene, proceed on(ward), protrude out, raze to the ground, really realize, recall back, reduce down, refer back, relax back, remember of, render a return, renew again, repay back, repeat again, repeat the same (e.g. story), (to) rest up, retire back, return back, revert back, revive again, rise up, seldom ever, (to) separate apart, settle up, shrink down and shrink up, sink down, steady on!, still continue, still more yet, still remain, study up, sufficient enough, swallow down, taste of (for taste, v.), termed as, than what, this next week, twice over, two halves (except when from different wholes), two twins (of one pair), uncommonly strange, unite together, used to (do something) before, we all and you all, where at, where to, whether or not, widow woman, young infant
ʤۤɤȻפΤ⤢뤬ΩƤۤɤǤʤ䡤츻̩˲ᤷ츻ˡ⤢ (cf. #720. ȥåŪȥݥȤƤθ츻 ([2011-04-17-1])) Ȥ meet together ʤ together ȼ㤬¿ưˤΰ̣ޤƤ뤫ɤưΡ˰̣ǤꡤҸؤΩ줫ϡ̣̻ŪѲƤʤ뤤϶ŪѰۤƤˤȲ᤹뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥ϤϵϤǤȤΤǧˤ衤ǵҤϵҤȤΩ⤢뤳ȤϲƤ
ξĹɽϡŪˤ̵̤¿ȤȤˤʤ뤬ŪˤϤθ̡ʶĴǰۣ椵βʤɡˤôäƤꡤ켫Τ¸߰յʤȤΤϸȤäơǧƤ櫓ǤϤʤҲŪˤϥƥޤȼᡤѤŪˤϿ侩ʤȤäƤΤŪʤȤդϰŪˤɾǤʤʪʤΤ
Partridge, Eric. Usage and Abusage. 3rd ed. Rev. Janet Whitcut. London: Penguin Books, 1999.
ε ([2020-01-05-1]) ˰³ؤˡ˸ؤ˱ѤˤĤơ
ѤϡֹųؤϿʲؤ鲿ؤפꤷ̤ͤǡʪηؤ¾ʬŬѤ褦ȤݤˤȽФȿŸĤġ֥Ȥ˱̥ץõ᤹뤳Ȥν⤤Ƥ (207--08) ǰƬ֤ƤΤϡųŪʰʪηǤ롥
ʸŪʪȤƤιųŪʪΡַطפȤϲͻ뤳Ȥ礭ʰ̣롥ŪʹųظФ趯ȿаոΰĤȤơʪŪʸݤȤȯγǰȷˡΰʪˤΤޤŬѤ뤳ȤϤ⤽ޤǤϤʤȤȿǤ롥
ˡʪʪˤä߽ФȤ̣ǡʪʪ櫓ǤϤʤųŪʰʪˤɬϿͤ롥ιԤǽ俴ݤ뤤ʸṲ̄ơʪϰʪ߽ФȤ롥ά
оݤǤ륪֥ȤɤΤ褦ʰŪطʤΤȤ褫¹ؤƤϡȯΥѥǤϤʤष줾Υ֥ȸͭͳ˴ؤץǤȲ᤹ФΤǤϤʤżܤϤĤܤܤȤ̤Ȥ̥ץȤʤ롥ͭʪĤǤϤ줾θΤǤϰʤͺ¸ߤηȤƤϤƷȯDzʹԤ롥ޤʤʣüԤʤ뽸ġ²ˤꤷƤϤƸοʲ뤳ȤǤ
֥Ȥ鷺ϥޡɸˤȤʤˤäƥ٥ȤηӽФʪξǤäƤ⡤ȤзַˤƤ餷ξ硤ɽǤġηʤȤХȤ塞γѡˤˤȤŤϡפȤֳѤѤפȤ褦ʲ֤Ƥ櫓ǤϤäƤʤѤηϷΤΥޡˤʤǤ롥
ȤޤäƱͤˡξȤƤΰʪųŪޡȤߤʤʤСǽ˵褦ȿऱ뤳ȤǤ
ǤϡȤ֥Ȥꤷؤˤơʬΰ̥ץޡϲˤʤ19˶δӸؤξǤС̥ץβϡѲε§ ("Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze") ȡͭ롿ʤüԽĤΥ罸ȤȤˤʤޤޡϸβȤȤˤʤ롥Τ褦ʰ̥ץޡ꤬ɬ٥ȤȤϤʤϵǤ뤫⤷ʤؤѤӸؤΥƥ㤽ΤΤϽʬͭȤߤƤ褤
ֹųؤϿʲؤ鲿ؤסʸʲιųء ɧ ԡˡҦ˼2017ǯ125--65.
ʪʲʪʬθȯŸƤ (phylogenetics) ˡѲãʤɤʸʲˤŬѤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤȤդΤϤۤɿΤǤϤʤνܤ褦ˤʤäΤϺǶΤȤǤ롥ؤνʬؤΰŪŬѤ˴ؤŪ˷سưԤʤäƤԤ1ͤˡ椬롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤˸ؤδ#3162. Űء ([2017-12-23-1])#3172. 饤ҥ㡼ηŪȯۤϥǤϤʤʸؤ ([2018-01-02-1])#3175. group thinking tree thinking ([2018-01-05-1]) εǾҲ𤷤Ƥ
ɤΤϡˤֹųؤϿʲؤ鲿ؤפꤹͤǤ롥ʪؤ˸ؤδϢҤ٤ս (129--30) ߤĤΤǡѤ褦ʰʸؤθڤάˡ
ְ̲֥ȷءפϡʬˤ֤ʤСۤʤʬǷ֤ȺȯɤƤåǤ롥ȤСܷϿؤ˸ؤˤƺˡʬءˤ˴Ťˡʪؤ¹ԤΩˡȺȯɤƤޤ٤ܤž̲βѲǤʤѰۤ뤲Ȥ̥ץǤȤ¸¹ܤ¹ξ˴Ťܤĸꤹ뤳ȤŪ˲ǽǤ롥ơηѲǾȤ֤СʪΤߤʤ餺ܤηط̤κˡˤäƿǤ롥䤬ꤷƤ̲֥ȷؤϡΡ֥֥פˤͼŪΥåȤߤʤƤ롥
ʤǤ⡤ʪؤȤδؤǯƤ˸ؤǤϡʪʬҷؤΤޤޤץǥѤĤĤ롥ͽۤ褦ˡʪȸϤλŪѲô̲˰㤤Τ顤̤ηˡΤޤŬѤΤϤޤäƤΤǤϤʤȤȽºݤƤ롥̤ΥåŬѤ뤳Ȥȸ̤ξĴ뤳Ȥ̤Ǥ롥ȤƱʪǤäƤ⡤ͭ뤫ʤɤ䤹ɤʲ뤫ɤϾˤä礭ۤʤꡤ˱Ʒ¹ԤȤǥ礭Ѥǽ롥ͤʤС֥ȴ֤ΰ㤤ˤοõˤȤäƤϼ¤ϿǤϤʤȷƤʤष֥ȤΤΰ㤤θοʲιͻŬڤ˹ԤäƤ뤫ɤΤۤϤ뤫˽פǤ롥ųؤ˳ؤˤƤ⡤ޤäƱͤˡʪʤʸʪη椹ݤˤϡ̤ȤƤΥåȸ̤γȤƤΥ֥ȤʬƵɬפ
ʪؤȯŸƤˡΤޤѲθƤϤȤˤϡȽ⤢ʪȸϤޤäۤʤ륪֥ȡʿʲҡˤǤꡤѲѰۤΤ礤˰ۤʤäƤˤ⤫餺Ʊˡ¹ŪŬѤΤϴǤȡϷؤμˡ֤ΤޤޡŬѤʤɤȤϰҤ٤Ƥʤष֥ȤۤʤȤˤϡ¤դʧ٤ȼĥƤ롥֥Ȥ˱ƺ٤塼˥ɬפʥåˤΤΤ϶̤ƻȤ롤⤷ƤΤ
ŪˤؽŪˤ⡤ʪȸϤФиߤȤƤ2ĤϤޤǰۤʤ륪֥ȤǤꡤûŪӤϿޤʤФʤʤ⡤ޤǤˤդƤĤǤcf. #807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1])#2529. evolution evolution (3) ([2016-03-30-1])#3146. ˤְŪطפȤϲ (1) ([2017-12-07-1])#3147. ˤְŪطפȤϲ (2) ([2017-12-08-1])#3148. ˤְŪطפδñ̤ϸΤ狼 ([2017-12-09-1])#3149. ʤŪʬहΤ ([2017-12-10-1])ˡûŪǤʤθ줿ӤʤС¿ξ硤ͭפʤϤˤʤؤ˸ؤؤŬѤˤĤơ⤦˹ͤƤ褵
ֹųؤϿʲؤ鲿ؤסʸʲιųء ɧ ԡˡҦ˼2017ǯ125--65.
̣ȤΤ coriander ʥꥢˤѸǤ coliandre ʤɤ l İ۷ԤʤƤȤȤΤär l ؤ븽ݡä˸ƱҲ2ĸ˰ؤ븽ݤϡ۲ (dissimilation) ȤΤƤꡤˤȤϤȤ褷ƵǤϤʤεȡ
#72. /r/ /l/ ϴְ㤨!? ([2009-07-09-1])
#259. phonaesthesia ۲ ([2010-01-11-1])
#3016. colonel ֻȯ ([2017-07-30-1])
#3229. 2Februaryǡ ([2018-02-28-1])
#3684. l r ϤäѤᤤ ([2019-05-29-1])
MED Ƥߤȡcoria(u)ndre (n.) colia(u)ndre (n.) ̸ФΩƤƤ롥¾θ츻ŵξͤ碌ȡr Ԥη֤ˤĤƤϡL coriandrum > OF coriandre > ME coria(u)ndre Ȥȥ졼ȤʼѤή줬ꤵƤ褦l Ԥη֤ˤĤƤϡL coriandrum > VL *coliandru(m) > OF coliandre > ME colia(u)ndre Τ褦ˡ¯ƥʳǰ۲ФΤѸäȤ롼ȤꤵƤ롥
⤷ΤϡMED Τ줾θФΤȤ˼Τ褦 Wycliffite Bible 㤬ǺܤƤ뤳ȤEarly Version Ǥ r l ξȤƤ뤳Ȥǧ롥
a1425 (a1382) WBible(1) (Corp-O 4) Num.11.7: Manna forsothe was as the seed coryaundre [WB(2): seed of coriaundre], of the colour of bdelli.
a1425 (a1382) WBible(1) (Corp-O 4) Ex.16.31: The hows of Yrael clepide the name of it man, that was as the seed of coliaundre [WB(2): coriandre] white, and the taast of it as of tryed floure with hony.
ޤƱʸˡˤƤ⡤츻ȤδطˤĤƻŦߤ롥
a1425 *Medulla (Stnh A.1.10)17b/b: Coriandrum: coliandre.
ĤǤ OED ȤƤߤȡǤ coriander coliander 2ĤθФΩƤƤ뤬ԤνФΤۤᤤʰʲʸˡ l ϽѸǸѤȤʤäƤ롥
c1000 Sax. Leechd. I. 218 Genim þas wyrte þe man coliandrum & oðrum naman þam gelice cellendre nemneð.
ŪȤƤߤС۲ФƤʤפη֤ɸ˼Ѥ줿Ȥˤʤ뤬ѸξŪ¸ƤȤΤϤ⤷̾۲ϡr l Ѳפʤɤ̻ŪʸݤȤƸ뤬ξζ¸ȤŪʴįƤߤΤ1Ĥƶ
ε#3902. 㥢̾ Edward, Edgar, Edmond, Edwin ([2020-01-02-1]) ˰³̾ꡥʲȤ (13) ꡥ
ɸñ̾Ϥ츻ǤȤơֹʡפ̣ WGmc *aþilja ˤΤܤ롥θűѸȿǷ æþel(e) ʹʡˤϽפʸǤꡤ (patronymy) -ing դ æþeling ϡߤǤ atheling ʲҡ²ˤȤƻĤäƤ롥
æþel ϡīν̾ˤ¿ǧ롥#2547. 奤ɷǯΰ ([2016-04-17-1]) ͤǤ⡤Ethelwulf, Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred, Athelstan ʤɤ̾롥εǤҤ٤褦ˡΥޥ塤̾ϿषƤǤϸƤʤ
Ȥǡɥĸǡֹʡפб edel Ǥꡤֵ²פ Adel Ǥ롥edelweiss ʥǥ磻ˤϡֹʤפ̣륢ץοʪƻ̾첽Ĥ֤ Adelheid ǤꡤŹϥɥĸ Adalheidis ˤΤܤ롥Ͻ̾Ȥʤꡤξά줿η Heidi Ȥʤ롥˥̾إץξϥ٤ǡΥåƥޥ䡼ϡϥΤȤά˥ǥϥɤȸƤǤ롥ʤȥꥢ South Australia ν Adelaide ϡΥɥĸ̾եͳDZѸ˼ޤ줿ΤǤ롥
Adalheidis ϡե˼ޤ˵ڤӡû̡ѷС⸽줿Alaliz A(a)liz Ǥ롥줬Ѹ˼Ѥ Alyse 䡤ḽ Alice Ȥʤä⤦1Ĥν̾ Alison ϡե Alice ˻ؾդ줿ΤǤ롥
ֲҡס֥ǥ磻ס֥ϥס֥ꥹפطԤäȤΤϡʤʤ⤷
رѸθ츻ŵ١罤۽Ź1990ǯ
#2364. ΥޥαѸ̾Υե줫֤ ([2015-10-17-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡűѸʤ1066ǯΥΥޥλˤΤ褦˥ɤѤƤ̾¿˰쵤˿षɸ̾ϡĤä̾ɽǤʡ#2547. 奤ɷǯΰ ([2016-04-17-1]) ꥢ̾ǧ줿ˡ
ʣǤꡤ1Ǥ Ed- ߤ롥ϸűѸ̾ ēad (riches, prosperity, good, fortune, happiness) ȿǤΤǤʤǤѸˡ͵ʡפȤﵯΤ褤̣̾ˤ¿Ѥ줿Edward ēad + weard (guardian) ȤȤǡ٤ԡפǤ롥Edgar ēad + gār (spear) ȤȤǡ͵פȤäȤEdmond/Edmund ēad + mund (protection) ȤȤǡٵμפۤɤΰդȤʤʤ2Ǥ Raymond, Richmond ˤߤˡEdwine ēad + wine (friend) ȤȤǡ٤ͧפǤʤ2Ǥ Baldwin ˤߤˡ
ʤ Edith Ͻ̾Ȥʤ뤬1ǤϤϤ ēad Ǥ롥 gūþ (war) ʣʤӾѷˤͦޤ̾ȤȤˤʤ롥
Ĥ뤳Τ褦ʽ㥢̾ʻǰʤ¿ϤʤˤѤơűѸñ츻ˤĤƳؤ֤Τ⤪⤷
ޤƤǤȤޤǯѸ˥֥³ƤͽǤɤꤤ夲ޤ
1ǯ֤ǤɤΤ褦ʵ褯ɤޤƤäĴ٤Ƥߤޤ1230դΥ (access ranking) Υȥå500
ʤȥåפϡ#2227. ʤ <u> ǽñ줬ʤΤ ([2015-06-02-1]) ȤǤ¾κǾ̤εϡ̤ؤϤˤ衤ĤߤƤ⤪褽ꤷƤ봶ǤѸ˥֥ʤΤˡ3̤#1525. ܸˤλʬ ([2013-06-30-1]) ȤΤϡĤߤƤ⥳ˤʤޤʤ伫ȤϱѸˤܸˤоȤˡ¡ʤ̴ؿƤޤˡܸ˥֥ϤƤȤǤʤ#1524. Ѹˤλʬ ([2013-06-29-1]) 107̤Ǥ
ǯꡤرѸ춵١罤۽ŹˤˤƱѸѤʵˤϢֱܵѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡɮ뵡Ƥ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤ2019ǯܥ֥ǤռѤʵ夲ƤޤΥȥå500Τʤǯ˼ɮΤȡʲΤȤǤѤʵ˴ؤ뵭褯ɤޤ줿Ȥʬޤ
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