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Ѹˤˤǽפ1ĤȤơfinal -e 롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤#979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1]) #1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) ʤɤǰäƤĿŪʴؿ椨ˤҤܤˡֺǽספȸƤǤʤǤϤʤ礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤѸˤĬήҤƤϰˤĬήθȤ final -e Τİյ礭final -e ϡȯǤ⤢ֻǤ⤢롥final -e ϡűѸ졦ѸǤ⤢ꡤѸ졦ѸǤ⤢롥ϡǯκǸȤƤդ路Ȼפ final -e ˤѤƤߤ褦ѤȤäƤϰǤϺѤޤʤȤCaon ʸ˽äơ̵롥
űѸޤǤϡ˸͡첻ϸߤ˲ֻ̤ƤȤűѸˤʤȡʤδĶǤ -a, -o, -u -e ؤͻ礷Ƥ椯첻ʻˤοʿ (levelling) ȸƤФ븽ݤǤ롥ŪˤΤ˶̤Ƥ첻ϡޤ schwa /ə/ ؤۣ沽˾ü (e.g., sune > sunə > sun) -e ϡֻϤä٤ޤݤ줿
final -e æϼΤ褦ʾ˺줿 (Caon 297)
- from North to South in all dialects in turn;
- first from written disyllabic forms with short stem vowel and then from those with a long stem vowel. In the latter forms, -e was generally retained to indicate that the previous vowel was long e.g. name;
- first from nouns and verbs and then from adjectives . . . .
final -e λ¸ϼΤ褦ʾ˺줿 (Caon 297)
- the kind of text: the ending occurred more frequently in poetry than in prose, in that it provided the poet with an extra syllable whenever he needed it;
- the presence of the ending in the dialect: if the writer spoke a southern dialect he probably still pronounced --- and therefore wrote --- all his final -e's;
- the author of the text: conservative writers like Chaucer and Gower preserved final -e in their spelling.
15ޤǤˤϡȯȤƤ final -e ϤܾۤäƤȹͤ롥16, 17ˤϡؼԤֻԤˡ塤final -e 꼰ޤäǺǤƶϤäȤΤ Richard Mulcaster (1530?--1611; see [2010-07-12-1]) Ǥ롥Mulcaster ϡ The First Part of the Elementarie (1582) ˤơ-ld, -nd, -st, -ss, -ff θ֡ͭ c g θ֡Ĺ촴첻ĸˤ final -e λѤ꼰ʤ16ΰ John Rastell (c. 1475--1536) Mulcaster 첻Ĺɸ final -e εǽȯãƤȤ⤤ˡ18˺ʬϤ졤Ǹ˵ǽΤߤɸಽ
Caon, Louisella. "Final -e and Spelling Habits in the Fifteenth-Century Versions of the Wife of Bath's Prologue." English Studies (2002): 296--310.
ѸαƺˤĤƤ ame_bre ۤ¿εǿƤʸˡֻˤĤƤϡ#312. ʸˡαƺ ([2010-03-05-1]) ȡ#244. ֻαƺΥꥹȡ ([2009-12-27-1]) ǾޤȤϼȤȯȸäˤѰۤˤĤơSchmitt and Marsden (185--92) ˽äưޤǤʤƺȤȤˤϡɸॢꥫѸɸ।ꥹѸѰۤǰƬ֤Ƥ롥
1. Pronunciation
Words spelled with the vowel a: /æ/ for AmE and /ɑː/ for BrE as in bath, class, last, mask, past, rather.
Words spelled with -er: /əː/ for AmE and /ɑː/ for BrE as in clerk, Derby (see #211. spelling pronunciation ([2009-11-24-1]))
Words ending with -ile: /(ə)l/ for AmE and /aɪl/ for BrE as in agile, docile, fertile, missile
Words spelled alike but typically pronounced differently (z ˤĤƤϡ#964. z ʸȯ (1) ([2011-12-17-1]) ӡ#965. z ʸȯ (2) ([2011-12-18-1]) ȡ
| Word | AmE | BrE |
|---|---|---|
| asthma | /ˈæzma/ | /ˈæsma/ |
| clique | /klɪk/ | /kliːk/ |
| vase | /veɪs/ | /vɑːz/ |
| schedule | /ˈskɛʤəl/ | /ˈʃɛdjuːl/ |
| leisure | /ˈliːʒəː/ | /ˈlɛʒəː/ |
| lieutenant | /luːˈtɛnənt/ | /lɛfˈtɛnənt/ |
| z (the letter) | /ziː/ | /zɛd/ |
| tomato | /tʌˈmeɪtəʊ/ | /tʌˈmɑːtəʊ/ |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| balLET | BALlet |
| blaSÉ | BLAse |
| bufFET | BUFfet |
| garAGE | GARage |
| perFUME | PERfume |
| debuTANTE | DEButante |
| vaLET | VAlet |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| comPOSite | COMposite |
| subALtern | SUBaltern |
| arIStocrat | ARistocrat |
| priMARily | PRImarily |
| Word | AmE | BrE |
|---|---|---|
| military | /ˈmɪləˌtɛri/ | /ˈmɪlɪtri/ |
| arbitrary | /ˈərbəˌtrɛri/ | /ˈɑːbɪtri/ |
| cemetery | /ˈsɛməˌtɛri/ | /ˈsɛmətri/ |
| monastery | /ˈmɒnəsˌtɛri/ | /ˈmɒnəstri/ |
| mandatory | /ˈmændəˌtɔri/ | /ˈmændətri/ |
| category | /ˈkætəˌgɔri/ | /ˈkætəgri/ |
| testimony | /ˈtɛstəˌməʊni/ | /ˈtɛstəməni/ |
| matrimony | /ˈmætrəˌməʊni/ | /ˈmætrɪməni/ |
| Word | AmE | BrE |
|---|---|---|
| Sunday | /ˈsʌndɛɪ/ | /ˈsʌndi/ |
| Monday | /ˈmʌndɛɪ/ | /ˈmʌndi/ |
| Tuesday | /ˈˈtuːzdɛɪ/ | /ˈtjuːzdi/ |
| Thursday | /ˈθəːzdɛɪ/ | /ˈθəːzdi/ |
| Friday | /ˈfraɪdɛɪ/ | /ˈfraɪdi/ |
| Saturday | /ˈsætəːdɛɪ/ | /ˈsætəːdi/ |
| Name | AmE | BrE |
|---|---|---|
| Lancaster | /ˈlæŋˌkæstər/ | /ˈlæŋkəstə/ |
| Rochester | /ˈrɒʧɛstər/ | /ˈrɒʧəstə/ |
| Worcester | /ˈwʊəsɛstər/ | /ˈwʊstə/ |
| Nottingham | /ˈnɒtɪŋˌhæm/ | /ˈnɒtɪŋəm/ |
| Birmingham | /ˈbəːmɪŋˌhæm/ | /ˈbəːmɪŋəm/ |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| DICtate | dicTATE |
| FIXate | fixATE |
| ROtate | roTATE |
| VIbrate | vibRATE |
| Word | AmE | BrE |
|---|---|---|
| advertisement | /ˈædvəːˌtaɪzmənt/ | /ædˈvəːtəzmənt/ |
| controversy | /ˈkɒntrəˌvəːsi/ | /kɒnˈtrɒvəsi/ |
| corollary | /ˈkʊrəˌlɛri/ | /kɒˈrɒləri/ |
| inquiry | /ˈɪnkwəri/ | /ɪnˈkwaɪri/ |
| laboratory | /ˈlæbrəˌtʊəri/ | /ləˈbɒrətri/ |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| railroad | railway |
| engineer | driver |
| conductor | guard |
| baggage | luggage |
| truck | lorry |
| hood (car) | bonnet |
| trunk (car) | boot |
| fender (car) | bumper |
| gasoline | petrol |
| subway | underground |
| counterclockwise | anticlockwise |
| thumbtack | drawing pin |
| flashlight | torch |
| elevator | lift |
| apartment | flat |
| post | |
| vacation | holiday |
| garbage can | dustbin |
| bar | pub |
| druggist | chemist |
| French fries | chips |
| potato chips | crisps |
| cookie | biscuit |
| trailer | caravan |
| round-trip ticket | return ticket |
| one-way ticket | single ticket |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| underwear | pants |
| pants | trousers |
| vest | waistcoat |
| diaper | nappy |
| first floor | ground floor |
| second floor | first floor |
| sidewalk | pavement |
| pavement | road |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| a home away from home | a home from home |
| leave well enough alone | leave well alone |
| sweep under the rug | sweep under the carpet |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| on a street | in a street |
| fill out a form | fill in a form |
| check out something | chuck up on something |
| on the weekend | at the weekend |
| of two minds | in two minds |
| to all tastes | for all tastes |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| in the hospital | in hospital |
| in the future | in future |
| go to the university | go to university |
Ѳ벾ΰĤˡظƶ (substratum_theory) 롥ԤԤθݤˡȤθħäȯħˤϢƤ椯Ȥǡ¦θ˸ѲȤͤǤ롥ѸˤȴŪ˴ϢȤǤϡˡ§ޤ First Germanic Consonant Shift 䡤Second Germanic Consonant Shift ʤɤΤˡβ⤬Ф뤳Ȥ¿#416. Second Germanic Consonant Shift Ϥʤä ([2010-06-17-1]) #650. ˥ȥˡ§ ([2011-02-06-1]) #1121. Grimm's Law Ϥʤ ([2012-05-22-1]) ʤɤǿ줿̤Ǥ롥
βκμߤϡ¿ξ硤ؤʤƤˤĤƤμƤ뤳Ȥˤ롥ä˸θѲˤˤϡμߤ˸롥㤨Сˡ§˼СƶͿƤȤظ줬ʤΤȤǤ鴰ʰפƤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ˤ줬ȸäλƤ⡤θѲľܤǤΤΥȸѼθηϤ뤳ȤפˡѲڤܤȹִͤظפԹɤ褦˻Ωƾ夲뤳ȤĤǤǽʤΤǤ롥θħžܤȤݼΤϸ콬ʬǤΤƤ뤬ζŪʸѲľƤϤ뤳Ȥ
Jespersen Bloomfield ⡤Ʊ˲ŪΩäƤ롥ȽδĴϡȤƤѲȡؤδͿꤵƤ̱²ȤŪ뤤Ūɬ礷ƤʤΤǤϤʤȤǰǤ롥̱²ꡤ̤ȤƸؤʹԤƤޤˤλ֤ȾˤơθѲäȤȤǤСظƶϾʤȤ⸡ڤͤѲؤλ֤äƤꡤѲ뤲ŪʬۤŪʬۤȰפʤΤǤСʬظƶʤåȤϾʤʤ롥ष̤θõä褤ΤǤϤʤȤȤ
ظƶԤˤϡʥ˥βǽΤȤ⤻ظ㤨Хȸˤαƶ͡ʻ˴Ф褦ȼĥԤ⤤롥Jespersen ϤΤ褦ʹͤȿ롥
I must content myself with taking exception to the principle that the effect of the ethnic substratum may show itself several generations after the speech substitution took place. If Keltic ever had 'a finger in the pie,' it must have been immediately on the taking over of the new language. An influence exerted in such a time of transition may have far-reaching after-effects, like anything else in history, but this is not the same thing as asserting that a similar modification of the language may take place after the lapse of some centuries as an effect of the same cause. (200)
Jespersen μĥϡظƶˤϳ (atavism) ϤʤȤĥ (201) ƱݤȽBloomfield Ǥⷫ깭Ƥ롥
The substratum theory attributes sound-change to transference of language: a community which adopts a new language will speak it imperfectly and with the phonetics of its mother-tongue. . . . [I]t is important to see that the substratum theory can account for changes only during the time when the language is spoken by persons who have acquired it as a second language. There is no sense in the mystical version of the substratum theory, which attributes changes, say, in modern Germanic languages, to a "Celtic substratum" --- that is, to the fact that many centuries ago, some adult Celtic-speakers acquired Germanic speech. Moreover, the Celtic speech which preceded Germanic in southern Germany, the Netherlands, and England, was itself an invading language: the theory directs us back into time, from "race" to "race," to account for vague "tendencies" that manifest themselves in the actual historical occurrence of sound-change. (386)
ǯѸˤ夬äƤƤ륱ȸαʸˡؤαƶȤ⡤ظƶΰ֤ª뤫⤷ʤǤȤСʤȤŪˤϡ嵭ȽƤϤޤ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) #1254. ѸäդθѲϽդߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1]) ȡ
ظƶ⤬ƤѲȤƤϡJespersen (192--98) ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
ѸˤĤƤϡme_dialect γƵǰäƤɤʬŪʷ֤ʬۤˤ뤳Ȥ¿㤨С#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) Τ褦ϿޤƤȤƤ롥#1317. פ ([2012-12-04-1]) ˤȤꡤȤ˴ؤƤ͡Ū꤬롥Ѹؤ20ȾĹˤäƤꡤǯǤ LALME LAEME оˤ긦Ķ⤷ΤϳΤޤ¿꤬ĤƤ롥
ϡŪ Moore, Meech and Whitehall θѸθ˴ŤפŪ֤ȤʬۤMoore, Meech and Whitehall ϡ1400--1450ǯ˽줿266Ρʸʸ43ʸغʤ礿оݥƥȤȤ11μפŪħˤä MED ԻδפȤʤäǤꡤMED "Plan and Bibliography" ˤȿǤƤ롥 (96--106) 8ĤŪħˤĤɽ (98) ͿƤʤΤǡޤȤľΤ˼
| Feature | Isogloss | N | NEM | SEM | WM | SW | SE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OE /ā/ | A | /ɑː/ | /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ |
| OE /a/ + nasal | D | /a/ | /a/ | /a/ | /ɔ/ | /a/ | /a/ |
| OE /ȳ/, /y/, /ēo/, /eo/ | F | /iː, ɪ/, /eː, ɛ/ | /iː, ɪ/, /eː, ɛ/ | /iː, ɪ/, /eː, ɛ/ | /yː, y/, /øː, ø/ | /yː, y/, /øː, ø/ | /iː, ɪ/, /eː, ɛ/ |
| /f/ -- /v/ | I | /f/ | /f/ | /f/ | /f, v/ | /v/ | /v/ |
| /ʃ/ -- /s/ | C | /s/ | /s/ | /ʃ/ | /ʃ/ | /ʃ/ | /ʃ/ |
| 3rd pl. pronoun | E | them | them | hem | hem | hem | hem |
| 3rd sg. pres. verb | G | -es | -es | -eth | -es, -eth | -eth | -eth |
| 3rd pl. pres. verb | B, H | -es | -es, -e(n) | -e(n) | -e(n), -eth | -eth | -eth |
ε#1339. ɥ衼åѸ²ηޡʾ岼ȿžǡˡ ([2012-12-26-1]) ӡ#253. Ѹ˵ҤĤˡ ([2010-01-05-1]) ǡStrang ˤѸˤ̾ȤǺѤƤ̹ŪҡפˤĤƴñ˿줿丫ˤСˤߤ̤äƵҤˡΰĤȤơָŪʻ˴ŤפȤǤŦܲ Strang μĥʹƤߤ褦ĹStrang (20--21) Ѥ롥
The principle of chronological sequence once adopted still leaves a choice --- to move forward from the earliest records to the present day, or back from the present day to the earliest records. Most historians have preferred to move towards the present day. Yet this is an enterprise in which it is doubtfully wise to 'Begin at the beginning and go on till you come to the end: then stop.' The most important reasons for this are clear in the very formulation of the King's directive to the White Rabbit, in the implication that there is a beginning and an end. Something begins, of course; the documentation of the language. But, however carefully one hedges the early chapters about, it is difficult to avoid giving the impression that there is a beginning to the English language. At every point in history, each generation has been initiated into the language-community of its seniors; the form of the language is different every time, but process and situation are the same, wherever we make an incision into history. The English language does not have a beginning in the sense commonly understood --- a sense tied to the false belief that some languages are older than others. / At the other terminal it is almost impossible to free oneself from the teleological force of words like 'end'. The chronological narrative comes to an end because we do not know how to continue it beyond the present day; but the story is always 'to be continued'. Knowing this perfectly well, one is yet liable to bias the narrative in such a way as to subordinate the question 'How was it in such a period'? to the question 'How does the past explain the present?' Both are important question, but the first is more centrally historical. / In addition, the adoption of reverse chronological order imposes on us the discipline of asking the same questions of every period; this is salutary even where it does no more than force us to acknowledge our ignorance.
СѸˤ̵Ū˵Ҥ3Ĥ롥
(1) Ѹ "beginning" ֻϤޤפʤȤ¤Ĵ뤳ȤǤ롥
(2) Ѹ "end" ֽסʤ뤤ϡŪסˤʤȤ¤Ĵ뤳ȤǤ롥
(3) ƱƻεҤˤƷ֤Ȥ;ʤߤλˤ桹θ³̵ΡˤפƤ롥
ϡ˵Ҥ1ĤˡǤȤʾůؤؤȰƧ߹̵ŪҤΤۤ "more centrally historical" ǤȤǧϡStrang (why õˤҡhow õˤŻ뤷Ѹ˲ȤǤ뤳ȤʪäƤ롥αѸ˵ҤΤΤϹ¤ؤ˴ŤϩʤΤ̵ŪҤκѤˤäơä˴ѤɺäƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
ܥ֥Ǥϡ²ηޤĤηǼƤ
[2009-06-17-1]: #50. ɥ衼åѸ²ηޤͷӤǡסFlash
[2010-07-26-1]: #455. ɥ衼åѸ²ηޡܸǡˡסFlash
[2012-06-16-1]: #1146. ɥ衼åѸ²ηޡFortsonǡˡ
ϡ߷ (2--3) ΰ²ޤȤǡ2ǤƤߤⲣĹηޤ1ܤϰĸ줬̾Υס2ܤϰĸ줬̾ΥפǤʤ줾첼ޤåȳǤɽǤˡ


ޤϷȤƤФ뤬ڤϡΤȤʤ顤Ǿ夬Ǥ롥طˤƤϡۤȤɤξ硤岼ȿžƤꡤ夬DzǤ롥ϡ夫鲼ػ֤ήƹԤȤ桹λ֤ˤĤƤľ˹礦˺ѤƤ櫓̣ǤŪʸȿƤ롥ˤߤ硤ߤˤƲ̤äƹԤȤΤưŤǤϤʤߤʪεϲ䤦Ʋ֤ΤˤФؿȤΤǤϤʤޤΤ褦ˤƲ̵ڤƤ椯ȤӥåХΤ褦ʱ˵Ϥλ֤ǰƬˤΤǤʤ¤ꡤꤵ줺ʤؤȾ˳Ƥ롥˴ѤִѤϡߤνȤߤʤ̾ηޤȤ˴ѤִѤȤϤ˰ۤʤ롥
˽Ҥ٤ޤξ岼ȿžȤȯۤȰյϡ̵ŪʱѸˤ路 Strang äƤ롥²θѤäƤΤǤϤʤϢơ#253. Ѹ˵ҤĤˡ ([2010-01-05-1]) ȡ
߷ ˧ͺ 顡ԡرѸǯɽ?ѸˡѸػˡʸػˡ̻?١ҡ1993ǯ
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
߸դȤƤФΥ֡ش (taboo) ˤϡŪ롥塤֡ϻѤɽʤΤ顤͡ϤʹȤʤϤǤ롥ʹȤʤС˺Ƥޤ줽θ줫鼺Ƥ椯ϤϤʤʤϤʤ
ͳϡ֡ºݤˤϤष褯ѤƤ뤫Ǥ롥֡ȤϡϤȤƻѤ٤ɽˤ¤ˤˤ˻ѤƤ롥 (165) Τ褦ˡŪ˿ȶ餳֡ˤʤäƤפΤ֡оݤȤɽȶ餳˺ˤˤΤǤ롥դˤСʬȤδطΡΤϥ֡ˤʤʤȤȤ
֡̿ϤϤ⤹ޤ֡̿Ϥˡ֡ȡƱȯĸȤδطͻ褦Ѹˤϡ֥פɽ魯 coney Ȥ줬뤬¯ǽɽ魯ƱǤ롥ˤꡤ֥פȤƤ coney 褦ˤʤäƱͤˡcock, ass ⥿֡ȤŪʴްդĤᡤꥫѸǤϡͺܡס֥Сפΰ̣ȤƤϡrooster, donkey Ȥä̤θ줬Ѥ褦ˤʤäפʤΤϡƱ۵ (homonymic clash) äΤˡ֡줬äƤäΤǤϤʤ饤ХƱ۵줬äƤäȤȤǤ롥Bloomfield (396) ϡ˥֡̿Ϥ
In such cases there is little real ambiguity, but some hearers react nevertheless to the powerful stimulus of the tabu-word; having called forth ridicule or embarrassment, the speaker avoids the innocent homonym. It is a remarkable fact that the tabu-word itself has a much tougher life than the harmless homonym.
֡ϡǡǡۤɡषĹ³ΤǤ롥ޤûߤ롥
Ƿؿ֤ȤСפβݳȡ١ҡ2012ǯ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
ɸϡ#1326. 礤7Ĥǡ ([2012-12-13-1]) , #1327. ҥȤθ˶̤7Ĥ ([2012-12-14-1]) ǻȤǷΤʤΡ1 (pp. 91--96) ˤĤ줿ȥǤ롥ñ˴ŤʸϹˤդƤ뤬¿ξ硤Ǥ롥Ƥξ硤ʸ̩ܤʴطŦȤ⤷뤷ؿƤΤǡشطμȤʤɤǤñ˴ŤʸäμȤ뤳Ȥ¿ˤ͡櫤ҤǤ롥
櫤1Ĥϡ#364. The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax ([2010-04-26-1]) Ǹ褦ˡΤȤȤʤ˴ؤ뵭ҤΤǤǽ뤳Ȥΰ̣ˡΤ˵Ҥˤϡʤλ֤ϫϤ䤷ƤĴɬפǤ롥Ȥ櫓ʸȤ礭ʵˤĤʤ褦ȤΤǤСѥʤɤȤƤθܤĴɬפ뤷ϢˤĤƤƱͤĴ뤳Ȥɬפ碌Ƹ츻ˤҤȤȤפǤ롥פˡθˤĤŰŪʸؤʤФʤʤϤǤ롥δפäƽƼεؤȥƥåץåפƤ椯٤ޤƧ߹ñʸϵǤ롥
̤μ櫤ϡñäƤʸ뤳ȤɤޤʤΤȤǤ롥㤨СܸǤϡֿפȡפñȤƶ̤뤬եǤ profond ʿˤФ peu profond ʤۤȤɿʤˤȤñ٥Ǥ϶̤ʤäơܸΤۤ٤˶ʬƤȤ椨ܿͤϤ٤ʡˤȤˤʤ롥̤ΰ̣ñäƤСषϵդȤȤ⤢櫓ǤꡤֿפȡפȤä˸ꤷƵΤϥեǤ롥Ʊ褦ˡܸϡְסơס֤Ϥס֥饤פ͡ʸƤ뤬ѸǤ rice ΤߤǤ롤äܸ٤Ǥ롤ȤϸʸǤϤʤӤäݤʸ黿ˤʤñʸϡʸȼʸͥؤ䤹
ñʸΤ⤦1Ĥ櫤ϡprofond peu profond εȤƤ褦ˡ2ʾ夫ʤʬŪɽϡ1ǤŪɽ⡤ǰΥƥʤȤƤäƤ롤뤤ƻȤͤˤ뤳ȤʬϤΤۤɽȤ̩٤ǻȤľϤ뤫⤷ʤϤɤΤ褦˾ޤˡɽŪ1ʤΤʬŪ2ʾʤΤ̤뤳Ȥ⡤ۤɤ䤹ȤǤϤʤ#911. ʤ (2) ([2011-10-25-1]) Ǹ flower pot ~ flower-pot ~ flowerpot Τ褦ˡpeu profond ˡ22Ǥʤ1ĤʣȤߤʤȤǽ⤷ʤΤܸΡ֤ʤ椭פϡ1Ȥߤʤʬब٤ȤؤĤʤ줽֤ʡסܡ֤椭פ2ȤߤʤФΤ褦ʵϤǤʤѸ powder ʤʤ椭ˤϡǤ powder snow ȤȤ롥פˡϸȤΤȤ˴ؤäƤΤǤꡤϸؤǤ̤ʤΤǤ롥
Ƿؿ֤ȤСפβݳȡ١ҡ2012ǯ
ɸˤĤơ[2012-05-28-1]εɲäƽҤ٤Bloomfield (401--02) ǡƾΤɾΤˤäƶवȤϡѸΤߤʤ餺ˤ⸫졤ǤϤ˼ʳ˿ʤǤȤ
There is an advantage, often, in applying well-favored terms to one's hearer. The habit of using the plural pronoun 'ye' instead of the singular 'thou,' spread over Europe during the Middle Ages. In English, you (the old dative-accusative case-form of ye) has crowded thou into archaic use; in Dutch, jij [jej] has led to the entire obsolescence of thou, and has in turn become the intimate form, under the encroachment of an originally still more honorific u [y:], representing Uwe Edelheid [ˈy:we ˈe:delhejt] 'Your Nobility.' (401--02)
Ȥϡ#185. Ѹˤȥɥĸˤˤ T/V distinction ([2009-10-29-1]) ǿ줿ַɰˡ§פΤ⤦ĤȤƱ²θǤΤ褦ʲǧȤȤϡѸˤʿŪäΤǤϤʤȵʤΤ⼫Ǥ롥
ɰˡ§ϡɰդɽ魯Ϥθ줫ɰդƤ椯ˡʷɰդɽ魯٤ʤ줬ƳȤȤҤ٤Ƥ뤬ȤƤΤϡ餫θä˷ɰդɽ路ȤüԤΰտޤǤ롥ɰդθϲƤ椯ΤǤɰդɽ魯ȼΤϤʤȤǤ⤤⤷ŪȤСthou you ¤äˡˡǫ you ֤ȤŬäƤ褦˻פ롥ȤȲʤǡɾΤ thou ֤ȤϡԹ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Bloomfield ϡǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) ˤ벻ѲβAusnahmslose Lautgesetze "sound laws without exception"ˤˤ͡ȽӤƤɭθؼԤϤߤ Neogrammarian ǤȤơƱɤζӤ⤯ɾƤ롥ȽκǤΤȤơѲ˼Ĥ줿 residue ¸ߤɤΤ褦ŤΤȤ꤬뤬Bloomfield Ϥष˸ꤲΤϡۤʤƱǤȤơȽȿ롥Language ǤϴϢڤߤƤ뤬Τ2Ѥ褦
The occurrence of sound-change, as defined by the neo-grammarians, is not a fact of direct observation, but an assumption. The neo-grammarians believe that this assumption is correct, because it alone has enabled linguists to find order in the factual data, and because it alone has led to a plausible formulation of other factors of linguistic change. (364)
The neo-grammarians claim that the assumption of phonetic change leaves residues which show striking correlations and allow us to understand the factors of linguistic change other than sound-change. The opponents of the neo-grammarian hypothesis imply that a different assumption concerning sound-change will leave a more intelligible residue, but they have never tested this by re-classifying the data. (392--93)
ǯʸˡɤȽԤϡƱɤ (borrowing) (analogy) ˤäǤʤꤲॴȢȤưѤƤ뤳ȤФлŦ뤬Bloomfield ˸碌СषǯʸˡɤϼѤŪϰ̤Ϳ뤳Ȥ˹ΤȤȤˤʤ롥
Bloomfield ϡε˴ؤƤ⡤ǯʸˡʸŸ롥벻ѲAˤƤϰ췲θˤʤѤ٤BˤƤϤñˤѤƤʤ褦ʥˤơǯʸˡɤϤ residue ñɤΤ褦Τ
[A]n irregular distribution shows that the new forms, in a part or in all of the area, are due not to sound-change, but to borrowing. The sound-change took place in some one center, and after this, forms which had undergone the change spread from this center by linguistic borrowing. In other cases, a community may have made a sound-change, but the changed forms may in part be superseded by unchanged forms which spread from a center which has not made the change. (362)
ơΰѤˤ³ơǯʸˡɤȽԤؤμ긷ȿ깭롥
Students of dialect geography make this inference and base on it their reconstruction of linguistic and cultural movements, but many of these students at the same profess to reject the assumption of regular phonetic change. If they stopped to examine the implications of this, they would soon see that their work is based on the supposition that sound-change is regular, for, if we admit the possibility of irregular sound-change, then the use of [hy:s] beside [mu:s] in a Dutch dialect, or of [ˈraðr] rather beside [ˈgɛðr] gather in standard English, would justify no deductions about linguistic borrowing. (362)
Bloomfield εɤߤʤ顤ǯʸˡɤβ⤬Ƚ䤹ΤϡषȤƼ餳ʤΤ⤷ʤȻפƤ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Ѹˤϡ̾ưΤοפȤ꤬롥#312. ʸˡαƺ ([2010-03-05-1]) (3) Ǽ̤ꡤꥹѸǤ team, audience, board, committee, government, the public Τ褦ʽ̾ϡüԤΤȤñȤߤʤбưñǰפʣȤߤʤФʣǰפ롥ꥫѸǤ̾η֤Τߤ˰¸Ȥ졤ưñǰפ롥
Ѹοפˤϡۤˤ⡤someone everyone ʤɤ̾줬ʣư˰פ㡤ʬñ㡤ľθ˱ƶָפθݡThere's ʸʤɡ͡ʼΤ롥ΰˤĤƤϡƣ˵äơ#1144. Ѹˤפ ([2012-06-14-1]) dz⤷
ǤϡοפεϤɤˤΤˤ̤äƤߤϡѸˤ folk, people, host ʤɤν̾ο濴˸Ƥߤ褦Mustanoja (62--63) ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
űѸǤϡfolk Τ褦ʽ̾ϡ°ǤʣưȰפΤͥäΩǤñưȰפΤ§äԤʣǤΰפ褦ˤʤΤϡ11ʹߤǤ롥ѸȡξˡƤΤΡŪˤСΩǤϤޤñǤΰפ¿ѸˤƤμǤʣǤΰפ§ȤʤäƤ椯folk, people ʤɤŪ˻ؼоݤʣǤ뽸̾٤Сcountry, court ʤɤŪʣɽ魯̾ϡή˾Τ٤ä
Mustanoja γϰǤꡤġˤ㳰⤢롥㤨СǶḫĤǤϡChaucer, CT. Pri. l. 626 peple ñ was ȰפƤ롥
Unnethe myghte the peple that was theere
This newe Rachel brynge fro his beere.
ƬǽҤ٤褦ˡ̾ưοפˤ͡ʼबꡤ̾˸¤äƤ people פ country פȤ̤ɬפꤽμˤʬɬܤפŪȯŸɤȤäƤ⡤ǤϤʤ褦
ƣ ֱѸñʣˤĤơסإסرûظ浪ס331993ǯ69--88ǡ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ѸưΤѤ줿ֻˤϡby, from, mid, of, with ä٤ƤƱ褦٤ѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤˤ꤬줿
űѸǤϡȤ from ޤФ of ưɽ魯ΤѤƤΤ from 14ޤǻѤ줿ѤƤäof ϸűѸν꤫Ѹˤĥ1600ǯդޤǤϺǤѤ줿˸ѸϢʤ by ߤƤߤȡưˡϡűѸǤ⤽餷㤬äȻŦƤϤ뤬Ϥäꤷʤʲ Mustanoja 3ܤΰѤȡˡư by Ѹڤ褦ˤʤΤ14꤫Ǥꡤ15--16ˤƳ礷of ȸ¤٤ۤɤˤʤ롥ΤۤưֻȤƤϤۤΩʤ13ʸڤ with Ѹǻ mid ⤢롥
줾줬Ѥˤʤäƻ٤ʤɤξܺ٤̤Ĵ绨Ĥ˻¤٤ƤߤȼΤ褦ˤʤ
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
from :************************************** - - -
of :*************************************************************** - - -
bi : - - - *******************************
with : - - *** - -
mid : - - *** - -
From its function to indicate a person as a source of an action, first as a giver or sender, from develops into a preposition of agency in OE. In this function it occurs down to the 14th century: --- he wæs gehalgod to biscop fram þone ærcebiscop Willelm of Cantwarabyri (OE Chron. an. 1129); --- I . . . am sett king from hym upon Sion (Wyclif Ps. ii 6; am maad of hym a kyng, Purvey). (385--86)
To express agency of is used less frequently than from in OE, but it begins to gain ground towards the end of this period and becomes the most popular preposition expressing agency in connection with a passive verb down to c 1600. It is possible that this use of of has been promoted by the influence of OF de. Examples: --- ich wolde þet heo weren of alle alse heo beoþ of ou iholden (Ancr. 21); --- is alle biset of helle muchares (Ancr. 67); --- if he wolde be slayn of Symkyn (Ch. CT A Rv. 3959); --- enformed whan the kyng was of that knyght (Ch. CT F Sq. 335). (397)
Wülfing II, p. 338, quotes a doubtful OE instance of be denoting agency with a passive verb, and R. Gottweiss (Anglia XXVIII, 1905, 353--4) calls attention to what he calls 'signs of the use of be with the passive' in Ælfric's homilies. BTS, be 20, quotes an example from the OE Gospel of St Luke (þa þing þe be him wærun gewordene 'quae febant ab eo,' ix 7). Cf. active cases like þat was agan þære bi þan kaisere (Lawman A 27982). Unambiguous ME instances where by indicates the agent of a passive verb occur from the end of the 14th century on (I praye Jhesu shorte hir lyves That wol nat be governed by hir wyves, Ch. CT D WB 1262; --- ne hadde he ben holpen by the steede of brass, Ch. CT F Sq. 666). This use becomes increasingly common in the 15th and 16th centuries. In the Cloud (MSS of the early 15th---early 16th century) of is a little more frequently used to denote agency than by. It may be assumed that the use of by to indicate the agent of a passive expression is promoted by the influence of French par. (374--75)
With begins to occur as a preposition of agency in the 13th century: --- heder was þat mayde brouȝt With marchaundes þat hur had bouȝt (Flor. & Bl. 408); --- he was with þe prestes shrive (Havelok 2489); --- and with twenty knyghtes take, O persone allone, withouten mo (Ch. CT A Kn. 2724). (420)
. . . instrumental mid is occasionally used to express agency in early ME: --- a lefdi was þet was mid hire voan biset at abuten (Ancr. 177). (394)
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ѸˤֻȯЪΥˤĤƤ spelling_pronunciation_gap ε濴¿εǿƤޤڤƿƤ⤷ʤJespersen (3) ɤǤơϤäȤ줿
In the Middle Ages the general tendency was towards representing the same sound in the same way, wherever it was found, while the same word was not always spelt in the same manner. Nowadays greater importance is attached to representing the same word always in the same manner, while the same sound may be differently written in different words.
˽ΰѤǤޤȤСѸֻηϤεȶѸΤȤδ֤ܼŪʺϡԤɽŪ (phonographic) ǤΤФơԤϤɽŪ (logographic) ǤפȤȤˤʤ롥ѸƱ (homophony) ¿¤ˡѸֻηϤϥե٥åȤѤƤʤ¤ logographic ǤȤĥϤФʹ뤬ʸδ̻ŪʻȤ߹碌СѸֻηϤѲϡΤˤΤ褦ˤޤȤ褦˻פ롥Jespersen "tendency" Ȳ䤫ʸոƤȤꡤޤdzƻαѸֻηϤƤŦƤˤʤ̯
ѸֻηϤϡɽ魯ΤȼĥƤ뤵¸줿¿¿ͤ绨ĤǤ롥ѸֻηϤϡŬɽ碌Ф褤Ȥ¸ϸʤޤäƤ롥̤ʸȯŸˤˤɽդɽ줫ɽظή줬ǧ뤬ѸˤˤƤϤεդȤ⤤ɽɽؤή줬ѻȤΤ϶̣
Ϣơ#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1]) ⻲ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
äαƺˤϡ͡ʼΤϡ[2010-04-19-1]ε#357. American English or British English?פȡˡθäαƺ̡ڤΤˡ췲νѸƳȹͤʲ褦
ѸˤϱƤѼ郎̤ȸ롥Ѽ줾 "the British variety of English", "the American variety of English" ȸƤ֤Ȥˤ褦ʤû̷줾 "British English" Ǥ "American English" Ǥˡ2ĤѼδ֤ˤ¿ "lexical variation" ʸŪѰۡˤѻ롥ѰۤΰĤҤȤĤ "a (lexical) variable" ʡʸŪѹˤȸƤ֤Ȥˤ롥㤨С"a rest of time" ʵٲˡˤ̣ΤˡŵŪ˥ꥹѸǤ holiday Ѥ뤬ꥫѸǤ vacation Ѥ롥ΤȤΰ̣˴ؤѼ֤ variable ϡ "the British variant" ʥꥹѸǤΰ۷ holiday ȡ"the American variant" ʥꥫѸǤΰ۷ vacation 2Ĥΰ۷ΤɤȤƵҤǤ롥1Τ褦ʵˡɽ魯Ȥˤ褦
1. ("a time of rest"): BrE holiday ~ AmE vacation
Ūѹˤ̼ΤΤ⤢롥pants ȤϡꥹѸǤ "underpants" ʲˤ̣뤬ꥫѸǤ "trousers" ʥܥˤ̣롥ϼ2Τ褦˵ҤǤ롥
2. (pants): BrE "underpants" ~ AmE "trousers"
ξѹ ( ) ǰϤळȤȤΤʸ "signifiant" Ǥäʸ "signifié" ɽ魯ΤȤ롥뤤ϡ̤ѸƳСΤʸ "lexeme" ʸǡˤǤäʸ "sememe" ʰյǡˤɽ魯ΤȤ롥
ŪѰۤΤʤǤ⡤1ΥפѹϡƱ sememe Фưۤʤ lexeme ѼбΤǡ"a synonymic variable" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥2ΥפѹϡƱ lexeme Фưۤʤ sememe ѼбΤǡ"a homonymic variable" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥
ۤˤ⡤underground subway δطΤ褦ˡѼ֤ǤȤ "synonymic variables" Ǥ⤢ "homonymic variables" Ǥ⤢褦ʸ췲뤬Τ褦ʸ췲 "a lexical class (field) of variables" ƤɽǤfirst floor, second floor, third floor ⡤˴ؤ "a lexical class of variables" ȸƤǤ褤
ʾΤ褦ˡ"variation", "a (lexical) variable", "a variant", "a lexeme", "a sememe", "a synonymic variable", "a homonymic variable", "a lexical class of variables" ȤѸƳ뤳Ȥǡäαƺʣʾ뤳ȤΩĤΤǤϤʤʤǤ lexeme sememe ȤѸˡϡ̣Ѥݤȸ̩ˤϰۤʤäƤǽ뤬Ԥ variant ˤ signifiant Ԥ signifié ؤΤȤäλƤСбȤ˻Ȥ "word" ʸˤȤѸѤ"lexeme" ʤɤФΤϡɬפǤС#22. ǥȱѸˡ ([2009-05-20-1]) ǿ줿褦˥ǥΤ褦ñ̤ˤб뤫Ǥ롥
ε[2012-12-16-1]ǡHelsinki Corpus Ѥơ#1329. Ѹˤˤ eth, thorn, <th> פѤդˤȡ<þ> <ð> ΤĹΤϡM1 (1150--1250) M2 (1250--1350) ˤƤλǤꡤλˤĤƾܺ٤Ĵˤ LAEME äƤĤǤ롥ˤ뺹ۤʤɤǧǤȹͤ®绨ĤĴƤߤ绨ĤȤΤϡ㤨С1ĤθΤʤ <þ> 2ʾ帽줿ȤƤ1ȿʤɡưԹ礬뤿Ǥ롥
ʲϡ̡Ⱦñ̡ˤ̤ʬۤդǤʿͥǡϡHTMLȡˡʤͿˤĤƤϡ[2012-03-19-1]ε#1057. LAEME Index of Sources θġ Ver. 2פǿ줿褦ˡΤΤǤ롥COUNTY DIALECT βбɽȡ


LAEME ˤ̤Ĵ̤ϡ Helsinki Corpus ˤĴ̤礹롥C13a C13b δ֤ <ð> θ <þ> äѻ롥ʹߡǯ֤ <ð> λȤäƤ褤̤ˤߤȳ <þ> ŪNWM ˤƤ <ð> ⤢٤ϷƮƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥̤ʬۤϡܺ٤Ĵɬפ⤷ʤ
űѸѸǤϡѸ <th> /θ, ð/ ʸȤơ<þ> "thorn" <ð> "eth" or "edh" ˤѤ줿Ѹʹߤ <th> ξԤ֤Ƥ椯Ȥˤʤä롼ʸͳ褹Ԥϡ[2012-01-28-1]ε#1006. 롼ʸѼפȡˡѸ桤Ȥ櫓Ǥ֤ȤĤä17ΰܤ˸뤳Ȥ餢äȤ (Schmitt and Marsden 159)
Ǥϡ<þ>, <ð>, <th> ˴ؤεҤϡHelsinki Corpus ˤäդܤλʬCOCOA <C ɽ part of corpusˤˤƤޤ٤ƻΨǥղͥǡϡHTMLȡޤʬˤĤƤޥ˥奢ȡ

ѸǤ <þ> λѤ Helsinki Corpus ǤϳǧǤʤäΤΡ˳Ѥ3ʸǤϤ褽դ줿ȤäƤ褤űѸ줫 M2 (1250--1350) ˤơ<ð> Ҥ鸺ǡ<þ> ʬۤƤĺĤδ֡λʹߡ<þ> <th> ˵®֤Ƥ椯
ѸǤϤȤ櫓 <þ> ³ȤǧȤHelsinki Corpus Ѥ¾ĴȤƤϡ#381. oft often ʬ̻ۤŪѲ ([2010-05-13-1]) ⻲ȡ
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
ԥᥦդβ (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) 뤤Ū (linguistic relativism) ϡ˴ؤ벾ΤʤǤȤ櫓ͭ̾Ǥꡤ¿Ƥꥫθؼ Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897--1943) ϡƱꥫθؼ Edward Sapir (1884--1939) θ˴ؤۤȯŸ줬ʸʤꤹȹͤ
Whorf ⤯ˤϡǮŪʿԤ⤤С㤷ȿ⤢롥ˤС⤽⤳βϲʳŪ˸ڤ뤳ȤǤʤΤΤǤ롥ϡˤĤƼ3ĤεŸƤ (103--26)
1ˡʸؤǹƤʸˤСʸȤϸޤҲŪ仺Ǥ롥 (109) ϡC. åۡʡʸؤ١̼Ҹ忷1971ǯpp. 34, 42ˤˤʸƤ롥
ʸפȤϡؤǤϡ̱²ͼΡġοʹ֤ĤҲŪ仺̣롥СʸϴĶΤοʹ֤Τ館ʬǤȹͤƤ褤
ʸȤϡ͡𡤿ĤˤĤƤˡǤ롥ȡĤѤˤʤơʪʪʤʤɤѤμǤ롥ϤƯ߽ФΤ椷ƤΤǤ롥ʹ֤ιư졤ȿꡤưޤζṲ̄ǤƻȲȤȪʤɤǤ롥
˽иʸΰʤΤǤ뤫顤ߤ̩ܤ˴ؤȤ¾ꤷƤȤȤȤϡ塤Ǥ롥ʸشطϻ¤ˤϰ㤤ʤäˤ⤷¤ǤϤʤȤȤˤʤpp. 109--10ˡ
2ˡ1ȴؤ뤬̾A B شط̴طиŪ˸ڤ褦ȤݤˤϡA B ΩƱǤʤФʤʤξ硤A B ΩƤʤΤ顤иŪʸڤդȤǤʤȤȤˤʤp. 119ˡ
3ˡشطڤǤȤƤ⡤شطʤ̴طǤϤʤA B ؤƤȤƤ⡤A B ̤ʤΤ뤤ϤεդʤΤϡ̤˸ڤʤФʤʤ̾ŪΩĤΤȤ뤬ʸξ硤ɤ餬ŪΩĤΤΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤpp. 123--24ˡ
ʾΤ褦ˡWhorf ζϸǽǤ뤫顤ʳؤΩ줫϶̣ǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ƱʳŪʸڤѤ褦Ŭڤ˺꼰뤳Ȥϲǽ⤷ʤ
ʤ (125) ϡƱϡůŪˤ϶̣Ǥ³ƤäƤ롥ϡֻ䤿ʸŪиǽʤ餷ΤϲȤůŪ䤤ФůŪפǤ롤ȡ
͵ظů١Ҧ˼2003ǯ
ưʪѤΥߥ˥ʤ椷ơҥȤθΤħϲ¿θؼԤθؤܼŪĩǤܥ֥ȤƤϡǶǤϡ#1281. ū ([2012-10-29-1]) ǡCrystal λŦ3 (reproductiveness, double_articulation, displacement) Ҳ𤷤
(139--52) ˤСθ˶̤7Ĥ롥ҥȰʳưʪΤʤˤϡΤĤäƤΤ⤢뤬7Ĥ٤ƤƤΤϤʤդߤС7Ĥ٤ƤƤʤСΥߥ˥ʤϸǤȤ롥
(1) ʬʡ#767. ʬ ([2011-06-03-1]) ڤ double_articulation ȡ
(2)
(3) (arbitrariness ȡ
(4) ۶֡ۻã
(5) Ϸ˽ưʪˤϥȥҤȿƤȤ礤ˡۤʤΤ̡
(6) ʬΥɬ̤ˤɽʤȤ
(7) ŷʸ
(medium) εǽ (function_of_language), ε (origin_of_language) Τ褦ʰ̸ؤνͻݤˤ⡤Բķˤʤ
Ƿؿ֤ȤСפβݳȡ١ҡ2012ǯ
¿ͤʸؼԡؼԡǷˤ֤ȤСɤιֵϳ˼Ȥꡤפ֤Ϥ褯ɤळȤǤ
Ԥϡߥ˥ΤȤ礤פȸƤǤꡤˤȤФ϶äۤɾȽҤ٤롥³ơ礤ˤƤ7ĤǤꡤͤϤ7ĤǤƱ˻ȤʬƤΤȼĥ롥7ĤǤȤϡʲ̤ (116)
(1) ֤ȤС
(2) ͤοΤ̤ǤΡֿʪħ
(3) ɽѲưޤΤư
(4) 礤ƤʪմĶȤƤΡ־
(5) ľŪܿˤΤ鿧Ѳʤɤ˸Ūȿ
(6) ߤεΥͤƤ륹ڡΤȤλ礤Ƥɽ뤿ˤ֤ʤɤΡֶ֤Ȼ֡
(7) ͤμҲϰ̤ΩȤäֿʪμҲŪطʡ
7ĤǤ塤ԤϡϡָߤϤäƤפΤǤꡤ֤ǤΰĤΩ礤ԤʤȤϤʤפΤȶĴ롥ơ줬ʤʤ狼äƤ館ʤΤò餹롥
פʤȤϡΡּĤǡפϤäƤȤȡΰǤФ礤뤳Ȥϡ褷ƤǤʤȤȤǤϡλ͡ǯ;錄³ƤȤʤΤǤߤʤ֤狼ʤȤ餷ȤФȤǤϤʤͤŪñǼƤΤǤůؤȤȤʤȡޤäȸäƤۤɴؿƤޤۤɡοͤӤȤƬϡ줬Ūʰ֤ƤǤ͡ (118)
ˤĤƹͤƤȤˡ#1259. Jakobson ˤ6ĤεǽפؤȽ ([2012-10-07-1]) ǰѤࡼʥεפФJakobson θ6ǽ礤7ǤȤϸߤʤۤʤΤľӤǤʤ夤ĤΰҤؤʬƤߤΤΡºݤˤϤ٤Ƥͻ¤ƤꡤʬԲǽʤΤǤϤʤȤȤä
(1) ήɤθؤǰоݤȤС(2) ʲǤϡǶˤʤäȯŸƤ (pragmatics) Ҳ (sociolinguistics)ѥ (paralinguistics) ʤɤΰ°뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ϡ䤬äꡤΤ褦ʡ˵ήפǤνĥƤΤȡʤ˵ŤʬϺ˵ήǤϤʤʤäƤƤ롥״˷ɰդɽ
Ƿؿ֤ȤСפβݳȡ١ҡ2012ǯ
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ
Cheshire (115) ɤǤơѸ˴ؤ뵭ҤȤơäˤ¿ȤȤڤľŪˤϳΤˤΤ褦˻פ뤬ҴŪդϤΤȡLGSWE äƤߤȡϢ뵭Ҥ pp. 159--60 ˸Ĥä
ˤ͡ʼब뤬4ĤλѰΤ줾ˤĤơѥѤ "Distribution of not/n't v. other negative forms" Ĵ̤Ƥ100դɽǼ

| not/n't | other negative forms | |
|---|---|---|
| CONV | 19500 | 2500 |
| FICT | 9500 | 4000 |
| NEWS | 4500 | 2000 |
| ACAD | 3500 | 1500 |
#184. two /w/ ȯʤΤϤʤ ([2009-10-28-1]) ǡtwo ȯ˴ޤޤȾ첻 /w/ ĤɤΤ褦æˤĤƴñ˿줿15?16æȤ뤬ֻdzǧ¤ǤϡˤäƤϤäѸæƤȤڵ롥
ޤѸˤĤơLALME Dot Map 548--57 two ΰ֤ʬۤƤ롥פʰ֤ˤĤƳ⤹Сtwa (Dot Map 548) ˸ꤵƤΤФơǤ̤ two (Dot Map 550) ޤ।ˤޤ٤ʤڤ롥 <w> ֻޤޤʤ to(o) (Dot Map 557) ϡ˸졤Ȥ櫓 East Anglia South-West Midland ǻʬۤƤ롥Τ褦ˡѸǤϡǤ w ֤ȾʤäȤ狼롥
ǤϡѸǤϤɤäLAEME Ĵ٤ƤߤTO 뤤 TO- ֻ "two" Ф̡̤ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤä
| C12b | C13a | C13b | C14a | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | 1 | |||
| NEM | 1 | |||
| NWM | ||||
| SEM | 28 | 6 | ||
| SWM | 1 | 1 | ||
| SW | 4 | 20 | ||
| SE |
Helsinki Corpus (The Diachronic Part of the Helsinki Corpus of English Texts) 1991ǯ˸ư衤Ѹ˥ѥθĤȤƽѤƤHC ϸߤǤƤ餺ܥ֥Ǥ#381. oft often ʬ̻ۤŪѲ ([2010-05-13-1]) Ϥᡤhc γƵǸڤƤ
HC ܳŪ˻ȤʤˤϡΥޥ˥奢ɤɬפ롥Ȥ櫓̥֥ѥθϲƤɬפ뤷COCOA Format ˤ뻲ȥפCOCOA Format ϡHC ΥƥˤΥƥȤ˴ؤξͿ뤿ηǤ롥ƥƥȤˤĤơǯ塤Ԥ̡ʸʸʤɤξηˤͿƤ롥ѼԤϡξѤ뤳ȤˤꡤξƥȤӽФȤǤȤ櫓
HC COCOA Ѥιʤߤؤˤ뤿ˡޤɽˤޤȤǡ١ (SQLite)
A = "author"
B = "name of text file"
C = "part of corpus"
D = "dialect"
E = "participant relationship"
F = "foreign original"
G = "relationship to foreign original"
H = "social rank of author"
I = "setting"
J = "interaction"
K = "contemporaneity"
M = "date of manuscript"
N = "name of text"
O = "date of original"
P = "page"
Q = "text identifier"
R = "record"
S = "sample"
T = "text type"
U = "audience description"
V = "verse" or "prose"
W = "relationship to spoken language"
X = "sex of author"
Y = "age of author"
Z = "prototypical text category"
ŵŪʸȤƵƤ
# ɽΤƸ[ | ѥڡ ]
select * from hccocoa
# ʬ̤Υƥȿ
select C, count(*) from hccocoa group by C
# ƥȥ̤Υƥȿ
select T, count(*) from hccocoa group by T
# ME ˻ʬƤƥȤγƼ
select B, C, D, V from hccocoa where C like 'M%' order by C
ε#1321. BNC Frequency Extractor ([2012-12-08-1]) ˰³ANC (American National Corpus) ˴ŤɽANC Second Release Frequency Data Υڡ˸ƤΤǡ"ANC Frequency Extractor"
# եƥȤǡƺȤ "diarrhoea" vs. "diarrhea" ֻ٤ǧ
select * from written where word like "diarrh%"
# եƥȤǡƺȤ "judgement" vs. "judgment" ֻ٤ǧʤ¾[2009-12-27-1]ε#244. ֻαƺΥꥹȡפֻǤ椯Ȥ⤷
select * from written where word like "judg%ment%"
# -ly ǽʤõflat adverb ⤷ʤõ
select * from anc where lemma not like "%ly" and pos like "RB%"
# -s ǽõadverbial genitive ̾Ĥ⤷ʤõ
select * from anc where pos like "RB%" and word like "%s"
# ñ̾ʣ̾ token Ӥ written subcorpus spoken subcorpus ǡ[2011-06-07-1]ε#771. ̾ñʣ١פȡ
select pos, sum(freq) from written where pos in ("NN", "NNS") group by pos
select pos, sum(freq) from spoken where pos in ("NN", "NNS") group by pos
select pos, sum(freq) from anc where pos in ("NN", "NNS") group by pos
ANC ͭȴ褵줿 OANC (Open American National Corpus) ̵ANC ڤ OANC ˤĤƤϡ#708. Frequency Sorter CGI ([2011-04-05-1]) #509. Dracula ˸ whilst (2) ([2010-09-18-1]) ȡ
"BNC Frequency Extractor" "ANC Frequency Extractor" Ȥ߹碌ƻȤСäαƺˤĤ٤δñĴǤ롥
Adam Kilgarriff Ƥ BNC database and word frequency lists 顤Ф첽Ƥʤɽ (unlemmatised lists) ɤǤ褦˥ǡ١館
# եƥȤǡƺȤ "diarrhoea" vs. "diarrhea" ֻ٤ǧ
select * from written where word like "diarrh%"
# s ǻϤޤʬι⤤
select * from variances where word like "s%" order by variance desc limit 100
# 첻Ѱۤʣñ١cf. #708. Frequency Sorter CGI([2011-04-05-1]) Ǥ lemma ä
select * from bnc where word in ("foot", "goose", "louse", "man", "mouse", "tooth", "woman") and pos = "nn1" order by freq desc
# 첻Ѱۤʣ
select * from bnc where word in ("feet", "geese", "lice", "men", "mice", "teeth", "women") and pos = "nn2"
# POSǤޤȤ٤ι⤤ˡä 'demog'
select pos, sum(freq) from demog group by pos order by sum(freq) desc
# Ǥ¿Ȥ̾
select * from variances where pos like "n%" order by variance desc limit 100
# Ǥ¿Ȥƻ
select * from variances where pos like "aj%" order by variance desc limit 100
ʤФ첽Ƥɽ (lemmatised list) ˤĤƤϡ٤ˤ800ʾ帽롤6318̤ޤǤθФΤߤ˸ꤵƤꡤθġϡ#708. Frequency Sorter CGI ([2011-04-05-1]) ȤƼƤ롥Ϣơ#956. COCA N-Gram Search ([2011-12-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
[2012-11-24-1]ε#1307. most mestפǼ夲ѸκǾ most ΰ۷֤ˤĤơѸˤ첻̤ʬۤ LAEME ѤĴϿ˰֤ŤƥȤФ most ΰ۷֤249㤢ꡤ촴첻˽äʬ̤Τ HelMapperUK ήɤ߹ޤǡեޡ礭٤㤹롥

<mast> ʤ <a> ΤϼȤʬۤ<mest>, <meast>,
Sir Orfeo κǽˡӸڤβ뿲Ƶζä Eurydice Ϣ᤹ˡ¿ο͡ĤƤ̤롥ǡ¿ɽ魯Τ sexti ȤѤƤ롥Bliss ǡAuchinleck MS (ll. 89--90) ꡥ
Kniȝtes vrn & leuedis also,
Damisels sexti & mo.
б Harley 3810 ιԤ "Knyȝtys out went & ladyes also, / & damsellis fyfty & mony mo;" (ll. 86--87) Ashmole 61 ιԤ "Sexty knyȝtys & ȝit mo, / And also fele ladys þer-to," (ll. 77--78) Ȥꡤ6050ɤƤ롥β桹ˤȤä50ϥ꤬褤60ȤΤȾüε̣롥"and more" դƤ뤫ˤϡ̩ʿǤϤʤ¿ɽ魯ɽǤƤ褤60ȤϰΤɤФƤΤ
ѸλǤϤμŬʳϤ褯褦˻פΤǡۤܤƤʤä礦ɤβս "sixty" ˤĤơȤΤɤǤߤTucker ˤȡѸˤ¿ɽ魯 "sixty" ˡ "plenty of evidence" (152) ȤTucker (153) ϡHavelok, Sir Ferumbras, Otuel and Roland "sixty" ӤܿŦʤ顤Τ褦˿¬롥
'Fifty'---or 'half a hundred' would seem more natural to the modern reader: are these prevailing 'sixties' a relic of the old duodecimal reckoning familiar in the Scandinavian 'Long Hundred' of 120?
MED ˤä˴Ϣ뵭ҤϤʤäOED Ǥ sixty, adj. and n ιǡB. n. 1b ȤƼζ礬ϿƤ롥1848ǯǤ롥
b. like sixty, with great force or vigour; at a great rate. colloq. or slang. (Cf. FORTY adj. b.)
˻ȤΤ forty ιȡ"Used indefinitely to express a large number. like forty (U.S. colloq.): with immense force or vigour, 'like anything'. ȤꡤShakespeare ȤʤäƤ롥
ѸΡ¿פ "sixty" ȶḽ like sixty Ϣ³뤫ɤϵ路źοΤĴްդȤΤ͡Ǥꡤ̣Ϣơ#84. once, twice, thrice ([2009-07-20-1]) thrice- ʣȡ
Bliss, A. J., ed. Sir Orfeo. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1966.
Tucker, Susie I. "'Sixty' as an Indefinite Number in Middle English." The Review of English Studies 25 (1949): 152--53.
ˤݼ (conservative) ȳ (innovative) ˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤȤƱѸαƺä (ame_bre) Ȥ櫓ǶΡ#1304. ꥫѸΡݼס ([2012-11-21-1]) colonial_lag ˴ؤ뵭ǿƤۤˡܥ֥ݼ פǸȡĤε롥εɮʤ顤ݼȤϰβʤΤȹͤƤǤ롥
Ȥơgarage ȯαƺͤƤߤ褦LPD ˤȡθȯζ֤ϡꥫѸǤ2ᡤꥹѸǤ94%1֤롥

ʬۤˤĤơɤ餬ݼŪǤɤ餬ŪȤ1Ĥθʤ餯̾θˤˤСθϥե garer "shelter" ˴ŤǤꡤեŪ2ؤζܤˤȹͤΤǡΰ֤ݤäƤ륢ꥫѸȯݼŪǤȵǤ뤫⤷ʤ (cf. Romance Stress Rule) ̤θˤС1ΤȯѸ첽ʥޥ첽ˤƤڵǤꡤꥹѸȯѸŪʶ֤ηθƤȤ̤ȤݼŪǤ롤ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ (cf. Germanic Stress Rule)
ޤ̤θˤСŪ˸ŪʵϤ餹뷹ˡݼŪɽ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ꥫѸŪ˵Ͻ٤ȸ뤬㤨С[2011-10-11-1]ε#897. Web3 νǤ50ǯפȡˡΰ̣ǤݼŪȤ⤤ΤǤ롥ȤϤƤǤΤΤϡŪ˳ŪäȤƤǤ롥
˽Ҥ٤3ݼϡ줾줢̣ǤݼŪǤϤ뤬ߤˤɤƤ롥θ̷ϡִפˤ롥ݼפֵŤ¸褦Ȥ뤳ȡסʡع6ǡ١ˤ硤ǤֵפؤΤˤʤСݼ餽ΤΤλؼƤۣˤʤ롥ȤϡˤƵϤȤƼƤ롤뤤ϾʤȤԤʤƤˡؤθˡʳθˡѤΤǤΤѲΤǤΤʤ
եŪȯ֤Сgarage 2˶֤ꥫѸȯݼŪȤߤʤ뤬ޥĸ֤С1˶֤ꥹѸȯݼŪǤ롥ޤ쵬ϤΩɤΤ褦ʤΤǤ졤夹дȤƵǽΤǡʸ夽餹Ĭ³СϤ٤ݼŪȤ롥Ĥޤꡤɤ֤ˤäơݼλؼƤ礭ۤʤäƤΤǤ롥ɤ֤ΤȽǤҴŪʻɸϤʤ
Τ褦ˡݼʤƤȿոǤˤȤŪѸˤʤˤݼˤϡʤȤⲿȤƤΤʤ̵̣
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
ʬ (isogloss) ϡθοȤǤȤäƤǤϤʤϡɤŻ뤹뤫ˤäơʬͻҤѤꤦȤȤǤ롥ޤտŪ֤Ȥˤäơ˾ʬФȤȤǤ⤢롥
ǤϡŻ뤹٤ŪȤʤ餶ʤΤ餫εҴŪʴˤäơפȽפǤʤ̤뤳ȤǤΤˡˤĤơBloomfield (341--42) ϼΤ褦ʰոҤ٤Ƥ롥
An isogloss which cuts boldly across a whole area, dividing it into two nearly equal parts, or even an isogloss which nearly marks off some block of the total area, is more significant than a petty line enclosing a localism of a few villages. . . . The great isogloss shows a feature which has spread over a large domain; this spreading is a large event, simply as a fact in the history of language, and, may reflect, moreover, some non-linguistic cultural movement of comparable strength. As a criterion of description, too, the large division is, of course, more significant than small ones; in fact, the popular classification of dialects is evidently based upon the prevalence of certain peculiarities over large parts of an area. / Furthermore, a set of isoglosses running close together in much the same direction --- a so-called bundle of isoglosses --- evidences a larger historical process and offers a more suitable basis of classification than does a single isogloss that represents, perhaps, some unimportant feature. It appears, moreover, that these two characteristics, topographic importance and bundling, often go hand in hand.
С(1) ϰ礭ʬ١(2) «ʤƤ١ȤȤˤʤ
δ༫Τ٤ޤࡥɤΤ餤СֹϰפȤߤʤΤɤΤ餤礭װʬ٤Τ˶ƤɸϤʤɤΤ餤«ǤФ褤ΤƱͤ㤨Сɤ̤礭2ʬβͤϤۤȤɤοͤǧؤǤ̾蘆˺٤ʬषƤ椯ξ硤ɤκ٤ޤǤʬȤߤʤƤ褤ҴŪ˼ɸϤʤѸˤƤ⡤2ʬǤ褤Τ뤤Ϥ줾̤ʬ4Ȥ٤ʤΤŪϤʤդϡʬѤƹͻ褦ȤƤܤŪʬۤ䤽¾طʤȤǡŬڤʶʬռŪ֤ȤΤष˾ޤȸΤ⤷ʤ
Ǥ⡤Bloomfield 2ĤδϡʣΤŪʽ¬ΤΩĴǤ뤳ȤǧƤ褤
Bloomfield Language 10 "DIALECT GEOGRAPHY" ϡ㤬˭٤ǡ¤ˤ褯Ƥ롥
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
ε˰³奮ꥷ³ɸθˤĤơColson (29--30) ϡanalogist anomalist εˤ줾դ٤ȤơΤ褦ɾƤ롥
Ūˤϡ줬§äƤȤ analogist εϼ롥Ե§ϤȤϤ㤨жηϤɽηǤ줤ˤޤȤȤ¤ϡظˤ뵬§¸ߤȼƤ롥Ե§ΤˤѰۤȤȤ館С˻ۤƤ뼫ˤƱ櫓ǤꡤԵ§㤬뤫Ȥäơʤ analogist εȤȤˤϤʤʤϤǤ롥
⤦1Ĥϡ˸뵬§ظ (analogy) ϤФм (nature) ϤȹͤƤ뤬ºݤˤѼΤ (usage) λʪǤϤʤȤ
Τ褦ˡanalogist anomalist ΧȿΩȤϡԤ٤ΤǤꡤƱԤǤġεˤäƤɤưǽΤ2ĤȤȤ館ۤ褵Ǥ롥
ơѤ ratio ǤϤʤѤͳ褹 exemplum ˰¸ƤȤ Quintilianus (35?--95?) θColson 30) ϡŪ˶̣䡤ȤκѤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤΤǤСŪˤϰʤȤˤʤ롥Ѥˤθʤɤñȯ˺Ѥ⤢СηϤ˺Ѥ⤢ΤΤǤꡤԤԤ٤ ratio ˶ᤤȵ뤳ȤϤǤɭǤ٤Ǥ롥analogist and anomalist controversy ϡȤȤ館ϡ¸2ܼȤƤȤ館ۤ狼䤹
Colson, F. H. "The Analogist and Anomalist Controversy." Classical Quarterly 13 (1919): 24--36.
奮ꥷθܼͭ̾褬2Ĥ롥1Ĥ naturalist vs. conventionalist⤦1Ĥ analogist vs. anomalist Ǥ롥2Ĥ̩ܤ˴طƤꡤԤԤȯŸȹͤƤ롥
naturalist vs. conventionalist ϡ줬 (phúsis "nature") ΤΤȿǤƤΤ뤤ϼҲŪʴ (nōmos "convention") ʤΤȤΩǤ롥naturalist ϡȤ onomatopoeia ޤħ (sound_symbolism) ȤơϼȯΤǤȼĥconventionalist ϡϿʹ֤κФǤȵ Plato Cratylus μǤ롥Ǥ conventionalist 褽Ĥ줺ˡ2饦ɤϤޤäanalogist vs. conventionalist Ǥ롥
ꥷ analogía "order, ratio", anōmalía "disorder, lawlessness" Ȥꡤanalogist ϸ줬ʤ뵬§äƤȹͤƤΤФanomalist ϸԵ§ʤΤȤƤȤ館Ƥξɬжˤˤ櫓ǤϤʤ¾ŪǤʤФ2Ĥΰۤʤ٤ȹͤƤ褤analogist ϸޤˤäƻʤƤȹͤ뷹ꡤanomalist ϸޤˤϰǤ٤Ե§оΡ٤Τȹͤ뷹ä줾ηϤꡤ㤨бѸʣŬѤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥analogist cat : cats, desk : desks ʤɤε§Ż뤷ơ˸ܼȤΤФanomalist man : men, child : children ʤɤԵ§˵˸ܼȤ롥
2Ĥμ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤϤΤΡɬ⤭줤˽Ťʤ櫓ǤϤʤanalogist ϼμ§Ż뤹Τ naturalist ȽŤʤꡤanomalist ϿʹּҲˤĤΤԵ§ɾΤ conventionalist ȽŤʤ뤫ȻפǡκФ§֤ȤȤĤ줿ȹͤȶʤɤ⤢äǤ롥ŵŪȤ߹碌2ढäconventionalist = analogist ɽ Aristotle (384--322 B.C.) ǤꡤήϸΥ쥯ɥꥢɤ˰Ѥ줿naturalist = anomalist ɽϥȥ (the Stoics) γؼԤǤꡤڥ륬ȷӤĤ줿ˤ֤äƤߤСϢθ Aristotle ȥ쥯ɥꥢɤξ˽äȤ狼롥
褬ܼŪˤϼ«ʤȤϡǤ롥ϴλʪǤϤ뤬ʬŪˤϲħΤ褦ʼȿǤΤˤ롥ޤ§⤢Ե§Ȥ褦Τʤ⤢롥ߤǤ⤳ůŪˤΤФƤʤȤ⡤ӴݤʤػŪʰյϤäanalogist §õˤʤäƥꥷѻȤˤäơꥷʸˡδäۤ뤳ȤˤʤäǤ롥analogist 륢쥯ɥꥢɤή Dionysius Thrax (c100BC) о줷ΤʸˡäȤˤĤƤϡ#1256. Τʻʬˡ ([2012-10-04-1]) ǿ줿̤Ǥ[2011-10-06-1]ε#892. ʸˡ Dionysius Thrax η ⻲ȡˡ
ʾ塤Ȥ Robins (23--25) ڤ Colson ȤƼɮ
Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.
Colson, F. H. "The Analogist and Anomalist Controversy." Classical Quarterly 13 (1919): 24--36.
ε#1313. ɤΤ餤ŤޤǸ̤뤳ȤǤ뤫 ([2012-11-30-1]) ǡ (linguistic area) ȤͤƳϡˤĤƤ⤦ä
Ū٤礦ɤĹܿ³ȡħߤ˻̤äƤΤǤϤʤ뤳ȤǤ롥¿θħ«ˤʤäƸ춭ۤƱ褷Ū˼դθ줬ޤȤޤäȤȤΤ褦ˤꤵ֤ΤȤȸƤǤ롥"linguistic area" Τۤ"Sprachbund", "diffusion area", "adstratum", "convergence area" ʤɤȤƤФ뤳Ȥ롥ȤǰϡѤ䤹ä⡤Ȥ櫓ʸˡˤƸ˸ڤ뤳Ȥ¿
褯ΤƤȤƤϡεǿ줿ɽ˴ؤ South Asian (or Indian subcontinent) linguistic area ΤۤBalkan linguistic area, Baltic linguistic area, Ethiopian linguistic area, Mesoamerican linguistic area, Northwest coast (of North America) linguistic area ʤɤ롥Ȥ櫓 Balkan linguistic area ͭ̾Ǥ롥Х륫Ⱦˤϡ ²ˤ°뤬Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Bulgarian (Slavic) Romanian (Italic)Greek (Hellenic), Albanian (Albanian) ʤɰۤʤɤν줬ҤäƤ롥Ūˤϸߤ˱ȤäƤ褤Τܤ餷ƤȤˤꡤĤζ̤ħĤˤäϥХ륫Ūħ (Balkanisms) ȸƤФƤ롥Х륫ŪħϡȤŪˤ϶ᤤطǤäƤνˤϴѻʤħǤ롥1ĤȤơAlbanian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Romanian ˶̤Ƹ봧θ֤Ƥ¾Υ衼åѽǴθ֤ʤΤŪ˱Υ줿̲ΤߤǤ뤫顤Х륫ꤷʤ¤ꡤħǤʤ
⤦1ͭ̾ʤΤϡեꥫäƤ Sotho, Zulu, Xhosa ʤɤ Bantu 䡤Bushman, Khoikhoi ʤɤ Khoisan ˤޤäƹԤʤƤǤ (click) Ǥ롥θΤʤǤȯǤꡤ줬1ϰν˶̤ѤƤΤ϶ȤϹͤʤ[2012-03-17-1]εǼ夲#1055. uvular r θ춭ۤפ˴ؤǤ롥
ʾ塤Ȥƥȥåɥ (188--93) ͤˤƼɮ
Campbell, Lyle and Mauricio J. Mixco, eds. A Glossary of Historical Linguistics. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2007.
P. ȥåɥ ظȼҲ١ȽŹ1975ǯ
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