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2011-03-31 Thu

#703. űѸο²̾ζɽ [inflection][oe][relationship_noun][plural][double_plural][i-mutation][analogy]

[2011-03-26-1], [2011-03-27-1]εǡ5Ĥο²̾ father, mother, brother, sister, daughter η֤ˤĤ²̾ϤƴŪʸäǤꡤŪˤʣˤäƤ뤿ˡ˼夲뤳Ȥ¿١űѸη֤ƤʲϡWest-Saxon Ǥμʶ޷򼨤ɽǤ Campbell, pp. 255--56; Davis, p. 15 )

OE Relationship Noun Inflection

5ΤǸߤѤ޷ʬŪ˻̤äƤ뤳Ȥѻ롥ߤ̩ܤʸ췲ʤΤǡ츻Ūʷ֤Ǥ뤫Ǥˤ褯ʬʤʤäƤ롥
űѸǤȸκθС¾ˤ۷롥㤨 brother ʣȤ Anglian ˤ i-mutation([2009-10-01-1]) Ф brōēþre Ԥʤ줿첻ϸѸ brethren ˺פĤƤ롥brethren θ -en ϡchildren ˸ΤƱǡűѸ졤ѸǹԤʤ줿ʣͳ褹롥η֤ i-mutation -en Ʊ˸ʣ ( double plural; see [2009-12-01-1] ) Ǥ롥brethren ϡֿ֡(ץƥȤʡɤ)һաƱȹơ (˻)ͧפθѤ brother üʣǡǤϤ뤬Ǥ롥ʹߤ brothers ͥˤʤޤǤϡbrethren ϡַפθǤ̤ʣǤꡤȤƤѸǤ MED ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡ-s ʣϵäΤǤ롥

Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
Davis, Norman. Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer. 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1953.

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2011-03-30 Wed

#702. -ths ȯ [pronunciation][plural][th]

Ѹˤϡ-th ǽϡ̵ͭΤɤƤ㤨Сseventh, ninth, tenth ʤɤǤ /ð/ ԤʤƤȤ, p. 383 ˡȼäʣ -s ղäȯ /θs/ /ðz/ ΤɤƤ褦p. 372 ˡɤϸѸǤäƤʤQuirk et al. Ǥϡ"There is considerable indeterminacy between voicing and nonvoicing in many nouns ending in -th." (305) Ȥ롥
Ѹ -th ̾ʣ -s ղä -ths ȯĴ٤ƤߤȤΤϡ˥ꥹѸˤĤƵŪʸڤΤ Longman Pronunciation Dictionary ( LPD ) , Fowler's Modern English Usage ( MEU, p. 770 ) , A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language ( CGEL, pp. 305--06 ) 3Ǥ롥ϡʣǸǽνʬˤ̾˸¤äɽǡ"Ts" /θs/ "Dz" /ðz/ 򤽤줾ɽ魯ߥθϥꥫȯLPD MEU ǤϡŪ˵㤤Τ () ǤꡤǧȯΤΤ (()) Ǥä

 LPDMEUCGEL
bathsDz ((Ts))Dz (Ts) 
berthsTs (Dz); TsTsTs
birthsTsTsTs
breathsTsTs 
brothsTs (Dz); Ts  
clothsTs (Dz); Dz (Ts)Ts (Dz)Ts
deathsTsTsTs
faithsTs Ts
fourthsTsTs 
girthsTsTs 
growthsTsTs 
hearthsTs (Dz); TsTs (Dz) 
heathsTsTs (Dz)Ts
lathsTs (Dz); Dz (Ts)Ts (Dz) 
lengthsTs Ts
mothsTs; Dz (Ts)Ts; Dz (Ts)Ts
mouthsDz ((Ts))Dz 
mythsTsTs 
oathsDz (Ts)DzTs, Dz
pathsDz (Ts)DzDz
sheathsDz (Ts)Dz (Ts)Ts, Dz
smithsTsTs 
truthsDz (Ts)Dz (Ts)Ts, Dz
wraithsTsTs (Dz) 
wreathsDz (Ts) Ts, Dz
youthsDz (Ts); Ts (Dz)DzTs, Dz


λҲľҲξˤ /θs/ §첻ξˤɤ줬㤷() Ǥ줿ȯϵΤ㤤ȤƤΤɬ٤㤤Ȥ̣ʤLPD ȯĴˤȡbaths ϱƤѼˤƤ /ðz/ /θs/ ƱΨäȤŪͭȯŪ˿ꤨƤƤȤȤפΰ̣Ǥ /θs/ 򡤡֥Х֡פΰ̣Ǥ /ðz/ ѤȤͤ⤢褦youths ˤĤƤϡͭ /ðz/ BrE 82%AmE 39% Ǥ롥첻Ԥ -ths ˤĤƤϡο񤤤դƤ椭äȤ⡤ʤȤѸ³ƤɤǤ뤳ȤͤȡǯǤΤʷѻȤǽ㤤
Ϣơ嵭̾줫ưư̾¿ /ðz/ äƤ뤳Ȥդ ex. bathe, breathe, clothe, mouthing, sheathe, teething, wreathe ) ͭ˶ޤ줿̵໤ͭϡűѸ̤˸줿ݤǤ ([2009-05-15-1])

סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.

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2011-03-29 Tue

#701. Ƭ sur- [prefix][etymology]

ΩѴ쥢ꥹŸѥꡤݥԥɥ󥿡¢ʤˤ롽򸫤˹Ԥäsurrealism ( Fr. surréalisme ) 1920ǯ˥ե󥹤λ André Breton (1896--1966) 濴˵ä20ηݽѱưǡ׹ͤθŪʻѤز󵢤٤̴ʤɰռ।᡼Ż뤷
Ƭ sur ϥƥ super / suprā ([2010-04-12-1], [2010-04-14-1]) бĶơˡפ̣ʸʩ so(u)r sur ؤȯŸϡ sus Ȥ contamination ˤΤȤ [ Perret, p. 156 ] ˡȤơͼפƤƤ뤬̤ˤϡ֥쥢ꥹפ̤äƤ롥ܸΡ֥塼ʡפϤθ줬֥쥢ꥹפȤܸȯɽϥե󥹸θ /syrrealism/ ˴ŤΤǡѸ /səˈrɪəlɪzm/ ˴ŤƤΤǤϤʤJReK 6ΥɽɤĴ٤ƤߤȤҥåȿ¿ˡ֥쥢ꥹ (49500)֥塼쥢ꥺ (7970)֥塼쥢ꥹ (7340)֥쥢ꥺ (3390)֥塼ꥢꥺ (2060)֥ꥢꥺ (18) äBreton (1924) Manifeste de surréalisme إ쥢ꥹ٤ˮëԢΤϡ֥塼ʡפȤάɽ줿ȤˤʰȤޤ֥쥢ꥺפȱѸˡ֥פ餻Τǿͤݤ褦ǡϤ֥쥢ꥹפܸȤƤŪȯȹͤƤ褵ʥե󥹸ȱѸ򤴤ޤˤơ֥塼쥢ꥺפȯƤʤɤϡǿͤ⤤Ȥ
ơĶפ̣ե󥹸Ƭ sur- ϡҤΤ褦˥ƥ super / suprā ֻҲ /p/ 岽ƾüǤ롥̣ǤΤޤܸˤޤäƤƬȤѸǤϤƬˤĥե󥹸äμѤʤ󤷤褦

surcharge, surface, surfeit, surge, surmaster, surmise, surmount, surname, surpass, surplice, surplus, surprise, surrender, surround, surtax, surtout, surveillance, survey, survive


surgesur- + regere "to rule" ͳˤΤȤСinsurgency, insurgent, insurrection, resource, resurge, resurgence, resurgent, resurrect, resurrection, source, surgy ʤɡ word family ( see ڡ륯θ츻ŵ ) դ٤ϡsurreptitious ̩ΡפǤ롥Ƭ sub- /b/ ľβƱ /r/ ȤʤäΤǡषֲˡפ̣Τդsurrogate Ʊͤ sub- ͳ褹롥
ѸθǤϡ[2010-06-21-1]ǸȤꡤ֤ꤷȤ٤ super- Τۤ⤤sur- ΰ仺Ϥʤʤ礭
Ѹ surrealism νФ1927ǯ򴬤ݽѱưϡ21δϺˤ礭ƶͿ³Ƥ롥

Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-04-05-1]

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2011-03-28 Mon

#700. 졤ǡܼ캬촴ʣ졤 [morphology][word_formation][terminology]

Ǥϡָ ( word ) ʲηŪñ̤͡Ѹ줬ͿƤ롥Υ֥Ǥ츻η֤ʤɤ¿äƤΤǡ٤褯ȤѸޤȤƤʲ (pp. 7, 11--12) ѡȤ롥
( word ) ȤϲȤϷθŵŪǤꡤޤ˲褷ƤʤʲѸϤ٤ơָפ˰¸ƤΤǡܼŪʤΤϼδˤ䤫ǺѤޤƤָȤʸΤʾ뤳ȤǤ뼫ͳǡ¾μͳˤäƤԲǽ (uninterruptable) ñ̡פǤ롥
( morpheme ) ʸˡκǾñ̡ФС̣ͭʡ׺Ǿñ̤뤬ɬ̣ͭǤʤ⤢ ([2010-11-02-1]) ȤΩѤǤϡͳ ( free morpheme ) ȤΩѤʤǤϡ« ( bound morpheme ) ȸƤФ롥
ܼ ( affix ) ָ줫鼫ͳ«ȤǧǤñ̡ǽδܼ ( inflectional affix ) ȡܼ ( derivational affix ) ̤졤֤δƬ ( prefix ) ȡ ( suffix ) ̤롥
( root ) ָ줫餹٤Ƥ޷ ( inflectional morpheme ) ( derivational morpheme ) Ȥ˻Ĥǡסsingers Ǥ sing 캬Ȥʤ롥ʣǤϳƼͳǤ캬Ȥ졤㤨 wheelchair wheel chair 줾캬Ȥʤ롥«ǤǤʤ캬ȤߤʤϢ ( combining form ) ȤǤ⤢ ([2010-10-31-1])
( stem ) ָ줫ܼȤ˻Ĥǡסsingers Ǥ singer wheelchair Ǥ wheelchair 촴Ȥʤ롥
ʣ ( compound ) 2İʾθ캬ʤ졥
( base ) ֤ɤΤ褦ܼǤ졤ܼղäס캬촴ȤϰۤʤŪñ̡ sing ܼ -er ղä singer Ȥʤꡤ singer ˶ܼ -s ղä singers Ȥʤ롤ʤɡ
ˤϸߤ˰¸۴ŪʤΤ⤢뤷ϳ⤢롥ϷỌ̇̄ǤñˤϤʤȤꤢȤȤǡ

ط١ҡ1988ǯ
Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew. An Introduction to English Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2002.

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2011-03-27 Sun

#699. father, mother, brother, sister, daughter λ (2) [phonetics][grimms_law][analogy][etymology][relationship_noun]

ε[2011-03-26-1]˰³²̾˴ޤޤˤĤơ (2) ϼ̤ꡥsister ֤ϤȤ <t> 򼨤ΤϤɤΤ褦뤫ޤdaughter <t> 򼨤sister λȴطΤ
ˡdaughter ʤĸο²̾췲˸ *-ter 򸽺ߤޤݤäƤΤˤĤƽҤ٤褦ĸκƷ *dhughəter Ǥꡤ츫 t brother ˤʤ餤ˡ§ ( Grimms's Law ) Ф þ ѲϤʤʤäϡ໤ gh ʸǤֻ˺פĤˤθ֤Ǥϥˡ§ŬѤʤäǤ ( Skeat, pp. 246--47 ) ʴϢ s ǥˡ§֥å줿ȤˤĤƤ[2011-01-28-1], [2011-02-18-1]εǰäˤ daughter ǤϡIE t ̵Τޤޤ˸ߤޤǷѾ줿
sister ts Ԥ뤬椨˥ˡ§򤹤ȴΤǤϡȹͤ줽ˤϤޤ̤λ𤬤롥sister ϡճʤȤ˰ĸ *-ter Ŀ²̾췲Ȥϸ츻ۤʤ롥ĸκƷ *swesor ϡ*swe- "one's own" *ser "woman" ΰ۷ιǡ"the woman belonging to on's own kindred" ۤɤθäȹͤƤġpp. 323--24ˡΤ褦 sister t äƤʤäΤޥʳ *-ter ͳ褹¾ο²̾˴Ť ( analogy ) Ư*swestr- Τ褦˸촴 t ޤޤ뤳Ȥˤʤääơsister t 츻ŪǤ롥
Ѹδϡsister daughter ȤȤ th Ϥ֤ϤΤ褦˸롥daughter ϺǤʰĸηѾԤǤꡤfather, mother, brother ɽΩˤȸǡ sister ϤޤλʪǤꡤĸ츻Ūɸ֤Ƥˤʤμ䤫餰äȰžơsister ϤϤ꿿֤ϤȸΤ⤷ʤ
εɮˤꡤ Skeat (pp. 108, 147--49, 246--47, 369) 򻲾Ȥ

رѸθ츻ŵ١罤ۡ1990ǯ
Skeat, Walter W. Principles of English Etymology. 1st ser. 2nd Rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1892.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-07-04-1] [2011-03-31-1]

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2011-03-26 Sat

#698. father, mother, brother, sister, daughter λ (1) [phonetics][grimms_law][verners_law][analogy][etymology][relationship_noun]

ܥ֥˴󤻤줿֤ɤsisterbrother,mother,fatherߤtherǽäƤʤΡפȤѤʼˤĤơֿΥȤǼΤ褦˲

father, mother, brother <th> äƤΤˡsister Ϥʤ <t> ʤΤѤˤ⤷ǤĴ٤Ƥߤطʤˤȹä𤬤ޤǤˤΤDzƵˤǤФȻפäƤޤޤΤ߽Ҥ٤ޤ
츻Ū˴Ϣ daughter 碌ƿ²̾5β֤ˤĴ٤ƤߤȡλҲεȯŸϸʤۤɤ˳ƼԳͤǤĸκƷƱ񤤤򤷤ƸɸѸ˻äΤ father mother Τߤǡbrother, daughter, sister Ϥ줾ͤȯŸФƸߤ˻äƤޤfather mother 2줬 brother Ʊ <th> 򼨤褦ˤʤäΤϡѸäǡ#480 ε򻲾ȡˡޤǤ fader, moder ʤɤ <d> äƤޤsister ˻äƤϡokamoto Ĵ٤줿Ȥꡤ⤽ĸǤ <t> ˤ <th> ˤλҲϤʤä櫓ǡޥʳˤ <t> 줿ΤǤ
ʣǤĸʳǤϡ sister ơ *-ter θ줷Ƥȹͤο²̾췲ˤdzƼԳͤ˲ѲФƤ̡ɸѸȤƸȡޤ father, mother, brother, sister, daughter ȤʬۤƤȤȤǤ
ǽѤʵޤȡsister ֤ϤǤȤˡfather, mother, brother <th> ΰ׼Τʤ̣ǤϳΤ˸츻ŪʤΤǤ˶ʤ櫓ǤŪʷ֤򼨤ΤǤ狼ˤ⤷ޤ󡥵񤬤еˤޤ


θ塤⤦ܤĴ٤ΤǡʲƤߤʼʻȤ Skeat, pp. 108, 147--49, 246--47, 369ˡޤ2Ĥʬ򤷤Ƥߤ褦

(1) sister ֤ϤǤȹͤȤ father, mother, brother ̤ <th> äƤȤ¤뤬ϸ츻ŪˤɤΤ褦뤫
(2) sister ֤ϤȤ <t> 򼨤ΤϤɤΤ褦뤫ޤdaughter <t> 򼨤sister λȴطΤ

(1) ͻ롥father, mother, brother ΰĸκƷϤ줾 pater, mater, bhrater in PIE Ǥ롥λҲˤĤǤñʤΤ brother ĸ t ̵ˤˡ§ ( Grimm's Law ) ˤꥲޥĸǤ þ ̵໤ˤȤʤäλҲϸűѸǤ첻֤ͭð Ȥʤä衤ޤͭ໤ݤäƤ롥
father mother ˤĤƤϡĸ2˶ˡˡ§˲äƥͥˡ§ ( Verner's Law ) ŬѤ줿[2010-08-20-1]ε father ˤȤäƷаޤΤǡ򻲾Ȥ줿mother ⤳Ʊϩ򤿤ɤäʤIE t ξˡ§ˤ ð ȤʤꡤűѸǤæ໤ mōdor Τ褦 d ȤƸ줿 d ϡ[2010-08-21-1]Ǹ褦Ѹ1400ǯʹߤæ໤ ð ؤȲ󵢤ߤ˻äƤ롥father mother æ໤ˤĤƤϡbrother λҲ˴Ť ( analogy ) ˤä¥ʤ줿ȹͤ뤳Ȥ⽽ʬ˲ǽɤΤȤ²̾췲ȤƤ촶Ūˤϼ뤳ȤϤʤȹͤ뤫ʺμ⤳촶ȤʤäƤˡ
嵭ηаޤˤꡤѸǤϷ̤Ȥ father, mother, brother ·ä ð Ĥ˻äƤ뤬űѸ졤ѸǤϰۤʤҲäƤȤʬ롥(1) ǼϡѸʹߤƤϤޤˤʤ
츫ޤȤޤΤ뤳3λҲŪˤ줷ƤʤäȤͤС<t> sister פƤ֤ۤϤǤʤ褦˻פƤ뤫⤷ʤ¤ΤȤ sister ϤϤȼʤΤǤ롥(2) ˤĤƤϡdaughter λˤ⿨Ĥεǡ

Skeat, Walter W. Principles of English Etymology. 1st ser. 2nd Rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1892.

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2011-03-25 Fri

#697. Log-Likelihood Tester CGI [corpus][bnc][statistics][web_service][cgi][lltest][sociolinguistics]

ε[2011-03-24-1] Log-Likelihood Test ˤ׻ˤ Rayson Log-likelihood calculator ѤФ褤ȽҤ٤ºݤθκݤ˺Ȥ⤦ưȻפäΤ CGI 򼫺Ƥߤ٤ϤȻפȤꤢ



ΥƥȥܥåϤ٤ǡϡֶڤɽη1ܡʾάġˤϥѥ̾2ܰʹߤϥɤȴѻٿʥҥåȿˡǽԤϳƥѥΥʸˡ"#" ǻϤޤԤϥȹԤȤ̵뤵롥1ܤΥϾάġ
ʲΥƥȤϥץ롥[2010-09-11-1]εǼ夲ƥӹѤƻӵȺǾޤ˥ȥå20٤BNCweb äե֥ѥüԤ̤ɽǤ롥ΤޤޥԡϥܥåŽդȡϷ̤ǧǤ롥

    BNC_Male_SpeakersBNC_Female_Speakers
new14991
good408310
free17375
fresh84118
delicious1234
full210107
sure532328
clean197223
wonderful270258
special17782
crisp1016
fine347215
big470415
great20396
real16380
easy326157
bright113110
extra347203
safe18292
rich12045
#--------
corpus_size49499383290569


˽֤ͭպä礭ΤϡбԤ֤ɤĤ֤줿 fresh, delicious, clean, wonderful, big ǡٿ˴ŤƷ׻줿 Diff_Co ( "Difference Coefficient" ֺ۷ ) ޥʥǤ뤳Ȥ顤ħŪʷƻȤȤˤʤ롥big ϰճʵ⤷̤Ǥ롥Фäͭպ򼨤ΤϲǼ easy rich Ǥ롥η̤Ϥɤ߹ळȤǤܺ٤Ĵ٤뤳ȤǤ롥ηƻȤϡüԤǤϤʤʹ̡ǯ𡤼Ҳ񳬵ʤɤ򼴤ĴƤ⤪⤷ȱѤǤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2011-04-08-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2011-03-24 Thu

#696. Log-Likelihood Test [corpus][bnc][statistics][lltest]

[2010-03-04-1]εǿ줿ѥؤǤϳƼ׼ˡѤ롥ĤˡΤʤǤ⡤ɽΥѥ֤٤Ӥꡤcollocation ٹ礤¬Τ˹ѤƤΤ Log-Likelihood Test ( LL Test, G Test, G2 Test ʤɤȤ˸ƤФ븡Ǥ롥ѥθ줿ʤΤǥΰۤʤ륳ѥ֤ǤӤǽǤꡤƱŪǰˤ褯ѤƤ2踡 ( Chi-Squared Test ) ⤤ĤǤ줿ˡɾƤꡤǶΥѥǤϹѤƤ롥㤨С2踡ϴ٤5꾯ʤȤٸ򰷤Ȥѥ礭ΤȾΤӤȤ˿㤯ʤ뤬Log-Likelihood Test Ϥαƶˤ [ Rayson and Garside 2 ]
Log-Likelihood Test δŪʹͤϡѥȤˤɽδԤи١ʴ١ˤФͤȼºݤ˽и١ʴѻ١ˤκñʸȹͤۤɤ˶Ƥ뤫ɤȽꤹȤΤǤ롥ȤơΤ褦ʥǥBNC ( The British National Corpus ) äե֥ѥȽ񤭸ե֥ѥ̤ξ֥ѥ֤ f*ck Ȥ four-letter word ٤Ӥ롥BNCweb ꤳΥɤ򸡺ȡΤ褦ʷ̤줿

CategoryNo. of wordsNo. of hitsDispersion (over files)Frequency per million words
Spoken10,409,85857963/90855.62
Written87,903,571743172/3,1408.45
total98,313,4291,322235/4,04813.45


׽ۤɤޤǤʤDZ "Frequency per million words" 򸫤Сf*ck Ūäդ¿Ѥ뤳Ȥʬ뤬ϤŪ΢դ롥ޤ̵Ȥơäե֥ѥȽ񤭸ե֥ѥδ֤Ǥ f*ck ٺϸϰǤꡤθ˴ؤξԤ˰̣Τ뺹Ϥʤפꤹ롥Ωϡäե֥ѥȽ񤭸ե֥ѥδ֤Ǥ f*ck ٺϸϰǤʤθ˴ؤξԤκϰ̣פȤʤ롥̵⤬ٻ뤫ɤΤŪǤ롥

 Corpus 1Corpus 2Total
Frequency of wordaba+b
Frequency of other wordsc-ad-bc+d-a-b
Totalcdc+d


Log-Likelihood Test Ѥ Log-Likelihood ratio пפϡɽΤdzƥ֥ѥ ( c, d ) ȡƥ֥ѥǤ f*ck ٿ ( a, b ) ʬɽˤޤȤ᤿ǡ줾δ E1 E2 򲼤 (1) μǵᡤͤ (2) μƵ롥

(1) E1 = c*(a+b)/(c+d); E2 = d*(a+b)/(c+d)
(2) LL = 2*((a*log(a/E1))+(b*log(b/E2)))

f*ck οͤǷ׻ȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

E1 = 10409858*(579+743)/(10409858+87903571) = 139.979170861796
E2 = 87903571*(579+743)/(10409858+87903571) = 1182.0208291382
LL = 2*((579*log(579/139.979170861796))+(743*log(743/1182.0208291382))) = 954.2115

Log-likelihood ratio Ȥ 954.2115 ȤͤФ롥ˤͤŬڤͭտ̾ 5%, 1%, 0.1%ˤб륫ͤӤ롥2 * 2 ʬɽФ׻Ǥϼͳ1ΥͤѤ뤳ȤˤʤäƤꡤͤͭտ 5%, 1%, 0.1% νˤ줾 3.84, 6.63, 10.83 Ǥ롥954.2115 Log-Likelihood ratio ͭտ 0.1% б 10.83 ⤺äȹ⤤Τǡ0.1% ͭտǵ̵ϴѤ롥СŪˤϵ̵⤬ǤΨ 0.1% ˤޤȹͤƤ褤ȤȤǤ롥Τ褦ˤΩäե֥ѥȽ񤭸ե֥ѥδ֤Ǥ f*ck ٺϸϰǤʤθ˴ؤξԤκϰ̣פ򤵤뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Log-Likelihood Test ϰʾΤ褦˿ʤ뤬θԤʤˤäƤΤäƤɬפ롥̤ˤϡ׻٤ 5 򲼲륻뤬1ĤǤ⤢ˤϡ٤Ȥ롥 the Cochran rule ȸƤФƤ뤬꤭٤ʥ롼󵯤 Rayson, Berridge, and Francis (8) ˤС٤٤ͤͭտ 5% 13 1% 11 0.1% 8 Ȥͭտ 0.01% ꤹд 1 ˤѤ٤ΤǡRayson et al. ϥѥؤǴŪѤƤ3Ĥο˲äơ0.01% οб륫ͤ 15.13 ˤޤǤθ侩Ƥ롥
פˤϾܤʤɽ 2ʥ֡˥ѥ֤ǤӤȤǴñѤ뤳ȤǤ븡ȤơLog-Likelihood Test αϰϤϹ׻Τ Rayson Log-likelihood calculator ʤɤǤФ褤ܵϤΥڡεҤȥʸ򻲹ͤˤˡ
BNC Ѥ f*ck ϢʬۤθϡMcEnery et al. (264--86) Υǥ˾ܤ
ϢơϹԤʤʤäĤܥ֥ǰä gorgeous Ĵ ([2010-08-16-1], [2010-08-17-1],[2010-12-25-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ

Rayson, P., D. Berridge , and B. Francis. "Extending the Cochran Rule for the Comparison of Word Frequencies between Corpora." Le poids des mots: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Statistical Analysis of Textual Data (JADT 2004), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium, March 10-12, 2004. Ed. Purnelle G., Fairon C., and Dister A. Louvain: Presses universitaires de Louvain, 2004. 926--36. Available online at http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/users/paul/publications/rbf04_jadt.pdf .
Rayson, P. and R. Garside. "Comparing Corpora Using Frequency Profiling". Proceedings of the Workshop on Comparing Corpora, Held in Conjunction with the 38th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2000), 1-8 October 2000, Hong Kong. 2000. 1--6. Available online at http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/users/paul/phd/phd2003.pdf .
McEnery, Tony, Richard Xiao, and Yukio Tono. Corpus-Based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge, 2006.

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2011-03-23 Wed

#695. 캬 fer [etymology][loan_word][latin][grimms_law][morphology][cognate][word_family]

fer Ȥ캬ˤĤƥ֥Ǽ䤬äferȤ캬ϰpor()bher(ɤ)ͳ褹ȤΤȤʤΤǤ2ĤΡfer٤ϤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤǤ礦
DZѸθ캬ȤƸڤƤ fer ϡºݤˤ2ब̤롥1Ĥϥƥ󡦥ե󥹸ͳʤ깭ޥ󥹷ϡˤΤΡ⤦1ĤϱѸͳʤ깭ޥϡˤΤΡ2ĤϤޤä̤ΤȤƹͤɬפ롥
ޤԤ顥fer 캬˴ޤϥե󥹸ͳǤϤäƤ⸶§ȤƥƥͳȹͤƤ褯οϤӤرѸ츻ŵ (413--19) ڡ륯θ츻ŵ򻲾ȤƤޤȤȡޤƤä64줬󤬤ä

afferent, circumference, circumferential, confer, conference, defer, deference, deferential, deferment, differ, difference, different, differential, differentially, differentiate, differently, efferent, fertile, fertility, fertilization, fertilize, fertilizer, indifference, indifferency, indifferent, indifferently, infer, inferable, inference, inferential, infertile, infertility, insufferable, insufferably, interfere, interference, interferon, offer, offering, prefer, preferable, preferably, preference, preferential, preferentially, preferment, proffer, refer, referee, reference, referendary, referendum, referent, referential, suffer, sufferable, sufferance, suffering, transfer, transferable, transferee, transference, transferor, vociferous


Ѹäˤ췲¸ߤΤϡŪ˥ƥѤ¿äȤˡ캬Ǥƥ fer ư ferre ˤֱ֡פȤŪʰ̣ôäƤȤ礭ƥ ferre ϰĸ *bher- ֱ֡פؤȺƷ롥*bh ϥƥǤ໤ /f/ ؤѲޥǤˡ§ ( Grimm's Law ) ˤä /b/ ؤѲ ([2009-08-07-1], [2009-08-08-1]) бűѸ beran ϡֱ֡פΰ̣򤤤ޤǻ˻ĤƤѸ bear Ǥϡֱ֡פθֻࡤʼ¤˷֡פθ濴ȤʤäƤꡤԤθ٤ϤĤƤۤɹ⤯ʤ
bear ȥƥѸ offer ʤɤδط޼ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

Etymological Relationship between offer and bear

ˡƥ캬ȤƤ fer Ȥ̤ˡ褯Ѹ fVr V 첻ˡʥޥĸθ캬ȤƤ *fura Τ褦ʸ첻ķ֤ƷƤꡤɸѸǤ캬 fer ȤΤڤФϤʤΤǡfer Ѹθ캬ȸƤ֤ΤŬڤǤϤʤˤθ캬򵯸ˤĸȤƤ before, far, first, for, forth, from ʤɤ󤲤롥ޥ /f/ ϥˡ§դˤɤäƤ椯ȰĸǤ *p ǤꡤλҲݻƤƥб pro per ȤȤˤʤ롥Ƭȼäƥ¿Ѹ˼ѤƤ ( ex. produce, profess; perform, persuade )
ޤȤȡfer ȴϢդ캬ˤ2ढꡤζ̤ϥޥȥޥ󥹸졤ȼѸ졤ˡ§ŬѤŬѤȤäΩ˴ŤƤ롥Ѹθäϡ餿Ƥ䤳

ʡ ԡرѸ츻ŵ١ܿ޽饤֡1992ǯ

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2011-03-22 Tue

#694. ٸԵ§ʣ [plural][analogy][kyng_alisaunder][frequency][animal]

Ѹ˸¤餺ˤ٤ι⤤̯ʿ񤤤򤹤 ([2009-09-20-1]) ѸǤϡưβʬ졤̾ʣƻ졦ӵ顦ǾԵ§ʿ񤤤򤹤Τˤϡٸ줬Τ¿̾ʣäʤȡѸ̤ˤǹͤ men, children, feet, teeth ʤɤ˻פ⤫֡geese, mice, oxen, sheep ʤɤϤϤƤۤɹٸȤ[2010-03-01-1]ǾҲ𤷤ٸꥹȤ BNC lemma į᤿¤ꡤgoose ox ʤɤϾ6318äƤʤ oxen ˤĤƤ[2010-08-22-1]򻲾ȡ
geese oxen ⤫ĤƤϸȶưʪǤꡤ٤⤫äȻפ롥줬ȶǤʤʤäƤˤԵ§ݻƤΤȹͤ󡤸夢뤤ϲˤ٤򺬵ˡԵ§ʸݤηŪ뤳ȤϤǤʤ٤ȵ§δط̵뤷ʤȤϳΤǤ롥Ϣ McMahon (73) Ѥ롥

It has been suggested that residual words are often the most frequently occurring, which will be heard and learned earliest by the child and which are furthermore most susceptible to correction if the child does produce a regularised form like **foots. Some objections can be raised; for instance, ox is not a particularly common noun in modern English - although it probably occurred rather frequently in Middle English. Ox might have been expected to regularise as it became less common, but this decrease in frequency probably overlapped with the rise of literacy, which tends to slow down analogical change. In general, the connection of resistance to analogy with frequency seems to hold.


̾ʣθ򤷤ƤȡŤѸäѸˤΥƥȤ˸ưʪ̾ҴȿƤޤ Kyng Alisaunder ɤǤơΤ褦ʸϤ˽Ф路ޥɥ˥Alisaunder Philippe Τ Bulcifal ԤѤȤ뤳Ȥᡤζ˿ʪ򤹤Ȥ̤Ǥ롥ε[2011-03-21-1]Ʊ͡Smithers Ǥ B (MS. Laud Misc. 622 of the Bodleian Library, Oxford) L (MS. 150 of the Library of Lincoln's Inn, London) 2СӤʤѤưʪʣֻ̾Ȥˡ

Oxen, sheep, and ek ken,
many on he dude slen,
And after he bad his goddes feyre
He most wyte of his eyre,
Of Alisaunder and Philippoun,
Who shulde haue þe regioun. (B 759--64)

Oxen schep and eke kuyn
Monyon he dude slen
And after he bad his godus faire
He moste y witen of his aire
Of Alisaundre or of Philipoun
Whiche schold haue þe regioun (L 756--61)


⤦1ĤϡAlexander Darius 臘˽򤷤Ƥ̡

Hij charged many a selcouþe beeste
Of olifauntz, and ek camayles,
Wiþ armure and ek vitayles,
Longe cartes wiþ pauylounes,
Hors and oxen wiþ venisounes,
Assen and mulen wiþ her stouers; (B 1860--65)

Y chargid mony a selcouþ beste
Olifauns and eke camailes
Wiþ armure and eke vitailes
Long cartes wiþ pauelouns
Hors and oxen wiþ vensounes
Assen and muylyn wiþ heore stoueris (L 1854--59)


ˤ⤦1ġDarius οʷξ̤ꡥ

Ycharged olifauntz and camaile,
Dromedarien, and ek oxen,
Mo þan ȝe connen asken. (B 3402--04)

And charged olifans and camailes
Dromedaries assen and oxen
Mo þan ȝe can askyn (L 3385--87)


Τ褦ưʪ̾줬󤵤ȡѸˤϤưʪʾʤȤʪˤơˤ˿ȶǤäǧǤȤȤˡε§ʣιԵ§ʣݻμŪİ뤳ȤǤ롥

McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Smithers, G. V. ed. Kyng Alisaunder. 2 vols. EETS os 227 and 237. 1952--57.

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2011-03-21 Mon

#693. as, so, also [etymology][kyng_alisaunder]

Ѹ as ¿ǽǡ졤ֻ졤³졤ط̾졤ޤʣΰȤѤ롥¿ǽϸ츻ҤȤǤ롥as ϡso all Ƕ᤿ also νǤ롥Ѥ so Ǥˡ¿ǽȤʤäƤȹͤ롥
so ϸűѸ swā Ȥä˶դä (e)alswā "just so" ۤɤΰ̣ǻؼŪѤƤԻ졦طŪˡȤƤϤФФνȤ褦ˤʤäѸˤ͡ʳη֤򼨤Ƥ ( ex. alswa, alsa, alse, als, as )
Ѹ as . . . as عʸϸűѸ swā . . . swā ˵ĤԤԤؤΰܹԤ˻ϤޤäǤ⡤so . . . so, als . . . als, alse . . . ase, als . . . as ʤɤ͡ʳڤ롥Ѹˤϡas, so, also δ֤ˤߤ뵡ǽʬϸѸۤΤǤϤʤäȤLAEME νѸ쥳ѥǤϡ֤ǤϤʤ̣˴Ť so as ( lexel ) դƤȤ (Laing and Lass 85) as ǤⵡǽѸ so ŪǤ "so" ȤƥդƤȤȤǤꡤ䤳

The adverbs found most frequently in coordinating constructions are $as and $so. As with $in/pr and $on/pr (see §4.4.7.2 below) these words are not historically distinct. They represent disassemblies of OE eall-swā. We have therefore assign forms to the lexels $as and $so, not on an orthographic but on a semantic basis . . . . (Laing and Lass 85)


ܲɤ߿ʤƤ14Ѹޥ Kyng Alisaunderas, so, also 3ĵ󤲤Ƥߤ褦Smithers Ǥ B (MS. Laud Misc. 622 of the Bodleian Library, Oxford) L (MS. 150 of the Library of Lincoln's Inn, London) 2СӤʤѤֻϰѼԡˡϤ줾 Essex, North-West Midland ˰֤ŤƤ롥

B 2558: Also Ich tofore ȝou saide.
L 2546: So Y haue to fore sayd

B 2617: Als sone as hij beeþ alle ycome,
L 2605: So sone so þey buþ alle ycome

B 2622: Þere stood a spere, so men telle---
L 2610: Þer stod aspere so men telliÞ


Ǥζȼζ̤ˤĤƤϡ[2009-06-22-1],[2009-07-22-1],[2009-10-31-1]ε⻲ȡ

Laing, Margaret and Roger Lass. "Tagging." Chapter 4 of "A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English: Introduction." Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laeme1/pdf/Introchap4.pdf .
Smithers, G. V. ed. Kyng Alisaunder. 2 vols. EETS os 227 and 237. 1952--57.

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2011-03-20 Sun

#692. semantic prosody ħ [semantic_prosody]

Ƕᡤ狼ε semantic prosody 夲Ƥ ([2011-03-02-1], [2011-03-03-1], [2011-03-04-1], [2011-03-11-1], [2011-03-12-1]) ˵󤲤ΤΤۤˤɤΤ褦 semantic prosody λ㤬ŦƤΤȻפHunston äƤߤHunston (60--62) Ǥϡư sit through ֡ĹǤĤޤʤȡˤʹפȤŪɾȼäƻȤ뤳Ȥ򥳡ѥ餫ˤLDOCE5 Ǥ "to attend a meeting, performance etc, and stay until the end, even if it is very long and boring" ȤͿƤꡤΤ褦ʸ󤲤Ƥ롥

I wasn't the least bit interested in all the speeches I had to sit through.


Hunston ǸڤƤ¾λȤƤϡin vain ֡ϤȰտޤȼäư̵̤ˡʽˡסin the sticks ֡Բ񤫤Υơļˤˡˡסoff the beaten track ־ƻ򳰤ơˤäơʿϤ򳫤ơˡפ롥줾줫ä˼ "hidden meaning" ްդ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ
Hunston (142) semantic prosody ħ5ˤޤȤƤΤǡʲ󤷤Ƽ

(1) semantic prosody ϡġθ°ΤǤϤʤΤ°ΤǤ롥
(2) semantic prosody ϡŵŪˡ˽ΤǤ뤫ʥѥʤɤѤơ¿򸫤ʤİǤʤ
(3) semantic prosody ϡɾ˴ؤ connotation Ǥ롥̾ negativeޤ positive ɾӤӤ롥
(4) semantic prosody 򼨤ŵŪǤʤˡѤ뤳Ȥˤäơʤɤްդ뤳ȤǤ롥
(5) semantic prosody ϡФüԤΰռ˾ʤŦľŬ礹뤳Ȥ¿

⤦2ħդ­ȤС

(6) semantic prosody 򼨤礬ŵŪ hidden meaning ̷⤹ʸ̮˸줿ˤϡʸ̮ϤĤȤ⤢롥Hunston ϡsit through 餫˹ŪɾäƻȤƤʸ󤲡"In this case, it has to be said that the suggested 'hidden meaning' of SIT through can be overridden by the rest of the context. The connotation applies only in cases where the context does not contradict it." (61--62) ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
(7) semantic prosody ϡ[2011-03-12-1]εǿ줿褦ˡ̣Ǥʤʸˡƥ꡼ʤɸ¾Ȥ⿼ؤ븽ݤǤ롥

Ǹ˴Ϣơsemantic prosody ϸȤդǤϤʤñ̤Ǥ semantic prosody ŦƤꡤ㤨 . . . may not be . . ., but . . . . ȤɽǤȾʬüԤۤްդƤȤ (Hunston 142--43) ʸǤϡüԤϲʳؼԤǤ뤳ȤۤȴްդƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥

Carey may not be a scientist but he is a doyen of the literary world . . .


presupposition ȤĤʤäƤǤ롥

Hunston, S. Corpora in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2002.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-04-30-1]

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2011-03-19 Sat

#691. üȷ֥饹 [morphology][phonetics][lexical_diffusion][ilame][plural][adjective][speed_of_change][neogrammarian]

ѲΤʤǤξüϤȤ櫓ŪʸݤǤ롥ǤŪĴΥͥ륮Τǡ夤ȯȤʤ꤬Ǥ롥̵ͭˤʤ롥첻Ǥۣ첻 schwa [ə] ͳƾüҲǤ໤ƾü롥ʹ֤˴ŤθݤǤ롥
üޤּΡײѲȤäơ߳˿ʹԤȤϸ¤ʤ19ɥĤǯʸˡ ( Neogrammarians ) οäƼĥƤΤΡºݤˤϡѲθäФưΧȤϸ¤ʤषǶóȻ ( lexical diffusion ) ȤƤ褦ˡѲˤϸä˥褦ˤƽ˿ʹԤ⾯ʤʤüˤĤƤСäФưΧ˺ѤϤ᤿Τ褦˸ơ֤в᤹ˤäƷ֥饹֤ǾüοƩΨ®٤˺ФƤ㤬롥֥饹Ǥû֤Ǿüλ뤬̤η֥饹ǤϾüٱ䤷ꡤޤ̤η֥饹ǤϾüɤθ褹ʤɤȤȤ⤢ꤦ롥Τ褦ʲѲǤϡ쳰ŪʡŪʡװˤ곫Ϥ줿Ѳ֥饹ζ̤ȤŪʡʵǽŪʡװˤäĴȤȤˤʤ롥
ѸˤλȤƤϡߤ˴Ϣ2Ĥθü󤲤롥
(1) űѸ줫Ѹ˻Ϥޤä -n ξüΧ˻Ϥޤä褦˸ơѸˤϷ֥饹Ȥ˿ʹԤλۤʤäƤѲ̾ñƻǤ -n ξü®䤫äѲ̾ʣǤ٤줿 (Moore, "Loss")ѸǤϡ̾ʣȤƤ -n Ͼü٤줿Ф꤫षĥۤɤǤ (Hotta 218)
(2) ƱűѸ줫Ѹ˻Ϥޤä첻ֻǤ̾ <e> ֤졤[ə] ȯ줿ˤξüΧ˻Ϥޤä褦˸ơѸοʹԤλϷ֥饹Ȥ˰ۤʤäƤ̾ζޤǤϸ첻Ϥ褯ü[2010-10-11-1]εǸ褦˷ƻζ޸ʣȼѲñˤȤơޤ餯ưˤƤ⡤14ޤŪ褯ݤ줿 (Minkova, "Forms" 166; Ϣ Moore, "Earliest" ⻲)
(1), (2) ξǡ̾졦ƻʣɸȤ䤬̤ƤΤ⤷(2) ˴ؤơMinkova (186) Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The analysis proposed here assumes that the status of the final -e as a grammatical marker is stable in the plural, for both diachronic inflexional types. Yet in maintaining the syntactically based strong - weak distinction in the singular, -e is no longer independently viable. As a plural signal it is still salient, possibly because of the morphological stability of the category of number in all nouns, so that there is phrase-internal number concord within the adjectival noun phrases. Another argument supporting the survival of plural -e comes from the continuing number agreement between subject noun phrases and the predicate, in other words a morphologically explicit opposition between the singular and the plural continues to be realized across the system.


ȳʤѸˤܼۤΤƵäΥƥ꡼ϸߤޤǷ³ƤѸˤͤȤθüȷ֥饹δϢ϶̣

Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Minkova, Donka. "The Forms of Speech" A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 159--75.
Minkova, Donka. The History of Final Vowels in English: The Sound of Muting. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1991.
Moore, Samuel. "Loss of Final n in Inflectional Syllables of Middle English." Language 3 (1927): 232--59.
Moore, Samuel. "Earliest Morphological Changes in Middle English." Language 4 (1928): 238--66.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-08-13-1]

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2011-03-18 Fri

#690. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule LAEME Ǹ [laeme][me_dialect][personal_pronoun][verb][nptr]

ε[2011-03-17-1]ǵǼ夲 The Northern Personal Pronoun Rule (NPPR) 󥰥ɤѸ˹Ԥʤ줿쵬§Ȥ롥ѸǼºݤʸڤ뤫ɤLAEME dzǧƤߤ
Laing and Lass (26--27) ˤСLAEME ΥѥǤ NPPR ư˥դƤȤȤʤΤǡñ˽ФȤǤ롥Tasks ڡʲΤ褦˥˥塼򤿤ɤꡤɽȤ "(-)vps2%apn(%)" ̾ľ˸ưθ߷ʣˤ "(-)vps2%bpn(%)" ̾ľ˸ưθ߷ʣˤǤ줾측Ƥߤɽ٤פ뤳ȤϤǤ뤬̤Ѥ­롥

[LISTS] -> [Make an Item List] -> [Inflections] and [Search by TAG] -> ( [(-)vps2%apn(%)] or [(-)vps2%bpn(%)] ) and Frequency Counts


Ϥ줿ɤ߲򤯤ˤ⾯μȷи뤬ƹԤϡָоݤȤʤäƥֹס֤ΥƥȤθ줬֤ŤƤ뽣ά̾סθμ١פʤäƤ롥NPPR Ǥϡʣ;̾ưθ߷ -e -en ⤢ꤦ뤬˥ȤΤǤ⸲ħʤΤǡȤ "0" ޤޤƤԤõФФ褤ιԤʲȴФ

[for "(-)vps2%apn(%)"]
188DUR+E [2] 0 [2]
285NFK+E [7] +En [4] +ETH [3] +N [2] 0 [2] +EN [1]
295YWR+>I>Ey [17] 0 [9]
296YCT+E [16] 0 [14] +E [2]
297YER0 [36] +E [10] +IEy [2]
298YNR+E [43] 0 [31]
300NFK0 [31]

[for "(-)vps2%bpn(%)"]
119[-]0 [2]
173WOR+Ay [1] +E [1] +Ey [1] 0 [1]
247HRF+E [2] +ET [1] +T [1] 0 [1]
295YWR0 [4]
296YCT0 [5] +E [3]
297YER0 [8] +E [4]
298YNR0 [22] +E [10] 0+ [2]
2000WOR+E [6] 0 [3] +Ed [1] +IE [1]
2001WOR0 [3]


̾ȡDurham, Yorkshire, Hereford, Worcester, Norfolk ʤˤʬۤƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥ä˥ƥֹ295--298 Cursor Mundi ȤĹʻؤ14ȾɽƥȤȤΤƤ롥
ƥ298 (Edinburgh, Royal College of Physicians, MS of Cursor Mundi, hand B, fols. 16r-36v: Extracts from the Northern Homily Collection) ȴФȡ㤨мΤ褦 NPPR 򼨤Ԥ롥ưֻǵ

- Yef þai lef her rihtwislie
- For in hali bok find we
- For if we schrif us clen of sinne
- Ye wen ful wel nou euerilkan
- Þan sau þai in vs goddes sede
- Of his offering today spec we


Tasks ڡ CONCORDANCING ǽˤΥ󥳡󥹡饤Ϥ뤳ȤǤ뤬ߵϤ˹⤤TAGGED TEXTS ƥȥեФƼʬǸۤưפ⤷ʤ

Laing, Margaret and Roger Lass. "Tagging." Chapter 4 of "A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English: Introduction." Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laeme1/pdf/Introchap4.pdf .

[ | ѥڡ ]

2011-03-17 Thu

#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ [me_dialect][personal_pronoun][verb][celtic][contact][nptr][do-periphrasis][celtic_hypothesis]

The Northern Personal Pronoun Rule (NPPR) ϡѸ Scotland Ȥιնᤫ饤󥰥عäȤֵ§Ǥ롥ϡLaing and Lass (26--27) ˤ The Northern Present Tense Rule ȸƤФƤΤƱǤ롥3;ʣ̾ "they" ܤ븽߷ưˤäưۤʤ뤬̾ -s -eth ˤ졤 -en, -e, -ø θȤ§Ǥ롥ε§ϡѸˤ The Wash ̤Υ󥰥Ǥ褽ΩƤꡤƱνޤǤˤϡ̳Ūʵ§ǤϤʤΤ1ĤȤƥɥؤãƤ ( Wright 147 )
Wright ˤϡ14θ Rosarium theologie ȤƼ㤬󤲤Ƥ롥

whiche is giffen to al sentis or holy men, þat cleueþ togeder in charite, weyþer þei knowe þam bodily or noȝt (qtd in Wright 147 as from Rosarium theologie)


ֻǼǽ cleueþ ̾3;ʣ򼨤 knowe þei Τ³Ƥ뤿 NPPR ŬѤ -e ȤäƤ롥
ơΥ󥰥ưθ߷ϤɤΤ褦˶ޤ뤫ȤСο;Τˤ餺 -s Τ§Ǥ ( ex. I walks, you walks, Betty walks, we walks, Betty and Shirley walks ) 3;ʣˤĤƤϡ̾ they ѤȤˤΤ they walk ̵ˤʤΤħޤѸ NPPR ΰ仺Ǥ롥
NPPR ˴ؤƶ̣Τϡֵ§ȸȤܿ˵ΤȵƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ȸƶ򶯤ĥ̾ͤ McWhorter 롥McWhorter (48--51) ϡ NPPR θƾΤǤ Northern Subject Rule ˤϡWelsh Cornish ȤäȽư޵§ʿŪʴطˤȻŦ롥Welsh Ǥϡ"she learned" "Betty and Shirley learned" Ϥ줾 dysgodd hi, dysgodd Betty a Shirley Ȥʤ궦̤ -odd Ȥ뤬"they learned" dysgon nhw Τ褦˰ۤʤ -on ȤȤ(1) ޥϤƤ⥤󥰥 NPPR Τ褦˴̯ʵ§äƤ¾˸ʤȡ(2) 󥰥ɤδؤˤ륱ȽʿŪֵ§ǧ뤳ȡ2ͤ碌 NPPR ϶λʪȤϹͤ줺ȸȤθܿˤ̤ǧᤶʤȤǤ롥McWhorter ¾ˤѸˤˤ do-periphrasis ʹԷʸȯã򥱥ȸαƶȸƤ롥
ϥȸΤʤΤǶŪ뤳ȤϤǤʤѸǤϸ߷˴ؤ뵬§Ǥˤ⤫餺McWhorter Welsh äƤӤƤΤääޤɤԤν̸ǥȥǥŪĴҤǤ뤳ȤϤʬ뤬ɤޤdzؽŪɾǤ뤫ϵǤ롥ʸˡΤĤħطʤˤϡ̤˱Ѹ˸ԤƤʾ˼սȤܿͿƤ˰㤤ʤȤӤǰϡ伫ȤιͤȰפƤꡤ⤷ɤळȤϤǤԤθѲ "why" ˤǽϤ䤦뤵ʹ "why" 򹵤ˤʤѸ˸θؤȽʤΤª顤ä˲ɤ᤿
[2009-08-31-1]εǾ줿褦ˡظȤƤΥȸ줬ʸˡͿƶˤĤƤϡǯĵ褦ˤʤäƤ褦Ǥ롥

Wright, Laura. "The Languages of Medieval Britain." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 143--58.
McWhorter, John. Our Magnificent Bastard Tongue: The Untold History of English. New York: Penguin, 2008.

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2011-03-16 Wed

#688. ѸηƻηϤοʿ [adjective][inflection][lexical_diffusion][ilame][bibliography]

ܲδؿ1ĤˡѸηƻηϤοʿʼ "Inflectional Levelling of Adjectives in Middle English" ˤ롥ܥ֥ǤϢ뵭ϲ񤤤Ƥ ([2010-09-13-1], [2010-10-11-1], [2011-03-15-1]) ¿ξ硤ѸΥƥȤˤƷƻ -e ĤΤɤȤ¤˾ܤΤ¤ΤȤϱѸŪޥŪǤδߤäƤꡤѲδΥץˤѤȥԥåȹͤƤ롥ͳ2ġ

(1) Ѹ˾νפǤѸζޤοʿ ( levelling of inflection ) ˤĤƤϡ̾졤ư졤ܤޤ꤬ƻΩʤʤ¤˿ʿФƤƻηϤϡ̾ʤ˰¸ƤǤʤŪʴĶ˱ƶѲȼѲ̤Ƥ ([2010-10-11-1], [2011-03-15-1])ˤʣηϤạ̈ǺǤʣäƻηϤοʿפŤ뤳Ȥϡ²ΤʤǺǤʬϲοʤȤѸ ([2011-02-12-1], [2011-02-13-1]) ˤβˤϷ礫ȤǤʤ
(2) ƻηϤοʿϡ¾θˤʿʤ¿θѲˤƱ褦ˡ֤򤫤ƤäȿʹԤޤοʿβ΢֤SȤƵҤǽꡤlexical diffusion ˤȤäƼŪǤ (lexical_diffusion) ǡˤϡʿޤꡤಽǶޤβη ( subsystem ) Ω³ʳѻ졤ñ΢SȤƿʹԤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ롥˿ʹԤѲǤϡ˲ƤΤ

ʲˡɵ椹ˤäƤʸʺ⤳ɲäƤ椭򽼼¤ͽˡ

Burrow, J. A. and Thorlac Turville-Petre, eds. A Book of Middle English. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005. (esp. pp. 27--29.)
Burnley, David. "Inflection in Chaucer's Adjectives." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 83 (1982): 169--77.
Burnley, David. The Language of Chaucer. Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1983. (esp. pp. 13--15.)
Horobin, Simon. Chaucer's Language. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. (esp. pp. 105--07.)
Laing, Margaret and Roger Lass. "Tagging." Chapter 4 of "A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English: Introduction." Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laeme1/pdf/Introchap4.pdf . (esp. pp. 19--22.)
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 23--154. (esp. pp. 23--154.)
Minkova, Donka. The History of Final Vowels in English: The Sound of Muting. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1991. (esp. pp. 171--91.)
Minkova, Donka. "Adjectival Inflexion Relics and Speech Rhythm in Late Middle and Early Modern English." Papers from the 5th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics, Cambridge, 6--9 April 1987. Ed. Sylvia Adamson, Vivien Law, Nigel Vincent, and Susan Wright. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1990. 313--36.
Mossé, Fernand. A Handbook of Middle English. Trans. James A. Walker. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1952. (esp. pp. 64--65.)
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960. (esp. pp. 233, 275--77.)
Pearsall, Derek. "The Weak Declension of the Adjective and Its Importance in Chaucerian Metre." Chaucer in Perspective: Middle English Essays in Honour of Norman Blake. Ed. Geoffrey Lester. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic P, 1999. 178--93.
Samuels, M. L. "Chaucerian Final -E." Notes and Queries 217 (1972): 445--48.
Topliff, Delores E. "Analysis of Singular Weak Adjective Inflexion in Chaucer's Works." Journal of English Linguistics 4 (1970): 78--89.
סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ(esp. pp. 144--47.)

Referrer (Inside): [2020-04-12-1] [2015-12-26-1]

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2011-03-15 Tue

#687. ޥɤηƻζѲȼѲ [adjective][inflection][germanic][indo-european][oe][demonstrative][ilame]

[2009-10-26-1]ε (1) ǿ줿褦ˡޥɤħ1Ĥˡƻ줬Ѳ ( strong or indefinite declension ) ȼѲ ( weak or definite declension ) 2ζޤ򼨤ȤΤ롥ζ̤ϸѸǤϼƤ뤬űѸ丽ɥĸǤΤǧ롥ξޤλȤʬϸ§ȤŪ˷졤ƻ줬ؼ ( demonstrative ) θѤˤϼѲޤ򡤤ʳξˤ϶Ѳޤ򼨤ʸűѸѲѲΥѥ򻲾ȡޤѸηƻޤȤδϢ[2010-10-11-1]򻲾ȡ
ޥɤħȤȤʬ褦ˡĸǤϤζ̤ϤʤäĸǤϡƻͭζޤ⤿̾˽सʤˤäƶޤƤƻ֤̾ȹͤƤΤǤ롥ȤޥĸʳǷƻϷŪ̾줫Υ졤ΩηϤݻƤؼȿ¤򼨤褦ˤʤ롥줬űѸʤɤ˸붯ѲޤεǤ롥ºݤ˸űѸǶɽ٤ȡƻζѲ þes ɽؼζϸ褯Ƥ롥
ؼȷƻ줬Ʊ褦ʶޤ򼨤ȤȤϡֻؼܷƻ̾פΤ褦ξԤ³ƸˤƱ޸Ϣ³뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ뤵㤨С"to this good man" бűѸɽ *þissum gōdum men ȤƸ뤳Ȥˤʤä⤷ʤʼºݤθűѸʸˡ§ þissum gōdan men ˡMeillet (183) ˤСޥϤΡֽŶ줷 ( "lourd" or "choquant" ) ؼ˸³ƻΤˡޤŶ줷ʤޤȤơ褯ȯãƤ̾μѲڤƤơŪˤäƶ̤2ηƻޤޥɤ˸ͭħȤȯãΤǤ롥 Meillet ΡֽŶ줷ײ¾ˤʣװäȹͤ뤬̤Ĵ
űѸμפʻδʰ׶ɽˤĤƤϡ[2010-01-02-1]ǥ󥯤ĥä OE Inflection Magic Sheet ⻲ȡ

Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.

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2011-03-14 Mon

#686. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (2) [drift][synthesis_to_analysis]

ε[2011-03-13-1]³ǡѲ drift ԲIJˤĤơdrift ȤѸ餫̻ŪʼѸʸˡȤϤȤ붦ؼԤϤޤǶŪʴ drift 褷褦ȤƤΤɤäƤ synthesis analysis ؤθѲ drift ʶʤ¤Ǥ ([2011-02-12-1]) ߤƱή줬³Ƥȹͤʾ塤ưŤ붦Ūʵ§򸫤ȤؼԤ̳Ǥ롥ΤȤŪΩ줫ϤΤϽФƤʤ⤷ŪȤС "of its own accord" ֤켫ȤϤˤäơ (Sapir 154) üԤΰռĶȤѲȤ줶ʤ줬üԤΩͭΤǤȤϡڶ̻ؼԤǤäƤʤĤƤζ줤иäơ˼Τ񹳤ȼΤǤϤʤؿѸؼŵ٤ǤֺΤȤΥɥեȤĤͭϤʲȤߤƤۤϤʤ (348) ȤɤĴǤɾƤ롥
drift ˴ؤ Lakoff ʸɤƥ줫ޥ󥹽ؤθѲ濴ˡ synthesis analysis ؤ drift ʸˡΩ줫鶦Ū뤳ȤǤ뤫ɤˤĤƤʸǤ롥Ūˤϡ̾λѤε̳괧졦괧νиʶޤֻѤؤžưˤ뱪λȯãưȯãɽȯãȤ̤ɺήŪѲ˶̤Ƥ¤ꤢƤ롥Lakoff ϤѲ synthesis analysis ؤѲȤƤޤȤˡ"segmentalisation" (104) ȤƸڤƤ롥Ǥϡ segmentalisation 򼨤 drift ɤ᤹Ф褤ΤLakoff ϰʲΤ褦ʽ󼨤ƤӽƤ椯

(1) synthesis analysis ؤѲŪʵ§Ȥꤹ universal rule ⡥θϤеѲϤǤ⤢ (104) ²Ǥ顤̥ޥ󥹸ˤϱŪɽƤư̤˶޸ɽ褦ˤʤäȤȿ㤬ꡤϼʤ (112) Ʊͤˡʹ֤ο˴ŤƱͤ universal ʲӽ롥
(2) ǤϡʤȤȤ¤줿ϰϤˤƤ segmentation universal rule 뤤 "métacondition" ȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤΤ褦 metacondition ħŤưŤƤΤǤ뤫ϰȤǤꡤϤΤȤϤʤꤨʤ
(3) ˶̤Ƥߤ segmentalisation ϡ¤Ϥ줾ΩȤ⡥ξ硤ԲIJ drift ꤹɬפϤʤŪˤ϶ΰפβǽϤƾʤ
(4) ԲIJǤ첿Ǥ졤drift Ȥ̻ŪϤǧ뤷ʤȤ⡥ʷ drift ΤޤޤȤȤˤʤ롥
(5) ߤζǤϤޤʤݤȯŸˤꤤĤϲǤϤȹͤ⡥

Lakoff η1ȤȤ˰Ѥ롥Lakoff (4) (5) ζ֤ɤƤ褦

Dans cet article j'ai présenté un certain nombre d'exemple de changements qui ne peuvent pas être compris par l'examen des seules règles de la grammaire synchronique. Puisqu'ils ne sont probablement pas universels, on ne peut pas non plus les expliquer en ayant recours à des concepts de meilleure compréhension, ou à d'autres notions pertinentes de psychologie. A quel niveau se situe cette métacondition n'est pas clair du tout : ce n'est ni comme partie de la grammaire ni comme condition universelle des formes des grammaires. Comment une contrainte de changement à l'intérieur d'une famille de langues, une contrainte qui n'est pas absolue mais qui néanmoins est influente, doit-elle être considérée? Le problème n'est pas clair. Mais it n'y a pas d'autre façon de concevoir les choses : ou bien une telle métacondition existe, quelle qu'elle soit, ou bien toutes les langues indo-européennes ont été soumises à une serie extraordinaire de coïncidences. Rien dans l'état actuel de la théorie transformationnelle ne nous permet de caractériser la métacondition ou de la justifier. Si l'on accepte les faits tels qu'ils sont donneés, ou bien une autre explication doit être postulée, ce qui paraît tout à fait improbable, ou bien nous devons accepte l'idée que pour comprendre les changements syntaxiques nous devons arriver à une meilleure compréhension de la théorie syntaxique du point de vue synchronique. (113)

ʸǤϡŪʸˡε§ΤߤĴ٤Ƥ򤹤ΤȤǤʤѲ򤤤Ĥ󼨤ѲϤ餯ŪǤϤʤ顤ưפˤʤȤͤ¾δϢ뿴ŪʳǰʤȤȤϤϤǤʤζ̾郎ɤμˤΤǤ롥ʸˡΰȤƤ櫓ǤϤʤʸˡ֤ŪȤƤ櫓Ǥʤ²ǤѲŪǤϤʤƶϤΤȤϤɤΤ褦˹ͤФ褤ΤƤǤϤʤ֤򤹤ˤϼΤ줫ˡϤʤ줬Ǥ졤Τ褦ʶ̾郎¸ߤΤȤȡ뤤ϡ٤Ƥΰ϶ΰ۾ʤޤǤϢ˽äƤΤȤȤǤ롥ѷθǤϡζ̾ħŤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ⤷Ϳλ¤ǧȤȤǤСʤޤäꤽˤʤ̤󼨤뤷ʤФʤʤ뤤ϡѲ򤹤Τ˶Ūʴ褯򤷤ʤФʤʤ


Sapir, Edward. Language. New York: Hartcourt, 1921.
Lakoff, Robin. "Regard nouveau sur la <<dérive>>." Langages 32 (1973): 98--114.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-02-28-1] [2012-09-09-1]

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2011-03-13 Sun

#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) [drift][synthesis_to_analysis][grammaticalisation][unidirectionality][teleology]

Ѳ drift ֥ɥեȡήήѲפˤĤơܥ֥οǼ夲Ƥ (see drift) Ѹ drift ϥޥɤ drift ѾƤꡤԤϰ² drift ѾƤ롥ѸˤȴϢƻŦǤ⸲ drift ϡanalysis synthesis ؤθ෿ѲˤĤƤϡMeillet 򻲾Ȥ[2011-02-12-1], [2011-02-13-1]ʤɤǼ夲
ʤ drift ȤΤΤĹ餯ƤƤ뤬ޤ̤Ǥ롥Ѳˤ drift ϥήǤϤʤήؤ⡤û֤ήǤϤʤˤ錄äƻ³ήǤ롥Ի׵ĤʤΤϡѲμΤǤüԤϡѤݤ˲θѲήʤɰռ⤷ƤʤϤˤ⤫餺θѲή򼡤طѤǤ椯ȤǤ롥Ѳ drift ȤϡüԤΰռĶȤǺѤƤߤϤʤΤ⤷ȤȡüԤΩͭΤȤȤˤʤ롥褬Τɬ
drift ȤѸϡꥫθؼ Edward Sapir (1884--1939) ǽ˻ȤäΤǤ롥"Language moves down time in a current of its own making. It has a drift." (150) ȸäƤꡤ줽켫ΤưϤȤʤäή߽ФƤ뤫Τ褦ʵҤǤ롥θͭФ Sapir Ȥ褷Ƥս꤬롥

Are we not giving language a power to change of its own accord over and above the involuntary tendency of individuals to vary the norm? And if this drift of language is not merely the familiar set of individual variations seen in vertical perspective, that is historically, instead of horizontally, that is in daily experience, what is it? (154)


Sapir ϡѲ켫ȤϤˤäƤǤϤʤüԤˤŪѰ̵ۤռŪˤäȤȤǧƤϤ롥

The drift of a language is constituted by the unconscious selection on the part of its speakers of those individual variations that are cumulative in some special direction. (155)


üԤʤ drift ʬ褦ʶˡޤǤظѲ䤷ʤƤ椯ΤϡѤ餺̤ΤΤޤޤǤ롥ɤΤȤSapir drift Ȥ mystical impressive ʸݤǤȤΤ褦Ǥ롥

Our very uncertainty as to the impending details of change makes the eventual consistency of their direction all the more impressive. (155)


դäСSapir ϱѸ줬ä¾줫Ѥ뷹 drift ǤȹͤƤ롥

I do not think it likely, however, that the borrowings in English have been as mechanical and external a process as they are generally represented to have been. There was something about the English drift as early as the period following the Norman Conquest that welcomed the new words. They were a compensation for something that was weakening within. (170)


Ǹ "something" ȤϲʤΤ
ѲΰȤϡ30ǯδ֤ grammaticalisation θ椬ʤȤˤäƿ̿᤭ޤ줿grammaticalisation ϸѲ unidirectionality ˾ƤƤ뤫Ǥ롥Lightfoot ϡ˷㤷ۤ򾧤Ƥ롥⤷˰ drift Ȳꤹȡ̤˸ˤ˥ǤʤϤüԤˤθưϤ򵢤ȤϤǤʤȤȡϤʤΤmystery ʳΤʤˤΤǤʤǤϤʤ (International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, p. 399)
Sapir 衤drift Ϥޤ˲򤫤Ƥʤ

Sapir, Edward. Language. New York: Hartcourt, 1921.
Frawley, William J., ed. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. 2nd Vol. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.

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2011-03-12 Sat

#684. semantic prosody ʸˡƥ꡼ [semantic_prosody][grammar][corpus][intensifier]

äʿβϿ̤ˤĤޤơҼԤ˿ꤪ񤤿夲ޤ
[2011-03-03-1]εǡsemantic prosody ʸˡƥ꡼Ȥδ֤˴ϢȤǽ˸ڤϡhappenutterly ޤදո semantic prosody 򥳡ѥˤäĴ Partington ʸǻŦƤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Partington happen, set in, occur, come about, take place Ĵθ췲ˤ٤κϤ졤Τ unfavourable semantic prosody տ路ƤȤڵ󤲤ʺǤ unfavourable ʤΤ set in Ȥ(144) Ʊͤˡutterly, absolutely, perfectly, totally, completely, entirely, thoroughly Ĵ줾 semantic prosody 뤤 semantic preference Ф (148) ơĤθտ路Ƥ벻ˤϡfavourable vs. unfavourable ȤñʲʹΩǤϤʤ̤ˤʸˡƥ꡼ȤƸڤ褦ħΩͿƤȤȤ狼ä
Ū˸Сhappen non-factuality 򼨤ˡ䡤Ȥäʸˡƥ꡼ȤδͿǧ졤it is unclear why to see what ʤɤɽȤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ (140--41) ǡtake place Ϥष factuality 򼨤ͽꤵƤ뤳ȤºݤȤްդѤ뤳Ȥ¿ (143)
ոǤϡutterly unfavourable semantic prosody 򼨤ǤʤħԺߤѲɽ魯򽤾뷹 ( ex. utterly helpless / unable /forgotten / changed / different / destroyed ) Ʊϡtotally, completely, entirely ˤ⸫롥entirely ˤ (in)dependency Ȥƥ꡼ͿƤꡤentirely dependent / self-sufficient / isolated ʤɤѤ뤳Ȥ¿absolutely superlative ްդ򽤾 ( ex. absolutely delighted / splendid / appalling )
factuality, absence, change, dependence, superlative Ȥɤϡ̾ʸˡƥ꡼˴ϢƸڤ٥ΰ̣ä semantic prosody semantic preference ȤƸڤ̣ȿؤäƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ͤƤߤСäʸˡηӤĤȤϡʤʤ㤨СưϼȤǤѤʤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤɤȤ¤Τ褦˻ŦƤؽѼ˹ȿǤƤ롥ΰ̣ΰɽ魯줬³ that ư subjunctive ׵᤹ȤʸˡܤĹƤ ([2010-04-07-1]) äʸˡδطϱѸؤǤϤ褯ΤƤ¤ѥؤȤ٤Ʊ¤ˤɤ夤ȤȤѥؤι׸ϡfactuality absence ʤɤΥƥ꡼ 0 1 binary ȤƤǤϤʤprobabilistic ȤƼ갷ȤǤˤ褦˻פ롥
Ѹˤ뤤̻ؤδϡ줬ʸˡƥ꡼ȷӤĤǧˡġɤΤ褦ˤηӤĤΤ˶̣롥㤨 happen ϱѸˤΤĺ unfavourable non-factual ʴߤΤ⤷ˤΤ褦ʴߤӤӻϤ᤿ΤǤСΰ̣ξ ( semantic field ) ¾Ȥδط碌ƹͤɬפ롥ơȤδطȤȤˤʤСoccur ʤɼѸΰϤθʤФʤʤѸˤ̣ξκ semantic prosody ʸˡƥ꡼ؤηӤĤȤή줬ȤС⤷speculation ˤʤ㤨[2009-08-17-1]εǿ줿ȲˡߤȤδطˤή줬ʤ

Partington, A. "'Utterly content in each other's company': Semantic Prosody and Semantic Preference." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 9.1 (2004): 131--56.

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2011-03-11 Fri

#683. semantic prosody [semantic_prosody][semantic_change][suffix]

һҤ覻ҤκŪ󶡤Ƥ뤬ؤΩ줫餹ȡ뤪ʤ˷ۤ夬ΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥
ˤϡǶᡤ̾줫ƻĤ -ish ̻Ū򤷤ȤطƤ롥θξܺ٤ϳ䰦뤬[2009-09-07-1]εǼ夲 -ish εǽŪOED ˤ̻ŪפŤ褦ȤǤ롥 -ish ϡ̾̾ɽ魯̾줫餽ηƻФȤợŪˤΩä ( ex. Angle > English; Kent > Kentish ) -ish ³оݤʹ֤ưʪɽ魯̾س礹˵ڤǡ˷Ūʰ̣ӤӤ褦ˤʤä ( ex. child > childish; dog > doggish ) Ȥơ-ish ϴΤɽ魯¸ߤΤİħФơŪ connotation ķƻ뵡ǽȯŸƤ᤯äθǤ semantic prosody semantic preference ȤѸ줳ȤʤäϢǤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥Ƕ semantic prosody εǤϸʾñ̤ȤʤäƤ褦-ish Ȥ꾮ǤˤѤǤΤȻפ롥
-ish εǽŪϡΤɽ魯¸ߤΰħФȤ¿äƤꡤ˴ŤƤȸ櫓-ish 1Τߤڵ˵󤲤ƱѸʤ뤤ϸ̡ˤ˴ŤƤȼĥΤϡޤǤ롥ʤȤѸΰ̣Ϥȡ-ish ʳˤѸ negative ָ򼨺㤬Ĥ롥
㤨С[2010-08-13-1]εǸ褦ˡ̣Ѳʬ˰̣ɲ ( amelioration ) Ȱ ( pejoration ) ̤뤬ѸˤλȤƤϰΤۤ¿ ([2010-09-14-1])
ޤsemantic prosody [2011-03-04-1], [2011-03-02-1]εǽҤ٤褦ˡutterly, happen, set in ʤɡunfavourable ʲӤӤΤۤդ¿Partington "It may be the case, one suspects, that humans have a greater tendency or need to communicate to each other the 'bad things' which happen in life and this could be reflected in texts" (133) ȽҤ٤Ƥ뤷Louw Ʊݤ "there seem, prima facie, to be more 'bad' prosodies than 'good' ones" (qtd in Partington, p. 133 as from Louw, p. 171) ȸäƤ롥
̲Ͽ٤ȤϻפĤġ-ish ˴ؤʸ (forthcoming) ǤϸʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤

Since in the nature of human beings it is arguably easier to criticise, rather than praise, others particularly in everyday, colloquial, or vulgar context, it is small wonder why -ish should tend to extract a negative rather than a positive aspect out of people's close neighbours.


ˤߤ negative ָƤ椭ȰŤΤǡpositive ָʸ߾ˤ˺줺ˡ (see [2010-09-11-1])

Partington, A. "'Utterly content in each other's company': Semantic Prosody and Semantic Preference." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 9.1 (2004): 131--56.
Louw, B. "Irony in the Text or Insincerity in the Writer? The Diagnostic Potential of Semantic Prosodies." Text and Technology: In Honour of John Sinclair. Eds. M. Baker, G. Francis and E. Tognini-Bonelli. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1993. 157--76.

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2011-03-10 Thu

#682. եߥǤʤܤ򻲾Ȥ٤5Ĥͳ [manuscript][evidence]

ε[2011-03-09-1]˰³ּܤز󵢤פꡥεǵ󤲤 Lass and Laing (7--8) ˤܲ󵢤6ĤͳΤʤˡեߥǤԽʬʾ礬ȤŦäη˴ؤƤ⡤Lass and Laing (9--10) ž̤θ줫ŪƤΤǾҲ𤷤褦5Ĥ󤲤Ƥ롥

(1) ɤ߼ˤʸǤ̤γ٤į뤳ȤˤäȽιޤ뤳Ȥ롥ʪܤˤƤ̤γ٤į뤳ȤǤ뤬1Ĥγ٤黣Ƥ줿̿ǤϤμʤϻȤʤ
(2) ¿ΥեߥܤǤϿĤʸ⾯ʤʤʸοѲս̻θؤ餫ˤƤ뤳Ȥ뤬Ǥ϶̤ĤʤȤ롥
(3) ܺȤʤɤˤꡤܤˤäꡤƥȤüڤȤ줿ꤹ硤̿ǤϱƤˤʤäƤޤȽ롥
(4) ܤ»Ƥ硤̿ǤϤ»礷ɽ뤳Ȥ¿
(5) Ť̿ԥȤιäƤʤ̿⤢롥

¤˸餷ŪʻŦǤ⤷伫ȤΤиäƤ⡤ʪܤ򻲾Ȥ̣礭ܤʪŪ ( figura ) εҤʸϤDz⤵Ƥ褯ʬʤܤ򸫤иȤƤ뤳ȤȤȤ롥̿Ǥ϶Τ褦˸Ƥ⡤ܤǤߤʪŪʾʷäȤȤ⤢롥ޤԼԤȽɤˤȵҤƤܤǻȤƤߤ顤¤ȽɤˤʤäȤȤ⤢ä
ǡLass and Laing (9) ϡ̿ΤۤȽɤ䤹⤢ȤȤϽҤ٤Ƥ롥ƥӴΤۤξ褯ʬ롤ȤȤ˻Ƥ뤫⤷ʤ

Lass, Roger and Margaret Laing. "Overview." Chapter 3 of "A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English: Introduction.'' Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laeme1/pdf/Introchap3.pdf .

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2011-03-09 Wed

#681. ܤǤʤܤ򻲾Ȥ٤6Ĥͳ [manuscript][evidence]

Ѹθ츦ǤϡФСּܤز󵢤פ롥ܤѤǤܤ˺¤¤ʡ diplomatic edition 򻲾Ȥפȸ ( diplomatic θ츻ˤĤƤ[2011-02-07-1]򻲾ȡˡEETS꡼Ȥ˱ѸƥȤΥǥ¿ϡΥƥȤȸ̤ʸؼԤˤ빻ФƴԤ줿ΤǤŪˤϿ⤤ȹͤ뤬Ǥ츦ˤϼܥƥȤλȤܤȤ롥
伫ȤʬŪ˼ܤ򻲾Ȥ뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤ܤ˴Ť򤷤ȤۤɤηиϤʤܲ󵢤ʹȼˤΤܤǤʤܤ򻲾Ȥ٤ͳϲ͡ͳܤ鴩ܤؤȽ񤭵Ƥ ( transcribe ) 줫夬äƤǤ⻲ͤˤʤǡLAEME ν񤭵Ȥθ줫夬äƤʹƤߤ뤳Ȥˤ롥LAEME ϽѸμܥƥȤǤ¤¤˽񤭵Ȥ§ȤơƱƥȤŻҥѥߤƤ뤬츦ΤˤϴܤΤǤϤʤȤܤ򻲾ȤʤФʤʤͳ6ĤȤʲ Lass and Laing (7--8) ⤹롥

(1) ¿δԼԤϼܤξάʸ̵ "expand" 󼨤롥expand λʣβǽˤ⡤פʤΤѤƺѤޤ뷹롥̩ˤС expand 줿֤٤ʬۤ˱ƶͿͤʤ
(2) ܤǤԼԤ "normalising" "modernising" βǡܤˤä littera ([2011-02-20-1]) ζ̤뤳Ȥ롥'þ' ( "thorn" ) 'ð' ( "eth" ) <th> Ȥž̤ԼԤϺǤϾʤ'ƿ' ( "wynn" ) <w> Ȥž̤뤳ȤδȤʤäƤ롥'ƿ' 'w' ϰۤʤ littera ǤꡤۤʤˤäƤ뤳Ȥ˺ƤϤʤʤ
(3) ʣǤˤʸ줿ƥ ( critical edition or "best text" ) Ǥϡ¤ˤ¸ߤʤäη֤פƤꡤ츦ˤѤǤʤ
(4) ˤּ̻ΰտޤƤǤ֡פ뤬̻˲տޤƽ񤤤ƤȤ󤬲̻ñ˴ְ㤨Ȥǽˤ롥βǽǤ⤢ʾ塤ˤ֤Ͼ˸¤ΰæǤ롥
(5) ʾ4ֻ˴ؤǤˤϴطʤȤ뤫⤷ʤ¿ԼԤ϶ι modernisation Ƥ롥ϼܥƥȤ˸ŪʸѤȿǤ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤβˤƶڤܤ롥
(6) LAEME ϡƼ̻ΩŪθɽ¸ߤǤȤΩäƤꡤƼ̻ˤʸƥȤǤʤԴޤ᤿٤ʹ׸ºŤ롥̻ˤʤɤκ٤ʾڵΤ˸ȴˤϡեߥʼ̿ˤǤԽʬʾ礬ꡤϤʪܤɬפ롥

ƥȤθ򸦵椹ݤˤϼܤ˲󵢤뤳ȤפǤȤǤ뤬ºݾϼܤ򻲾ȤǤĶˤʤΤ¤Ǥ롥ּܤز󵢤פ򾯤ˤơ֥եߥǤ򻲾Ȥ褦˿סִܤ򻲾ȤݤˤϾ嵭դפ餤򤹤Τ褤⤷ʤ

Lass, Roger and Margaret Laing. "Overview." Chapter 3 of "A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English: Introduction.'' Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laeme1/pdf/Introchap3.pdf .

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2011-03-08 Tue

#680. assertion and nonassertion (2) [syntax][negative][assertion]

ε[2011-03-07-1]˰³ʿʸ ( assertion ) ȡʸӵʸ ( nonassertion ) ΩˤĤơnonassertion ˤϡʿʸ ( "He isn't honest." ) 굿ʸ ( "Is he honest?" ) 굿ʸ ( "Isn't he honest?" ) 3Ūʸ뤬δطϤɤΤ褦ˤʤäƤΤСnonassertion ϤɤΤ褦ηϤʤƤΤ3Ԥδطˤ3̤꤬ͤ줽Ǥ롥

(1) nonassertion = negative-statement and positive-question and negative-question
(2) nonassertion = ( ( negative and positive ) -question ) and negative-statement
(3) nonassertion = ( negative- ( statement and question ) ) and positive-question

ɤ褬äȤ⥹ޡȤͤäơ󤷤 some / any sometimes / ever ʤɤ assertive form nonassertive form ΥڥפФ㤨 somebody anybody ͤʬ뤬ϢȤ nobody פ⤫֤ϤǤ롥Ʊͤ sometimes / ever never ۵롥θϡ2줫ʤΩǤϤʤ3줫ʤط򼨺ΤǤ롥ɽǼȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

assertive formssomesomebodysomethingsometimes
nonassertive formsanyanybodyanythingever
negative formsnonobodynothingnever


ǿо줷3ܤ nobody never Τ褦 negative form ϡʿʸ˸Ǥʤ굿ʸˤ⸽ ( ex. "Have you never been to London?" ) ʤ굿ʸˤϸʤʬۤθȡ3Τ (3) ѤΤäȤ⥹ޡȤȤȤˤʤ롥(3) ѤƤ Quirk et al. (1975, p. 84) ͿƤ޼ѤΤ򼨤ʻͤޤǤ Quirk et al. (1972, p. 54) Ǥ (2) Ƥ

Nonassertion

εκǽ˼ 2 x 2 ñɽ٤ƿʬʣˤʤäassertion Ȥڤˤäơsome, any, no ʬۤʤɡ¿θݤǤ褦ˤʤä

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972.

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2011-03-07 Mon

#679. assertion and nonassertion (1) [syntax][negative][assertion]

Ѹʸ ( sentence ) ˤϡʸ ( positive ) ʸ ( negative ) ʿʸ ( statement ) ȵʸ ( question ) Ȥ2ȤδŪΩ롥"He is honest." ȤʿʸˤȤȡ鼡Τ褦 2 x 2 ʸ롥

 statementquestion
positiveHe is honest.Is he honest?
negativeHe isn't honest.Isn't he honest?


ʬϡ2ȤΩˤ꤭줤ˤޤȤ졤򺹤;ϤϤʤ褦˸롥4Ĥʸʬहˡ¾ˤ⤢ꡤʬѤȿθ롥礲ˤбѸѤΰüָ뤳ȤǤ롥
ϡassertion nonassertion Ȥ̤ΩƳˤäƲǽˤʤ (Quirk et al. 53--54) Ωˤȡʸ "He is honest." assertive Ȥʤꡤ3ĤʸϤ nonassertive Ȥʤ롥ʿʸǤ 'He is honest' Ȥ꤬̿ꤵƤ뤬ʸ䵿ʸǤϤ꤬̿ꤵ뤫դ뤫ǡˤƤϤƤʤassertion ȤˤäơʿʸȤʳȤ礭ʬ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ǡ嵭 2 x 2 ɽؤäƼΤ褦ʿ޼롥

              +----- assertion ( "He is honest." ) 
              |
sentence -----+                        +----- negative ( "He isn't honest." )
              |                        |
              +----- nonassertion -----+
                                       |
                                       +----- question ( "Isn't he honest?" )


nonassertion ʸ assertion ʸ̿δ֤ǤʤŪˤ operator ʤʸξˤ be ư is ˤο񤤤ѲȤǤ֤롥ˡassertion / nonassertion ΩϡʲΰϢбʬۤ롥some / any, somebody / anybody, something / anything, sometimes / ever, already / yet ƥڥθǡ ( assertive form ) ϤäѤʿʸ˸졤ʸ䵿ʸˤϤäѤ ( nonassertive form ) Ѥ롥
Τ褦ˡassertion ȤƳ뤳ȤǡѸιʸ˴ؤ뿷θ뤳Ȥʬ뤬1꤬ĤƤ롥굿ʸ "Isn't he honest?" οޤΤɤ˼ޤΤȤǤ롥굿ʸ nonassertion ˴ޤޤ뤳ȤϡŪˤ⡤Ūˤ⡤ޤ nonassertive form иǽǤǤ⡤ְ㤤ʤǤϡޤǼ negative question Ʊ֤Τ褤Τ뤤ϡnegative question Τ줫˶ӤĤƤꡤ˱ƳزפɬפΤˤĤƤεǡ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972.

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2011-03-06 Sun

#678. ƥ衼åŪ18Υե󥹼Ѹ [loan_word][french][history]

ѸΥե󥹸üѤϡѸǤϤʤѸʹߤˤ³ƤȤϡ[2010-12-12-1]εʤɤǿƤ[2009-08-22-1]ΥդǸȡѸΥե󥹸ѤϿȤƤ礷Ȥʤ褦˸롥18ˤϥդëãƤꡤ14ΰҸϸƤʤΤ褦ѸˤΤߤʤ餺衼åѤθˤͤȡ18Υե󥹼ѸϽפôäƤ롥Υե󥹸Ѥϡƥ衼åŪʸݤä
ե󥹤Ǥϡ1598ǯ˽Ф줿ʥȤļ ( L'Édit de Nante ) 1685ǯ۲륤14 (Louis XIV; le Rois Soleil; 1643--1715) ˤäѻߤ˵ڤӡ̤񳰤˴̿Ƥ[2010-12-12-1]Ǹ褦ˡѸǤϡʹߤΥե󥹸ѤϷ֤Ѹ첽Ƥ餺ե󥹸η֤褯ݤƤΤħǤ롥ե󥹸ꥤꥹɥġΥ륦ꥢʤɥ衼åѳƹʸظȤư֤ƤƤꡤ16ΥɥĤؤǤϥե󥹸춵餬夷ۤɤǤ롥17ˤϥ륤14вιŪʰꡤե󥹸ϳθȤƥ衼åѤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥18ˤϡե󥹸ϥƥɤŨ롤¿ξˤϥƥ򤷤ΤۤɤιŪ٤ơ衼åѤŪʶ̸Ȥʤä䤬ƳƹιȰռޤꡤ衼åѤˤե󥹸ιŪϰ̤ϤۤĹ³Ϥʤä衼åѸ˾塤ե󥹸Ĥ1ĤħŪʻ夬ǧ뤳ȤϳΤǤ ( Perret 69 ) λ˥ե󥹸ѤꥹΤߤʤ餺ƥ衼åŪʸݤǤäȤϡ嵭طʤǤ
18˱Ѹäե󥹼Ѹ Perret (70) 󤲤ȡήԤ˴ؤȤ chic, à la mode, blouse, brassière, négligé coquette, beau, femme fatale, gallant֤˴ؤ automobile, garage, chauffeur, chauffeuseѸȤ general, lieutenant-colonel, regiment ե󥹳̿ˤäƺ줿̹դ顤metre, litre, gramme
˵󤲤Ѹäϡƥ衼åŪʥե󥹸ѤΰѤˤʤ쥹ȥȤʬե󥹤դȤʬꥢäեñ󤲤ƤߤС¿ѸˤäƤ뤳Ȥ˵Ťristorante, menu, croissant, marron glacé, charlotteѸäȤϹݸäȸƤ֤ۤդ路⤷ʤήԡȤäʬϸߤǤե󥹤ȶӤĤƤ뤬δϢ18衤衼åѤν˭˾äƤΤǤ롥

Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.

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2011-03-05 Sat

#677. Ѹˤˡưο [auxiliary_verb][corpus][brown]

Ѹˡư ( modal auxiliary ) ηϤʣʤȤˤĤƤϡ[2010-07-22-1], [2010-01-20-1], [2009-07-01-1], [2009-06-25-1]εǿ줿ˡưϰưӤ־ο񤤤ðۤǤꡤ̣¿ͲƤΤDZѸˤ̤԰ʸǤäѸǤηŪʰƤ餺ʹȹͤ뤬ꤽ켫ΤʣǤ롥ѸˡưθϿ¿ηϤѲη򵭽ҤȤơThe Brown family of corpora ([2010-06-29-1]) Ѥ Leech et al. (Chapters 3--5) θ椬롥ä4 (pp. 71--90) Ǥϡפ11ˡư٤ѲܽҤƤ롥ʲϡ1961ǯƱѽ񤭸դɽ Brown LOB1991/92ǯƱѽ񤭸դɽ Frown F-LOB ˤꡤ30ǯ֤ˤ錄ˡư٤̻Ѳɽ路դǤLeech et al., p. 283 οɽȤ˺ˡͥǡϤΥڡHTML򻲾ȡwill ˤ 'll won't ʤɤξάޤࡥneed Ϲξޤࡥ

Frequencies of Modals in the Brown Family Corpora


ΤȤ30ǯδ֤ˡư٤äƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥٤θϡwould, will, may, should, must, shall, ought (to) p < 0.001 ˶ͭպ򼨤might, need(n't) p < 0.01 ζͭպ򼨤ϱξѼҤä᤿̤ѼʬĴȡAmE Τۤ BrE ⸺ٹ礤BrE η٤ɤƤ뤫Τ褦ʬۤ򼨤 (73)
̣ΤϡȤ٤㤤ˡưۤɸΨ礭 "bottom-weighting" (73) ηѻ뤳ȤΨʿѤ18.9%4ưǤߤ4.7%7ưǤߤ22.7%Ǥ롥äˡshall 43.5%ought (to) 37.5%need(n't) 31.6%ȤΨ
bottom-weighting طʤˤϡ"paradigmatic atrophy" ηŪಽ(80--81) ΤǤϤʤȻŦƤ롥ҤΤ褦ˡˡưϰư٤¿ԴǤ§ŪǤ롥;Τˤޤ礤Ƥꡤ¸ߤѲ⤭Ե§Ǥ롥shall 2;̾ȤƸ뤳ȤϤۤȤɤʤmayn't ȤϤƤޤǤ롥ˡư줬Ū "defective" ʸǤ뤳ȤͤСȤ櫓٤㤤ˡư줬äǽ˴٤ꡤޤޤ٤ˤʤäƤ椯ȤȤԻ׵ĤǤϤʤˡưκϥդ˸ۤñʸݤǤϤʤѥѤŪĴˤä礭Ĭή餫ˤ줿ȸ

Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-04-22-1] [2014-12-02-1]

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2011-03-04 Fri

#676. ѥθϤɤޤDzΩĤ [semantics][corpus][semantic_prosody][passive]

[2011-03-02-1], [2011-03-03-1]ε semantic prosody ꤢ붦ɽʼŪʡɾӤӤ븽ݤǤ롥semantic prosody ñʤΥ٥ˤȤɤޤ餺Ūʥ٥ˤ⸫롥㤨СStubbs (163--68) Ǥ be-passive Ф get-passive ΰ̣˴ؤ륳ѥѸ椬Ҳ𤵤Ƥꡤget Ѥư֤ϼ줬פȤʸ̮ʤ˾ˤäƤϼ줬פ˼ǤȤʸ̮ˤˤ˸Ȥ̤𤵤Ƥ롥
get-passive Ū semantic prosody ӤӤ䤹ȤȤϡ褫ʸˡǻŦƤȤѥĹ϶Ūʿ󶡤Ƥˤ롥Stubbs ĴǤϡbe-passive 25% "unpleasant" ʷ̤ްդ"pleasant" ްդΤ¿Ȥget-passive Ǥ60%ʾ夬 "unpleasant" ʷ̤ްդ"pleasant" ްդΤϤۤΤ鷺Ǥ롥̤ΥѥѤ̤θԤˤĴǤϡget-passage "unpleasant" ްΨäեѥ9ãȤ⤢ꡤget-passive Ū semantic prosody äƤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥Τ褦ʵҴŪʿͤˤ΢դcorpus semantics νפĹǤǤ롥
ѥˤä줿 get-passive ˴ؤ뤳θϡget-passive ޤŪʸβˤɤΤ餤ΩĤΤѥ줿Ȥʸͤ褦

I got praised for having a clean plate.


츫Ȥä "unpleasant" ްդϴޤޤƤʤget-passive ѤƤȤȤϡǤ "unpleasant" ްդᡤ餯Ūɤߤ׵ᤵƤȤȤʤΤѥˤθ뤳ȤϡŪ semantic prosody ȼäƤ get-passive ѤƤʾ塤⤤Ψ "unpleasant" ɤߤդ路"pleasant or neutral" ⳧̵ǤϤʤäΤ餳Ǥ㳰Ū "pleasant or neutral" ɤߤ⤷ʤפۤɤǤϾQŪΤäƤ뤳ȤȺʤѥθۤȤɳ褫ƤʤѥΥޤϡ̤㤫鷹õФȤդġβݾڤƤϤʤȤȤǤ롥ʸΤ˥ѥɽ̵ͭ٤Ĵ٤ȤȤŪ˹ԤʤäƤ뤬ǤĤפΤɽä顤٤äȤäơ줬ɬʸƳƤȤϸ¤ʤȤȤǤ롥ֻͤޤǤˡפǻߤޤäƤޤȤ¿äֻͤޤǤˡפǤϻͤˤʤʤȤ¿Τ
semantic prosody δȤ館ʤȡ붦ɽˤ semantic prosody δްդɤ٤ζ١괶ϤäƤС츫ȤΩŪŪʸ̮ʤɤŪʲӤӤȹͤΤ probability ͤȤƻФǤΤʤΤ
ġʸ̮ȽǤ٤ȸäƤޤФޤǤѥ̤ʸȤŪ˹׸ʤȤʤȡβͤ¤ƤޤΤǤϤʤStubbs ʸϡѥȲδطˤĤƾ嵭󵯤Ƥ뤬ˤĤƤ̵Ǥ롥

Stubbs, M. "Texts, Corpora, and Problems of Interpretation: A Response to Widdowson." Applied Linguistics 22.2 (2001): 149--72.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-03-20-1] [2011-03-11-1]

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2011-03-03 Thu

#675. collocation, colligation, semantic preference, semantic prosody [semantics][corpus][collocation][semantic_prosody]

ε[2011-03-02-1]Ǽꤢ semantic prosody ˴Ϣꡥȸζطˤ4Ĥμब̤롥ʲMcEnery et al. (84--85, 149--52) 򻲾Ȥơ٤㤤Τ⤤Τؤ¤١줾γפ򵭤

(1) collocation: ùܤȸùܤȤδط
(2) colligation: ùܤʸˡƥ꡼Ȥδط
(3) semantic preference: ùܤȡ̣Ū˴Ϣ췲Ȥδط
(4) semantic prosody: Ụ߽̄Фùܤζط

(1) collocation ñ˸ȸ줬ȤطؤŪˤŪʳǰȹͤƤ롥ɤ٤٤äƶ "collocate" ƤȸʤȤǤΤ˴ؤơԤΤŪʴϰۤʤ see [2010-03-23-1], [2010-03-04-1] ) ̾ϡQŪˡֹ١פǤ collocation ȸƤǤ褦
(2) ̾ house ȺǤ٤Ƕ the a ʤɤδ줬뤬 collocation 򸦵椹Ǥޤ̣ͭǤʤ̾ǤдȶΤϼǤꡤhouse ˸ꤵ줿äǤϤʤcollocation ̣ͭʽѸȤݤĤˤϡhouse ȴΤ褦ʡʸˡƥ꡼δطɽ魯Ѹ줬ɬפȤʤ롥줬 colligation Ǥ롥
(3) semantic preference ϡ̣Ūͭ롤٤Ƕν˴ؤطǤ롥㤨Сlarge Ͽ̡Ϥɽ魯췲 ( ex. number(s), scale, part, quantities, amount(s) ) ȶutterly ħηǡ֤Ѳɽ魯췲 ( ex. helpless, useless, unable, forgotten; changed, different ) ȶ롥large utterly ϶ΰ̣ϰϤǤ롥
(4) semantic prosody Ϻε[2011-03-02-1]ǵ̤ǡ٤ɾȤäŪʰ̣߽ФطؤüԤΰռ˾ʤ줿ްդǤ뤳Ȥ¿semantic preference üʸȸ뤳ȤǤζܤɬΤǤϤʤ
μζǤ졤˴ؤܺ٤ʸŻҥѥǰ٤¿ʸ򽸤褦ˤʤäȤˤȯŸƤsemantic prosody θϡ̣ȯŸ˹׸뤳ȤϤޤǤʤ֤ζ̤餫ˤΤΩĤȤޤΤǸض伭ؤʬˤ׸뤳Ȥˤʤޤμθϸ̣ȶӤĤ븦ǤϤ뤬 utterly ȤδϢǼħηǡ֤ѲפȤ̣δͿͤȡpolarity modality Ȥäʸˡƥ꡼ȤδϢ⼨졤Ȥ⸫ơ֤뤳Ȥˤΰ̣夷Ƥ椯Ȥ˾ƤС̻Ūʸоݤˤʤ롥
semantic prosody ϡΤ褦˹ϤʱѤԤǤǤ롥McEnery et al. (84) ˺Ƕθν郎ΤǡͤޤǤ˰ʲƤ

Hunston, S. Corpora in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2002.
Louw, B. "Irony in the Text or Insincerity in the Writer? The Diagnostic Potential of Semantic Prosodies." Text and Technology: In Honour of John Sinclair. Eds. M. Baker, G. Francis and E. Tognini-Bonelli. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1993. 157--76.
Louw, B. 2000. "Contextual Prosodic Theory: Bringing Semantic Prosodies to Life." Words in Context: A Tribute to John Sinclair on his Retirement. Eds. C. Heffer, H. Sauntson and G. Fox. Birmingham: U of Birmingham, 2000.
Partington, A. Patterns and Meanings. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998.
Partington, A. "'Utterly content in each other's company': Semantic Prosody and Semantic Preference." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 9.1 (2004): 131--56.
Schmitt, N. and R. Carter "Formulaic Sequences in Action: An Introduction." Formulaic Sequences. Ed. N. Schmitt. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2004. 1--22.
Stubbs, M. "Collocations and Semantic Profiles: On the Cause of the Trouble with Quantitative Methods." Function of Language 2.1 (1995): 1--33.
Stubbs, M. "Texts, Corpora, and Problems of Interpretation: A Response to Widdowson." Applied Linguistics 22.2 (2001): 149--72.


McEnery, Tony, Richard Xiao, and Yukio Tono. Corpus-Based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge, 2006.

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2011-03-02 Wed

#674. semantic prosody [semantics][corpus][collocation][semantic_prosody][terminology]

semantic prosody ϡǯΥѥؤζδˤä߽Ф줿ǰǤꡤȤƤܤ褦ˤʤäƤƱѥؤˤäܤ򽸤褦ˤʤä collocation Ȥ⿼ϢƤ롥Louw (57) ˤСsemantic prosody "a form of meaning which is established through the proximity of a consistent series of collocates" Ǥ롥⤦ʬ䤹Ȥ Crystal Ѥ褦

A term sometimes used in corpus-based lexicology to describe a word which typically co-occurs with other words that belong to a particular semantic set. For example, utterly co-occurs regularly with words of negative evaluation (e.g. utterly appalling). (428)


Ȥ utterly appalling 󤲤Ƥ褦ˡutterly ȤդϾˡŪɽ魯Ĵ롥¾ˡhappen set in ȤʶưԲʽɽ魯̾ȶ뤳Ȥ¿semantic prosody Ȥϡˤäƶ뤳Τ褦ʡְ̣βפΤȤؤμ礿뵡ǽüԤ٤ɾɽ魯ȤǤ롥¿Ūɾ˴ؤΤǤꡤŪɾϾʤʸԤȤƤϡŪʶ utterly ФƹŪʶ perfectly 󤲤褦ˡsemantic prosody collocation ȶӤĤƤ뤳ȤϡMcEnery et al. (83) ε󤲤Ƥ personal price 㤫餫Ǥ롥personal price ñȤǤϤɾΩŪ̾Ūʰ̣βȼ
ζˤä semantic prosody 줬ʬ夷Ƥȡζΰդ˰æ뤳Ȥˤä桼⥢ʤɤüʸ̤ɽ魯ȤǤ褦ˤʤ롥㤨СCobuild written corpus ˼Τ褦ʸ롥

Their relationship in fact was so complete that they were utterly content in each other's company.


semantic prosody ˴ؤ򤱤뤳ȤΤǤʤϡȸζˤäƤʤβʼŪʲˤΤ뤤Ū˳ƤΤȤǤ롥utterly ϤʤŪʲӤӤΤ䤤ФơŪʸȶ뤳Ȥ¿ä utterly ΤβӤӤ褦ˤʤäȤ뤫⤷ʤ⤽Ūʸȶ뤳Ȥ¿äΤϤʤʤΤ utterly ΤŪŪʲӤӤƤǤϤʤޤ˷ܤ褫褫˴٤äƤޤΤ褦ʾξȤơ(1) ŪŪ (2) ŪʸȤˤʶȤ2Ĥװߤ˺Ѥ̤ȤäȤⲺ򤫤⤷ʤŪǶᡤ -ish ŪʴްդγˤĤŪʸԤʤäˤȤäƤϡǺޤǤ롥McEnery et al. (84) ⤳˿Ƥ롥

It might be argued that the negative (or less frequently positive) prosody that belongs to an item is the result of the interplay between the item and its typical collocates. On the one hand, the item does not appear to have an affective meaning until it is in the context of its typical collocates. On the other hand, if a word has typical collocates with an affective meaning, it may take on that affective meaning even when used with atypical collocates. As the Chinese saying goes, 'he who stays near vermilion gets stained red, and he who stays near ink gets stained black' --- one takes on the colour of one's company --- the consequence of a word frequently keeping 'bad company' is that the use of the word alone may become enough to indicate something unfavourable . . . .


Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
Louw, B. 2000. "Contextual Prosodic Theory: Bringing Semantic Prosodies to Life." Words in Context: A Tribute to John Sinclair on his Retirement. Eds. C. Heffer, H. Sauntson and G. Fox. Birmingham: U of Birmingham, 2000.
McEnery, Tony, Richard Xiao, and Yukio Tono. Corpus-Based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge, 2006.

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2011-03-01 Tue

#673. Burnley's you and thou [personal_pronoun][pragmatics][honorific]

Ѹˤˤ ye thou λȤʬȡ˴Ϣ2;̾ϡ[2009-10-11-1], [2009-10-29-1], [2010-02-12-1], [2010-03-26-1], [2010-07-11-1], [2010-10-08-1]εǰäƤ
űѸǤϡ[2009-10-24-1]ο;̾ɽ˸褦ˡþū 2;ñȝē 2;ʣȤ褦ˡ ( number ) Ȥʸˡƥ꡼ˤäƻȤʬΤ˶̤ƤѸˤʤξԤλȤʬϿˤäƶ̤ ([2009-10-25-1]) ΤȤ̤ˡ͡ʸŪŪǤδؿȤƷޤäƤ褦ˤʤä
Ǥϡ㤨 Chaucer αѸ˼ȡye thou λȤʬ̤ǤˤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤäΤơơɤ٤νŤߤäƻȤʬζ̤˴ͿƤΤ Chaucer 桤Ѹ˸ˤǯǤ뤬ϽФƤʤȤäƤ褤ܸηɸηϤˤޤĤȤС񤷤Ǥ뤫⤷ʤ
ŪƤϤʤƤƤ롥ʲˡBurnley (21) Υե㡼Ȥ򡤾ѤǼ

Flowchart: ye or thou?

鱦ˤƤ "addressee familiar", "non-intimate", "age +", "status +" ʬˤĤƤϡäˤιܤǤʤоƻڤ򤿤ɤꡤǫ YE ˶ŤΤ§Ǥ롥ޤYE THOU ˤϤޤ줿Ƽ "SWITCHING" ϡǽŪˤϴ١ʸΤȤäǤˤʤȤȤɽ路Ƥ롥㤨 "affective switching" ˤСye λѤ detachment, distancing, formality, objectivity, rejection, repudiation ʤɤȷӤĤ졤thou λѤ intimacy, solidarity, engagement, rapprochement, joking, patronising, cajolery, conspiracy ʤɤȷӤĤ ( Burnley 21 )

Burnley, David. The Language of Chaucer. Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1983.

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