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츫ȿ1Ĥθ줬ȿ2Ĥθľ礬롥Τ褦ʸ contronym ȸƤФ졤ϡ#566. contronym ([2010-11-14-1]) #755. contronym ȤƤ literally ([2011-05-22-1]) #1308. learn Ρֶפθ ([2012-11-25-1]) ǵ⤦1ĤȤơư spare Ȥʤ뤫⤷ʤʸɤμȤǡΤ褦ʸ˽Ф路
But she does not spare us the information that it was drafted by a 'Marxist', even though there is nothing Marxist in the reasoning of the letter.
ʸ̮ȤȡϤ줬ޥ륯Ԥˤäƽ줿Ȥ桹˱ʤפȲ᤹٤Ȥ狼ꡤäƤǤ spare ϡͿʤǤפθȤ狼Τˤ spare ˤϡͿפθ⤢뤫狼ˤȻŦʤۤɡư spare ¼ŵǰȡˡͿ롤äƤ䤯פȤäȻפȡ̤θǤϡͿʤǤĤΤ줵פȤ롥ˡξȤ˺Τ褦 SVOO ʸǽǤꡤ츫ȤŪξʬʤϤʤ
Τ褦ʾˤϡܸǹͤˡѱѼŵѤƱѸˤðǰɤ߲Τ褤㤨 OALD8 ˤȡܸͿפΤϰʲθǤ롥
TIME/MONEY/ROOM/THOUGHT, ETC.
1 to make sth such as time or money available to sb or for sth, especially when it requires an effort for you to do this
. . . .
? sb sth Surely you can spare me a few minutes?
θǤϡľŪȤʤ̾礬̣Ū˸ꤵƤ뤳Ȥդ֡⡤ڡʤɤλǤ롥Ūɽ蘆ʪˤȤäơֳݡפ뤳ȤåȤȤʤ롥ˡͿʤǤפߤ褦
SAVE SB PAIN/TROUBLE
2 to save sb/yourself from having to go through an unpleasant experience
? sb/yourself sth He wanted to spare his mother any anxiety.
Please spare me (= do not tell me) the gruesome details.
You could have spared yourself an unnecessary trip by phoning in advance.
θǤϡľŪȤʤ̾ϡԲʷиפɽ魯Ǥ롥Ūɽ蘆ʪˤȤäơֲפ뤳ȤåȤȤʤ롥
2Ĥθͤ碌ȡspare 濴Ūʰ̣ϡ֡ʴŪɽ蘆˿ʪˤȤäƥåȤȤʤ褦ˡľŪɽʪפȤȤˤʤ롥ŪʽϡοʪˤʪͿסʳݡˤȤȤ⤷ʤͿʤǤסʲˤȤȤ⤷ʤΤ줫ϡľŪɽ蘆ʪȤȤˤʤ롥
ֻѤعʸƤߤȡShe was spared from the ordeal of appearing in court. ʤɤǡfrom ˤäơͿʤǤסʲˤθ졤ξζ̤߲Ƥ롤2Ū칽ʸǤϤζ̤Ū¤ƤޤȤȤ
ܸ𤹤 spare contronym Ǥ뤫Τ褦˸뤬ѸȤƤϰӤǧΤǤ롥ʤƻ sparing ΡּǤʡʡפȡִʡιפθ⻲ȡ
ѸˤˤƬ <h> ϡ켫ΤˤäƤ롥ѸˤˤƸƬ <h> ϼºݤȯƤΤȤȯƤʤäΤȯʤäȤȡɤλˡɤѼȯʤäΤơĤɤΤ褦ˤɸѼǤ <h> ȯ [h] ȤơפΤβŪ֤ŤϤɤʤäƤΤեѸʤɤˤƶϤäΤʤäΤ褷Ƥʤ꤬ѤߤǤ롥
Ƭ <h> θ˾塤ǤŤϡǤϡ֥Υޥ̻οáפȸƤФƤ벾Ǥʡ#1238. Υޥ̻οá ([2012-09-16-1]) ȡˡˤСƬ <h> Ͼȯ [h] ȤƼ¸ƤŪˤ <h> = [h] δطϡѸޤѸˤˤ錄äưݻƤѸˤ褯 <h> ˴ؤֻθϡѸʤΥޥ̻ˤƳ줿ΤˤѸˤˤ [h] üȤڵȤϤʤꤨʤȤ롥˴ؤơCrisma (Were 51) ƤΤǡѤ롥
[T]he traditional view . . . is that [h]- was preserved before vowels throughout ME, though it could be dropped in words bearing weak stress, such as pronouns and forms of auxiliary have. Spelling errors involving <h>- are noted, but they are not considered sufficient evidence for [h]- loss, being dismissed by attributing them to '(Anglo-)Norman' scribes. The general validity of this treatment of errors, however, has been very convincingly questioned by Clark . . ., who labels it as a 'myth'.
ߤǤϡ֥Υޥ̻οáϼƤʤǡ⤬줿Ѹ˸Ƭ <h> ֻȤƤϵ̤˻ĤäƤȯȤƤϾüȤΤǤ롥Ƭ <h> ֻ꤬ˤǤ뤳ȡPearl-poet ʤɤ <h> ǻϤޤ첻ǻϤޤ줬ƬƧ㤬뤳ȡChaucer ʤɤǸ <e> æ˴ؤơ³Ƭ <h> 첻ƱȤʤɤ顤Ƭ [h] ȯȤƤϼƤȲ᤹٤ȤǤ롥ߤǤϤǤŪȤʤäƤ벾#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1]) ǤȤƼ夲Ȥꡤ⤷ѸǤξüꤹȡѸǤΤܴۤʤפɤΤ褦뤫Ȥ䤬롥Crisma (Were 52) ⤳ŦƤ롥
Assuming an early and widespread loss of word-initial [h]- poses the problem of how to account for its eventual restoration. It seems dubious that this might have happened 'mainly via spelling and the influence of the schools' (Lass, 1992: 62), first because [h], if it was really generally lost at some point, was re-established without errors in all native words, which would be a spectacular success indeed.
Ƭ [h] ϾüΤʤäΤǡäŪʲ⤬줿Milroy, J. ("On the Sociolinguistic History of /h/-Dropping in English." Current Topics in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. M. Devenport, E. Hansen, and H. -F. Nielsen. Odense: Odense UP, 1983. 37--53) ϡƬ [h] üѼȾüʤäѼ郎ꡤξѼ郎ʸŪѰۤȤüԸĿͤΤʤ˶¸ƤȹͤˤСѸθƬ [h] 礭ȤϤʤʤ
ߡϩϡۤʤäǤϤ뤬Paola Crisma Julia Schlüter ʤɤθԤʤƤ롥
Crisma, Paola. "Were They 'Dropping their Aitches'? A Quantitative Study of h-Loss in Middle English." English Language and Linguistics 11 (2007): 51--80.
Crisma, Paola. "Word-Initial h- in Middle and Early Modern English." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 130--67.
Schlüter, Julia. "Consonant or 'Vowel'? A Diachronic Study of Initial <h> from Early Middle English to Nineteenth-Century English." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 168--96.
ñ the Commonwealth Ȥ⡥ϢˮꥹϢˮʤɤ롥ֱѹξħȤƥꥹȡĤƱ°θΩʥȥꥢ˥塼ɡɡʤ¿Ω°Τǹ뤤ΡפǤ롥Τ1917ǯΩ줿
19Ⱦ˷줿ꥹǤܹп̱ϤȤۡ۹¤ϡ1ˡΩȴ֤Ϣˮ˼ä줿κ顤the British Commonwealth of Nations ̾Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤβϾȤˤʤäᡤŪʿ̤ϻĤäƤߤΤ褦¿ͼﶦƱΤȤʤäΤ2ΤȤǤꡤ1949ǯϢˮǾĤˤơꥹФε̳Ϥʤʤꡤꥹ濴ŪǤޤäǡ̾ the Commonwealth of Nations Ȳ줿
The Commonwealth θȤˤȡߤ53Ǥ롥ι20ͤǤ롥ʲ˲ϰ褴Ȥ˰褦
Africa: Botswana, Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Swaziland, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia
Asia: Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, India, Malaysia, Maldives, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka
Caribbean and Americas: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, The, Barbados, Belize, Canada, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and The Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago
Europe: Cyprus, Malta, United Kingdom
Pacific: Australia, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu
ϥɥˤꡤ2ǯȤˤ줫βˤƼǾĤȤˤʤäƤ롥ǾϤ٤˸ĿͤΩǽʤΤǡؤǤϤʤˤ䤫˷줿ݥ֤ȤäȤߤǤϹŪȯϤϤۤȤɤʤʤäƤ롥ºݡ1115?17ˡϢˮǾĤΥܤdzŤ졤ѼϤDZƶϤȡȺᵿǤ¾ϤĤȤƤȼߤᡤݤ18դ俷ʹΥȥϡֱѡϢˮΰҿ㲼פäʤ27ˤȤɤޤʤɡʤǤ롥ޤʤߤ2003ǯæषХ֥䡤ǯ10ˡֱϢˮϿ̱ϼפȤæषӥʤɡῴϤƤƤ롥
Ϣˮΰҿ㲼طʤˤϡѲ롥ѹϡ콡ȤƵ쿢̱Ϥ켫Τ˷кѻٱԤȤǰҿݤäƤаޤ뤬ɤޥ졼ʤɼкĹ뤲ƱɬפȤʤʤäƤ
ơϢˮѸȤߤȲݥȥѸȤ Mozambique С٤Ƥβˤơºݾ塤Ѹ줬Ѹϰ̤ˤƤ롥ˤơϢˮϡ̣ǤΡֱѸפˤäƹϢΤǤȤ롥äȤ⡤߱ѸϡֱѸפøŪʽͭʪǤϤʤ lingua_franca ȤƵǽƤ뤳ȤͤСߡαѸϢΤ̤ƤɤۤɤΰյĤΤʤ
Ѹˤˤ /h/ ˤĤ h γƵǰäƤϸƬ /h/ ˤˤĤơCrisma ʸɤǤߤ
ˤĤƽ辧Ƥ1Ĥ˼Τ褦ʤΤ롥Ƭ /h/ ϲȤƤѸ˴˾äѸɸѼ̤ȤΤCrisma (136--37) ϰʲ3ŦĤġȽƤ롥
(1) ˤȡ /h/ ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) θˤΤȤȤˤʤ뤬ʤȤ⤹٤Ƥˤ褷¤ͤСδŰ֤ϿۤɤǤʡ#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1]) ȡˡֻ̾ȯϤޤηŪˤϺѤñ줴Ȥñȯ뤳Ȥ¿
(2) ֻȯθκѤꤵƤ븽ݤϡեѸˤƤϡϤ٤äʤˤϸܤ줺˸ɸѼ˻Ĥä heir, honest, honour, hour ʤɤθ롥üȤǤϡեѸοΰ㤤Ǥʤ
(3) Ѹ /h/ δ /h/ ݤäƤαƶǤȹͤ⤢뤬⤽ʤɸѼ˱ƶͿΤʬʤ
ƤȤ Crisma ƤΤϡŪʵϹäƤ뤬ǼΤ褦ˤޤȤѸˤơƬ /h/ Ͼä櫓ǤϤʤ˳ΤΤȤ¸ߤƤ /h/ ʣߤΤȤǡͽ [h] ǤϤʤ [] ȤƼ¸줿ȤȤǤ롥Crisma ϡѸȶѸΥѥȤơh ǻϤޤԤ괧 a vs an ʬۤӽͭƻ my/thy vs myn(e)/thyn(e) ʬۤܺ٤ĴĴ̤Ŭ (Optimality Theory) ʬϤŬϡʥʸˡλۤꡤءϡˤɽءʽϡˤ̤Ǥ롥ñ /h/ üȤߤΤǤϤʤϤˤ /h/ äɤϤȤƤ [] ȤʤΤäȵΤǤ롥Crisma (158) ηѤơȤ褦
To sum up, I propose that the distribution of the different forms of the indefinite article and of the 1st and 2nd person singular possessive pronouns can be captured in its diachronic development in Middle and Early Modern English assuming that the phonetic realization of the phoneme /h/- became at some point `disliked' in the grammar of the language. This dislike results in its inability to surface in a series of contexts, which vary along time because of the slight differences in the interaction with other constraints on the well-formedness of the phonetic output. This proposal is empirically superior to theories failing to distinguish between true /h/-loss and a (sic) the coexistence of a lexical /h/-ful underlying representation with a contextually-bound [h]-less phonetic output, and therefore unable to account for the complex and apparently contradictory evidence.
Crisma, Paola. "Word-Initial h- in Middle and Early Modern English." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 130--67.
ѸˡޥˡˤΤˤĤƤ٤κϤ뤳ȤѲˤοʿηϤȤ⤿餷ʬϤȤŪȯãƤѲ֤Ȥʸˡ˾ͿξľܤΤΤʤΤܤΤΤʤΤȤ櫓岻βѲȶοʿδϢȷδؤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤʤΤѸˤʤɤǤ⤳δϢϤ褽ΤȤȤƼƤŪ˹ͻ뵡ʤȤ⤽줬Ҳ𤵤뵡ϾʤδϢˤĤơBradley (16--19) ιͻ
ѲѲˤĤʤ硤βѲθ̤ȤƤ3बǧ롥(1) confluent development, (2) divergent development, (3) dropping of sounds Ǥ롥(1) ϡۤʤ2Ĥβ1Ĥͻ礹뤳ȤˤꡤĤƤηŪʶ̤Ǥ롥űѸǶ̤Ƥ ā o ϡĶˤͻ礷ѸǤ ō ȤƼ¸Ƥ (ex. hāl (whole) fola (foal))
(2) ϡդ1Ĥβ2Ĥʬ뤳ȤˤäơŪʶ̤ޤǤ롥㤨СűѸ ic lǣde (I lead) ic lǣdde (I led) ư֤ܤȡ촴ᤫIJᤫȤˤäơθ촴첻ȯŸޤäƱ ǣ Ķˤäưۤʤ2ؤʬΤǤ롥
(3) ȤƤϡűѸˤơȤ High Vowel Deletion ȸƤФ벻Ѳη̤ȤơŲ˸³ -u ʤȤΤ롥Ѳ̾Ǥϡñ scip Фʣ scipu hūs ñʣƱǤ롥̤ȤƤ (1) ƱǤꡤȤȶ̤Ƥ2Ĥη֤1Ĥͻ礷ƤޤäƤ롥
3βѲθ̤ޤȤȡ(1) (3) Ϸ֤ζ̤碌ˡʤ츫ñ㲽ƯΤФ(2) Ϸ֤ζ̤߽Фʤ츫ʣƯĤޤꡤѲˤȿ뤫Τ褦ʸ̤ƱƯƤȤȤˤʤ롥ʸˡεǽȤߤȡθ̤ϰӤǽƯƤȤ⤤ΤǤ롥Bradley (18) ϡscip hūs ǰƬˡʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
In this instance phonetic change produced two different effects: it made two declensions out of one, and it deprived a great many words of a useful inflexional distinction. / We thus see that the direct result of phonetic change on the grammar of a language is chiefly for evil: it makes it more complicated and less lucid.
ϡѲȶȤδط˴ؤ롤ԤŪƶǤ롥
ѲΥȥԡ礵뤳ȤˤĤƤϡ#838. ηϤȥȥԡ ([2011-08-13-1]) ȡ
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
ͭ̾ (onomastics) Ͽ̾̾θ츻ʤɤ椹ʬǤ롥Ȥ櫓̾θ anthroponomastics̾θ toponomastics (toponymy) Ȥƶ̤⤢뤬Ԥο̾϶ onomastics ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥źο̾դ¿ָСˤƿ̾椬1ĤΩʬ뤫狼롥㤨СCrystal (218--20) ˤ뤳ʬؤûȥįƤߤ褦
ܤޤॢ̾ζ̤ΤƱͤˡΤǤ last name (surname, family name) first name (given name, Christian name) ζ̤롥#590. last name ϤĤ̳Ūˤʤä ([2010-12-08-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸҲˤƤܤˤƤ⡤ζ̤̾ȤʤäΤϡۤɸŤǤϤʤˤƤ⡤ѸǤ last name firs name ʤɤȤ˴ŤƾΤϸ䤹㤨ܡϥʤɤǤ̾Ȥ̤Ǥꡤμ̾Ūʤ櫓ǤϤʤѸǤ middle name Ȥ3̾դ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤȤ櫓ꥫǤϥե٥å1ʸ middle name ߤ롥middle name ϥ衼åѤǤŪʤޤ3Ĥ̾դƤˡͥŪˤɤ̾ǸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿ϡҲˤäưۤʤäƤ롥Ѹ David Michael Smith Ȥͤ David ǸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿ɥĸ Johann Wolfgang Schmidt Ȥͤ Wolfgang ǸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿
̸Ū˻ޤߤ̾դȤƤ褯ΤƤΤˡ (patronymy) 롥̾Τǡ Ivan ©Ҥ Ivanovich̼ Ivanovna ̾դ졤̾δ֤֤褦ʾ礬Ǥ롥ɸǤΤǻΤΤޤȤʤΤǡ塤Ѳ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥衼åѤˤΤϡ?Ρ©˻ҡפ̣ܼղäɽ蘆뤳Ȥ¿줴Ȥ˰ʲΤ褦㤬롥
| LANGUAGE | AFFIX | EXAMPLES |
|---|---|---|
| English | -ing | Browning, Denning, Gunning |
| Norse, English | -son | Anderson, Jackson, Morrison |
| Scots | Mac/Mc- | MacArthur, MacDonald, McMillan |
| Irish | O' | O'Brien, O'Connell, O'Connor |
| Welsh | Ap | Apjohn, Apreys, Powell (< Ap Howell) |
| French | Fitz- | Fitzgerald, Fitz-simmons, Fitzwilliam |
| Russian | -ovich | Ivanovich, Shostakovich |
| Polish | -ski | Korzybski, Malinowski |
| Arabic | Ibn | Ibn Battutah, Ibn Sina |
̾첻ȯΤˤϡ٤ФƵѤ롥ȤƤ٤ή۵ѤƲФȤǤ뤷٤Ȥ鷺̤βﴱˤ߽Ф줿ˤ굤ήꡤѤƲФȤǤ롥ή (airstream mechanism) ʤήκȵήοʤܤƸ첻ȡʲΤ褦ɽȤʤ롥

첻ǤϤäƤ⡤餫θˤƲŪΩʤΤˤĤƤä̾ĤƤ餺ɽǤ¿ȤʤäƤ롥㤨Сbuccal airstream ϥɥʥɥåΤ褦ˤѤƵήˡ̾εήȤѤ뤳ȤϤʤoesophageal ϿƻζήѤΤǡäפΤȤ˳ǧ뵤ήǤ롥̾ѤʤѤʤɤӤͤ첻ΤѤ뤳Ȥ뤿ᡤɽ˷ǤƤ롥
velaric airstream ĺƵᡤή߽Фᥫ˥ǡclick ȸƤФ岻Ǥˤ褯ΤƤ롥ŪˤϵήظȯǽظΤ̤Ǥ롥եꥫäƤ Sotho, Zulu, Xhosa ʤɤ Bantu 䡤Bushman, Khoikhoi ʤɤ Khoisan dzƼε岻ŪΩ (#1314. פε[2012-12-01-1]ȡˡ岻ǤϡĴˤξ¦岻ʤɤ̤롥䤤ɽ魯ΤˡѸǤ tut Ȥ줬ȯ뤬ϵ岻Ǥ롥ܸΡ֥áפ岻˻Ǥ롥
glottalic airstream ĺơ岼뤳Ȥˤäơή߽Фᥫ˥Ǥ롥εήˤʤ ejective вˤȸƤФ졤ѸǤ⥤ʤɤ up, get, pick ʤɤκǸλҲȯȤƸ뤳Ȥ롥դˡεήˤʤ implosive ˲ˤȤʤꡤäƤήӤưȡͭ˲Ȥʤ롥˲ϡIbo ʤɥեꥫθ䥢ꥫ轻̱θǤ褯ʹ롥
٤ε۵ϡ㤷ưľʤ©ڤƤȤȯä˸뤬ŪѤ뤳ȤϤʤ
ʾ塤Crystal (20--23) Ȥ
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
ߤ̤뤬ۤʤäԤɤܿˤϡФиߤ˼ħ¤ܤߴ餻 accommodation κѤѻ롥Τ褦ʸήĿͥ٥ǤϤʤ礭ʽĥ٥褦ˤʤȡdialect contact ܿ) ȸƤ֤٤ݤȤʤ롥dialect contact ϡŵŪˤϡǤθήˤơޤԻԲ̱ϲ̱Ȥäˤ롥
dialect contact η̡ܤϤѤ̤θܤϤѤȤä˸ʤ dialect mixture Фơ͡δ֤κΤޤ롥
κΤ1--2ФȡƸܤμѰ۷졤ΡŵŪˤ1ĤΡ˷֤ؤ夯ꥨƤ椯οʿϡdialect levelling ȸƤФ롥
dialect levelling ʤʿԤ뤳Ȥ¿ά (simplification) βˤФơο koiné ȤȯŸ뤫⤷ʤ (koinéization) ˡ koiné ϡɸδפˤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
ơdialect contact koinéization ޤǤΰϢήTrudgill (157) ˤ꺣ɤäƤߤ褦
The dialect mixture situation would not have lasted more than a generation or possibly two, and in the end everybody in a given location would have ended up levelling out the original dialect difference brought from across the Atlantic and speaking the same dialect. This new dialect would have been 'mixed' with respect to its origins, but uniform in its current characteristics throughout the community. Where dialect levelling occurs in a colonial situation of this type --- or in the growth of a new town, for instance --- and that leads to the development of a whole new dialect, the process is known as koinéization (from the Ancient Greek word koiné meaning 'general, common').
Ū˳ǧ koinéization ƤѸεȤʤäƤ뤬奮ꥷ Attic ŵŪ koiné Ǥ롥ƥ¯ƥ⡤koinéization ˤޤ17˥ꥹ饢ꥫغǽο̱ʤ줿塤δ֤˿̱ϤΤ⡤koinéization Ǥ롥Ʊ͡ʱѸüԤˤ륪ȥꥢ̱˥塼ɿ̱ΤȤˤˡԻԲη̤ȤԻ⡤¿ koiné Ǥ롥
Ѹ˾ dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koinéization βꤵΤϡ14ȾΥɥѸˤƤ͡üԤԻԥɥ˽ޤꡤdialect mixture dialect levelling äη̤ȤơɸؤȯŸѼθΩΤǤϤʤѸ busy, bury, merry ֻȯδط𤷤Ƥطʤˤ⡤嵭ΰϢβͿƤΤ
busy, bury, merry ˤĤƤϡ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1])#563. Chaucer merry ([2010-11-11-1])#570. bury 첻ʬۡ ([2010-11-18-1])#1245. ʣŪβȤƤνȤɸѸȯŸ ([2012-09-23-1])#1434. left hemlock Kentish ([2013-03-31-1])#1561. 14Norfolk ̱μҲŪ ([2013-08-05-1]) ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must Τ褦ʸѸˡưϡ̤ưȤϰۤʤä졦Ū͡ʺۤ뤬ʲˤĤ
(1) λȤʤ: *He has could understand chapter 4. (cf. He has understood chapter 4.)
(2) ʬȤʤ: *Canning understand chapter 4, . . . . (cf. Understanding chapter 4, . . . .)
(3) Ȥʤ: *He wanted to can understand. (cf. He wanted to understand.)
(4) ̤ˡư˸³ʤ: *He will can understand. (cf. He will understand.)
(5) ŪľܤˤϤȤʤ: *He can music. (cf. He understands music.)
űѸѸǤϡ嵭ʸб빽ʸϤ٤ƲǽäĤޤꡤˡưϡĤƤϰưäΤǤ롥ѸˤδפʤȤϡ(1)--(5) ˡưŪħġΡʽưˤäƻ֤ȤȤ˰ĤҤȤĽ˳줿ΤǤϤʤɤ餹٤Ƥħ쵤˳줿褦ȤȤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤθϡư줫ˡưؤȯŸƤäȤϡҤȤӤư줫ˡưؤڤؤäŪˤС16Ⱦ Sir Thomas More (1478--1535) ϡ(1)--(5) ʸȤιʸ٤ѤƤηѾԤ1ĤѤʤä (Lightfoot 29) Lightfoot ϡ16 V-to-I movement η̤ǤƤ롥
ѸѸ칽¤줾ڤǼ
a) Ѹ
b) Ѹ
Ѹι¤ꤹȡI ΰ֤ can Ƥ뤳Ȥˤꡤ(1)--(5) ʸʤǧʤΤŪ롥λʹԷ VP Ǻ뤿ˡγˤ can ˤϴͿʤɸ to ̤ˡư I 뤿ᡤcan Ȥ϶¸ǤʤI ľܤŪ뤳ȤϤǤʤѸι¤ꤹȡ̤Ƥ I ΰ֤ذư;Ϥ뤿ᡤ(1)--(5) θѸˤʸϡʸȤʤʤ
Ūʥ٥ǤѲʤʸˡѲϡġΡˡ˽ưˤĤƤϰۤʤ륿ߥ⤷ʤΤˤĤƤ (1)--(5) γƹܤҤȤޤȤˤǰ쵤ΤǤϤʤǵƤΤϡ#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) Ǽ夲Ѳ "clusters" "bumpy" ȤǤ롥"clusters" Ȥñ̤ "bumpy" Ѳ켫ΤġΡˡ˽ưˤäưۤʤ륿ߥ뤳ȤϤ뤷ϤޤäѲ˸춦ƱΤعäƤ椯Ȥ⤢롥Ĥޤꡤ "bumpy" ĥ Lightfoot θѲϡ"gradual" ĥóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ɽŪˤ̷⤹褦Ǥʤ顤ºݤˤ̷⤷ʤΤǤ롥̷⤹褦̷⤷ʤȤˤĤơľ Lightfoot (30) ΤȤФѤ褦
The change in category membership of the English modals explains the catastrophic nature of the change, not in the sense that the change spread through the population rapidly, but that phenomena changed together. The notion of change in grammars is a way of unifying disparate phenomena, taking them to be various surface manifestations of a single change at the abstract level. Tony Kroch and his associates . . . have done interesting statistical work on the spread of such changes through populations of speakers, showing that it is grammars which spread: competing grammars may coexist in individual speakers for periods of time. They have shown that the variation observed represents oscillation between two fixed points, two grammars, and not oscillation in which the phenomena vary independently of each other.
"bumpy but gradual" ϡѲλŪǻɷŪǤ롥
ʤLightfoot ƱͤʬϤƱʸˡȤߤǤ⡤principles and parameters theory ѤʬϤΤ Roberts 롥Roberts (33) ˤСѸΰ (agreement) ˤϡŪʤΤŪʤΤؤΥѥڤؤȤƲǤȤλ16ȤƤ롥ơˡ˽ư V-to-I movement ⤽礭ڤؤΰĤˤʤȤ
[T]he choice of a morphological or a syntactic agreement system is a parameter of UG. Our central proposal in this paper is that English has historically developed from having a morphological agreement system to having a syntactic agreement system: We propose that this parametric change took place during the sixteenth century. The development of a class of modal auxiliaries was part of this change.
Lightfoot, David W. "Cuing a New Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 24--44.
Roberts, I. "Agreement Parameters and the Development of English Modal Auxiliaries." Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 3 (1985): 21--58.
#1649. longer leng(er) ֤ΤϤĤ ([2013-11-01-1]) ǡŪ i-mutation ӵ leng(er) longer ִ줿ΤѥˤäĴϡƱФꤵǾˤĤƱͤĴܤ̤𤹤롥Ū i-mutation κǾ lengest ϡѸˤΤɤʳ longest ִ줿Τ
Helsinki Corpus ǡ촴첻ΥꥨǰƬ֤Ĥġξ̤̻ŪȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
| LONGEST | LENGEST | |
|---|---|---|
| O1 | 0 | 0 |
| O2 | 0 | 2 |
| O3 | 0 | 13 |
| O4 | 0 | 3 |
| M1 | 0 | 1 |
| M2 | 0 | 0 |
| M3 | 0 | 1 |
| M4 | 0 | 1 |
| E1 | 3 | 0 |
| E2 | 4 | 0 |
| E3 | 2 | 0 |
ε#1667. եαƶˤƻθֽ (1) ([2013-11-19-1]) ³ԡѸˤˤơƻθֽϸűѸ줫鸫줿ֽѸǤϷ褷ƵǤϤʤäѸδֽ֤ͥȤʤä (Rissanen 209) Fischer (214) ˤȡLightfoot (205--09) ϡŪаޤƧޤ Greenberg ήθ˴Ťްռ (implicational scale) δ顤ƻ (Noun-Adjective) θοϡSOV (Subject-Object-Verb) θοϢưƤĤޤꡤSVO 夷ĤĤäѸǤƱ˷ƻ֤ȯãƤΤȤΤǤ롥SVOθȯãˤĤƤϡ#132. űѸ줫Ѹؤθȯã ([2009-09-06-1]) ȡ
ѸηƻθεҸߤ¤ꡤLightfoot ٤¤Ϥʤ㤨СSir Gawain and the Green Knight Ǥϡ8䤬ƻ֤Ǥꡤ֤Ĥ2Τ2/3㤬ΧˤȤޤͽۤȤꡤʸ걤ʸΤۤŪ¿ֽˡֽηƻϡե "learned adjectives" (Fischer 214) Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿ä (ex. oure othere goodes temporels, the service dyvyne) Ĥޤꡤ̾Ȥ碌ơɽ¿ϥեδɽäȹͤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥
Ѹˤ뤳ηϡѸˤ³Rissanen (208) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The order of the elements of the noun phrase is freer in the sixteenth century than in late Modern English. The adjective is placed after the nominal head more readily than today . . . . This is probably largely due to French or Latin influence: most noun + adjective combinations contain a borrowed adjective and the whole expression is often a term going back to French or Latin.
λȤƤϡa tonge vulgare and barbarous, the next heire male, life eternall ʤɤƤ롥Ѹδ֤ˤθ礬षƤȤ礭ήϤĤθ (Rissanen 209 ȡˤǻŦƤ뤬ƥȥפġ̤˾ܺ٤ĴƤ椯ɬפ뤫⤷ʤεǤ줿褦ˡե줬θͿƶϡ¤줿ϰϤˤƤǤϤ뤬ѸǤŪǤ롥ƻ֤ϡѸ˾塤̣ơޤȤʤΤǤϤʤ
Fischer, Olga. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 207--408.
Rissanen, Matti. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 187--331.
Lightfoot, D. W. Principles of Diachronic Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.
ѸǤϡ̾ˡηƻ֤̾뤬̾θ֤ճ¿롥ƻθֽˤϰʲΤ褦͡ʼबǧ롥
(1) ̾ -thing, -body, -one: ex. something strange, nobody else, everything possible; cf. all things English
(2) all, any, every, Ǿȼ -able, -ible: ex. every means imaginable, the latest information available
(3) եʤɤαƶŪˡ: ex. the sum total, from time immemorial, the devil incarnate, bloody royal
(4) ̤ͭ̾ˡ: ex. Elizabeth the Second, Asia Minor, Hotel Majestic
(5) ȼäĹʤ: ex. a friend worthy of confidence, a meal typical of Japan
(6) ˡ˶ᤤ: ex. all the people present, the authorities concerned, the person opposite
(7) ưŪʬƻ: ex. the people arrested, the best car going
(8) Ĵоȡꥺδط: ex. America, past and present
(9) ¾δŪˡ: ex. on Monday next, for ten years past, me included, Poet Laureate, B flat/sharp/major/minor, Longman Group Limited/Ltd (UK), Hartcourt Brace Jovanovich, Incorporated/Inc (US)
ܤΤ (3) ΥեαƶŪɽǤ롥Quirk et al. (Section 7.21) ˤС"institutionalized expressions (mostly in official designations)" ȤƼΤ褦㤬Ƥ롥
attorney general
body politic
court martial
from time immemorial
heir apparent
notary public
postmaster general
the president elect ['soon to take office']
vice-chancellor designate
ɽϴɽǤ뤫顤̾ʬϤ줺ʣΤ褦ˤߤʤƤ롥Ȥ櫓ˡΧѸˤĤƤϡ#336. Law French ([2010-03-29-1]) ȡ
Ѹˤδä˽פʤΤϡQuirk et al. (Section 7.21) μǤ롥ꥶ٥īήԤˡȤ϶̣ŦǧĴɬפ
The postpositive adjective, as in the president elect and vice-chancellor designate, reflects a neoclassical style based on Latin participles and much in vogue in Elizabethan times.
եαƶˤƻ֤ȤƤϥꥶ٥ī⤺äȿΤȻפ뤬ʬͭ "postposed 'mode' qualifier" ȸƤФ⤢ (Section 17.60)
Postposed 'mode' qualifier: Lobster Newburg
There is another French model of postposition in English that we may call postposed 'mode' qualifier, as in Lobster Newburg. Though virtually confined to cuisine (rather than mere cooking), it is moderately productive within these limits, perhaps especially in AmE. In BrE one finds veal paprika and many others, but there is some resistance to this type of postposition with other than French lexical items, as in páté maison, sole bonne femme. Nevertheless (perhaps partly because, in examples like the latter, the French and English head nouns are identical), the language has become receptive to hybrids like poached salmon mayonnaise, English scallops provencal.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ؤ1ạ̇̄ʬ semantics ʰ̣ˤȸƤǤ롥ߤǤϤ̾Τ夷Ƥ뤬夹ޤǤˤ;ޤäޤ夷ϡƻ semantic ȤȤ˰̣γ硤Ȥ櫓̣ΰ̲Фơߤ˻äƤ롥semantic(s) Ȥΰ̣ι̻Ū˵ҤʸĤɤǤߤ
Read ˤȡѸˤ semantic νФϡJohn Spencer ˤ A Discourse concerning Prodigies 2 (1665ǯ) ˤƤǤ롥Ǥϡ"Semantick Philosophy" ȤƸڤƤꡤϵ椫̤ꤦͽΤȤ̣Ƥ17λѤۤˤʤȤȽǤȡ Spencer 奮ꥷǥꥹȥƥ쥹ʤɤˤäѤ줿ƻ σημαντικóς (significant) (< σημαίνω (to signify)) ñȯ˼ѤΤȹͤʥƥǤ semanticus ѤƤˡ
17˾嵭ñȯλ㤬줿ϡθܳŪˤ19ȾޤǸʤθ줬ϤΤϡ̣γġեθؼ Michel Bréal (1832--1915) 1883ǯʸǻѤƤǤ롥ʲϡBréal ˤ sémantique Ǥ롥
L'étude où nous invitons le lecteur à nous suivre est d'espèce si nouvelle qu'elle n'a même pas encore reçu de nom. En effet, c'est sur le corps et sur la forme des mots que la plupart des linguistes ont exercé leur sagacité: les lois qui président à la transformation des sens, au choix d'expressions nouvelles, à la naissance et à la mort des locutions, ont été laissées dans l'ombre ou n'ont été indiquées qu'en passant. Comme cette étude, aussi bien que la phonétique et la morphologie, mérite d'avoir son nom, nous l'appellerons la SÉMANTIQUE (du verb σημαίνω), c'est-à-dire la science des significations. (quoted by Read , p. 79)
Ǥ狼褦ˡsémantique ϼȤựѲγؤؤƤ2ǯ1885ǯ˥եθؼ Arsène Darmesteter (1846--88) ⤽ѤޤǤˤϱѸǤѤϤޤä1897ǯ Bréal Essai de Sémantique Ǥȡ̾ΤϹΤϤ뤳ȤȤʤäѸˤƤϡ1900ǯƱα̤ʤ semantics Ѥ줿
̣ˤĤƤθؤ̾ΤȤƤϡ19͡ʸ줬ȤƤꡤsemantics Ūϰ̤ޤǤˤϻ֤ä㤨С饤ХɽȤơsemasiology (a1829--), rhematic (1830), sematology (1831--), glossology (a1871--), comparative ideology (1886), sensifics (1896), significs (1896--), rhematology (1896--), semiotic (ca 1897--), semiology (a1913), orthology (1928--), science of idiom (1944) ʤɤä줾ɽؼ븦ϰϤϰۤʤäƤΤΡΩ1ĤʬȤƤޤȤޤ礤Ƥ狼ʤߤǤ̣ = semantics ˤޤȤޤ꤬뤫ɤϵ路ˡɥĤγسǤ19 Semasiologie ޤƤ˱ƶꥫγسǤ20ȾǤϤޤ semasiology Τۤ semantics ޤƤۤɤǤ롥̣̾ Ogden and Richards The Meaning of Meaning (1923) Ǥ⡤semantics ϻѤƤʤ̾ȤƤ semantics ϡѸˤƤ⤽ۤɸŤäǤϤʤΤǤ롥
̤ήȤơsemantics ϡ1930ǯ˥ǵä¾ڼ (logical positivism) γɤ Alfred Korzybski (1879--1950) ˤůؤˤƤˤѤ褦ˤʤꡤθǧ٤ǧ٤ޤˤĤ semantic(s) θ̲1940ǯʹߡŪˡΩĤ褦ˤʤäsemantic ϤФ verbal ƱηƻǤꡤ̣դɽ魯ʸ̮ǻȤ褦ˤʤäƤ (ex. He did not want to enter into a semantic debate.) Read (91) semantic(s) ΰ̣ΰ̲rhetoric ΰ̣ΰ̲ӤƤ롥
One is reminded here of the fate that has overtaken the word rhetoric: fallen from its high status in the pattern of the medieval schoolmen, it now usually occurs in the phrase 'mere rhetoric,' with reference to discourse that is insincere, pretentious, or mendacious. In similar popular use, semantics often appears in contexts that tend to bolster word-magic rather than to combat it.
semantic(s) Ȥϡˤˤơ켫Ȥ Bréal ϻϤ̣ѲγؤȤƤ sémantique ǺƤȤȤˤʤ롥
Read, Allen Walker. "An Account of the Word 'SEMANTICS'." Word 4 (1948): 78--97.
ε#1664. CMC (computer-mediated communication) ([2013-11-16-1]) ǡҥȤθΤˤĤƲƹͤ뵡äΤΤʤǤ⡤Ȥ櫓äȤ (speech) ȽȤ (writing) ӤˤĤƤϡ#748. ä ([2011-05-15-1])#849. ä (2) ([2011-08-24-1]) #1001. äȤФȽȤ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1]) ʤɤˤƤϤˤĤƤ˵³
ؤϡʸⲻͥŪʸоݤȤƤͳϡ#748. ä ([2011-05-15-1]) ǵ̤§ȤƲʸ˻ŪΩĤǤ롥ʸϲ줫ʪǤꡤ2ŪΡʤ°ʪǤȤΩǤϡ̻Ūʲɽ魯פȶŪʴطɽ魯ֽ°פȤӤĤƤ롥
塼踽ߤ˻붦֤Ż뤹ؤˤơŪʡפ̻Ūʡֽ°פ̤ʤȤΤ϶ä٤ȤǤϤʤΤˡŪʴФȤƤϡʪ°ʪפȤƱ뤬Ȥϻ¤ˤƤΤϳؽŪʸ̻֤ȶ֤ζ̤Ǥ롥̻֤ȶ֤äڤʬξΤħ̤˹θ˽ȤФäȤФ˶Ūˡֽ°פƤΤΤΤؤǤϤʤκȤάơ̻ŪʪᶦŪʽ°ʪפȤӤĤȤϤǤʤΤǤϤʤ
ȤФäȤФ˶Ū˽°Ƥ餷ڵ1Ĥ롥ˤ⸽ߤˤ⡤Ū̿ޤߤСäȤФ⤿ʤҲϳ̵ȤФ⤿ʤ¿¸ߤȤȤζŪʻ¤ϡȤФν°˰ͿΤΤ褦˻פ롥äȤФȽȤФξäƤҲ˸¤äƤСξԤζŪʴطϻۡ°δطǤϤʤߤ˱ƶʴطäȤФͥĥ뺬
嵭εޤȤȡ(1) ̻ŪˤϽȤФäդפ(2) ŪˤϡҲˤξΤʬ۾塤ȤФäȤФˡֽ°פƤȤ롤(3) ƱŪʴǤϤ뤬ξΤĸҲ˸ꤹСȤФäȤФϡפǤ롥
ذȤнŤθѤ夬äذʸ塤Ҥդ˿ơäȤнŤθѤسۤƤ롥ƤӿҤŬڤᤷƤ뤳ȤοΤ褦˻פ롥
Ʊݤ Crystal (148) ε˼褦
Many linguists came to think of written language as a tool of secondary importance --- an optional, special skill, used only for sophisticated purposes (as in scientific and literary expression) by a minority of communities. It was needed in order to have access to the early history of language . . ., but this was felt to be a woefully inadequate substitute for the study of the 'real' thing, speech. Writing, seen as a mere 'reflection' of spoken language, thus came to be excluded from the primary subject matter of linguistic science. The pendulum swung to the opposite extreme in the new generation of grammars, many of which presented an account of speech alone.
Writing and speech should never have been allowed to confront each other in this way. There is no sense in the view that one medium of communication is intrinsically 'better' than the other. Whatever their historical relationship, the fact remains that modern society makes available to its members two very different systems of communication, each of which has developed to fulfil a particular set of communicative needs, and now offers capabilities of expression denied to the other. Writing cannot substitute for speech, nor speech for writing, without serious disservice being done to each.
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
#1662. äϸǤ (1) ([2013-11-14-1]) ǡҥȤθΤˤ4Ĥη֤ȽҤ٤ (speech)ʸ (writing)ԥ塼 (CMC = computer-mediated communication) (sign_language) Ǥ롥speech writing ζˤĤƤϡޤǤ#748. ä ([2011-05-15-1])#849. ä (2) ([2011-08-24-1]) #1001. äȤФȽȤ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1]) ۤεǼ夲ƤŻΤ̤ƤθѤǤ CMC ˤĤƹͤƤߤ
Żҥ롤åȡĥåSNS (Social Networking Service) Web ʤɤŻΤˤϡäȤŪ¦̤ȽȤŪ¦̤Ʊ路ƤȤФи롥㤨СŻҥǤϡ§ȤʸѤƤȤǽȤŪǤϤ뤬ʸΡĴϤФäȤŪǤꡤä˶ᤤӤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ŻŪʥ롼ƤϤʤ٤Ǥ뤷äȤФΰˤä֤Ĥ֤䤭פʸդư̤˸褦ˤʤäƤ롥
CMC äȤФȽȤФιλҤȤǤΤǤϤʤCMC ϤޤǤΤˤʤĤνפħäƤꡤΩΤȤߤʤΤǤ롥Crystal (153--58) ϡCMC äȤФȰۤʤ뤫˽ȤФȰۤʤ뤫Ŧʤ顤ΤȤƤμΧĥƤ롥
äȤФȰۤʤ
(1) ƱեɥХåʤԥ塼åݤˤϡȤɬפǤꡤǤ롥ȤϰλɬפꡤƱΤȤϵʤʤŪˤϡפ뤴ȤˡʤĤޤˡ˥å륷ƥۤȤϲǽǤꡤŪ˼¸뤳ȤϤ뤫⤷ʤ
(2) ˥åɤ٤ޤϤ¬ʤʤ
(3) åȥ롼ʤɤǡʣʤηˤβäİȤǤä뤳ȤǤ롥٤Ƥ˴ؤ뤳ȤǤ뤷뤳ȤǤ롥
(4) ȤΥꥺब٤Ȥ¿ֿԤԹ䥳ԥ塼εŪˤꡤֻǿ֤ԤĤȤ̤Ǥ롥
(5) äȤФˤäν (turn) εϤ̩ˤϼʤCMC ˤ turn ϾѥåȤǤꡤŪˤꡤԤ夹ǽ餢롥ޤ(3) ˤꡤʣȤ turn ǽ⤢롥
(6) äȤФˤĶʬŪǤĵǽޤƸǤʤؼʤȤơ#808. smileys or emoticons ([2011-07-14-1]) λѤ롥
νȤФȰۤʤ
(8) ŪƤʤ㤨С֥ڡǤϥåƤưŪǤ롥åȯԤԤ⡤Τ褦˥åѹꡤäꡤõǤ롥ԡƲùʤɡΥåȤȤưפˤǤ롥CMC Τϡ̿ŪȤ⤤å "framing" ǽˤʣͤδ֤ǤȤꤵ줿åùꡤꤹ뤳ȤˤꡤŪ˱äѤǽȤʤ롥
(9) ĥꡤפ뤳ȤǤ롥ŪʽȤФǤ仲Ȥεǽϸ뤬ưפˤƥ֤ hypertext link ȤӤˤʤʤ
(10) տ줿ʸϹʤʤˤ뤷ˤ뤬ŵŪˤäơCMC ǤϽȤФŵŪʡϹͤ줿ʸϤ뤳ȤϾʤ
(11) ̵ǥԡǤ롥̡ŪԡȰۤʤꡤŻŪ̵ǺƸǤ롥
CMC ϡŪˤСäȤФȽȤФξΤܿη̤ȤȯƤȤϳΤŪˤСCMC äȤФȤФƱ֤뼫ΧȤߤʤƤ褤
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
ε#1662. äϸǤ (1) ([2013-11-14-1]) ˰³Crystal (164--70) Ȥʤ顤ȤƤμä夲롥ź¿ΰۤʤ벻줬¸ߤƤ褦ˡøˤ¿ΰۤʤबǧ롥ˤϤۤȤΤƤʤ奮ꥷޤʸ˼äؤθڤ롥ˤäθϡ1775ǯ˥եζ Abbé Charles Michel de l'Epée (1712--89) ѥϸعΤ˼ηϤȯȤüȯ롥μä˴ŤƤΤϤ褯ʬäƤʤϤζԤγعǤؤӡ˹뤳Ȥˤʤä㤨Сꥫζ Thomas Gallaudet (1787--1851) Laurent Clerc (1785--1869) ϤμäꥫƳ줬 American Sign Language ؤȯŸ롥
ϼäȯȯŸ1ĤüˤʤϤǤ¿μäȯƤäˤϲƱͤˡŪѰۤ⤢̻ŪѲ⤢롥öƱΤȤȯã뤷֤Ѱۤǧ롥Ǥ⡤øȲȤϰۤʤȤʤ
ǡäͭȯŸλ뤳Ȥޤ¤Ǥ롥ʸ줫αƶȤ¦̤Ǥ롥äˤϡʸȤϤ̵ۤط˼ȯΤ¿αƶȯŸΡ뤤ϰտŪȯŸΤ¿ԤǤϡȤ櫓ˤͿ롥졦ʸȤۤʤΤƶääȤ̣ǡϼäΥԥȤȤǤ
˶ŤǴ¸μäѹäȤߤԤˤäƤʤƤȤ櫓Ѹ춦ƱΤˤ㤬˭٤Ǥ롥1960ǯȾοǯ֤ǡȤƤαѸؤߴײŪ (contrived) ø줬³ȸ줿Seeing Essential English (1966) ʵڤӤ Linguistics of Visual English (1971) Signing Exact English (1972)ˡSigned English (1969), Manual English (1972) ΤȤǤ롥
Paget-Gorman Sign System (PGSS) Ѥ줿λߤǤ롥ϡ1951ǯ Richard Paget ƤPierre Gorman ȯŸΤǡμǰ̣ΰɽ路̤μǼ̻ɽ魯Ȥ1ĤεɽȤηϤǤ롥Фդ줾μбȤǤСŪ䤹
¾μμäȤƤϡƥǥδ֤ǶͭƤ Amer-Ind ʤŪʰפηϤ롥ޤʸõб Finger-spelling ȤηϤϡʤȤŪˤϼûѼԤδ֤ǹѤƤ롥ɿѡˡˤȯΡɤߡפŪǤ Cued speech ȤηϤѤƤ롥
嵭Τ褦˷ײŪ˲ʸܶᤵäΤϻ¤ȤƤ⡤ä켫ȤΩΤǤ뤳Ȥ餫
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
俷ʹ105ī38̤ˡּ֡äϸĻ踩Ǿ㲽פεǺܤ줿ּøװƤˤȡäϡȼθηϤͭʸŪ껺פȤǧȤȤˡŪˤϤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ܤμΤȤƤϽβŪʾǤꡤȤƤμäǧ٤夬פʷȤʤ *
ŪˤϡäϲʸȤƱħͭ뵭ηϤǤ롥ؤγǤ⤽Τ褦ˤ뤷Ethnologue Τ褦ʸ˴ؤؤǤäθȤưƤ롥ŪˤϡäʸȤ줿㡼ǤȤŪɽʤǤʤɤȤǧޤηϤȤƤβͤɾƤʤΤ¤Ǥ롥ͳ1ĤϡäŵŪϸԵڤӤδطԤˤ꽬ˤȤɤޤäƤꡤ¾¿ο͡˼֤ΤƤʤ
äϤäȤǤ롥ҥȤθΤȤƤϡ4Ĥη֤ǧ롥 (speech)ʸ (writing)ԥ塼 (CMC = computer-mediated communication)Ƽ (sign_language) Ǥ롥ҥȤθħŤηŪǧ뤬椨˸ȸƤФΤǤꡤä⤽1ĤȤ¾ƱǤ롥㤨Сä2ʬ (double_articulation) ͭƤ뤷뵭ˤ (arbitrariness) äƤ롥 (reproductivity) ⤢С۶֡ۻã (displacement) ⤢롥ۤˤ⡤#1327. ҥȤθ˶̤7Ĥ ([2012-12-14-1]) #1281. ū ([2012-10-29-1]) Ǽ夲Τ٤Ƽ
äˤ뵭ˤĤդäƤ츫ȼõŪȤϥŪŪ (iconic) Ǥ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤΤˡؼоݤħŪʷưʤɡȯȤƤ iconic ȤߤʤȤǤ뵭¿ϼäȤΤ˸¤äȤǤϤʤʸˤ٤κϤ츫ΤǤ롥㤨СϡפȤΤäƤԤˤȤäƤϡϤɤäݷʸ˸뤿 iconic ȸƤ٤˻פ뤬ΤʤԤˤȤäƤϡưʪؤʸȤϻפʤõ⡤ȯȤƤ iconic ʤΤäȤƤ⡤ºݾϰ̣¬뤳ȤΤǤʤŪʵȤߤʤƤ褤äơۤʤηϤǤϡ뵭ɽۤʤ뵭Ƥɽ魯ȤȤ̤Ǥ롥ASL (American Sign Language) ܼ (JSL = Japanese Sign Language) ߤ̤ʤΤϤȤꡤASL BSL (British Sign Language) ߤ̤ʤȤȤϡ̤ˤϤޤΤƤʤ
ȤƤμäηˤĤƤϡ (phonology) ˤŪñ̤Ǥ벻 (phoneme) ꤵΤƱͤδطǧ롥äˤбŪñ̤ chereme ȸƤФ졤椹ʬ cherology ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ롥chereme ˤ location, configuration, action 3٥뤬ǧ졤sign space ˤβǽȤ߹碌¸뤳Ȥˤäơ椬ɽ롥ηȤǡäñʤ른㡼ȤϡŷϤۤɰۤʤΤǤ롥
ʾ塤Crystal (159--63) ǼɮϢơ#79. øؤ inspiration ([2009-07-16-1]) Ȥ줿ޤ#1064. ʹ֤θϤʤ˰¸ƤΤ (2) ([2012-03-26-1]) εФƤĺܥ֥ɼԤΥȤ⻲Ȥ줿Ѥʤ顤äФ̵Τ餱ФȯޤޤƤޤˡ
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
ܿ˵븽ݤϤĤ뤳ȤǤ뤬Τʤ˼ (borrowing) code-switching 롥#1627. code-switching code-mixing ([2013-10-10-1]) εǤ⼨ԤˤäƤϤ2Ĥθݤ1ĤϢ³ΤξˤǤȤ롥ΤˡͤͳϤ롥㤨СAB code-switching ˤơפȤʤAȯäΤʤB줫줿ñ줬1ĤѤ硤 "nonce-borrowing" ȸƤ֤ȤǤǤ롥ơΤ褦 nonce-borrowing ٴΤ "established borrowing" Ǥꡤ̤Ȥ夷줬Ѹ (loanword) ǤȸΤ褦˹ͤȡѤ code-switching Ϣ³ΤξüȤϤ롥ܿؤͼԤǤ Einar Haugen ⡤μݤ code-switching Τ褦Ƥ롥"the alternate use of two languages including everything from the introduction of a single, unassimilated word up to a complete sentence or more into the context of another language" (quoted from Haugen (193: 521) by Myers-Scotton (256)).
ꤵ줿Ϣ³ΤοդꡤѤ code-switching ߤ˾ȤնˤƤϡߤħϼϤ礦Τ뤤Ϣ³ΤȤϤɤ⤢٤Ϣ³ʶǧΤˤĤƤϵ褦óݤȤ Myers-Scotton (253--60) äƤߤ
פAB줫줿ñ줬1ĤѤ硤̾θA֤ϤŪ֤˸뤬ŪˤAͭζޤʤɤϼ餺Ѥ롥ޤ̾綠θBǤȯȤƼ¸롥ʤθϴؤƱٹ礤㤤ʬѤ code-switching Τۤ˶ᤤȤȤˤʤ롥ҥפȤѸ code-switching μˤȡñ줬ҥζޤĤĤѸ˼¸륱ȤΤǡȽǤ
ȤʤΤϡѤ code-switching ζ뤤Ʊ٤Τˡ֡δΤ줾ˤɤ٤νŤߤŤͿΤǤ롥Myers-Scotton (260) ɬڤϤ褯ʤñΤǺޤϡɤ餫ȤȼѤ code-switching ˶ᤤȤơξԤζ̤뤤Ϣ³ǧƤ롥
Let's be clear: we aren't arguing that all Embedded language single words in codeswitching data sets are bona fide instances of codeswtiching. Some singly occurring Embedded Language words could have become established borrowings. But, as we've shown above, there is good reason to treat most of these singly occurring words as codeswitched forms.
ȴͿʤΤѸηȿǤѤǤ롥ηȿǤƤȤ̣ code-switching ŪŪŪˤϴƤꡤѸŪǤȤؤ϶аѸˤ alumnus -- alumni, alga -- algae, phenomenon -- phenomena Τ褦ʳñʣʤɤǤ롥ϰ̤˼ѸȤߤʤƤ뤬εƧޤȡcode-switching ŪħʬŪ˻ĤѸȤߤʤʤ롥Ѥ code-switching ζܤϥ졼ǤϤ뤬졼Ǥ뤬椨ˡʣ˿ƶͿƤ褦ˤפ롥
Myers-Scotton, Carol. Multiple Voices: An Introduction to Bilingualism. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006.
Catalan ʥ˥ˤϡȤƥڥ Catalonia Valencia ä졤the Balearic Islands ӥե Roussillon Andorra ǤäƤޥϸǤ롥üԿ700͡Ūˤ Spanish ˤ Occitan (or Languedoc or Provençal) ˤᤤξԤ̤ħϤ롥12Υ饴θѸƱʸĤեˤɸॹڥ (=Castilian) ŪʰϤΤȤǤ autonomy ֤ޤ줿20ȾˤϸŪΩĴ˲ߤϾ嵭ˤ顤μ礿Ȥ˱ɤƤ롥
˥ˤĤƤξϡEthnologue Catalan Ȥ줿ʲϡäƤڥȥݥȥθϿޤǤ롥˥ϡȤ泤פ褤ʬۤƤ롥

˥ްˤTrudgill (129--31) ˽äƳѤ褦ϡ18ϤΥƥꥢ (Castile) ˤʻüȯ18ȾФˤϡ˥γع˥ڥˤ붵餬Ƴ졤19ȾФˤϤ٤ƤʸŬˡڥǽ褦̳Ť줿ڥ1931--39ǯμͳλˤϥ˥줬³ Franco Ⱥ (1939--75) ǤϺƤްϤޤꡤعǤΥ˥Ѥϴ˶ػߤ줿ˤϡϾ¤˥ܤ仨Ǥ褦ˤʤäޤʹϤʤäǤػߤ줿ޤޤä1970ǯ̱粽ʹߡ˥žautonomy ΩĤĤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Х륫 (the Balkans) ˤ̱²ʬۤʣʤȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥Х륫Ⱦϡ#1314. ([2012-12-01-1]) Ƥꡤ#1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ ([2013-01-30-1]) ιȤʤäƤꡤ#1636. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ([2013-10-19-1]) ȤҲŪƤʤɤλˤꡤҲؾ塤ͭ̾ˤƽפϰȤʤäƤ롥ʲEncylopædia Britannica 1997 Ʊϰ̱²ʬۿޤʲ˷Ǻܤ롥ʬۿޤˤĤƤϡ˴ؤȤȤ Ethnologue Greece and The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia ȡ#1469. Хȡָɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-05-05-1]) Ǹڤ Distribution of the Slavic languages in Europe Ƥ

ޥɥ˥¹ (The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) ϡ200ʤХ륫ȾΦǤ롥̱2/3ʾ夬ޥɥ˥ (Macedonian) ѤƤꡤѸȤʤäƤ뤬Ǻξ̱²Ǥ륢Х˥ͤˤꥢХ˥ (Albanian) äƤʿ Ethnologue Macedonia Ȥ줿ˡޥɥ˥ South Slavic 췲θǡSerbian Bulgarian Ϣ³Ƥ롥Ҥ褦ˡޥɥ˥ϡϢ³Τȡ°ˤ椨ˡߤ˻ޤǸ autonomy ˶줷Ƥ롥
ޥɥ˥ͤȤϤˤϸŤAlexander the Great (356--23 BC) ڽФޥɥ˥ Gibraltar Punjab ޤǤιۤޥɥ˥ (Ancient Macedonian) Ϥθޥɥ˥ (Macedonian) ȤϤޤäۤʤꡤޤꥷȤ̤ȸ뤬ꥷͤϸޥɥ˥ꥷ1ȤߤʤƤаޤ롥ꥷϥꥷ autonomy Фޥɥ˥ heteronomy Ȥ罾طŪѤơޥɥ˥˽°ΤȤߤʤƤΤǤ롥ꥷˤŪ Makedhonia ̾뽣⤢ꡤޥɥ˥ˤȤäƤܤ륮ꥷ礭ŪϤʤ顤ĤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ºݡꥷϥޥɥ˥¹Ω縢ȤߤʤƤ롥
ơä˰ܤ롥ޥɥ˥6˥ӥƥΰǤä550--630ǯδ֤ˡϤ˥ѥ̮̤饹̱²衤ޥɥ˥λŪʸϥꥷȥδ֤Ǹؤ15ˤϥޥΰȤ߹ޤ줿1912--13ǯΥХ륫Ǥϥӥͤλ۲ꡤ1944ǯˤϥ桼¹礵줿ν°ˤβǡޥɥ˥äƤϡӥͤˤȤäƤϥӥ1Ȥߤʤ졤֥륬ꥢͤˤȤäƤϥ֥륬ꥢ1Ȥߤʤ졤θŪ autonomy 뵡ĤȤǤʤäߤǤ⡤ӥ֥ͤ륬ꥢͤϥޥɥ˥μΩʤ¸ߤǧƤʤޥɥ˥ˤƤϡŪ°ˤϸŪ°ˤäȤäƤ褤
Τ褦ʣˤɤäƤˤ⤫餺ޥɥ˥ȤƾΤ̱̾̾²̾̾˶̤ѤƤ뤳ȤˤƤ롥ޥɥ˥̱²ˤȸޥɥ˥̱²ˤϻؼоݤۤʤȤΤ䤳դ3ϡκѤƥޥɥ˥ؤŪϤƤΤǤꡤޥɥ˥ϡθȤʤϤΩȤΩȤʤäƤ⡤ޤΩΩƤ롥autonomy ˸ƤƻΤϸ
ʾ塤Romain (15--17) ȤƼɮ
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
Luxembourg ϡ#1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ ([2013-01-30-1]) ˤ줺¿ѹǤ롥Ʊθ¾¿ιʣǤ롥Luxemburgish, German, French 3ˤ롤diglossia ʤ triglossia ҲȤƸڤǤ
Luxembourg Ͽ50ͤۤɤιǡ̱¿ƱΥǥƥƥô륯֥륯ȤäθϸŪˤϥɥĸ1ѼȤȤǽʤۤɤεΥüԤΩ1Ǥȼĥ롥ޤܤ⤽Τ褦ʸƤ1984ǯ衤3ѸȤƤˡ֤СɸɥĸʤɤθҤѼܤ (Ausbau language) ϡΩ뤿ᡤݻĥ뤿ˤϹȤθ⤬ɬפȤȤʴϢơ#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) ӡ#1523. Abstand language Ausbau language ([2013-06-28-1]) εȡˡ
Τ褦˥륯֥륯ϥ륯֥륯μפȤƵǽƤ뤬ޤDz̸ȤƵǽƤȤդФ̸ɸɥĸǤ롥ƸʸءʹХ륯֥륯줬뤳ȤϤʤ̩ˡʤŪɤ߽ΤɸɥĸǤꡤΤ˻Ҷɸɥĸعǽɬפ롥عǤϡɸɥĸ϶ȤƤƳ뤬˿ʤȺ٤ϥե줬Ȥʤ롥ιǤϥեϺǾ̤θȤƵǽƤꡤΤۤIJ¿θɸǤե줬Ѥ롥ĤޤꡤŵŪʥ륯֥륯ͤϡäˤϥ륯֥륯̾ɤ߽ˤɸɥĸIJǤϥեѤʾʤȤ3ѼԤǤȤȤˤʤ (Trudgill 100--01) Wardhaugh (90) ѤƤ2002ǯοͤˤС˥륯֥륯üԤ80%ɥĸüԤ81%եüԤ96%Ȥ
嵭Τ褦ˡ륯֥륯ϥ륯֥륯ˤƼפ줫IJ̸ȤƵǽƤ櫓ƱΤĤ⤦1ĤνפʼҲŪǽǤ "solidarity marker" εǽ˺ƤϤʤʤ
륯֥륯θˤĤƤϡEthnologue Luxembourg ȡ

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ꥫˤ⥤ꥹˤˡΧѸȤΤϤʤѸ줬¾θѸǤ뤳Ȥ餫ޤ˻¾夽ǤȤͳǡäˡΧɬפʤΤǤ롥䡤ΤˤϡޤǤɬפʤäȸ٤1980ǯʹߡꥫǤϱѸѸ첽ư깭Ƥ
طʤˤϡѸäʤꥫͤäȤ𤬤롥U.S. Census Bureau פˤȡ5аʾΥꥫͤǡѸ줬ޤääʤ뤤Ϥޤäʤͤο1980ǯǤ2%ä1990ǯǤ2.9%äǿ2011ǯΥǡ (PDF)Ǥ4.65%ãƤ롥ˤ2050ǯˤ6%ãΤǤϤʤȤ롥Language Use - U.S. Census Bureau γƼפȡ
ꥫǤ1968ǯ2춵ˡˤꡤѸüԤˤʤʤ褦θʤƤѸüԤλҶˤϱѸؤֵɬͿ뤷ܴʪΰ⡤žȵɮʤɤDZѸʳθ֤ȤǤ롥θˤͽ롥ˡˤ⤫롥ä̱αѸΥϡꥫȤȤƤνפʵῴϤϤƤħǤϤʤȹͤ͡Ƥ⤪ʤơѸѸ褬Ϥޤä
Ϣˮܥ٥DZѸѸ챿ưϤޤäΤϡ1981ǯǤ롥ʥޤϿͤǸؼԤǤϢˮ屡İ S. I. Hayakawa ѸѸȤ뽤ˡղä뤳ȤƤƤऱ줿٥Ǥϱư³뤳ȤˤʤäNebraska, Illinois, Virginia, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee 6DZѸѸȤˡΧΩΤ³1986ǯ California DZѸѸ첽ˡ Proposition 63 ̱ɼη̡̤줿ǥʤɤɾȽʤơɼ73%ǤˡΩäޤǤ¾ǤˡƤ¼ŪȤϾħŪʰ̣礤ĤˤʤäΤФơCalifornia Proposition 63 (or the English Is the Official Language of California Amendment) ϤƧ߹ˡƤȤʤäƤʲȴ褷褦
English is the common language of the people of the United States of America and of the State of California. . . . The legislature and officials of the State of California shall take all steps necessary to insure that the role of English as the common language of the State of California is preserved and enhanced. . . . Any person who is a resident of, or does business in the State of California shall have standing to sue the State of California to enforce this section . . .
ˡƤϡܤ˱ѸѸ첽˸Ƥ֤餻븢¤Ϳ̱˱ѸѸ첽֤̤Ȥ˵ʸͿȤΤǤ롥ˤˡƤðۤʤΤϡUS English ȤΤ濴Ȥ̱̽˾ˤ뽻̱ɼDzķ褷ȤǤ롥
θ⡤Arizona, Colorado, Florida ʤɤǤⱿưä Arizona Proposition 106 ϤͤùƤȤʤäƤ롥"As the official language of this State, the English language is the language of the ballot, the public schools and all government functions and actions."
US English Τ褦ΤȿФΤ⸽Ƥ롥English Plus Information Clearinghouse (EPIC) ǤϡEnglish Only ǤϤʤ English Plus λۤǤФ츢ʸʤƤ롥
ʾ塤 (197--205) ȤƼɮϢơ#256. ƹ Hispanification ([2010-01-08-1]) ȡ
ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ
İγ (auditory perception) 1ʬǤβγ (speech perception) Ǥϡͤ첻ɤΤ褦ˤǧ뤫椵Ƥ롥İԤϲγФˤäơǽưŪʲɤ˴ؤäƤΤ뤤ϼưŪ˲åƤʤΤΡ#1655. ɤΤܤɤΤ ([2013-11-07-1]) ȴطƤŪȤơγФΤγФΤȤCrystal (48--50) ˵ʤҲ𤹤롥
ޤİԤåγФȤˤϡ餬ȯݤˤɤΤ褦ȯ뤫ȤμȤʤɺȤԤäƤ롤Ȥ⤬롥㤨С1960ǯ줿 motor theory ʱưˤˤСİԤüԤĴưŪ˻ȤƤȤ롥İԤϼⲻﴱưƤ뤫Τ褦ˤİȤäƤȤ
ƱͤİԤǽưŪǧ analysis by synthesis ʹˤʬϡˤ롥ˤСİԤäƤ벻ŪħؤʬϤ뿴Ū§äƤȤ롥ƱŪ§ȯäκݤˤѤ졤ǤħƲФΤ˴Ϳ롥ƱŪ§γФȻФȤǵǤϤ뤬ȤȤǤ롥ΩǤϡγСʼˤȻСʸˤԲʬȤȤˤʤ롥
İԤϲγФˤäƤۤǽưṲ̄ƤʤȤΩ⤢롥İԤñ˲åȷε§ŪħǧɤȤγвưŪ˷иˤʤȹͤ롥㤨Сtemplate matching ʥƥץ졼ȾȹˤȤˤСäƤİХѥŪȯåѥ㤨첻䲻ʤɤñ̡ˤؾȹ礵뵡Ǿ˳ǼƤȤ̤ feature detector theory ħдˤǤϡΥեޥȤʤɡɷħȿддﴱ (feature detectors) ¸ߤѤƲγФƤΤȤ
嵭νˤϤ줾Ĺû롥ָγФϡİԤɤΤ褦üԤ¤ꡤä®٤ʤɤΰ㤤˽бǤΤΤԹ礬褤ɡˤİԤüԤۤȯƤޤϡȸϢưǽưŪİƤڵȤʤ롥ּγФϡŪͳȯäϤǤʤγФϤǤȤɴԤ¸ߤˤäƻٻ롥ޤİԤɲɤüԡ2ؽԡĻʤɤĴޤͤ뤳ȤüԤβåǤ⽽ʬ˲ɤǤȤ¤⡤ּγФͭǤ롥⡤ξȤ߹碌γФθ¤Ǥ褯ΤǤϤʤ
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
ͤդɤȤǤϲäƤΤ1ĤȤơȯƸФơΩ (phonic mediation) ȤɤǤȤּɤ (reading by ear; bottom-up theory; Phoenician theory) 롥ΩϤʤʸľܤ˰̣Ϣ뤷ƤȤܤɤ (reading by eye; top-down theory, Chinese theory) 롥ԤˤȡɼԤϸμȷиˡ⳰˴ؤ䤤ʤʸɤ߲ΤȤμ¸ʤƤ뤬ɤ⤬ͭŤ̤ϽФƤʤˤȤäͭʷ̤ʷ̤⤢ꡤ꤬ʤ褦Ǥ롥Crystal (124--26) ȤĤġʲˤ줾ޤȤ褦
[ reading by ear ٻ ]
(1) ɼԤ1ʬ֤25010--20ߥä1ʸǧ롥®٤ϼȯäȤ褽פΩ롥
(2) դˤϡɼԤˤȤä̤ΤΡ٤θ줬䤹ɼԤϤθγơˤĤƲŪʲɤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ĺñ˶ڤäȯƤߤиϡïäƤ
(3) ʸϤɤȤɼԤϤФпưȤȯ˻ʤȤƤ⡤ϲδͿ뤳ȤΤǤϤʤ
(4) λΤΤˤѰۤ뤬ɼԤϤб뤳ȤǤ롥ΤˡܤǤ٤ƤѰ̤ۤƤꤹΤ롥षɼԤʸѰۤ٥줵뤳ȤˤäƤбƤΤǤϤʤ
(5) ܤɤǤϡƸ줬ˡŪɽȷӤĤ줿֤Ǿ˳ǼƤȹͤʤФʤʤǾˤȤäôȤʤΤǤϤʤ
[ reading by eye ٻ ]
(5) ɼԤ two too Τ褦ƱָǤ蘆ʤtear /tɪə/ tear /tɛə/ Τ褦Ʊְ۲ˤǤ蘆ʤ𤹤ǤϡΤȤʤ
(6) ŪɴԤΤʤˤϡʸؤѴǤʤɤǤԤ롥ϡܤ̣ľܤˤĤʤϩ¸ߤƤ뤳Ȥ̣롥
(7) 嵭 (1) ȿơ1ʬ֤500ʾɤ®ɲȤ롥ܤɤǤϡܤ500ʾȤ館ƤȲ᤹л롥
(8) ɼԤʸñ̤ǤϤʤñ̤ǤΤۤ®ǧǤºݤˤΤ褦ɤǤ롥ϡthe word superiority effect ȸƤФƤ롥
(9) ֻȯЪΥʤˡȲϢƤʤ㤬¿롥ǧˤƤ⡤ξԤϴطƤʤΤǤϤʤ
(10) Ǥạ̵̈ºݤ¸ߤΤۤǧưפǤ뤳Ȥ鼨褦ˡ⼡βȹͤ롥
ξȤ߹碌˿¤ꤽǤ롥ɼԤϡդɤݤˡȤäƤ뤷ܤȤäƤ롥γϡɲȤμˤäƤ⡤ɼԤɤǽϤˤäƤۤʤʸηϤμˤä礭ۤʤΤǤϤʤ嵭ϡȤƥե٥åȤǽ줿ʸϤɤळȤ˴ؤʤɤɽʸξˤϾϤʤۤʤ
ɽʸ (logographic) ǤŪɤܸɤȤƤϡɤǤʤ̣ʬϸ뤳Ȥӻܡפ /ˤۤ/ /ˤäݤ/ פ // // ʤɡȯϤɤǤɤФȤϤФФǤ롥ľŪˤäƤ⡤Τ褦ʾˤϲ𤷤ƤȤϻפʤ (195) դδ¿θ줬֥饸ǤΤФܸϡ֥ƥӷǤȽҤ٤դΡַפˤäơɼԤμܤάŪХѤΤǤϤʤ
Ϣơ#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1]) ȡѸŪˤϡ#1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1]) ؤäƤ
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
סܸȳ١ȽŹ1990ǯ
#1518. ([2013-06-23-1]) language_planning γƵǡѼҲؤȤƤФ夲Ƥ⤽ȤϲȤĤġ3ФγǰѤƤʬؤƳޤꤿ
(1) (language policy) ȸײ (language planning)
ʽ˸ȼҲȤΤޤޤʴط˴ؤռŪΤޤȤޤȸƤӡζŪγϡ뤤ϲ餫ιưؤΰܹԤײȸƤ֤Ȥˤ롥ʤ뽸ĤȤɤ⡤뤳ȤǤ롥ȤСֲ²θפˤĤƸ뤷ΥͤӤȡʼԼͳʿͤӤȡ͡ǥåäˤĤ˷뽸ƸꤹȤȤǤΤǤ롥ȼҲ͡ʴطȤפΰˤƤϡ̸ײʳذܹԤߤŪ˰ܤ¤ȼʤͣͭΤȤǤ롥ʡؼҲء, pp. 158--59
(2) ¿δ˴ؤ륤 (in vivo) ˡȥȥ (in vitro) ˡ
¿1ĤˡϡҲŪˡʤ¿ˤ륳ߥ˥͡ľ̤Ƥ͡Dz褷Ƥ椯ˡǤ롥ʴȸƤФ뤳δˡϡԥʤɤ줬ȯ硤֤ƥʸμʤʤɤ롥
⤦1Ĥˡϡ¦ΡȥʻˤǤΥץǤ롥ŵŪˤϡؼԤ漼Τʤ¿ʬϤʤˤĤƤβΩƤǡΤƤФԤˤͤȤʳФ롥l'Academie française γƼθ˴ؤˡơ#1545. "lexical cleansing" ([2013-07-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȥ륳ܼƳθʤɤȥʴˡȤʤ롥ȥȥȿиˡǤꡤɬƤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤͤǤ뤳ȤϳΤǤʡؼҲء, pp. 159--61ˡ
(3) ѥײ (corpus planning) ȥơײ (status planning)
ؤβɽˡߡƳäʸˡɸಽʤɡƼθܤˤ硤ѥײȸƤ֡ϰ̤ѸؤȾʤꡤعƳʤɡμҲŪơ褦Ȥ硤ơײȸƤ֡Haugen ϡΥѥȥơȤΩˡ֤ȵǽȤΩݤ碌ơײʰʲظȤϲ, p. 25 οޤˡ

ѥײȥơײϸߤ˾ΤǸ̩ˤԲʬǰŪˤΩȤƤȤ館ƤǤ롥
륤ˡ ˡؼҲء١ҡ2002ǯ
륤ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ
Ѹǡbe + ưβʬפŵŪ˼ư֤빽¤Ѱư (mutative verb) Ǥϴλɽ魯
The cookies are all gone.
All my lectures are finished.
The sun is set.
How he is grown up!
Babylon is fallen.
Everything is changed.
ŪˤϤʸ gone finished ʤɤϷƻȹͤƤꡤλɽ魯칽¤ΰȤϤȤ館Ƥʤbe have Ѥ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ狼Ȥꡤbe λǤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤˼Ūʹ¤Ȥ虜ʤbe have Ωˤϡbe λϾ֤ɽ路have λϹ٤ɽ魯Ȥ롥be λϤΤ褦λξ֤ǤϤ뤬#752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1])#1347. a lawyer turned teacher ([2013-01-03-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʬƻˡΤʤˤ̮̿ݤäƤ롥ʲbe λˤرѸIIIA (432--33) ˵äƳ⤷褦
Ѹˤ be λϸűѸ鹭롥űѸǤϡư졤Ȥ櫓ѰưˤĤ wē sindon ȝecumene Τ褦ʹ¤ϰŪäűѸˤʤȡ褯褦ˡhave + Ū + ʬעhave + ʬ + ŪפθѲФ have λʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ¾ư̤˹äǤᤤλ have λϤޤ˼ưˤĥƤΤǡbe λƤ椯ˤϤǤ˻ϤޤäƤȤ⤤롥Ѱư be λϡθ18Ⱦ˻ޤͥݤäƤ18ˤʤäƤ褦䤯be have ̤ͥϤȤȤʤäˤ be λ֤ɽ路Ƥ褦ˡŪˤ֤ɽ魯ˡäǹ٤ɽ魯ˡ⾯ʤʤäŪʾ֤ˡϡѸˤƳΩΤǤ롥
Ѹ줫ѸˤƤλΥʥåץåȤƤߤ褦ʲϡFridén ˤ롤Spenser ʡMarlowe 5ʡShakespeare ʤоݤˤ7Ĥμư (come, go, arrive, fall, flee; become, grow) ˤĤơbe λ have λʬۤĴΤǤ롥ʤɽʤ 's ϡhas 뤤 is Τ줫ܷ (enclitic) ؤɽϡG. Fridén. Studies on the tenses of the English Verb from Chaucer to Shakespeare: With Special Reference to the Late Sixteenth Century. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri Ab., 1948. Rpr. Nendeln/Liechtenstein: Kraus, 1973. ˴ŤرѸIIIA١p. 432 ꡥ
| ư | come | go | arrive | fall | flee | become | grow | ||||||||||||||
| Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | |
| be | 92 | 88 | 78 | 91 | 95 | 79 | 92 | 89 | 83 | 67 | 67 | 65 | 65 | 67 | 82 | 86 | 50 | 90 | 100 | 89 | 90 |
| have | 8 | 6 | 13 | 9 | 0 | 9 | 8 | 11 | 11 | 33 | 33 | 27 | 35 | 0 | 7 | 7 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 11 | 3 |
| 's | 0 | 6 | 9 | 0 | 5 | 12 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 33 | 11 | 7 | 50 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 7 |
#1632. communicative competence ([2013-10-15-1]) εǡcommunicative competence linguistic competence 椵̣Ǥ communicative competence ϡlinguistic competence ϤᡤưɬפʽǽϤޤࡥºݤ2콬 (Second Language Acquisition) ʬǤϡ2ˤĤƽ٤ǽϤϡŪˤ "communicative competence" ĺȤʲΤ٤ƤǽϤȤƤʲޤ O'Grady et al., p 395 "A model of communicative competence" ͤˤƺˡ

ƹͤƤߤȡؤνʬϤνǽϤбνηϤ뤿¸ߤƤȤ롥ǤƤüԤζŪʥߥ˥ǽϤˤƤΤǤꡤ̻Ūʼǽ (?) ʤˤƤʤäơ˸ؤˤΤ褦ʬϡοޤ;ϤϤʤȤäƸؤȤ鳰٤ȤȤˤϤʤʤؤϸ˴ؤ뤢¦̤ˤΤǤꡤ̻֤ⶦ֤ƱʤǸ椵٤оݤǤ롥ŪǽϤοޤŪˡ줿̻ŪʱĤߤοޤꤷ
οޤ˴ؤƤ⤦1դäȤϡ#1632. communicative competence ([2013-10-15-1])#1633. ٤̱ۤ²ء ([2013-10-16-1])#1644. ٤̱ۤ² (2) ([2013-10-27-1]), #1646. ȯù٤ʸ ([2013-10-29-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ̣Ǥ "communicative competence" ϤοޤΤʤǤϤɤ˰֤ŤΤȤǤ롥"Sociolinguistic competence" "Cultural references" ˴ޤޤ褦˻פ뤬ȤСäߥۤ٤ߥλľŪ˸äƤ褤ɤä˳äݤεդȤƤβɲä뤳ȤˤʤΤ
O'Grady, William, John Archibald, Mark Aronoff, Janie Rees-Miller. Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010. (Companion Site based on the 5th edition available here.)
ε#1650. ʸǤȤƤ j Ω ([2013-11-02-1]) Τ <j> ˤĴ٤ƤȤˡScragg (66--67fn) ˵Ƥ <j> <g> ŪطˤĤƤƶܤȤޤä
In Old French orthography, the sound /dʒ/ (Mod. Fr. /ʒ/) was represented <i> (<j>) before <a o u> and <g> before <e i>. The convention was carried into Middle English in French loanwords, and survives, for example, in jacket, join, July, germ, giant. The resulting confusion with <g> for /g/ has sometimes been avoided by extending <j> to positions before <e> and <i>, e.g. jet (cf. get), jig (cf. gig), or alternatively the French convention of using <gu> for /g/ was adopted (guess, guide). In the sixteenth century, <gu> for /g/ was more widespread than it is today (e.g. guift, guirl 'gift, girl'), and some printers followed Caxton, whose long association with the Netherlands led him to use <gh> for /g/ very frequently (e.g. gherle, ghoos, ghes, ghoot 'girl, goose, geese, goat'). Sixteenth-century books often have <gh> where modern spelling has <gu> (e.g., ghess, ghest), and the Oxford English Dictionary even records ghuest. Sixteenth-century familiarity with Italian literature may have contributed here, as Italian has <gh> for /g/. In English it survives only in ghost, ghastly and gherkin.
ʤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥եѸ̤줿ѸǤϡեֻޤͤơ/ʤ/ Фֻ³첻ˤä <g> <j> ˳Ƥ<g> Ͻ /g/ ɽ路ƤΤǡ<g> <j> βбϸ§ȤưʲΤ褦ˤʤäƤ
| <i> | <e> | <a> | <o> | <u> | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <g> | /ʤi/, /gi/ | /ʤe/, /ge/ | /ga/ | /go/ | /gu/ |
| <j> | /ʤa/ | /ʤo/ | /ʤu/ |
| <i> | <e> | <a> | <o> | <u> | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <g> | (/ʤi/, /gi/) | (/ʤe/, /ge/) | /ga/ | /go/ | /gu/ |
| <gu> | /gi/ | /ge/ | |||
| <j> | /ʤi/ | /ʤe/ | /ʤa/ | /ʤo/ | /ʤu/ |
Ѹǥե٥åȤ10ܤʸ <j> ϡ٤ȤƤϡ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1]) ǤߤȤꡤ<z>, <q> ³ƺǤ롥ۤɤޤǤΩʤʸ⤽ΤϤȤΩƤĹ˿Ƥ400ǯȷФäƤʤΤ
<j> <i> ˤΤФĤƤǤʸǤ롥Ūˤ <j> ϥ夫¸ߤǽȤƤ <i> ȽʣƤꡤʸ <i> Ѱ۷ˤʤäĤޤꡤ<j> ΩʸǤȤƤϤߤʤƤʤäΤǤ롥Ѹ̤ơ<j> ŵŪˤϥˤ褦ˡ<i> Ϣ³ݤκǸ <i> Ѥ줿 (ex. iiij)
Ȥ1630--40ǯˡ<i> 첻Ȥơ<j> /ʤ/ бҲȤѤ븽δϤޤϤޤǡ <j> <i> ȶ̤Ωϰ̤櫓ǤϤʤˤϤ˻֤ä㤨С1755ǯ Johnson μǤ⡤"I is in English considered both as a vowel and consonant; though, since the vowel and consonant differ in their form as well as sound, they may be more properly accounted two letters" ȶ̤ƤϤ뤬ºݤˤ <i> ǻϤޤ <j> ǻϤޤ줬ƱФΤȤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤjar, jaw, jay, ice, idol, jealous, jerk, ill ʤɤνǸФȤƸΤǤ (Upward and Davidson 184--85) ʸ <J> <I> ζ̤Ϥ٤졤Ѥ19ޤ³ (Crystal 260) ʤ1828ǯ Webster μǤϡξʸϴ˶̤Ƥ롥
<j> /ʤ/ бҲȤѤ褦ˤʤäΤϡťեˤƤбäǤ롥ƥ iacere, iunctus iuvenis ʤɤθƬ <i> ȾҲ /j/ ɽ路ťե˻Ǥ /j/ ϲФơǽŪ˻ /ʤ/ ȤʤäΩ <i/j> = /ʤ/ бطѸˤܿ졤17ȾˡٰŪ˸ʬۤѤ褦ˤʤä (Upward and Davidson 133--34) ޤ15Υڥˤ첻 <i> ȻҲ <j> λȤʬδ⡤Ѹˤξʸʬ˴ؤäƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ<i>, <j> ξ (dot) ȤϢơ#870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1]) ȡ˾ܤϡOED "J, n. ιȤ줿
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Ѹηƻ졦 long ӵη֤ϵ§Ū longer űѸ줫ѸˤƤ lenger ȤƤ leng ˤΤ褦˸촴첻Ľ֤ѤƤޥĸӵɽ魯 *-iþo Ȥʤäľθ촴첻 i-mutation θ촴θ첻첻ؤѲθ̤ϡűѸ leng(ra) Ѹ leng(er) ˸Ƥ롥
ȤϸűѸǤѸǤ lang, long ʤɤȾ˸첻ƤΤǡ䤬 (analogy) ˤӵ⸶ -er դε§Ūʷ֤褦ˤʤäĤƤ i-mutation ȤѲθ̤ȤѲθ̤ˤǤä줿Ȥ롥
ơˤ longer ˤĤʤ֤줿ΤĺΤȤˤʤäΤǡĴ٤ƤߤOED Ǥ longer ȤƸФΩäƤʤΤǡlong ιʸõƤߤȡa1533 longer Ƥ롥MED ǤƱäΤ lōng (adj. (1)) ʸõȡa1400 (a1325) langer Ф롥ʸǯξǤϿʤ
leng(er) κǽǯĴ٤ȤĴ⤷ƤߤOED ˤȡ leng κǽ Chaucer c1386ƻ졦 lenger ϡˡȤƤ Spenser 1590ǯǽäʾ礹ȡ14--15 longer 졤16ˤŪ leng(er) ֤Ȥڽˤʤꤽ
˽Ҥ٤褦 longer θФΩäƤʤʾ塤OED ʸΤߤǿ֤θŤ櫓ˤϤʤΤ褦ŪˤϡŪ˥ѥͭѤǤ롥Helsinki Corpus ˤꡤäȿ줽줾ΰ۷֤夲ƤߤűѸǤ2 r ϸζǤ뤳Ȥθޤꤳܤ仨βǽˤⵤĤǤϤʤ⤷ʤȤǤĤġʲ˿
| LONGER | LENG(ER) | |
|---|---|---|
| O1 | 0 | 1 |
| O2 | 0 | 14 |
| O3 | 0 | 45 |
| O4 | 0 | 7 |
| M1 | 0 | 14 |
| M2 | 0 | 21 |
| M3 | 11 | 26 |
| M4 | 3 | 25 |
| E1 | 11 | 6 |
| E2 | 19 | 0 |
| E3 | 46 | 0 |
| LONGER | LENG(ER) | |
|---|---|---|
| CEECS1 | 31 | 6 |
| CEECS2 | 37 | 0 |
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