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ε ([2020-04-29-1]) ֤ʤѸˤؤ֤פεåҲ𤷤ޤѸˤؤͳưåȤϤȤޤ䤬Ȥ櫓פȹͤƤˤĤƲƽҤ٤ƤȻפޤ
ߡ䤿ѸؤꡤꡤȤäꤷƤ뤳ȡܤε̳DZѸؤӻϤ뤳ȤˤʤäƤ뤳ȡѸ줬ǺǤŪʥեȤƵǽƤ뤳ȤϡΤȤǤʤɬŪʤȤǤ⤢ޤˤη̤ǤĹˤ錄γưη̡ߡѸ줬嵭Τ褦ʰ֤ŤˤȤȤǤ
ָŪˡפСѸ줬ܸޤ¾¿θӤơȤ櫓ͥ줿ȤߤʤϤޤޤǡּҲŪˡפȤ櫓פʸǤȤȤˤޤѸˤγؤӤϡζ̤٤2Ĥθ̤ηäͿƤޤ
ï⡤䤽θسؽ˴ؤƸĿŪʹΤϼǤ礦Τ̤ꡤѸ줬繥Ȥͤ⤤Ȥͤ⤤ޤΤ褦ʸĿŪʻפȤ̼ǡʤФʤȤޤŪʱѸҤ˴٤äꡤդˤߤ˱Ѹ뤳ȤǤѸФƤտԿ̵פǤѸؤտϤظ¾ӽλ˷ӤĤ줬ޤѸؤԿ¾θƱºФ٤ǤѸȤΡüԤФƼˤޤʸԤˤĤơѸüԤθդ˺ޤܤγѸ줬ȸʢΩȤΤǤγˤȤäƤñ˶ʤȤƤαѸʳؽˤȤĤ꤫⤷ޤʬ졤ޤäƤǤⰦΤΤȤ̤ȸäƸΤȤ櫓Ǥ
䤿ˤȤäơѸȤּҲŪˡפƽפʸդäƤȤޤѸȤޤդäƤˤϡɪĥ餺˸礦ɬפޤѸܸ¾θƱ1ĤθȤǧҤȤɬפʤΤǤǧΤ˱ѸˤγؤӤͭǤȳοƤޤ
ʪήžޤѸޤ̤ѲƤޤʸˡȯäʤɤΡָŪʡ¦̤ˤƤѲƤޤ̱²θդΥեؤĹƤ̤ꡤΡּҲŪʡװ֤ŤѤäƤޤѸȤˤĤơξ¦̤ˤѲȤˡʳơ̻ˡסֳ̻ˡפȸƤФޤˤؤ֤ȤǡѸܼҤƤϸܼ⸫ƤǤ礦ܼƤСѸˤ줿ܸˤ衤θФտԿϱ̸äǤ礦ɪĥ餺դäƤޤ
ѸˤγؤӤǤϡ嵭Τ褦ηä뤿ˡġξμƤȤˤʤޤܥ֥ǤѶŪ˼ƤѤʵפο⡤Τ褦ʸġξμΰǤ֤ʤ a apple ǤϤʤ an apple ʤΤס֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤס֤ʤ If I were a bird ȤʤΤס֤ʤ Help me! Ȥ϶֤ Aid me! Ȥ϶ФʤΤס֤ʤꥫѸǤ r ȯΤפʤɤε뤳Ȥ켫ΤϡΤ˱ѸʪΤΥȥӥŪμˤʤ褦ˤߤ뤫⤷ޤΤ褦ʸġμ¿Ĥʤ碌ηϲΤֱѸˡפȤʬǤꡤ˽Ҥ٤礭ɸã뤳ȤƤȿƤޤǤΤǡϡѤʵפؤβ˺ݤƤ֤ؤʤۤɡ⤷͡פȤȿǤϽ餻ޤȤյߤǤĤפǤޤɽŪʥȥӥŪμΰ˿ʤǤǤ
ѸˤμѸˤηäؤȾڤ롤줬礭ʥơޤǤ
ε#4019. ұѸ˳ؽΤ hellog γѤ ([2020-04-28-1]) ǡơޤ˴Ϣ뤤ĤΥ֥ޤȤơֵåȡפ뤳Ȥ˿ޤ
ǡǯٽǤѸ˴ϢΡʥ饤˼ȤϤˤäơ֤ʤѸˤؤ֤פȤơޤˤĤƽƤ«ͤƤߤޤ«ͤǤϷݤʤΤǡåȤɽλפƤߤޤե졼Ѥ̹ǥ饤˻ȤΤǡΥ饤ȤˤѤǤ뤫ȡ
֤ʤѸˤؤ֤פεå
Τ褦ʵåȤñ˺褦ˤ⤷ޤȥåץڡθ "##24,1199,1200,1367,2984,3641,3642" Τ褦˥ڤǵֹƬ "##" ǤաˤϤȡ̤Ρե졼1ڡˤ餺¤Ӥޤˤޤʤ "h" ä "##24,1199,1200,1367,2984,3641,3642h" ȤΥե졼νϤȤʤޤ
ؤǤϿǯ٤μȤϤޤäϤޤĤĤꡤ5ϥ饤ȤʤηȤʤȤ¿ΤǤϤʤǤ礦ν°ؤ˳شץޤѸ˴ϢμȤϤޤޤ
ܥ֥⤽12ǯܤޤѸˤ濴ȤĤıѸءܸءء˳ءʸؤʤɴϢʬˤĤƤ⾯ĵƤΤǡѸ˼ΥֻȤƤϤʤ̤ˤʤäƤޤ伫ȤϸĿŪ˰˲٤ hellog ⸡ԤʤޤʤƤƤʬǤ˺Ƥ뤫ȼΤ˺Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿ˡˤؤιֵ齬سιֺ¤ʤɤ hellog ȤʤŪѤƤޤº hellog Ǽ1ޤĤ뤳Ȥ⤷ФФǤ֤εȤεɤǹͤƤƤפȤͽˤˤʤǤDzƹͤƤߤ顤hellog ϺΤˤ狼ȥɤȤ⤤٤饤Ȥ褤ΤǤϤʤȻפĤǤ
ΥʲҤΤʤΤͤΤ˲Ǥ뤳ȤϤʤȿ֤ᤴƤޤȤǤˤʤʬäΤǡʬǰޤǡǯٽǤ⤢ޤޤϱѸˤ칶츦ԤȤơƱʬμ̥Ϥ춵ԤȤơѸˡʤӱѸˤؤӻϤʤƳؤ³ˡޤǰʾ˰ռŪ˴ϢϤ褦ȷޤ
Ѹ˳ؽΤ hellog γˡ֥쥹ȤƤߤޤѸˤˤ⻲ͤˤʤйǤ
(1) Ѹ˴ؤѤʵؤβϤᡤȤˤ⤷ͥɤߤȤϡѸ˴ؤѤʵ佸Υȥå500ɤǤѸˤؤȤơ
(2) ƥˤꡤơޤ˴ŤֵåȡפޤȤɽơҤɤΤ褤ȻפޤƵˤƤʬƥʥˤդƤޤ褽ѸΥɤե졼ȤʤäƤꡤȥåץڡαξ˥ե٥åȽΥƥޤŬʤΤåȡΥƥΥơޤˤĤƤεޤ뤤ϥȥåץڡθ "cat:indo-european" ʤɤȤƤĤǤƥϳѥåǤ봷ʤΤ "[indo-european]" ȤƤ褦ʸ̤֤äƤޤ
(3) ιֺѤ饤Υ饤ɻΤʤ餽ΤޤƤ뤳Ȥ¿Τǡcat:slide 饤ɼΤβϤޤäįǤؽˤʤȻפޤʢβեդСޤ˥饤ȤݤʤΤǸƤ
(4) ƥȤ̤ˡơޤ˴Ťֵåȡפεֹ켰ڤƤСȥåץڡθˤΤޤǡνǵɽޤ䤬ȤǤ褯ԤʤΤϡ㤨СֱѸä (cosmopolitan_vocabulary) ȤˤĤƹֵ褦Ȥ硤"##151,756,201,152,153,390,3308" ȤǵʤȤ˴ޤޤлˤ˼Ʋ⤷ƤȤޤƬ "##" Ǥաˡۤˤϡΰ㤤פȤơޤʤ "##1926,1537,2603" ǤȤֿפǤ "##962,959,961" ʤɤ⤪⤷Ȼפޤ
ġΥ֥ϤޤñȯɤڤͤǤΤǡĤȤ߹碌Ǥɬ⤭줤ʥȡˤϤʤޤ֤פꡤ֤Ĥʤפβ⤬ۤξǤͿСʤ˳餫ʥȡȤʤޤ줳μΥơ̤ΡֵåȡפȺäƤߤȻפäƤޤʢʸϤǡ֤ĤʤפβĤСϤꤽΤޤޥ饤ȻͤˤʤꤽǤ
(5) ǤȤƻлߤˤϡϿ (map) (family_tree) ǯɽ (timeline) ʤɤǤ̡įǤ⡤٤ϳؤ٤ޤɤ
(6) ̩ˤ hellog εǤϤʤΤǤȤƤ hellog ܤȤʤäƤΤǡ⤪ᤷƤޤ2017ǯ112ˤϢܤ12ܤΥ饤ָѸѸˤλͤǤϤƼɮޤʬ̤⤢ޤѸˤθؤ֤Τ˻ȤȻפޤ
(7) 饤ؽȤäƤ⡤˸³ޤϤܤɤǤε#4018. Ѹ˳ν2020ǯǡˡ ([2020-04-27-1]) ǿƤޤ
ʾ塤פĤޤޤ hellog ˡ֥쥹ȤƤߤޤ伫Ȥ饤ȤԤʤΩˤޤΤǡ줫ˡϺƤĤǤ
٤Фʤؤ⿷ǯ٤μȤϤޤĤĤ뺢Ȼפޤǯ٤˱ѸˤؤӻϤͤ¿ϤǤΤǡѸ˳濴˱ѸˡѸؤδʸ2020ǯǡˤǤƤޤѸˤνؼԤäˤοˡؼԤ´ȤʳΤοˡդƤޤܲξǼˤ¿⤷ޤϤν긵֤Ƥ館ФȻפޤΤۤƿδ䥦֥Ȥ˷ǺܤƤ뻲ʸɽ⻲ȤƤѤPDFäΤǡ鼫ͳˤɤ
αѸ˳ܸˡ
ջҡ إ١åѸˡ١ҤĤ˼2007ǯ
켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ
߷ ͧ¿̱²ιꥹ---4ĤڤѹˤΤ١ҡ2008ǯ
߷ ͧرѸΥ롼ġ١ҡ2011ǯ
ۥӥˡ δˡإڥαѸˡ١˼2017ǯ
߷ ⡡رѸˡ١ҡӡ2008ǯ.
ס ׯҡؿѸ١罤۽Ź1988ǯ
رѸ١ؽDz2005ǯ.
δ졡رѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ١ؽ2011ǯ
δ졡رѸΡ֤ʤפϤƤαѸˡ١ҡ2016ǯ
ϲ ͭ ԡ λҡ ¹̾ ԡرѸˡ١罤۽Ź1995ǯ
رѸˤɤι١إ֥å Acta 30ҡ2019ǯ
졡رѸˡ١罤ۡ1983ǯ
αѸ˴ϢΥ֥ȡ
ջҡֱѸ̡ʴʸˡסhttps://iyeiri.com/569 ʤȴ줿ʸΥꥹȡ
δ졡hellog?Ѹ˥֥ס2009ǯ51?http://user.keio.ac.jp/~rhotta/hellog/
δ졡ϢܡѸѸˤλͤס2017ǯ1?12http://www.kenkyusha.co.jp/uploads/history_of_english/series.html
ߡA Gateway to Studying HEL: Textbooksܸԡˡסhttp://www013.upp.so-net.ne.jp/HEL/textbooks.html ʽ¤Ѹˤʸꥹȡ
αѸ˳ʱѸˡ
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
Blake, N. F. A History of the English Language. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996.
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. London: Macmillan, 1955.
Bragg, Melvyn. The Adventure of English. New York: Arcade, 2003.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Bryson, Bill. Mother Tongue: The Story of the English Language. London: Penguin, 1990.
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Gelderen, Elly van. A History of the English Language. Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2006.
Görlach, Manfred. The Linguistic History of English. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.
Gooden, Philip. The Story of English: How the English Language Conquered the World. London: Quercus, 2009.
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Horobin, Simon. How English Became English: A Short History of a Global Language. Oxford: OUP, 2016.
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
McCrum, Robert, William Cran, and Robert MacNeil. The Story of English. 3rd rev. ed. London: Penguin, 2003.
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
αѸˡѸؤλͿ
ͺ° ̭ԡˡظʸˡŵ١Ʋ1992ǯ
ж ϺԡˡظѸؼŵ١Ʋ1973ǯ
סԡˡرѸˡ˱ѸءʸʸϿ١ҡ1997ǯ
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
С¾ˡرѸˡ١ϯ, ƣɧԡرѸϡ١8--11ˡ罤۽Ź1972--85ǯ
ãڸ ԡˡرѸؿ̾ŵ١ҡ1995ǯ
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸˡ˱Ѹ --- ʸʸϿ١ҡ1997ǯ
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ켭ŵ١ҡ2002ǯ
߷ ˧ͺ ()رѸǯɽ?ѸˡѸػˡʸػˡ̻?١ҡ1993ǯ
ϲ ͭӾ ɧ ˮɧԡˡ罤۱Ѹػŵ١罤۽Ź1983ǯ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan, eds. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vols. 1--7. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. 1992--2001.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 2nd ed. 2003.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 2nd ed. 2003. 3rd ed. 2019.
English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012.
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum, eds. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Version 3.1. 2004. (Also available online as Oxford English Dictionary Online at http://www.oed.com/ .)
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ɸϡ̿ΥǥȡֱѸˡפŻҷǼĤǤѤʵǤ
with me, for her, against him, between us, among them ʤֻθ˿;̾줬ȤˤŪʤ˳ѤѤޤʤʡʸФηˤѤƳơ *with I, *for she, *against he, *between we, *among they ȤʤʤΤȤǤϤɽʸˡǧʤȤǤˡ
ǤñʲϡֻŪȤʤ뤫פǤưŪ줬;̾ξŪʤη᤹褦ˡֻŪ;̾ŪʤɬפȤȤȤǤưΤˤ¾ưˤˤƤֻˤƤ⡤줬ɽ魯ưطΡоݡפȤʤΤɬľޤΡоݡפɽ魯礬ŪפǤꡤ줬Ρʼˤȶ̤äʷäƤСʸˡεǽܤˤ̤䤹ʤǤ
ʸ¾ưֻ줬ǤСθΤɬŪŪȤȤˤʤꡤäʷɬפϤʤΤǤϤʤȤ䤬ޤºݡʸˡϥ嵭 *with I, *for she, *against he, *between we, *among they Ǥ̣Ϥ褯Ǥޤ¾ưθǤ *Do you love I/he/she/we/they? ʸˡŪ˥ȸƤ⡤¤ϰ̣̤Ƥޤ櫓Ǥ
ǤϡεˤĤƱѸˤλäƤߤޤ礦ǯۤθűѸλˤϡ̾˸¤餺٤Ƥ̾줬ֻθǤŵŪˡͿʡפȸƤФ뤳ȤƤޤֻμˤäƤϡͿʡפǤϤʤгʡפ°ʡפη⤢ޤˤͽ줿ʼʰʳΡ˳ʤηᤵƤΤǤcf. #30. űѸֻȳʡ ([2009-05-28-1])ˡʤʤߤˡѸΡŪʡפϸűѸΡͿʡפгʡפѾΤǤ
̾˴ؤƤϡƤʤ -e դΤͿʤȤʤäƤޤ㤨Сֿϡפ God ǤֿΤˡפ for Gode ȤäǤ³ѸλˤơͿʸ -e ޤäƾäƤäˡξǼʤȶ̤Ǥʤʤ for God ȤʤޤäơѸ for God God ϡλˤäƤϡ-e Ƥǡ¤ͿʤʤΤȸʤȤʤΤǤ
;̾˴ؤƤϡʤȶ̤줿Ϳʤη褯ĤޤűѸǡֿפ;̾Ǽ硤ֿϡפ He ǡֿΤˡפ for Him ȤʤޤξϸǤޤäѤäƤޤ;̾̾Ȱۤʤ٤⤯椨ͿʤΤ -e ʤɤθĤȤñʤѤʤäᡤʤȤζ̤塹ޤݻ䤹äΤǤyou it ˴ؤƤϡˤβ͡ʻФơŪʤʤȹ줷Ƥޤޤ
ѸǤϡưŪˤֻŪˤ衤̾ʤмʤƱäƺѤޤ褦ˤʤäƤꡤäϤʤ櫓Ǥ顤;̾ˤƤ⡤ʤƱäȤϵʤǤ;̾ˤĤƤϲδѤˤꡤޤ with me, for her, against him, between us, among them ʤɤŪʡʤĤƤͿʡˤѤƤΤǤפˡ;̾ϡ̾줬иƤͿʤμʤȤιפȤѲΥԡɤ夤Ƥ줺ˤǤ֤꤫⤷ޤĤ;̾ͿʤĤ˼ʤȹ줹äƤΤǤϤʤǤ礦λˤϡμ줿 with I, for she, against he, between we, among they ʹƤϤǤ
ɸˤĤơSmith (47--48) λʸɽꤤĤȴФĥäƤߤʸǤ뤳ȤǧѤߡˡܥ֥Ǥϡ¾ƼΥ饤Ҳ𤷤ƤޤȤʤΤ link ȡȤ櫓 Chaucer ϢΥϡ#290. Chaucer ˴ؤ Web resources ([2010-02-11-1]) ɤ
ϿϿʤľܤβڵĤäƤʤŤθ첻ˤƿꤹ뤫Ȥ䤤ϡѤʵǤʤ顤˸ؤˤȤäܼŪʲǤ롥Ѹˤˤ뤳βˤĤƤϡޤǤŪʴ#437. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 ([2010-07-08-1])#758. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 (2) ([2011-05-25-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
оݤȤʤˤäƤ⡤ΤѤǤʤˤϰ㤤롥 Smith (40) ȤơȤ櫓ѸȯꤹˡܤƤߤ5ۤɵƤ롥
a) "reconstruction", both comparative (dealing with cognate languages) and internal (dealing with paradigmatic variation);
b) analysis of "residualisms" surviving in modern accents of English;
c) analysis of the writings of spelling-reformers and phoneticians from the Early Modern English period, supplying information about usages closer to the Middle English period than now;
d) analysis of contemporary verse-practices, based on the analysis of rhyme, alliteration and meter; and
e) analysis of spellings.
ս˥ȤäƤe) ΥڥʬϤȤΤȴ뤯餤ΤȤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸɽʸɸ֤ޥե٥åȤѤƽƤʾ塤ñΥڥͤˤΤǤ롥ѸȯȥڥδطͤƤߤʬ褦ˡڥľȯɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤäơѸˤƤⴰľȯɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤȤŪɤƤɬפȤʤ롥ǤľǤϤʤȤϤʤȤŪʷȯɽ綠ȤƤ뤳ȤǧƤ褵ǤꡤɤΤ褦ľǤʤΤɤΤ餤ŪʤΤˤĤƤϡʸηϤ䥹ڥηϤξܺ٤ʬϤ̤Ƥʤ餫ˤ뤳ȤǤ롥
d) ϱʸѤǤ롥ѸαʸϡȤ櫓ˤΦ鿷⤿餵줿ӱ (rhyme) ɤӱξڵϡȤ櫓첻μ̤䶯֤˴ؤ¿ξͿƤ롥űѸδƬ (alliteration) ѸˤϱߤΤΡ濴˺ĤꡤѸλҲ䶯֤˴ؤҥȤͿ³Ƥ롥ޤʸϡ嵭εӱƬȤ̩ܤ˴ؤ뤫DZΧ (meter) μǤϤȯ˼ͿƤ롥
c) ϡ³Ѹ˻˾ܳŪ˸Ƥ벻ؼԤˤ롤ȯˤĤƤΥȤ˰͵ˡǤ롥ΥȤϤޤǶѸΡʼȤƵŪʡȯˤĤƤ줬Τ˿ǤСȯˤĤƤ礭ʥҥȤȤʤŪʲѲħƤСϡʶѸȯˤջϡѸȯˤǽޤ롥
b) ḽμŪˤϡ˸Ť¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥ּΤܤΤ˶ּäƤ롤ȤˡϢơ#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#2019. ؤˤ6Ĥθ§ ([2014-11-06-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
Ǹ a) ϡϢȤ (comparative_linguistics) ˴ŤƷ (reconstruction) ŪƷˤŪʿˡǤ롥ƷȤȡʸΤʤθˡȻפ뤫⤷ʤʸǧűѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤƤڵηΤ˽ʬѤ롥
Ѹȯθϡ嵭Τ褦ʿμˡǿʤƤƤꡤǤܤȤ餫ˤƤ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. "Periods: Middle English." Chapter 3 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 32--48.
¸űѸʸ¿å˴äȥ (West Saxon) ǽƤ롥9ʹߥåɤΩˤꡤäۤǤ롥ϤŪʰҿϰ̤夵ΡɸפͭϸȤʤäƤϡźǷ֤Ƥ8Ⱦˤ̾祢եå粦 (Alfred the Great) Фƥå̾ʡ#4012. եå粦αѸ˾ΰյ ([2020-04-21-1]) ȡˡ1ˤϸűѸκȤȤäƤ褤եå (Ælfric) ФƸűѸ컶ʸΥǥϰۤʤ뤬ȥǽƤꡤϤĤ¾κȤƱ١ȤդǤΤȥϡűѸӤνդΥǥȤ롥ʤָűѸɸפȸƤ֤Ȥˤ꤬롥ˤĤƤϺε#4013. ָűѸɸפβ ([2020-04-22-1]) ȡ
ƱåפȤƤȸΤΡեåɻ Early West Saxon ȥեå Late West Saxon ȤñľǷӤĤ櫓ˤϤʤξѼδطϡľȤϼФζʤ꤯ͤäɽ蘆٤ΤʤΤˤĤ Mengden Kastovsky Ȥʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Kastovsky (1992: 346) points out that the traditional distinction between "Early West Saxon" for the language prototypically represented by the Alfredian translations and "Late West Saxon", prototypically represented by Ælfric's texts, is misleading, as it suggests a mere diachronic distinction between two varieties within only a little more than a hundred years. Rather, it should be assumed that the differences between the two groups of documents are diatopic at least to the same extent as they are diachronic.
Early West Saxon Late West Saxon 1ۤɤδֳ֤ƱȤߤʤΤǤϤʤŪˤŪˤ⤺줿ľŪˤϷӤĤʤѼȤߤʤۤŪΤȤŦξѼθűѸɤ٤Ƥߤȡ1λ֤ηвȤƤ⡤Ʊ "West Saxon" ̾ƤˤϳΤ˰ۤʤäѼΤ褦ˤߤ롥դϡűѸΡɸפդΥǥˤäդƤʤФʤʤ
Mengden, Ferdinand von. "Periods: Old English." Chapter 2 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 19--32.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.
űѸΥȥ˴Ťաʼ˥ڥˤŪͤǤ뤳ȤˡФСָűѸɸ ("Standard Old English") Ȥɽʹ롥"(Late) West-Saxon Standard", "(Late) West-Saxon Schriftsprache" ʤ͡ʸƤ뤬ˤָűѸɸפȸ뤳Ȥ¿
ºݤΤȤָűѸɸפȤ˸䤹Ƥ̾Ǥ롥μҲؤδ餹СϤۤȤɡɸפȸƤ٤Ƥʤcf. #3260. űѸˤɸಽ ([2018-03-31-1])ˡɸ٤͡ꡤ"standard", "standardised", "fixed", "focused", "focusing", "diffuse" ʤɽѸ줬ΩƤ뤬Τ褦ʰϢμ٤ΤʤǡָűѸɸפɤդ˰֤ŤΤȤСͤλ䤿ŵŪ˻פ⤫٤ɸפΰ֤ΥƤ˰㤤ʤ͡ʽѸˤĤƤϡ#3207. ɸѸȸɸಽ˴ؤ뤤ĤνѸ ([2018-02-06-1]) ȡˡ
Mengden (28) ϡָűѸɸפͶ˴ؤơΤ褦մƤ롥
If a standard is understood as an institutionalized variety that, among other things, serves as a means of communication bridging several local and social differences in the usage of a language, the hypothesis of a Late West Saxon standard involves two problems. First, it is not falsifiable, because we have no clues as to how widely a deliberately regulated variety may have made its way outside the scriptoria. And second, the idea is implausible because it is not clear how a variety attested in a number of specialized scholarly texts should have spread into other areas of society given that literacy was limited to a rather small elite. What is plausible, though, and for this we do have evidence, is that there is an influential intellectual elite which has an enormous impact on the literary productivity in late Anglo-Saxon England, and who seem to have used the language of their works in a deliberate and comparatively uniform way.
εŪΤǤ롥ˡ̤βս (27) ǼΤ褦ˤƤ롥
. . . we are dealing with a set of texts covering a limited range of scholarly fields. It would be problematic to deduce the existence of a genuine standard language from the relative homogeneity of the Winchester texts alone. Indeed, the very fact that the documents representing "Standard Old English" all derive from a tight network of authors and instigators in a predominantly monastic context --- all in all a rather small, albeit influential, group of people --- speaks against rather than in favor of the wider use of their linguistic features outside these circles. It is therefore justified to speak of orthographic conventions characteristic of the Winchester school, perhaps of a West Saxon Schriftsprache, but it is difficult, if not impossible to make judgments about the scope and influence of the Winchester conventions.
ָűѸɸפˤĤơΤ褦ˤޤȤƤȥŪѰʽդϡ켫ΤűѸɸಽ˹ȤϤʤϸ¸ʸ˸űѸʸȾȿǤƤȤ¤ʾǤʲǤʤ
Mengden, Ferdinand von. "Periods: Old English." Chapter 2 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 19--32.
եå粦 (King Alfred) ϡꥹ巯Τʤͣ粦 (the Great) ƸƤФ̾Ǥ롥ꥹ˾Ǥɾ⤤ȤϤ褯ʬ뤬ΡֱѸ˾ΰյפȤ顤Mengden (26) β⤫3ۤȴФƤߤ褦
(1) οߤȤˤꡤɤιȤƤαѸϰ̤ݤä
ˤ if ǤϤ뤬⤷եå粦餱Ƥ顤ɤιȤƤαѸ줬졤ɬŪ˶ʹߤαѸŸ⤢ʤäȤˤʤ롥Ѹ줬˾äȤȤ⡤ʤȤҿŪʸȤƤϰ̤ݤ³뤳Ȥäեå粦ξϡDZѸ˾夭ƽʰյġ
(2) פοʤˤꡤ¿αѸʸ߽Ф˻Ĥ
ϡΤˤХեå粦αѸ˸ΰյȤ٤⤷ʤ϶פʤ뤳Ȥˤꡤܤ̤͢Ȥ櫓༫Ȥ¿쾯ʤؤäȤűѸؤΤפǤex. Gregory the Great's Cura Pastoralis and Dialogi, Augustine of Hippo's Soliloquia, Boethius's De consolatione philosophiae, Paulus Orosius's Historiae adversus paganos, Bed's Historia ecclesiastica) Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Martyrology ΤȤϤޤäȤ롥
(3) 2η̤ȤơűѸˤơѸ˾̤αѸ컶ʸ߽Ф졤դɸಽʹԤ
³̤αѸ컶ʸλФϡϤѸ˸ΰյ礭Ȥ٤Ǥ롥ޤդɸಽˤĤƤϡθѸæɸಽ˶ѸκɸಽʤɤŪĬήͤȤѸ˾ΰյ뤳Ȥؤʤ
Mengden, Ferdinand von. "Periods: Old English." Chapter 2 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 19--32.
ɸˤĤơ2֤ε ([2020-04-18-1], [2020-04-19-1]) 449ǯ600ǯ夲ƤϺǸ700ǯˤĤƹͻǯϡѸʸܳŪ˸ФΤ700ǯȤ뤳Ȥˤ롥αѸ˸ԤǤǸŤʸǯ˴ŤǤ뤫顤˸ŤʸȯбѸˤλϤޤ⤽ʬΤܤȤǡŪŪäȸäƤޤиԤԹͥ褷ȤȤˤʤ롥Mengden (20) ϤΤ褦ɾƤ롥
. . . one could approach the question of the starting point of Old English from a modern perspective. . . . Our direct evidence of any characteristic of (Old) English begins with the oldest surviving written sources containing Old English. Apart from onomastic material in Latin texts and short inscriptions, the earliest documents written in Old English date from the early 8th century. A distinction between a reconstructed "pre-Old English" before 700 and an attested "Old English" after 700 . . . therefore does not seem implausible.
Mengden (20) ϡ700ǯȤɬ⸦ԤԹͥ褷ΤΤǤϤʤȤͤƤ롥
. . . it is feasible that the shift from a heptarchy of more or less equally influential Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to the cultural dominance of Northumbria in the time after Christianization may be connected with the fact that texts are produced not exclusively in Latin, but also in the vernacular. In other words, we may speculate (but no more than that) that the emergence of the earliest Anglo-Saxon cultural and political centre in Northumbria in the 8th century may lead the Anglo-Saxons to view themselves as one people rather than as different Germanic tribes, and, accordingly to view their language as English (or, Anglo-Saxon) rather than as the Saxon, Anglian, Kentish, Jutish, etc. varieties of Germanic.
700ǯϡ5ȾФ˥֥ƥϤäƤޥĤͤȤƤΥǥƥƥѸüԤȤƤΥǥƥƥΩϤǤȤϤ1ĤƶǤϤ롥
ơ3֤3ĤߤƤ櫓ɤ줬Ǥȹͤ뤤¾ˤ⤬ʻˤϤȻפˡäȤ⡤䤤櫓ǤϤʤΰ㤤ˤʤ餳 periodisation Ϥ⤷
Mengden, Ferdinand von. "Periods: Old English." Chapter 2 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 19--32.
ε#4009. ѸˤλϤޤϤĤ --- 449ǯ ([2020-04-18-1]) ˰³Ѹˤγϻϡ¤ϤޤʹȤΤʤä600ǯˤĤƹͤƤߤ
597ǯ St. Augustine ꥹȶ붵Τ˶ Gregory I ˤäƥޤ Kent ɸ줿Ȥϱѹ˾̾⤤νμҲʸѤȤȤϡħŪʰ̣Ǥ褯ʬ롥ҲʸΤߤʤ餺ѸȤˤ⤽αƶڤȤϡ#3102. ֥ꥹȶȱѸפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-10-24-1])#3845. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ5֥ꥹȶפޤ ([2019-11-06-1])#296. 轡ѸܸͿŪƶ ([2010-02-17-1]) ǤӤܤƤΤ˱Ѹ˾夭ƽʻ郎600ǯ˵äȤϤMengden ε˼Ƥߤ褦
. . . because the conversion is the first major change in the society and culture of the Anglo-Saxons that is not shared by the related tribes on the Continent, it is similarly significant for (the beginning of) an independent linguistic history of English as the settlement in Britain. Moreover, the immediate impact of the conversion on the language of the Anglo-Saxons is much more obvious than that of the migration: first, the Latin influence on English grows in intensity and, perhaps more crucially, enters new domains of social life; second, a new writing system, the Latin alphabet, is introduced, and third, a new medium of (linguistic) communication comes to be used --- the book.
600ǯ3Ĥ롥1Ĥϡ˸üѤΤȤҤ٤ƤΤȻפ뤬ƥ줫饭ꥹȶ濴ȤʸθʬμѸ줬ήȡ2Ĥϥޥե٥åȤƳ3ĤܤȤǥ⤿餵줿ȡ
ѸľܡܤαƶڤܤפʥݥȤǤꡤơθ̤˸䤹ȤåȤ⤢롥
Mengden, Ferdinand von. "Periods: Old English." Chapter 2 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 19--32.
ˤλʬ (periodisation) ȤΤϡʬˤƺǤ⺬ŪǤ롥Ѹˤ㳰ǤϤʤˤĤ䤨ͻ뤳Ȥʤˤϡ⤽⸦椬ΩʤȤ櫓ѸˤλϤޤɤ֤Ȥϡʬ¸Ω˴ؤǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤periodisation ȥդ¿εǴϢ夲Ƥ
ǤŪĥݥԥ顼ȤȤǤС֥ͤƥϤäƤȤ449ǯäƱѸˤλϤޤȤΤŪǤ롥ǯ弫ΤŪȤФʤΤ⤦绨ĤˤߤƤ5ȾդˤƤλǤȤϹƤ롥
ˡפȤϸ̩ˤʸǧƽΩȤΩ줫ߤСѸʸޤȤޤäǸΤ700ǯ餤Ǥ뤫顤դäƱѸˤγϤȤ롤Ȥ⤢롥ºݡѤԤ⤤롥
嵭2ĤѸˤλϤޤλ˴ؤͭϤMengden (20) ⤦1Ĥθ˸ڤƤ롥600ǯΥꥹȶȤߥꥹȶҲˤ⤿餷ʸŪʱƶϷפΤʤΥѥȤθơֱѸס¾Υޥɤλȶ̤ơˤ餷ȤơŤ¤٤ (1) ʾħŪˡ˵449ǯ(2) 褽600ǯ(3) 褽700ǯȤѸˤγϻ˴ؤ3Ĥθ䤬ФȤˤʤ롥
ơΥݥȤˤĤƹͤƹԤ˶ᤤ (1) Ż뤹ͳϡMengden ۩̤Ǥ롥
Although the differences between the varieties of the settlers and those on the continent cannot have been too great at the time of the migration it is the settlers' geographic and political independence as a consequence of the migration which constitutes the basis for the development of English as a variety distinct and independent from the continental varieties of the West Germanic speech community . . . . (20)
פˡ449ǯնˤѸˤλϤޤȤߤΥݥȤϡŪȤҲʸءŪäƤˤ롥äȤСŪʪŪʻǤ롥ΦޥμĤʬΥȼνĤȤʤäΤֱѸҲȤº Mengden Ȥ͡˵硤ǽפȤߤʤƤ롥
I would therefore propose that, whatever happens to the language of the Anglo-Saxon settlers in Britain and for whatever reason it happens, any development after 450 should be taken as specifically English and before 450 should be taken as common (West) Germanic. That our knowledge of the underlying developments is necessarily based on a different method of access before and after around 700 is ultimately secondary to the relevant linguistic changes themselves and for any categorization of Old English. (21)
Mengden QŪʷä褦ˤߤ뤬ŪˤäơˤäȰääƤȤΤˤϲͤ롥⤬ʤʤΤ뤳ȤϡȤƤǤ롥
¾2ĤˤĤƤʹߤεǼ夲롥
Mengden, Ferdinand von. "Periods: Old English." Chapter 2 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 19--32.
2֤ε ([2020-04-15-1], [2020-04-16-1]) ɸˤĤƾĴ٤Ƥޤ褷Ƥʤǡ1IJΩƤƤߤ
ѸβƬ (onset) ˸ҲϢˤꡤ§ȤΤ麣ޤ /ks/ /gz/ onset ΩĤȤϤǤʤȤϤѸʤɤǤ㳰Ū˲ǽʾ礬ꡤޤ˺ΰϢǰäƤ xenon, Xerses ʤɤ⤹٤ƼѸǤ뤿ᡤ/ks/ /gz/ ȯϤȤФ롥¿ξ硤Ѹ줬ѸƱǡԵ§ȯѸβ§˽ƤΤκݡɤΤ褦˽ƤˤϤĤΥѥ롥
1ĤϡҲϢä뤿1ҲȤƬü (apheresis) ˤˡǤ롥ºݡǤ2֤εǸƤ褦ˡ<x> /z/ <x> /gz/ apheresis Ф̤ȤƤ#3482. ƬλҲϢñ㲽Ƥˡ ([2018-11-08-1])#3938. Ƭˤ첻 h Ф꤬뤵졤Ҳ h ˤ⤵ʤä ([2020-02-07-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ[kn-], [gn-], [wr-], [wl-], [hr-], [hl-], [hn-], [hw-] 1ҲüϱѸˤǤ⤢դ줿ݤǤꡤ[gz-] Ʊͤ˹ͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
⤦1ĤϡҲϢδ֤첻뤳 (anaptyxis) ǻҲϢäȤˡMinkova (132--33) ˤСȤ̾ʥꥫͥȥޥ Evel Knievel ϥɥĸ̾ȤƸƬ [k] ȯ뤬/kn-/ ϸѸβ§ȿΤǡ[kəˈniːvəl] Τ褦ۣ첻֤뤳ȤǰȿƤ롥ƱͤˡѸǤ knight <kinicht>, <cinth>knife <kinf>kneeled <keneleden> ֤줿 anaptyxis 㤬롥xenon, Xerses ʤɤ [ks-], [gz-] ˡۣ첻 [kəs-], [gəz-] Ȥʤä㤬äɤϳǧǤƤʤʤȤϤȻפ롥ʤʤߤ˾嵭 knight ɽ魯 <cinth> ˤĤƤϡanaptyxis Ȥϲž (metathesis) λȤߤ٤⤷ʤžҲϢФ⤦1ĤβˡǤ롥
3ĤˡλҲϢ첻 (prosthesis) Ȥǡonset Ȥˡ롥#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡեѸǤϻҲϢ줿츻ŪʸƬ e 㤬褯 (ex. especial, escalade) ҲϢ㤫Υ뤬Ҳ /ŋ/ ϸ§Ȥ onset ΩĤȤǤʤΤǡӥβʾñ̤Ǥ ngwee ϸƬۣ첻 [əŋ ˈwiː] ȯΤ̤Ǥ롥ˤä /ŋ/ ϲƬǤϤʤΩĤȤˤʤꡤŪŬʤȤʤ롥
Ĺ֤Ȥʤäβ3βˡ˴ŤΤǤ롥<x> /ks/ ǥեȤȤȡѸθƬ <x> ľ첻줿 [əks-] ȤƼ¸뵡äΤǤϤʤ ngwee ξΤ褦ˡֻˤϤʤʤʤȻפ졤¾ڤ⤷ˤʤȤȯ variant ȤƤϤꤵ롥ʤȡҲϢ³ʿ2Ρ첻Ū˶ĤȤˤʤΤǡΡֱѸˤˤ Verner's LawפˤäơλҲϢͭ[əgz-] ȤʤͭȯȤȤʤꡤξ1βˡǤƬüθ̤ŤʤäΤǤϤʤˤĤ˼ŪʻŦȤơMinkova (139fn) Xavier ȯ˴ؤ륳ȤѤƤ
The initial <x> in Xavier [ˈzeɪvɪə(r)] is sometimes taken to represent [ks-] as in X-ray, triggering prosthetic [ɛ-/ə]: [ɛgˈzeɪvɪə(r)] . . . .
βϡüŪˤ [ks-] [əks-] [əgz-] [gz-] [z-] ȤǤ롥ºݤˤϤβɬǤ줤˿ʤ櫓ǤϤʤФ餯ϰۤʤȯ variants Ȥ¸Ƥ˰㤤ʤޤƬź (prosthesis) ȸƬü (apheresis) ȤȿиβˡƱƤȤˤĤƤ⡤äϤΤ벼٤ɬפΤ褦˻פ롥Ǥ⡤onset ˤλҲϢ뤿ˡʣβˡƱ˻ߤ졤ιäߺѤη̡ɸȯȤ /z-/ Ȥ1Ĥη˽夷ȤȤϽʬˤꤽǤ롥
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ε ([2020-04-15-1]) ˰³xenon, xenophobia, Xerses, xylophone ʤɤ˴ѻѸθƬˤ <x> /z/ бˤĤơŪб <x> /gz/ äȤϡԤδ֤Ǥ褽ΰפߤƤ褦ȡ<x> /gz/ Ȥʤ餫ˤ뤳ȤפȤʤäƤ롥¤ϤˤĤƤϺ줿#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]) #2280. <x> á ([2015-07-25-1]) ǤڤƤפˡ³첻˶Ķ /ks/ /gz/ ؤͭȤֱѸˤˤ Verner's LawפΤȤ
夲 Dobson ϡEkwall ȤĤġ<x> /gz/ ˤϡֱѸˤˤ Verner's LawפǤԽʬǤꡤ⤦ä𤬤äȹͤƤ롥Dobson (II 359) 곺սѤ롥
In many words of Latin origin the consonant x is pronounced [gz]; as this occurs chiefly when the stress follows, the explanation has been advanced . . . that [gz] develops from [ks] by voicing before the stress. But Ekwall, §§150--1, rightly rejecting this view, has drawn attention to the parallel that exists between the English and French pronunciations of the words in question. It is apparent, especially from the Modern French pronunciation, that the medieval French (and English) pronunciation of Latin must have used [gz] for Latin x between vowels (as in ModFr exalter, exemple, examen, exécration &c.) and between a vowel and h (probably silent, as in ModFr exhalaison, exhaustif, exhiber, &c.), but [ks] for Latin x both before and after other consonants (as in ModFr expérience, &c. and anxiété). But at a later date (probably about 1500) the reform of the pronunciation of Latin led to the replacement of [gz] by [ks] for intervocalic x. By this change French pronunciation was little affected (but cf. [ks] in Alexandre), but English pronunciation was much altered, [ks] being introduced in many words. But the English tendency to use voiced consonants before the stress, which in the seventeenth century led to a voicing in this position of [s] to [z], influences the distribution of the old and new pronunciations: [gz] is retained in most words in which the stress follows (e.g. example, exert, exalt, exult, exhibit, Alexander, luxurious), but not in certain learned words (e.g. proximity, doxology, luxation), whereas [ks] has been substituted when the stress precedes (exodus, execute, exercise, &c.) except in derivatives which follow the simplex (exaltation, exultation); but there is some degree of variation, as usually when one pronunciation is replaced by another not phonetically developed from it.
¤˹äʤΤǤΤ褦ĹʸʤΤĤޤǸмΤ褦ˤʤ롥եȱѸǤϡx ĥƥѸ˴ؤơ첻˶ޤ줿ĶǤ [gz] ȤơҲܤˤ [ks] ȤȯƤȤ1500ǯ餤顤§Ȥƥƥ x [ks] ɤ٤Ȥȯãʲ餫εϰռȯͿˡ[gz] [ks] ؤΰؤʹԤΰؤŰ٤ϱʩ֤ǤۤʤäƤѸߤƤⲻĶˤäưۤʤäƤӤƤʤäĤޤꡤ[gz] ΤޤĤäñ⾯ʤʤä櫓Ǥ롥
ǴŪ˸ƤΤϤֱѸˤ Verner's LawפǤ롥Ʊˡ§ϡ̾ˤβĶˤ [ks] [gz] ؤѲˡ§Dobson λٻˤȡष [gz] [ks] ؤѲ˻ߤװˡ§Ȥʤ롥Dobson ǤֱѸˤ Verner's LawפϷɤΤȤͿƤΤ̾Ȥϰۤʤ뾯äˡǡ <x> /gz/ бطγΩ˹Ȥˤʤ롥
<x> /gz/ ɤˤƥȯʤäΤȤСߤ <x> /z/ ϤαĹˤȤ⤤롥ˤƤ xenon, Xerses ϡ⤽첻˶ޤ줿ĶפǤϤʤĶˤ x ΥʸƬ xˤʤΤǡˤΤ褦ʱĹˤȹͤƤ褤Τ褯ʬʤ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957. 2 vols.
Ekwall, E. Historische neuenglische Laut- und Formenlehre. 1922.
ɸбϡǤϤ뤬ꥷμѸθƬˤƤߤ롥㤨 xenon, xenophobia, xerox, xylophone, Xanadu, Xanthippe, Xavier, Xenia, Xerxes /z/ ǻϤޤ롥εǡ<x> /z/ бϡ<x> /gz/ 1ҲæˤΤȹͤޤסʡ#3654. x ǻϤޤñ줬ʤΤϤʤǤ ([2019-04-29-1])ˤȽҤ٤̤ꡤǥեȤб <x> /ks/ ͭǤǤ <x> /gz/ ȤбꤹСΤȤǤ롥ƬҲ /gz/ 1Ҳ /z/ ȤʤäȹͤФ褤
⤽ʤεʥǤϥǥեȤ <x> /ks/ ǤϤʤ<x> /gz/ ꤵʤФʤʤΤʢ̾Ųؤ̾ϻꤤǤ꤬ȤޤˡˤĤƿͤƤߤȤʤäΤǡĴ٤ƤߤѸȯŰŪ˸椷 Dobson ȤȡΤ褦ʸڤĤä (II 359)
PresE initial [z] in Xerxes, &c. is usually (and rightly) regarded as a reduction of [gz], but as French also has this pronunciation the reduction presumably occurred in the medieval pronunciation of Latin rather than in English itself. Cooper says that x in Xenophon is pronounced z, gz (for [gz]), or ks.
Dobson ϰճʤȤ˸ФƤ롥αѸüԤեüԤθƥȤȯȤˡ̵ /ks/ ǤϤʤͭ /gz/ ȤƼ¸뷹äȤºݡեǤ Xerxès, xènon /gzɛrsɛs/, /gzenɔ̃/ Τ褦 /gz/ ʹ롥ѸǤ⡤17βؼ Christopher Cooper /z/, /gz/, /ks/ ΤȯˤڤƤ̤ꡤɤϤäΤȻפ뤬餯 /ks/ /gz/ ޤ졤1Ҳæ /z/ ǽŪɸȯȤ夯Ȥˤʤäȹͤ롥
嵭ǤɸΡ֤ʤפε˿̤줿櫓ǤϤʤüʼѸθƬȤĶ /gz/ Ф줿ͳ䡤Ѹȥեδ֤ꤵƤοˤΤʬʤ
̤˱Ѹ <x> /gz/ ΩĶϡ(1) x 첻˶ޤƤꡤ (2) Ԥ첻˶ʤʢ³첻˶˾Ǥ롥ϡֱѸˤ Verner's Lawפȸ٤Τǡ#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1])#2280. <x> á ([2015-07-25-1]) ǿ줿̤Ǥ롥Τ褦 x ǻϤޤϡ̩ˤ (1) (2) ξƤϤޤ櫓ǤϤʤΤ³첻˶ʴ x ǻϤޤ뤽θƬġˤȤ (2) ˤƤϤޤΤ¿Dobson ⤳δˤǰƬ֤ƾθҤ٤ȤȤ褯ʬʤ
ˤĤĴ٤Ƥ뤦ˡѸ <x> /gz/ бŪаޤˤĤơDobson ñʡֱѸˤ Verner's LawפäܤƤ뤳ȤˤⵤդϢʤΤεǼ夲
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957.
ʲҤαƶǡ¿ؤμȤδĴϥ饤ȡʱּȡˤȤʤ븫ߤǤν°ؤ㳰ǤϤʤǯ٤λαѸˤ¾ιֵ⥪饤Ȥʤޤˤ狼˥饤Ȥ赤ŤƤεˡñѸˤ츻δؤ٤֤ޤˤͥ YouTube ưҲ𤷤Ȼפޤܥ֥μݤȤפؽưǤ
åȤˤ츻ñؤֳڤϢưǡñ¤ˤ褯Ƥޤ夫ϡֻդαѸˤؤǮۤäƤޤγ⡤Ǥʤ⡤ä˱Ѹˤ츻˴ؿäƤ館ФȻפޤ
ưκԤˡΥָ츻dzؤֱñô뤳ȤˤʤäаޤȤǤޤ
YouTube ͽ֤ӡϹαѸֻդŴ YouTube dzŤ줿Ѹֻեǥ˱礷辡˿ʽСͥƨΤΡưƤɾƤΥôƤ餦ӤȤʤޤޤưΥᥤåȤؼܻؤƱñФ褦ȤƤǤƱ˱Ѹ칥ͤˤڤǤ館ưˤʤ褦˰ռƺޤ
ǿƤѸֻեǥη辡ͻҤǤơָ츻dzؤֱñפΥΤΤ7Ϣ³ǺɤƲưؤΥϰʲ̤Ǥ
1ֱѸλϤޤ
2֥ˡ§ǷҤñ
3ָűѸͳƬ/ưθˡ
4Ʊ츻ΰճñ
5֥νȸťΥɸ
6֥ʸˡͿƶ
ǽ֤ʤѸˤ줬¿Τ
ԤοĿФϡʸظʱʸ칶β˺ҤѸˤ칶ƤޤĤޤȤȤʤΤǤɤ
űѸ3;̾ζɽˤĤơ#155. űѸο;̾ζޡ ([2009-09-29-1]) ǤߤȤñǤʣǤ⡤鷺η֤ h- ǻϤޤ롥ŪˤߤСűѸ h- 3;̾ޡεǽ̤ƤȤäƤ褤礦ɸѸ th- ŪؼŪʸΥޡǤꡤwh- ɽ魯ΥޡǤΤƱ褦
ʬ䤹ħǤϤ뤬ʤȤˡħѸˤ3;̾ζηϤȺ⤿餷ʤΤǤ롥űѸǤϡh- ³ʬ첻ΰ㤤ˤʤٶ̤Ƥ䤬ƶοʿȡʤζ̤ƤޤäȤиűѸ hē (he), hēo (she), hīe (they) ѸǤϡˤ뤬ˤ hi ʤɤη֤˼̤Ƥޤäh- ΤΤѲʤäˡäƺ褿Ȥˤʤä櫓ĤƤϡʬ䤹ħפä h- षո̤ȤʤäƤޤäȤˤʤ롥
ǡ褹٤Υᥫ˥बưh- ǤϤʤ̤λҲƬˤ she ñʤˡϤۤʤҲƬˤ they ʣʤ˿ʽФѸޤǤ˸ŷ֤ΤǤʤ˴ؤ̤ˤĤƤϡ#713. "though" "they" Ʊ۵͡ ([2011-04-10-1])#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1])#974. 3;̾μʷ˺Ѥ۲ ([2011-12-27-1])#975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1])#1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1])#2331. Ѹˤ3;ʣ̾ʳŪ th- ([2015-09-14-1]) ȡˡ
ơűѸˤ h- ϶Ūˤ3;̾ޡäȽҤ٤̻Ūˤߤȡɤñ h- ʣ h- ϵۤʤ褦Ĥޤꡤh- ϸűѸޤǤ˷Ūˡʬ䤹ħפȤʤäˤˤξϱ郎ʤäΤȤLass (141) Ȥ Marsh (15) ϡñ h- ϰĸľ *k- ˤΤܤꡤʣ h- ϰĸλؼ̾ *ei- ? -i- ˤΤܤȤԤԤ˴Ť (analogy) ˤꡤ夫 h- դȤȤ餷ĹŪˤߤСѤϸűѸˤƤͭѤʥޡȤƲä⤿餷ѸˤƤϤषǤѤȲǤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʤǽҤ٤ƤȤ̷⤹뤬#467. ;̾ it θƬ /h/ äݤ ([2010-08-07-1]) Ȥ⤢ΤǤ⻲ȡ
Marsh, Jeannette K. "Periods: Pre-Old English." Chapter 1 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1--18.
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ѸˤϤߤʤ²¿θǤϷƻ (adjective) ˶ (inflection) ߤ롥˥ޥɤνˤƤϡƻޤ˴ؤợŪʴ鶯Ѳ (strong declension) ȼѲ (weak declension) 2ζ̤ߤʳơξˤĤƤϡ#687. ޥɤηƻζѲȼѲ ([2011-03-15-1]) ȡˡΤ褦ʶζ̤ϡޥɤħ1ĤȤƤꡤӸŪ˶̣cf. #182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])ˡ
ѸǤϡűѸˤϤζ̤Τˤߤ줿ѸˤƶοʿʹԤȡƱ̤ϤθˤƼƤäcf. #688. ѸηƻηϤοʿ ([2011-03-16-1])#2436. ƻʣޤ -e ѸޤǻĤäͳ ([2015-12-28-1]) ˡѸϡƻζޤζ̤ϤޤΤΤäƤꡤʬޥŪǤŪǤʤʤäƤȤ롥
űѸˤƻζѲȼѲζޤ#250. űѸζɽΥ祳 ([2010-01-02-1]) ȴФƤ

ǤϡʤűѸ䤽¾ΥޥˤϷƻζޤ˶ζ̤Τΰ㤤ܤ뤳Ȥˤꡤƶ뤳ȤǤ롥ѲޥѥįƤߤȡ̾춯ѲޤȻؼ̾ޤξѥߤƤ뤳Ȥ˵դϡƻ줬Ȥ֤̾ȤơʶѲ̾ŪʶޤƤȤˡؼ̾ζޥѥʬŪ˿ƤΤȹͤʤ⤦ܤϡ#2560. űѸηƻ춯Ѳޤ̾̾κѥ ([2016-04-30-1]) ȡˡ
ѲζޥѥϡħŪ n ޤǼѲ̾ζޥѥˤäǤ롥Ϥƻ̩̾ܤʴطˤäΤѲ̾ζޤŵŪˤߤ n εϰĸ *-en-/-on- ˤȤ졤ϥƥ䥮ꥷ̾ˤФи (ex. Cato(nis) "smart/shrewd (one)", Strabōn "squint-eyed (one)") Τ褦ʸͭ̾Ѥ뤳Ȥ顤ɤѲޤϸ̲εǽ̤褦Ǥ롥ȤȡűѸηƻѲޤȼ se blinda mann "the blind man" ȤϡȤ "the blind one, a man" ۤɤƱŪʶäȹͤ롥줬䤬ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ޤȤʸˡƤȤ߹ޤƤȤˤʤäΤ
ʾ塤Marsh (13--14) Ȥơʤޥɤηƻ˶2ζޤΤ˴ؤ1ĤҲ𤷤
Marsh, Jeannette K. "Periods: Pre-Old English." Chapter 1 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1--18.
ϢŪư want 夲餫γ٤ѸˤƤ (cf. [2020-04-08-1], [2020-04-09-1], [2020-04-10-1]) want ;ưȤѤƤˤĤƿ줿;ư졦ʸΤ餤ˤϡ#204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1]) ȡ
ߤǤߤͤˡߤΤŪΩI want refreshment. Τ褦Ѥ롥want Ȥơַ礤Ƥפ̣ŤѸǤϡ Want (to) me of refreshment. Τ褦ˡ˳ƤͤͿʡʤ뤤 to ˤˡ礱ƤΤ°ʡʤ뤤 of ˤŵŪˤȤ;ιʸʻѤƤ;ιʸεϡwant Ȥ켫ΤεƱͤ˸ťΥɸˤ롥OED want, v. θ츻εҤߤƤߤ褦
The early Scandinavian verb was originally impersonal (personal uses in the individual Scandinavian languages reflect later developments); in English this is reflected by sense 2. Levelling of cases in Middle English made it possible for the object of the impersonal construction (often in initial position) to take over the function of the subject of a new personal construction, allowing further sense developments. For a detailed discussion see M. Bertschinger To Want: an Essay in Semantics (1941).
εҤˤСťΥɸǤϤष;ιʸȤƤˡꥸʥǤꡤ;ιʸϸȯãȤȤˤʤ롥ѸǤư want νФ1175ǯ Ormulum ǡǤˡ;ιʸ֤ʤ1200ǯ Sawles Warde ;ιʸȤƤλѤߤ롥λ¤顤Ѹ˼Ƥ줿ꡤꥸʥ;ιʸȡ;βʹʸȤʻѤƤȹͤΤ
θ츻ΰѤ˲⤵Ƥ want ο;ββϡ¾;ưο;βˤƤϤޤꡤɸŪȤƹƤΤǤ롥ȤͿʷɽ蘆Ƥֿ͡פФư֤ΩäȡޤޤοȳʤͻФˤꡤʷ֤졤ư줬̣ŪŪ˿;βȤή֤ΡפŵŪ°ʡʤ뤤 of ˤɽ줿ޤοȳʤͻη̡̣ŪŪưľŪȤƺƲᤵ˻ä
OED ַ礤ƤפθǤ;ιʸν㷲褦
c1225 (?c1200) Sawles Warde (Bodl.) (1938) 16 (MED) Of al þet eauer wa is ne schal ham neauer wontin.
?c1225 (?a1200) Ancrene Riwle (Cleo. C.vi) (1972) 298 Ne þunche hire neauer wunder ȝef hire wonti þe haligastes froure.
?c1225 (?a1200) Ancrene Riwle (Cleo. C.vi) (1972) 145 Hwenne ow ne wonteð nan þing þefaȝeneð wið ow.
a1325 (c1250) Gen. & Exod. (1968) l. 2155 Ðan coren wantede in oðer lond, Ðo ynug [was] vnder his hond.
a1400 (a1325) Cursor Mundi (Vesp.) l. 3053 þam wanted brede, þeir water es gan, Hope o lijf ne had þai nan.
OED ˤȡwant ;ιʸκǽ "1830 T. P. Thompson in Westm. Rev. Jan. 262 There wants a collection of dying speeches of nefarious governments." ȤꡤǤѤȤʤäƤ롥
Ϣ want ȤѸŪ˷겼뵭Ƥʲ [2020-04-08-1] [2020-04-09-1]ˡϸ t ˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ѸˤζʽʤɤǤϡwant Τ褦Ūñ줬ťΥɸ줫μѸǤȤΤ϶ä٤ȤȤƤФиڤ롥ޤ t ťΥɸηƻǤ뤳ȤŦcf. #1253. ťΥɸαƶܡ ([2012-10-01-1])ˡ t äƤϰճȹä𤬤롥
#3999. want αѸ --- 츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2020-04-08-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸ̾ want ư want Ȥϸ촴ΤƱäƤϩϰۤʤ롥̾ want ϡťΥɸηƻ vanr ʷ礤ˤ˶ޤ vant Ȥ֤̾ŪѤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥ư want ϸťΥɸư vanta ʷ礯礤Ƥˤͳ褹롥Ĥޤꡤ캬б wan ʬ̤ȤߤƤ褤 t ˴ؤƤϡ̾ξˤϷƻͳ褹ȤʤФʤ餺ưξˤϡ̤Ĵˤޤ̤ͳ褬ȤȤˤʤ롥äơwant t ϷƻǤȤʽŪʻŦϡ̾ȤƤ want ˤΤƤϤޤȤȤ
ư t ˤĤƤĴ٤뤳ȤˤǤ϶ʽǸڤ롤̾ t ƻͳ褹ˤĤƷ겼Ǥ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡťΥɸ vanr Ϸƻǡ?礤Ƥ (lacking) ̣ʸűѸηƻ wana ƱˡťΥɸǤϡ줬 be ưȤ߹蘆ä;ιʸOED want, adj. and n.2 θ츻ˡΤ褦˵Ҥ롥
Old Icelandic vant (neuter singular adjective) is used predicatively in expressions of the type vera vant to be lacking, typically with the person lacking something in the dative and the thing that is lacking in the genitive and with vant thus behaving similarly to a noun (compare e.g. var þeim vettugis vant they were lacking nothing, they had want of nothing, or var vant kýr a cow was missing, there was want of a cow).
ƻȤƤ vanr vantˤϡĤޤ "was VANT to them of nothing" ˤȤäƲ礱ƤʤäˤΤ褦˼Τʤ;ιʸˤѤƤȤȤǤ롥ˡۤɹ٤äΤťΥɸüԤܿѸüԤϡ˶ޤ vant 켫Τ촴Ǥ뤫Τ褦˲ᤷƬҲѸ첽Ĥ t ߤ want ַ˳פ̣̾ȤƼƤȹͤ롥
μѤˤƤϡ¦üԤʸˡ̤ƤʤꡤޤƸ촴ȴ㤤ơָפȤƼǤޤϤǤ⤢äºݡƻͳ褹 t ¾Ȥơscant ˳, thwart ʲڤäơ, wight ͦʡˡquart ʷʡˤʤɤ롥
Ϣơե -er ޤޤޱѸ˼ޤ줿 cesser, detainer, dinner, merger, misnomer, remainder, surrender ʤɤ⡤̣ȤˤĤƤϡ#220. supper ([2009-12-03-1])#221. dinner ([2009-12-04-1]) ȡ
ε#3999. want αѸ --- 츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2020-04-08-1]) ǡwant ַ礤ƤעɬפǤעߤפȤ̣ѲФƤȤ̣ѲȤäƤ͡ʥפ롥Ṭ̌ A ̣ B ˴˼ä뤳Ȥ⤢С̣ B Ṭ̌ A Ѥ餺Ĥꡤ̤Ȥξΰ̣¤ΩäƤȤ⤢롥Ԥξ硤̻ŪˤߤʣθѤƤɽǤ뤷ŪˤߤФθ¿ (polysemy) ɽǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥want ϤޤˤθԤǤꡤΡߤפȤŪͥˤϰ㤤ʤǤŤַ礤Ƥפθ⡤˸ŤɬפǤפθĤäƤ롥
ʲŤᤫʸ⤢뤬(1)--(3) Ǥϡַ礤Ƥפθ(4)--(6) ǤϡɬפǤפθǧ롥
(1) She wants courage. ˤͦʤ
(2) The time wants ten minutes to four. 410ʬ
(3) The sum wanted two dollars of the desired amount. ʤζۤϴ˾ۤ2ɥʤä
(4) This dirty floor wants a scrub. ʤα줿Ϥɬפ롥
(5) This CD player wants repairing. ʤCDץ졼䡼Ͻɬפ롥
(6) Your hair wants to be cut. ʷȱӤϴɬפ롥
(5) Τ褦ư̾줬³ʸϡ̣ŪˤϼȤȤʤ need ˡƱǤcf. #3605. This needs explaining. --- need ư̾פιʸ ([2019-03-11-1])ˡ
̾ want ƱͤǡŤɬספθŪʤĤäƤ롥The homeless are in want of shelter. ʥۡ쥹ϱϪΤƤ롥ˤǤϡwant need ֤ƤѤ롥ޤַ˳פθ for want of . . . ?ΤˡˤȤ˻ĤäƤ롥 for lack of . . . ȸ뤳ȤǤ롥Mother Goose Ƹ (nursery rhyme) ˡζ֤Ȥͭ̾ʤΤ롥
For want of a nail the shoe was lost. ţʤΤŴǤƤʤ For want of a shoe the horse was lost. ŴǤƤʤΤϤʤ For want of a horse the rider was lost. ϤʤΤǵΤʤ For want of a rider the battle was lost. ΤʤΤ襤ʤ For want of a battle the kingdom was lost. 襤ʤΤǹǤӤ And all for the want of a horseshoe nail. ٤ƤŴţʤä
¿γؽϤФʤθ줬¿ʤΤͤƤߤȤ⤷˰̣ѲФƤǡŤξ˿ѤƤǽ⤤Ȥ櫓̣Ѳ˶μŵФ֤ƤǤ롥
硼 T. åץ ƻ ϻ إåץѸ츻ŵ١罤ۡ2009ǯ
Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.
⤷ȱѲäǺǤѽФɽ I want to . . . ⤷ʤʤȤȥ٥ѲäǤϡǫ I'd like to . . . ¤Ǻǽɽ1ĤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ줵Ȥʤк¤ѤΤǤϤʤȻפۤɤδɽǤ롥ºݡ#2096. SUBTLEX-US Word Frequency List ([2015-01-22-1]) ˤä٥ꥹȤˤСwant Ϥʤ62̤Ǥ롥Ķ٤ñȤäƤ褤
¤Ϥ want Ȥѽиܤǡʤ¿ΤȤ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϤ뤬want αѸˡפŸ뤳ȤǽʤΤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ǡ鲿ˤ錄äơwant αѸˡפΥϤ롥Ȥʤ뺣ϡwant θ츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ (semantic_change) ܤ롥
want ϸ츻ŪˤФ⤽ʱñǤϤʤۤɹ٤ñ줬ѸǤʤȤΤ϶ä¤Ǥ롥ưϸťΥɸ (old_norse) μѸʡ#2625. ťΥɸ줫μѸ ([2016-07-04-1]) ȡˡťΥɸư vanta ?礤Ƥˤͳ褹뤬켫Τϥޥĸ *wan-ˤϰĸ *wā ˤΤܤ롥礱Ρַ礱פ̣ wane 䡤ƥ vānus (empty) ͳ褹 vain ⤳ΰ캬ͭƤ롥ϡַ礱ƤפǤ롥
ťΥɸư vanta ѸǤ wante(n) ȤƼƤ줿λ1200ǯΤȤǤ롥ǤθϤϤַ礤ƤפǤꡤۤƱ̾ȤƼ줿ݤθַ˳פäĤޤꡤϡߤפθϤʤѸˤַ礤Ƥפ̣ˤȤɤޤä
Ѹ⽪˶Ť15ȾˡɬפǤפθ礱ƤʤΤСͤϤɬפȤ뤫ΰ̣Ѳϡե il me faut ʸϡֻˤ?礱Ƥפֻˤ?ɬפפΰ̣Ѥˤˤ㤬ߤ롥ѸȡϢư̾ˤɬספθää³ơΤɬפȤʤСͤϤߤΤƻǡߤפθդä뤳Ȥˤʤä礱ƤСɬפȤˤߤ褦ˤʤȤϢϡƼʰ̴طǤ롥ȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) ˤ̣ѲȤäƤ褤
ȤǡΡߤפȤǤνФ OED ˤ1621ǯΤȤǤ롥want to do ˻äƤϽ㤬1698ǯǤ롥˳ΤνиȤȤǤС18ԤʤФʤʤäȤäƤ褤ߤǤĶĤۤ٤ι⤤ȤʤäƤ뤬ˤϤ餯300ǯۤɤʤȤȤˤʤ롥Ȥäλ¤
apple, cat, man ˴ޤޤ첻ϡܸüԤˤȤäƤǤܸΡ֥פǤʤС֥פǤʤֲȤȤʤΤȾüʹޤʤǤϡ֥פ2ʸǽΤᤤȻפޤȯȤƤϤޤñ첻ǤΤդɬפǤβϡݲɸʸ (ipa) ǤϤޤ a e Ȥ߹碌 [æ] ɽޤ
[æ] ˤĤơŪˤ͡˲Ǥޤ˴ŤؽˡƳˡ⤢ȤϻפޤʲؤǤ첻շˤĤƤϡ#19. 첻շ ([2009-05-17-1]) ȡˡǤϱѸˤδ餳첻ˤĤƹͻȻפޤɸμ˿øΤΤǤŪطʤǤΤäƤȥ뤫⤷ޤ
ä2000ǯۤΡ˥ޥĸλˤΤܤޤ礦ȤʤäƤ첻ȯϡܸĥΥץʡ֥= [a] ǤȤ700--1100ǯθűѸλޤǤˡȯ˺ݤƤ幽ꡦʤĤޤ֥״ˤȤʤꡤ [æ] ȤʤޤʸȤ <a> Ȥ̤ <æ> Ф줿ΤƱǤ㤨иűѸΡ֤פ æppel ʤɤ֤ޤˡűѸΤʸ "ash" ȸƤФޤäȸ19Ⱦ˹ݲɸʸꤵ줿Ȥˡ첻ɽ魯ȤƺѤ뤳ȤˤʤޤĤޤꡤűѸ <æ> ˤꡤȯ [æ] ϸˤҼڤΤˤޤʤεդǤϤʤΤաˡ
ơűѸ [æ] ϡѸˤʤȾꡦ [a] ز뷹ޤΤˤСűѸ줫³ [æ] ⴰ˼줿櫓ǤϤʤΤǡ[a] [æ] ͥȤʤäɽƤޤ礦[a] ͥȤʤäᤫλˤʸ <æ> ѤʤʤꡤѸΥե٥åȤʱ˾äƤޤʤ19ȯȤơפȤϾ嵭̤Ǥˡ
³ѸˤϡƤ [æ] ᤷ[a] Ȥʤޤơ[æ] ϸˤƤ³Ĥ [a] ϳɤʧƤޤޤ
Ĥޤꡤ2000ǯۤɤδ֡ܤƤ첻ϡ[a] [æ] [a] ? [æ] [æ] ? [a] [æ] Τ褦˹Ԥä褿֤ƤΤǤʡ?פɤɽ路ޤˡߤ [æ] λȤȤˤʤޤɸȯǤȤǡüԸĿͤˤäƤ [a] ⤢ޤɤˤǤ礦Τ褦ʾϡΤ⤪褽ƱäϤǤ
ʤΤ褦˿Ҥ³ƤΤϤ褯ʬޤ1ĸ뤳ȤϡѸˤ̤ơβ̯ȯΰ㤤ʤƱݤ³ƤȤȤǤŪˤϡƱ첻ǤǤ³Ƥפɽޤˡ塤ƤӿҤơѸ˾岿ܤΥץ [a] = ֥פز夬äƤ뤫⤷ޤ͡ʤܸüԤˤȤäƤϳڤǤ礦
ʾ塤Minkova (199--200) ͤˤƼɮޤ
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ʥ륹ҤǥɤȤʤäƤ뽸Ĵ̣֥饹סϺɱ꤬324ΥĥǡϢɽΥʸѤ˵ꤲƤ
θˤĤƸ츻Ĵ٤ƤߤθϥޥϤǤϤʤʵȻפäƤΤȤäclay Ǵڡˡcleat ʳߤ, clout ۡ, clot ǴڤʤɤβˤʤɤȤ츻Ū˴طǴڤΤ褦ʤ٤ĤΡפȤĸθ캬ˤΤܤȤ
OED cluster, n ˤȡűѸǤνФθϡ֥֥ɥ˼פǤ롥ƥ botrum ȤƻȤƤ롥ǽ3褦
a800 Corpus Gloss. 318 (O.E.T. 45) Botrum, clystri.
c1000 in T. Wright & R. P. Wülcker Anglo-Saxon & Old Eng. Vocab. (1884) I. 139/7 Bacido, botrus, clyster.
c1000 Ælfric Deut.'' xxxii. 32 [sic]Ðæt biteroste clyster.
θ塤Ѹ줫Ѹˤơоݤ֥ɥ˸¤餺¾βʪ˼˹ꡤ¾οʪʤɤˤ礷ˡưʪʹ֡ʪʪˤĥ줿Τ褦ʻؼоݤγϡΰ̣ѲǤϤ褯ߤѥǤ롥䷲佸ĤǤвǤȤƤޤȤФʤΤŵŪʶɽȤΤϤ롥a cluster of cottages, a small cluster of people, a cluster of stars, clusters of grapes, flower cluster ʤɤǤʡַפɽˤĤƤϡ#1868. Ѹ͡ʡַס ([2014-06-08-1]) ȡ#1894. Ѹ͡ʡַסܸ͡ʡֱס ([2014-07-04-1]) ȡˡ
ؤǤϡҲϢˤĤ consonant cluster Τ褦˻Ȥ (cf. #3960. Ҳûλ ([2020-02-29-1])) ƺΥ륹ҤΤ褦µξˤĤƤθϡ1910ǯ˽ФƤ롥OED ꤽνޤʸ4ĵƤ
Medicine. A number of cases of the same (usually uncommon) disease grouped closely together with regard to time or place (or both).
1910 Rep. Microbiol. Lab. 1909 (New S. Wales Govt. Bureau of Microbiol.) ii. 51 A cluster of cases of apparently fly-borne typhoid occurred round the house.
1943 Lancet 7 Aug. 170/2 The measures necessary to combat an outbreak of cholera include..tracing each case or cluster of cases to its source.
1968 Fresno (Calif.) Bee 4 Aug. a12/7 Cancer clusters occur only now and then.
2009 N.Y. Times (National ed.) 30 Apr. a14/3 Each time a [bird flu] cluster appears, the public health authorities try to cull all the local poultry, vaccinate birds in a large ring around that, and drop the 'Tamiflu blanket' on people-dosing everyone in the area.
Ǹʸ11ǯΡĻե륨פ˴ؤΤΥ륹Ҥǿ̵ʸޤƤޤȤˤʤ롥쵤٤ޤäƤ뤳ȤǰʤܸΡ֥饹פꡥ
#2047. ΥޥαѸ˾ΰյ ([2014-12-04-1]) 䤽¾ε (norman_conquest) ǡ1066ǯ̾ʻΤıѸˤؤΥѥȤ͡˾Ҳ𤷤ƤMengden (29--30) ϻΰյȡ褦ȤƤ롥յϳΤ礭Ĵ줹ʤΤǤϤʤȤƤߤ褦
The events of the year 1066 seem to have been the consequence of a series of steps by the Norman nobility to gain political influence in England --- a development always accompanied by support from an influential pro-Norman party in the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy. It is therefore feasible to assume that the intensity of French influence, although traceable, is not considerably greater in the years immediately following the Norman Conquest than it is before. From this perspective, the Norman Conquest stabilizes, but by no means ignites or reinforces, the growing intensity of Anglo-Norman relations. As such, William's victory at Hastings may be seen as one of several important events that pave the way for the enormous influence that French exerts on English in the 13th and 14th centuries. The beginnings of this development are clearly part of the history of Old English rather than of Middle English.
ݥȤϡΥޥեʸˤαѸؤαƶϻ餢ꡤˤäƤ˳礷櫓ǤϤʤȤθ塤θ̤兩ȸƤȤΤϳΤŪˤϿ³ȤˤʤեˤƶΤʤ˰֤ŤʤС1066ǯȾ1ޤˤʤγϤפȤߤΤǤС1066ǯǤϤʤθűѸŦʤФʤʤΤ褦ʵ
ܤǤϤ뤬Ĥλ¤ŦƤꡤ⤷ȻפϢơ#2685. ɤȥΥޥǥδطϥΥޥ ([2016-09-02-1])#302. űѸΥեѸ ([2010-02-23-1]) ȡ
Mengden, Ferdinand von. "Periods: Old English." Chapter 2 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 19--32.
Dumfriesshire Ruthwell Cross ϡűѻ The Dream of the Rood Ҥ롼ʸǹޤ줿ͭ̾Ǥ롥8ƬΤΤȹͤƤ롥˸űѸ쥢ե٥åȤž "kristwæsonrodi" ɤʸ롥ʬ "krist wæs on rodi" (Crist was on the rood) Ȥʤ롥űѸʸˡˤСǸֻ̾ on ˻ۤƤꡤǤͿʷ rode ȤʤϤºݤˤη rodi ѤƤΤǡʸؾȤƤ10 Vercelli Book ˼ƤƱʤбսǤϡ̤ on rode Ȥˡʤ rodi η֤ȤʤäƤ롥
ʸνְ㤤Ħְ㤤Ȥ٤ˤǤϤʤȤո⤢С¾̾쥯饹η֤ǤϤʤȤޤѶŪ˸õȤߤ⤢äƤ夲 Lass ϡ̤γ٤ rodi ʬˤ֤Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤷ε#3994. űѸͿʷε ([2020-04-03-1]) ǤѤ褦ˡLass ϥޥγʤͻ (syncretism) βʣäȹͤƤ롥Ȥ櫓 Ruthwell Cross ˤߤ褦ʺǽθűѸʸˤơθŵŪűѸʸˡͽ¬Ǥʤ֤ȤȤϽʬˤ뤷षʤۤȼĥ롥θԤϡ龯Ǥæ֤ϥ顼ȹͤƤޤޤǤŵ줿űѸʸˡκˤʤäƤꡤ¤θѰۤ¿˻פڤ뤳Ȥ˺ƤޤäƤΤǤϤʤȸĴƤLass (400) Ϥλ "classicism" ȸƤǤˡ˴ؤ Lass (401) ηϼ̤ꡥ
A final verdict then on rodi: not only does it not stand in need of special 'explanation', we ought to be very surprised if it or something like it didn't turn up in the early materials, and probably assume that the paucity of such remains is a function of the paucity of data. The fact that a given declension will show perhaps both -i and -æ datives (or even -i and -æ and -e) in very early inscriptions and glosses is a matter of profound historical interest. We have as it were caught a practicing bricoleur in the act, experimenting with different ways of cobbling together a noun paradigm out of the materials at hand. Morphological change is not neogrammarian, declensions are not stable or water-tight (they leak, as Sapir said of grammars), and --- most important --- the reconstruction of a new system out of the disjecta membra of an old and more complex one is bound to be marked by false starts and afterthoughts, and therefore a certain amount of 'irregularity'. It is also bound to take time, and the shape we encounter will depend on where in its trajectory of change we happen to catch it. Systems in process of reformation will be messy until a final mopping-up can be effected.
εθդ֤С pure Ǥ purist Ǥʤ
Lass, Roger. "On Data and 'Datives': Ruthwell Cross rodi Again." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 92 (1991): 395--403.
ε#3993. Ǥư쥫ƥκ̾ⵯ䤹ä ([2020-04-02-1]) ǡűѸ̾Ϳ (dative) ε˿줿Ϳʡåʡʡ̳ʤȤˤо˴ؤ4Ĥγʤͻ (syncretism) ơʡͿʡפȤޤѤäȤȤäˤĤơLass (Old English 128--29) ˤʹƤߤ褦
The transition from late IE to PGmc involved a collapse and reformation of the case system; nominative, genitive and accusative remained more or less intact, but all the locational/movement cases merged into a single 'fourth case', which is conventionally called 'dative', but in fact often represents an IE locative or instrumental. This codes pretty much all the functions of the original dative, locative, ablative and instrumental. A few WGmc dialects do still have a distinct instrumental sg for some noun classes, e.g. OS dag-u, OHG tag-u for 'day' vs. dat sg dag-e, tag-e; OE has collapsed both into dative (along with locative, instrumental and ablative), though some traces of an instrumental remain in the pronouns . . .
ʤͻä䤳ʤ꤬ʤΤϡͻ礹˶̤ƤʣγʤΤ1Ĥ̾Фơͻ1ĤȤʤäΤ˳Ƥ뷹뤫űѸξˤ⡤Ϳʡåʡʡ̳ʤͻ礷1ĤˤʤäȤΤʬ뤬ʤʳʤϡͿʡפ̾դ뤳ȤˤʤäΤŪˤСͿʷϸŤͿʷʬŪˤϼѤǤ뤬षʷκפǻ
ŪˤСͿʣŵŪʶ -um ζʣͳ褹롥ͿñˤĤƤϡޥįƤߤȡ̾Υ饹ˤäƵʣ褷ƤΤͿʷˤΤܤΤ⤢Сʷ̳ʷˤΤܤΤ⤢롥űѸͿñˤĤƤС褽ͿʷˤΤܤȹͤƤ褵ˤƤⵯ˹äƤ롥
Lass ̤ͤǿͿʤ "local" ("Data" 398) ȤǤƤۤ褤ĤġޥĸʸʣʷаޤäƤƤ ("Data" 399)
. . . all the dialects have generalized an old instrumental in */-m-/ for 'dative' plural (Gothic -am/-om/-im, OE -um, etc. . . ). But the 'dative' singular is a different matter: traces of dative, locative and instrumental morphology remain scattered throughout the existing materials.
פˡűѸ䥲ޥͿʤϡ֤νпȤõʤСִӡפȤäƤ褤ʪǤ롥ӤȤȤǤС#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) Dz⤷ be ưξȰۤʤʤbe ư͡ʷ֤⡤4Ĥΰۤʤ캬줿ΤޤƼ佼ˡ (suppletion) ƱͤǤ롥 pure Ǥ purist Ǥʤ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Lass, Roger. "On Data and 'Datives': Ruthwell Cross rodi Again." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 92 (1991): 395--403.
ӸؤȰˤߤƤȡʸˡƥ䤽ΥСν̸űѸȤˤǰƬˤƤ⡤Ȥưβη֤ϡˤΰĸˤ봰λ (perfect) ̵ (aorist) η֤ˤΤܤ롥ưλꥫƥˤäȤȤ cf. #2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥȤؤ ([2015-03-20-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1])ˡ
ۤˤϡĸưεˡ (optative) ³ˡ (subjunctive) ǤϤȤȰۤʤ֤ȤäƤűѸޤǤԤη֤Ԥ߹ɽȤʤäο֤դ줿̾Τ³ˡפ顤䤳cf. #3538. Ѹ subjunctive ֤ϰĸ optative ֤ ([2019-01-03-1])ˡ
̾ˤƱͤθݤߤ롥űѸͿ (dative) ϡͿʡåʡ (instrumental)̳ʤʤɤǽŪ˵ۼΤ־εˤϵ롥űѸηƻ졤졤̾ʤɤˤ鷺˺פĤʤ⡤ŪˤζʤѤΤǤϤʤȤ (Marsh 14) ¤ˤ䤳Τ
Clackson (114) ϡˤư쥫ƥκ̾ⵯ䤹äȤͳϰʲ̤ꡥ
In the documented history of many IE languages, the verbal system has undergone complex restructuring, while the nominal system remains largely unaltered. . . . It appears, in Indo-European languages at least, that verbal systems undergo greater changes than nouns. If this is the case, it is not difficult to see why. Verbs typically refer to processes, actions and events, whereas nouns typically refer to entities. Representations of events are likely to have more salience in discourse, and speakers seek new ways of emphasising different viewpoints of events in discourse.
It is certainly true that . . . the verbal systems of the earliest IE languages are less congruent to each other than the nominal paradigms. The reconstruction of the PIE verb is correspondingly less straightforward, and there is greater room for disagreement. Indeed, there is no general agreement even about what verbal categories should be reconstructed for PIE, let alone the ways in which these categories were expressed in the verbal morphology. The continuing debate over the PIE verb makes it one of the most exciting and fast-moving topics in comparative philology.
ȤȤϡ̣Ūˤư쥫ƥΤۤʣǰȤȤͽۤ줽Τ˰ŪˤäơŪ̾ưŪưΤۤˤȤΤϹ
Marsh, Jeannette K. "Periods: Pre-Old English." Chapter 1 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1--18.
Clackson, James. Indo-European Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 2007.
鿷ǯ٤Ǥʥ륹αƶؤμȤ쥮顼ˤϻϤޤޤǯ٤λDZѸˤ˼ȤǤޤ礦
ǯαѸˤμȤǤϡBaugh and Cable ˤѸˤθŵŪ̾ A History of the English Language ƥȤȤƤޤԤΤΤ2013ǯ˽Ф6Ǥǡ (2013) ˥ӥ塼ޤ#2182. Baugh and Cable αѸ6ǡ ([2015-04-18-1]) ε⤴
伫Ȥ˺ƤΤǤ褽1ǯۤΡؽɽ͡32902019ǯ524ˤƱȤƵƤޤڡκǸˡֺλ餳ɤޤ٤Ѹ˴ؤ붵ܽǤꡤƱǤ⤢ޤפȽޤǤ褯ǤܽǤʤ顤Ѹˤ칶ԤȤƲܤɤǤɬ餫ȯΤǤԤϡʿפʸϤܻؤĤĤ⡤ɽ̤͡ʥ٥ˤĤƥҥȤФΤʤΤȻפޤ
Ѹˤ˸¤餺֡ˡפǤäˤζʽȤΤϡǤλ̿Ǥ褯ǤˤζʽϡΩƤܼƤޤɤɬפǤɤήǡܼäؽȤΤγؽˡǤ#2089. Baugh and Cable αѸ˳ܼ ([2015-01-15-1]) ɤ
ѸˤΤܤϤۤˤ⤢ޤǯǤǤ#3635. Ѹ˳ν2019ǯǡˡ ([2019-04-10-1])
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ǦֿҲAlbert C. BAUGH & Thomas CABLE, A History of the English Language, Sixth edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ, Pearson, 2013, 446+xviii p., $174.07ס5桤2013ǯ159ǡ
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