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2013-08-31 Sat

#1587. ˤϸΥȥԡ緹΢դƤ뤫 [drift][unidirectionality][synthesis_to_analysis][entropy][i-mutation][origin_of_language]

ѸˤΤߤʤ餺ޥˡˤϰˤΤñ㲽򼨤Ƥ褦˸롥ۤȤɤ٤ƤΰǡʤϤʸˡƤζʬ֤ȤȤƤʤäƤƤ뤷֡ˤƤ礫ʬϤؤȸ෿ѲƤƤ롥²˸뤳ή (drift) ˤĤƤϡ#656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language." ([2011-02-12-1]) ۤ drift γƵˤƤ
ζήñ㲽Ʊ뤷Ƥ褤ΤȤϻĤ롥षĸϡʸˡƤʬƤϤ뤬ηϤϴ̯ʤۤɤäĸϡߤΰ٤ơŪԵ§Ͼʤϻ֤ȤȤ allomorphy Ƥ椯Ȥ롥㤨 i-mutation ˤߤȡϲˤʤäΤ䤬Ʋ̮򼺤˷ŪʲȤʤä̤ȤơѲƤʤ֤ȼ֤Ȥ allomorphy ޤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤηԵ§ʥȥԡˤ礷[2011-08-13-1]ε#838. ηϤȥȥԡפ򻲾ȡˡ˸ˤʤäơ (analogy) ¾βˤ allomorphy ä륱⤢뤬§ȤƸϻ֤ȤȤˤμΥȥԡ礷Ƥ椯Τȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ˤ餫˸ȾҤȥԡ緹ϡϤƳ̤ǧƤޤäƤ褤ΤȤΤϡνȯǤĸϤޤŪ˺Ʒ줿ΤˤʤǤ롥⤷ƷԤƬΤʤ˸ϥȥԡ緹򼨤ΤȤ⤬ˤäȤ顤̤ȤƺƷĸϡʤ餽Τ褦ʲԹΤ褤ֲäȤʤ
ºݤ Comrie Τ褦ʳؼԤϡΤ褦ʲäưĸȤ館Ƥ롥Comrie (253) ꤷƤΤϡ"an earlier stage of language, lacking at least many of the complexities of at least many present-day languages, but providing an explicit account of how these complexities could have arisen, by means of historically well-attested processes applied to this less complex earlier state" Ǥ롥ˤϡϤȤñηϤȤƻϤޤä֤ȤȤʣƤȤ󤬤롥Comrie ΤϡβսǤΤ

[I]t is unlikely that the first human language started off with the complexity of Insular Celtic morphophonemics or West Greenlandic morphology. Rather, such complexities arose as the result of the operation of attested processes --- such as the loss of conditioning of allophonic variation to give morphophonemic alternations or the grammaticalisation of lexical items to give grammatical suffixes --- upon an earlier system lacking such complexities, in which invariable words followed each other in order to build up the form corresponding to the desired semantic content, in an isolating language type lacking morphophonemic alternation. (250)


Ʒ줿ĸ򺬵ˤƸѲηɵ椹뤳ȤˤϿŤǤʤФʤʤޤƤ䡤˷꤭ǺƷФȤ뤳Ȥϡ˴ȤΤ褦˻פ롥Comrie (247) ϰĸƷ˴ؤ realist Ω[2011-09-06-1]) ΤˤƤ뤫顤ȥԡ˾Ǥμºߤ򿮤ƤȤȤˤʤ롥controversial ʵ

Comrie, Barnard. "Reconstruction, Typology and Reality." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 243--57.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-09-01-1]

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2013-08-30 Fri

#1586. ʬβ̶ʬ [reanalysis][metanalysis][exaptation][analogy][terminology][do-periphrasis][negative_cycle]

εǡʬ (reanalysis) ʬ (metanalysis) ȤѸȤ櫓̤ѤƤCroft (82--86) ϸԤԤ1ǤȹͤƤ롥ĤޤꡤʬϤϰʬϤξ̳ǰǤȤƤ롥Croft ˤС"form-function reanalysis" ϢŪ (syntagmatic) 4κʬϤŪ (paradigmatic) 1κʬϤض̤롥ʲơȤȤ˼

(1) hyperanalysis: "[A] speaker ananlyzes out a semantic component from a syntactic element, typically a semantic component that overlaps with that of another element. Hyperanalysis accounts for semantic bleaching and eventually the loss of syntactic element" (82) 㤨СűѸˤ°ʤ򽾤ư줬ꡤư٤гʤ夤ȤгʤȤϰ̣Ūʺۤäȹͤ뤬ưԤ򼨤Ǥ¿쾯ʤƱǽͭƤˡѸˤ°ʹ¤Ϥͥгʹ¤˼ä줿Ѳϡ°ʤδްդ졤Ū;Ȥʤꡤ°ʹ¤гʹ¤˵ۼȤ򤿤ɤäƤꡤhyperanalysis 1ȹͤ롥
(2) hypoanalysis: "[A] semantic component is added to a syntactic element, typically one whose distribution has no discriminatory semantic value. Hypoanalysis is the same as exaptation . . . or regrammaticalization . . ." (83) Somerset/Dorset Ǥϡ3ñͳ褹 -s do-periphrasis ȯŸȤ߹蘆뤳ȤˤꡤɸѼˤϸʤζ̤"I sees the doctor tomorrow." 1٤νɽ路"I do see him every day." Ϸ֤νŪʽɽ魯Ǥϡ-s do Ū˼Ѥ줿ǽȤϰۤʤ뵡ǽô蘆褦ˤʤäȹͤ롥
(3) metanalysis: "[A] contextual semantic feature becomes inherent in a syntactic element while an inherent feature is analyzed out; in other words, it is simultaneous hyperanalysis/hypoanalysis. Metanalysis typically takes place when there is a unidirectional correlation of semantic features (one feature frequently occurs with another, but the second often does not occur with the first)." (83) ³ since ˤĤơλŪʰ̣鸶򼨤̣߽Ф줿㤬󤲤롥"negative cycle" ̤Ǥ롥
(4) cryptanalysis: "[A] covertly marked semantic feature is reanalyzed as not grammatically marked, and a grammatical marker is inserted. Cryptanalysis typically occurs when there is an obligatory transparent grammatical marker available for the covertly marked semantic feature. Cryptanalysis accounts for pleonasm (for example, pleonastic and paratactic negation) and reinforcement." (84) 㤨С"I really miss having a phonologist around the house." "I really miss not having a phonologist around the house." not ̵ͭΰ㤤ˤ⤫餺ƱǤ롥not ϡmiss ˰Ť˴ޤޤƤŪ not ˤäƸ߲˾üԤˤ롤cryptanalysis η̤ǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥
(5) intraference: ƱηǤεǽˤäơ֤̤η֤ƶ㡥Croft ˾ܤϤʤäŪ (analogy) ˶ᤤΤȹͤ롥interference ̤θηϤȤƤȤ館ΤФơintraference ƱηϤΤʤǤȤƤȤ館롥

Τ褦ʺʬϤζʬϡǽΩ줫Ѳ褦Ȥݤ1ĤΥǥȤƻͤˤʤ롥

Croft, William. "Evolutionary Models and Functional-Typological Theories of Language Change." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 68--91.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-12-22-1] [2014-08-02-1]

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2013-08-29 Thu

#1585. ĺŪʶƱΤθʣ [suppletion][social_network][sociolinguistics][language_change][contact][accommodation_theory][language_change]

Ross (179) ˤȡ춦ƱΤĺٹ礤Ū嫤ζˤʬहȡ(1) closed and tightknit, (2) open and tightknit, (3) open and tightloose 3Ĥʬʤʤclosed and tightloose Ȥ߹碌ˤΤǾʤˡ(1) Τ褦Ĥ줿춦ƱΤǤϡ¾θ춦ƱΤȤܿǾ¤Ǥ뤿ˡŪˤ̻Ūˤ꤬ðۤǤ뤳Ȥ¿
ĺζƱΤθɽȤơФ Icelandic 夲롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1]), #903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1]), #927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) ʤɤˤƤIcelandic ϥޥΤʤǤŤܤ褯ݤäƤȤ롥social_network ˤȡɤΤ褦ʡɤ嫤ǷФƤ롤ĺ줿ƱΤǤϡѲˤݼŪʸĤȤ롥Τ褦ʶƱΤǤⴰĺƤ櫓ǤϤʤѲ̵ʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ǤϡŪĺ줿ƱΤ˵ѲȤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤPapua New Guinea νθԤˤȡĺ줿ƱΤǤϡѲʣˡޤդνȤκΩ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ (Ross 181) Ūˤϰ۷ (allomorphy) 佼ˡ (suppletion) äʤɤˤԵ§ԤˤȤä򤹤뤳Ȥ񤷤ʤ롥ơΤ褦Ե§ϡäƶƱ嫤򶯤˺Ѥ롥ΤȤϡ#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1]) ǰ礤˽Ф accommodation_theory ιͤȤפ佼ˡؤڤȤܤ
ĺ줿ƱΤθˤʣβϡThurston ȤؼԤˤ "esoterogeny" ̾դƤ롥β˴ؤơRoss (182) 󵯤ΰѤ褦

In a sense, these processes, which Thurston labels 'esoterogeny', are hardly a form of contact-induced change, but rather its converse, a reaction against other lects. However, as they are conceived by Thurston their prerequisite is at least minimal contact with another community speaking a related lect from which speakers of the esoteric lect are seeking to distance themselves. Thurston's conceptions raises an interesting question: if a community is small, and closed simply because it is totally isolated from other communities, will its lect accumulate complexities anyway, or is the accumulation of complexity really spurred on by the presence of another community to react against? I am not sure of the answer to this question.


"esoterogeny" β⤬ްդΤϡդΥʤ줿ƱΤǤϡѲϤषñ㲽ȤȤϢơűѸȸťΥɸܿˤñ㲽ˤĤơ#928. ޤ neutralization simplification ([2011-11-11-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Ross, Malcolm. "Diagnosing Prehistoric Language Contact." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 174--98.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-12-02-1] [2018-08-23-1]

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2013-08-28 Wed

#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) [causation][language_change]

[2010-07-14-1][2013-08-26-1]˰³ѲȤƤ endogeny exogeny (contact-based) 夲롥ϡendogeny ٻݼɤ exogeny ν⤯׿ɤδ֤Ƿ깭Ƥ롥Ԥ Lass ([2013-08-26-1]) Martinet (#1015. ҲѲȸѲΰ̴طɵǤ뤫 [2012-02-06-1]) ʤɤɽŪҤǤꡤԤˤ Milroy ([2013-08-26-1]) Thomason and Kaufman ʤɤҤ롥
exogeny ٻɤ¿ϡѲŪװˤäƤޤȤƤ⡤椨˳ŪװϴͿƤʤȷŤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȼĥ롥ޤ¿ξ硤ŪװȳŪװϰˤʤäƺѤƤȹͤɬפꡤѲ "multiple causation" Ȥ٤⤯ޤϡThomason 3Ѥ褦

Many linguistic changes have two or more causes, both external and internal ones; it often happens that one of the several causes of a linguistic change arises out of a particular contact situation. (62)


It clearly is not justified, for instance, to assume that you can only argue successfully for a contact origin if you fail to find any plausible internal motivation for a particular change. One reason is that the goal is always to find the best historical explanation for a change, and a good solid contact explanation is preferable to a weak internal one; another reason is that the possibility of multiple causation should always be considered and, as we saw above, it often happens that an internal motivation combines with an external motivation to produce a change. (91)


Yet another unjustified assumption is that contact-induced change should not be proposed as an explanation if a similar or identical change happened elsewhere too, without any contact or at least without the same contact situation. (92)


ˡȸαѸؤαƶ Filppula ꡤƱݤΰѤ褦

Disagreements as to what weight each of the proposed methodological principles should be assigned in a given case are bound to remain part of the scholarly discourse, but certain things seem to me uncontroversial. First, as Lass (1997: 200--1) argues, apparent similarity, i.e. a mere formal parallel, cannot serve as proof of contact influence --- neither can it prove something to be of endogenous origin . . . . Before jumping to conclusions it is always necessary to examine the earlier history and the full syntactic, semantic and functional range of the features at issue, and also search for every possible kind of extra-linguistic evidence such as the extent of bilingualism in the speech communities involved, the chronological priority of rival sources, the geographical or areal distribution of the feature(s) at issue, demographic phenomena, etc. Secondly --- again in line with Lass's thinking (see, e.g., Lass 1997: 208) --- it is true to say that, from the point of view of the actual research, there is always a greater amount of homework in store for those who want to find conclusive evidence for contact influence than for those arguing for endogeny. On the other hand, even if endogeny is hard to rule out, as was shown by the examples discussed above, it does not follow that there would be no room for contact-based explanations or for those based on an interaction of factors. (171)


Ǹˡ Weinreich, Labov and Herzog ̾ʸѤ롥

Linguistic and social factors are closely interrelated in the development of language change. Explanations which are confined to one or the other aspect, no matter how well constructed, will fail to account for the rich body of regularities that can be observed in empirical studies of language behavior. (188)


Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Thomason, Sarah Grey. Language Contact. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2001.
Filppula, Markku. "Endogeny vs. Contact Revisited." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 161--73.
Lass, Roger. Historical Linguistics and Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.

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2013-08-27 Tue

#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ [french][lexicology][loan_word][etymology][popular_passage][diglossia][borrowing][register][lexical_stratification][animal]

#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) εǡѸˤͭ̾ calf vs veal, deer vs venison, fowl vs poultry, sheep vs mutton, swine (pig) vs pork, bacon, ox vs beef θ򸫤ޤˤ줤ʡֱѸ vs ե󥹸ѸפȤʤäƤꡤʤۤɤεǰˤκ򤬤뤳Ȥϡ#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1]) ǤߤȤܤä줿ե󥹸äȤŪʸճؤιޤ򼨤ȤƤβͤѤʤʱѸäع¤ε򻲾ȡˡ
[2010-03-24-1]εǤ⿨줿Ȥꡤưʪθͭ̾ˤΤ Sir Walter Scott (1771--1832) Ǥ롥Scott ϡ1819ǯ˾ Ivanhoe Τʤоʪ˼Τ褦˸餻Ƥ롥

"The swine turned Normans to my comfort!" quoth Gurth; "expound that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull, and my mind too vexed, to read riddles."
"Why, how call you those grunting brutes running about on their four legs?" demanded Wamba.
"Swine, fool, swine," said the herd, "every fool knows that."
"And swine is good Saxon," said the Jester; "but how call you the sow when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung up by the heels, like a traitor?"
"Pork," answered the swine-herd.
"I am very glad every fool knows that too," said Wamba, "and pork, I think, is good Norman-French; and so when the brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a Norman, and is called pork, when she is carried to the Castle-hall to feast among the nobles what dost thou think of this, friend Gurth, ha?"
"It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it got into thy fool's pate."
"Nay, I can tell you more," said Wamba, in the same tone; "there is old Alderman Ox continues to hold his Saxon epithet, while he is under the charge of serfs and bondsmen such as thou, but becomes Beef, a fiery French gallant, when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that are destined to consume him. Mynheer Calf, too, becomes Monsieur de Veau in the like manner; he is Saxon when he requires tendance, and takes a Norman name when he becomes matter of enjoyment."


ʩóؤϡѸʻˡˤ˴ؿΤ¿ο͡˥ԡ뤹뤬䤬˴ؿ󤻤ƤΤϡȤ櫓ҲŪ diglossia ȸŪ register δؤ礤εˤƤǤ롥#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸ󥰥ɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1]) ڤӡ#1491. diglossia borrowing δط ([2013-05-27-1]) 褦ˡѸ diglossia ˴ŤҲŪʾ岼طκפŪ register ξ岼طȤüԤθ (lexicon) ΤʤȿǤƤ̣ҲŪʡʤ쳰ŪΩɤΤ褦ˤηŪʡʤŪΩžΤϡ#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1]) Ǽ夲ޥҲ (macro-sociolinguistics or sociology of language) ȥߥҲ (micro-sociolinguistics) Ȥˤ̤롥Ҳ¤ȸηϤϤɤΤ褦Ϣ³ƤΤ뤤ϤɤΤ褦䤷ƤΤ
Scott λŦ swine vs pork Ω켫ΤϡŪʺۤȤϰ̣ŪʡʻؼоݤΡ˺ۤŪʾ嵭˴Ū˴ؤäƤ롥

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2013-08-26 Mon

#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) [causation][language_change]

[2010-07-14-1]ε³ԡѲˤ2ΩȤơŪװ (language-internal factors, or endogeny) ȸ쳰Ūװ (language-external factors, or exogeny) 롥20μήɸؤǤϡԤǤꡤԤǤȤߤʤƤ줬ΩηϤǤȤΤǤСѲȤϤηϤȤؤȤȤǤꡤŪ󤵤줶򤨤ʤäơѲϸŪԤȹͤʤФʤʤѲװ⡤ηϤˤ˶ᤤȤǺѤװΤۤľŪȤȤˤʤꡤŪװ̤ͥĥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥μήɸؤθϡΤ褦ˤޤȤ롥

It is true, I think, that in what might be called the dominant tradition in historical linguistics, it has been assumed that languages change within themselves as part of their nature as languages. The 'external' agency of speaker/listeners and the influence of 'society' in language change have tended to be seen as secondary and, sometimes, as not relevant at all. (Milroy 143)


ŪװȤߤ븫ˤ⡤ȤƤθ쳰ŪװɤΤ餤뤫˴ؤơٺ롥ΰѤˤ褦ˡ"secondary" ʤΤ "not relevant" ʤΤȤMilroy (144) 4ʳǧƤ롥

1. change originates within 'language' as a phenomenon;
2. change takes place within single languages unaffected by other languages;
3. change is more satisfactorily explained internally than externally;
4. change is not necessarily triggered by speakers or through language contact. (144)


3 ΩƤΤ Lass Ǥ롥쳰ŪװǧϤ뤬ѲȤƤŪòۤ褤Ȥ Lass ήΡḺˡ§ (the principle of parsimony) 2Ѥ褦

Therefore, in the absence of evidence, an endogenous change must occur in any case, whereas borrowing is never necessary. If the (informal) probability weightings of both source-types converge for a given character, then the choice goes to endogeny. (209)


I am not trying in any way to rule out syntactic borrowing; but merely suggesting how any suspect case ought to be investigated. Above all, one should never take apparent similarity, even in cases of known contact with evidence for other borrowing, as probative until the comparative work (if it's possible) has been done. The conclusion might be that anything can be borrowed, and often is; but in a given case it's always both simpler and safer to assume that it isn't, unless the evidence is clear and overwhelming. (201)


Milroy ϸ쳰Ūװ̤ͥ򾧤ԤɽǤ롥Milroy ˤСˤθѲ why ϡѲȤΤϤʤʤ actuation 䤦ΤǤʤФʤʤС#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1]) 3ܤ䤤פʤΤȤոǤ롥ѲŪñȯŪŪŪ¦̤Ż뤹뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫顤쳰ܤܤʤȤˤʤ롥Milroy (148) ϡ쳰ŪװΤˤ뤳ȤˤäƤŪװ褯򤵤ϤƤ롥

Linguistic change is multi-causal and the etiology of a change may include social, communicative and cognitive, as well as linguistic, factors. Thus --- seemingly paradoxically --- it happens that, in order to define those aspects of change that are indeed endogenous, we need to specify much more clearly than we have to date what precisely are the exogenous factors from which they are separated, and these include the role of the speaker/listener in innovation and diffusion of innovations. (148)


ϡMilroy ΩٻơɤװפȤɸˤϡɤפ
ȴϢơ#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1]) ε 쳰 װγƵ򻲾ȡ

Milroy, James. "On the Role of the Speaker in Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 143--57.
Lass, Roger. Historical Linguistics and Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.

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2013-08-25 Sun

#1581. Optimality Theory Ρϡ [ot][gvs][language_change][causation][methodology]

#1404. Optimality Theory ߤ ([2013-03-01-1]) ǡ첻 (gvs) Ŭ (OT) ˤäƤ˵ҤǤ뤫⤷ǤλΰݤϡOT 첻ܤɤΤ褦ˤƵäΤȤ򵭽Ҥ뤳ȤդʤäȤͿƤʤȤΤä#1577. ѲηŪȵǽŪ ([2013-08-21-1]) Ǹ褦ˡOT Τ褦ʷŪʥץϡǤϤʤҤ褯ΤؤλʤΤǤϤʤ
OT ǤϸѲ "reranking of constraints" ȤȤ館뤬 reranking ѲθʤΤ̤ʤΤȤߤ OT why Ǥꡤ̤Ȥߤ how 򵭽ҤǤ롥ƱոMcMahon (93) ϸԤȤߤƤ롥

It would seem . . . that reranking is descriptive at best, fortuitous at worst, and post hoc either way, so long as the constraint set is in principle unrestricted, and the reranking itself depends on external factors, whether phonetic, functional, or sociolinguistic.


OT ʤ˸¤餺ŪˤμԤϡ餬ԤʤäƤ뤳ȤϸǤϤʤҤǤȤǧɬפǤȤλŦ (McMahon 94--95) ˤƱդƶޤäͿƤʤȤȤĥĤϤʤŤ˰Сषդ

. . . explanation of change, in its truest sense, may be beyond OT, and indeed any other formal linguistic theory. The cause of the model is not served if its practitioners continue, nonetheless, to claim that they are providing explanations. Lass notes that we tend

to talk about 'explanations' when we mean 'models' or 'metaphors', and to claim that we have shown 'why X happened' when what we have really done is linked X up in a 'network' with Y, Z, etc., and thus created a more or less plausible and imaginatively pleasing picture of 'how' (ceteris paribus) X could happen'. This is all really relatively harmless . . .; at least it is if we can bring ourselves to see clearly what we actually do, and avoid terminological subterfuge and defensive pretence. (1980 [On Explaining Language Change]: 157--8)


ѲθˤϡȲҤȤξɬפǤ롥͡ˡȤ߹碌ʤ¤ѲϸǤʤʾ塤ѶŪˡƿŤѤƤ椯ȤοΤ褦˻פ

McMahon, April. "Optimality Theory and the Great Vowel Shift." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 82--96.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-08-20-1] [2020-01-10-1]

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2013-08-24 Sat

#1580. 佼ˡθ³Ȳǽ [suppletion][analogy][arbitrariness][frequency][taboo][preterite-present_verb]

佼ˡ (suppletion) Ϲؿ⤿Ǥ롥go -- went -- gone, be -- is -- am -- are -- was -- were -- been, good -- better -- best, bad -- worse -- worst, first -- second -- third ʤɡʤƱηϤΤʤ˰ۤʤ촴ΤԻ׵ĤǤ롥ˤԵ§ζˤߤΤ褦˻פ뤫顤Ȥ櫓ؽԤܤˤȤޤ䤹
θؤˤƤϡ佼ˡؤδؿɬ⤯ʤ佼ˡ򷡤겼Ƹ椹뤳Ȥˤϸ³ȴƤ뤫ͳȤƤϡ(1) ñȯǤ뤳ȡ(2) ŪԵ§ʬԲǽǤ뤳ȡ(3) Ūʰ (paradigmatic pressure) ΩƤꡤŪ (analogy) Ϳʤȡʤɤ󤲤롥Ĥޤꡤġ佼ϡʸˡΤʤηŪ˰ȤǤùܤȤƸ̤ϿƤˤʤΤ򤵤Ƥ롥̤ˤ줬ʤη֤äƤΤŪ (arbitrary) ǤΤƱͤˡ佼ʤη֤ʤΤŪǤꡤ꿼겼ǤϤʤȤȤ佼ˡħ򲿤֤ȤС찮ζˤƹ٤θˤʤȤȤ餤Ǥ롥
Hogg ϡ츫̷⤹褦˻פ "Regular Suppletion" Ȥ̾Ǥơ佼ˡθ³Ǥˤꡤǽ򳫤Ȥ佼ˡϡθ˽פʰ̣ĤȤHogg ϡѸˤ佼ˡˤꡤ4Ƥ롥
1ܤϡ"the replacement of one suppletion by another" 㤬ߤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ǥ˸űѸǤ yfel -- wyrsa -- wyrsta 佼ˡӤԤʤƤѸǤϸθ촴ؤꡤѸ bad -- worse -- worst ؤȻäߤǤϡԤ evil -- more evil -- most evil ȤʤäƤ롥yfel ϶ˤưŪʸְפ򼺤ŪʸžƤäȤˤꡤworse -- worst б븶ϰ̤򼺤夫Ūʸ bad ʤäȤȤˤʤ롥Hogg ϡűѸ *bæd ϥ֡äʸڤƤʤǤꡤºݤˤ14--18ʸڤ badder -- baddest ȤȤˡ§ŪѲ򼨤ƤϤȿ¬Ƥ (72) ޤDzǤϤ뤬evil bad ˤĤơӵѲϰʲΤ褦ŪѲФȤƤ (72)

evilworseworse, more evilmore evil
badbadderworse, badderworse


2ܤϡ"the preference for suppletion over regularity" Ǥꡤgo -- went ߤ뤳ȤǤ롥"to go" 佼ȤƸűѸ ēode Ѹ went ֤줿ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ˤä went θ߷ wend wended Ȥ§ŪʲȤѸ˾ˤʤäƤ롥went ǽפʤΤϡ§佼ޤȤ佼ˡη򼨤ΤǤϤʤȤȤ䥹åȥǤϡӡ§ gaid gaed ߽Ф줿Ȥ¤⤢롥
3ܤϡ"the addition of regularity without disturbance of the suppletion" Ǥ롥űѸ bēon 3;ʣ߷1 syndon ϡĸ *-es ŪȯŸǤ synd synt Ȥ佼ˡư (preterite-present_verb) θʣ޸ -on äΤǤ롥Ū˷Ū󤻤ĤʤϤθ촴ˡŪˤ޸ղạ̈Ǥ롥ϡǿ줿 (2), (3) ȿ󶡤롥
4ܤϡ"the creation of a new regular inflection on the basis of suppletion" Ǥ롥űѸ bēon 1;θñ1 (e)am ϡAnglia Ǥϸ -m ˤŪ bīom ߽ФƱǤϤ줬ư˵ڤӡŪ1;θñ flēom (I flee) sēom (I see) ߽ФȤˤʤä衤佼ˤäʬϤʤϤ -m ޤDzȤˤʤ롥
Hogg (80--81) ϡʾΤ褦佼ˡθŪŪ餫ˤǡ"[S]uppletion is not merely a linguistic freak which does no more than give a small amount of pleasure to a rather giggling schoolboy. . . . [S]uppletion is a dynamic process." ȽҤ١佼ˡβǽõʤ顤ʸĤƤ롥

Hogg, Richard. "Regular Suppletion." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 71--81.

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2013-08-23 Fri

#1579. ָϿʪǤפ [history_of_linguistics][language_myth][drift][language_change]

ε#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) ǿ줿19˰Ӥͭιͤϡ21κǤ⹫֤ǺٻƤ롥üŪˤСʪǤȤѤΤȤǤ롥ľŪǤϤ뤬ˤĤƤ¿θ߽ФǤ⤢ꡤŤ˼갷ʤФʤʤȻϹͤƤ뤬ۤɤޤǤ˿͡˿ߤǤȤʤȤ񤷤
ε (6) ǸȤꡤϡʪΤʤǤȤ櫓ʪȤ뤳Ȥ¿Aitchison (44--45) ϡػˤˤָῢʪפθڤƤ롥3Ѥ褦صΤᡤѸŵʬŪŸƤˡ

Languages are to be considered organic natural bodies, which are formed according to fixed laws, develop as possessing an inner principle of life, and gradually die out because they do not understand themselves any longer, and therefore cast off or mutilate their members or forms (Franz Bopp 1827, in Jespersen [Language, Its Nature, Development and Origin] 1922: 65)


Does not language flourish in a favorable place like a tree whose way nothing blocks? . . . Also does it not become underdeveloped, neglected and dying away like a plant that had to languish or dry out from lack of light or soil? (Grimm [On the Origin of Language. Trans. R. A. Wiley.] 1851)


De même que la plante est modifiée dans son organisme interne par des facteurs étrangers: terrain, climat, etc., de même l'organisme grammatical ne dépend-il pas constamment des facteurs externes du changement linguistique?... Est-il possible de distinguer le développment naturel, organique d'un idiome, de ses formes artificielles, telles que la language littéraire, qui sont dues à des facteurs externes, par conséquent inorganiques? (Saussure 1968 [1916] [Cours de linguistique générale]: 41--2)


ľܤ뤤ϴܤ˸ͭθƤȤäƤ褤Grimm Ȥϡ#1502. Ⱦʤ̼ҳȻ ([2013-06-07-1]) ۵롥ۤˤϡĹ֤ˤ錄Ѳ drift ήˤ⡤ͭĴ¤䤹ȤŦƤä[2012-09-09-1]ε#1231. drift ѲѤΰѤ4פ򻲾ȡˡ
줬ƤȤȤ򤢤ѤȤƤ⡤줬ƤΤǤϤʤüԡʽġˤˤäƤȤȤ館ۤ褤ȹͤ롥üԡʽġˤʤи줽ΤΤ¸ߤʤȤϼǤ롥ѲȤüԤܤȡξԤδطɬ⼫ǤʤԻ׵ĤʵƯƤ褦ˤפ[2013-07-24-1]ε#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language?פ򻲾ȡˡ
θؼԤΤۤȤɤϡָϿʪǤפȤȤΥǥȤäƤ뤬̤ˤϤޤήۤƤ롥˺äǤ롥

Aitchison, Jean. "Metaphors, Models and Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 39--53.

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2013-08-22 Thu

#1578. ϲȤƤ [history_of_linguistics][language_change][family_tree][wave_theory][language_change][saussure][language_myth][philosophy_of_language]

ָϡǤפȤȤϡؤޤ͡ˤʤƤ19˶ؤֺ餤ư衤ߤ˻ޤǿȤ³Ƥ롥
㤨СߡؤαѸˤʤɤμȤDZѸŪѲؤ¿ʪǤ뤳ȤƳǧȽҤ٤뤬ȤӸؤȯã August Schleicher (1821--68) θͭľܤεͭ롥ޤεǤϡ#449. Vendryes ۩ָǤס ([2010-07-20-1]) 夲⤷
Aitchison (42--46) ϡػˤˤפʡָϡǤפȤ򽸤Ƥ롥

(1) conduit: John Locke (1632--1704) οƻɤȤ̤롥ʤ"For Language being the great Conduit, whereby Men convey their Discoveries, Reasonings and Knowledge, from one to another." ΥɥοۤΤߥ˥μʤãȤ⤳Ȥ˴ŤƤꡤḽθѤͿƶ礭Τ롥
(2) tree: ǤҤ٤褦ˡ19³ Family Tree Model (=Stammbaumtheorie) ϸθؤǤ⺬Ƥ롥֤δط򼨤ޤΤۤʬϤˤڹ¤ʤɤˤ⡤ȤϴФ#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1]) 򻲾ȡ
(3) waves and ripples: #999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1]) Ǹ褦ˡSchleicher ηФ륢ơȤơҤ Johannes Schmidt wave_theory (=Wellentheorie) 򾧤ѲȾŤƤ椯ͤȤߤ˻ޤǷۤɤϤ褯ΤƤʤ
(4) game: ͭ̾ʤΤ Saussure ΥȤǤ롥ζˤȤäƽפʤΤϤκǤϤʤ¾ζȤδطˤäƷޤǤ롥Saussure ϤˤäƷʤ뤤Ϸ (form) ȼ¼ (substance) ν̤⤤"si je remplace des pièces de bois par des pièces d'ivoire, le changement est indifférent pour le système: mais si je diminue ou augmente le nombre des pièces, ce changement-là atteint profondément la “grammaire” du jeu."ޤWittgenstein ʸˡ§򥲡Υ롼Ȥۤˤ⡤äˤƥ˥ܡΤȤʤɤȤˡָᥲפȯۤ롥
(5) chain: ˡ§ (grimms_law) (gvs) ŵŪ˸ϢŪܤϤ褯ΤƤ롥Ȥ櫓 Martinet Τ餷᤿ȤǤ롥
(6) plants: ˤҤ٤ͭ٤붯Ϥʥ᡼˺ԤϤäƤ롥ۤˡSaussure ϿʪĤڤäݤ˸ݤ̻֤ˡڤä̿ޤ򶦻֤˸ΩƤ
(7) buildings: Wittgenstein ϡ羮γϩȡʤԻԤˤʤ館ԻԤϰۤʤ˰ۤʤؤä뤳ȤˤäѲƤ椯ʪȤϡ¤ؤ "building blocks" ιͤˤߤ롥
(8) dominator model: (2) tree ȤȤϢ뤬ؤμڹ¤ǤϾΥΡɤ۲ǤۤȤȤ롥"c-command" "government and binding" ʤɤѸ줫顤ֻۡפȤѤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
(9) ¾: Wittgenstein ϸ labyrinth ˤʤ館Ƥ롥"Language is a labyrinth of paths. You approach from one side and know your way about; you approach the same place from another side and no longer know your way about."

ȤϿȯۤοϤˤʤꤦƱˡͳȯۤ­ˤʤꤦ롥Ȥβǽȸ³ǧĤġʣȤΤԤ褹뤳ȤʤΤǤϤʤ

Aitchison, Jean. "Metaphors, Models and Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 39--53.

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2013-08-21 Wed

#1577. ѲηŪȵǽŪ [language_change][causation][methodology]

Ѳ븶ϿƤƤ뤬٤ƤθѲ򤭤줤ǤΤϤʤޤ1ĤθѲΤˡĤΰۤʤƱͭǤȤ⤢롥Ѳˤϡ礭ʬƷŪʤΤȵǽŪʤΤ롥Newmeyer (32--33) 줾ħΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥

Formal explanations are those which appeal to mentally represented formal grammars and constraints on those grammars; functional explanations are those that appeal to properties of language users. Many, if not most, accounts of language change appeal to both types of explanation. The principal objection to formal explanation is to claim that it does little more than rearrange the data in more compact form --- such criticism embodies the idea that in order to explain the properties of some system, it is necessary to go outside of that system. The principal criticism of functional explanation is to claim that it is vacuous. Since for any functional factor there exists another factor whose operation would lead to the opposite consequence, the claim that some particular functional factor 'explains' some particular instance of language change has the danger of being empty.


ŪϡѲΥޡȤʵҤդȤ뤬ʤѲΤȤˤƤʤǽŪϡʤȤ䤤ˤ褦Ȥ뤬ȿװˤޤΤǤꡤϤΤˤʤʤ
ŪȵǽŪȤ֤줬褷ͻ¤ǤʤȤСǤʤ⤷ʤ㤨СֺŬפȤ褦ξ˵ĤȤǤξĤʤǤ뤫⤷ʤä˲Ѳ˴ؤƤϡ¿ξ硤ŪʲȵǽŪʲؤȤϢȤ礫ʤξͻ¤ǤΡХ󥹤ΤȤ줿ܻؤȤʤʤ񤷤

Newmeyer, Frederick J. "Formal and Functional Motivation for Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 18--36.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-05-25-1] [2013-08-25-1]

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2013-08-20 Tue

#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) [verb][conjugation][emode][number][agreement][analogy][3pp]

[2013-03-10-1], [2013-03-20-1]˰³ɸꡥƶ⤫3ñ⤫ǸʬƤ롥Ѹ򰷤äϤǡFennell (143) ϸԤٻơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

In the written language the third person plural had no separate ending because of the loss of the -en and -e endings in Middle English. The third person singular ending -s was therefore frequently used also as an ending in the third person plural: troubled minds that wakes; whose own dealings teaches them suspect the deeds of others. The spread of the -s ending in the plural is unlikely to be due to the influence of the northern dialect in the South, but was rather due to analogy with the singular, since a certain number of southern plurals had ended in -e)th like the singular in colloquial use. Plural forms ending in -(e)th occur as late as the eighteenth century.


Strang (146) ƶٻƤ롥

The function of the ending, whatever form it took, also wavered in the early part of II [1770--1570]. By northern custom the inflection marked in the present all forms of the verb except first person, and under northern influence Standard used the inflection for about a century up to c. 1640 with occasional plural as well as singular value.


¤αѸ˲ Strang ε̣Τϡ2λŦˤƤǤ롥1ܤϡѸƱˡŤ be äƿ are Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤαƶ椨ǤȤ¤ȴϢʤ顤3ñʣ -s ˤĤƵƤ뤳Ȥare ʤμѤȤΤǤС3ʣ -s μѤǤȹͤΤǤϤʤȤ2ܤϡ̾ưοΰפ˴ؤ붦Ū̻Ūʻ顤3ʣ -s ͳǤϤʤ줬ƵǤͳ򼨺ƤǤ롥ΰʸ³սǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The tendency did not establish itself, and we might guess that its collapse is related to the climax, at the same time, of the regularisation of noun plurality in -s. Though the two developments seem to belong to very different parts of the grammar, they are interrelated in syntax. Before the middle of II there was established the present fairly remarkable type of patterning, in which, for the vast majority of S-V concords, number is signalled once and once only, by -s (/s/, /z/, /ɪz/), final in the noun for plural, and in the verb for singular. This is the culmination of a long movement of generalisation, in which signs of number contrast have first been relatively regularised for components of the NP, then for the NP as a whole, and finally for S-V as a unit.


̾ʣ -s ư3ñ -s θŪ򡤿ŪȯããȤȤ館ƶϱԤ3ʣνиαƶ3ñ䤫Τ줫˵ˤ衤ϵǤ롥ʤǤ뤫Ȥ̤ˤؤäƤϤ뤬ν˷Ū꤬Ūꡤ̻ŪʼؤȹäƤ椯Τ򴶤롥

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.

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2013-08-19 Mon

#1575. -st θźä˴ؤ Dobson ιͻ [phonetics][euphony][-st]

ε#1574. amongst -st ([2013-08-18-1]) ۤ##508,509,510,739,1389,1393,1394,1399,1554,1555,1573 εǡ-st θź (paragoge) ˤĤưäƤˤĤ Dobson (437, pp. 1003--04) 'excrescent' [t] Ȥ1ڡۤɤ䤤ƵƤ롥ʤĹλȤؤΤ˰Ѥ롥

Excrescent [t] in against, amidst, amongst, betwixt, whilst, &c. is explained by OED as due to the analogy of the superlative ending -est, and by Jordan, 199, as developing in phrasal groups when the prepositions were followed by te 'the'. But in view of the cases discussed in the preceding paragraph and in Note 1 and of the occurrence in modern dialects of [t] after [s] in words which do not have OE adverbial -es (see Note 3 below), we may explain [t] as developed by a phonetic process; at the end of the articulation of [s] the tip of the tongue is raised slightly so as to close the narrow passage left for [s], and the stop [t] is thus produced. But as this [t] is recorded earlier and more often, and in StE is confined to, prepositions and conjunctions, it is clear that a special factor is also operating, and that suggested by Jordan is altogether more likely than OED's (for there seems no good reason why the superlative should exercise the influence alleged); [þ] becomes [t] after spirants, including [s] (see Jordan, 205), and the tendency to develop excrescent [t] after [s] would therefore, in prepositions and conjunctions, be strongly aided by the fact that they were so commonly followed by the definite article in the form te. The development is shown sporadically from OE onwards in betwixt and in ME in against and whilst (see OED and Jordan, 199), but is not commonly recorded until the fifteenth century; but as it presupposes final [s] it must either antedate the change of unstressed -es to [əz], which is to be dated to the fourteenth century (see 363 above), or operate solely on forms with early syncope, and the paucity of evidence before 1400 must therefore be largely accidental.
The prepositions regularly have [t] in the orthoepists: so against in Hart, Bullokar, Robinson, Gil, Hodges, and Wallis, amidst in Robinson, amongst in Hart, Robinson, Gil, and Hodges, and (be)twixt in Hart, Bullokar, Robinson, and Hodges. The conjunction whilst, however, which would be less commonly followed by the definite article, occurs as [hwɪls] (showing early syncope) in Smith and as [hwəilz] in Hart (beside -st) and Gil (transcribing Spenser); but it has [st] in, for example, Hart, Bullokar, and Robinson. Bullokar also records excrescent [t] in unless (twice); in this case the occasional acceptance in the sixteenth century of the form with [t] is probably due to confusion with the superlative least, since unless is derived from the comparative less (see OED, s.vv. unleast, unless, and unlest).


Dobson ϡt źäϴŪ˲äȤʤ⡤괧֤Ǥβؤ "special factor" ȤƺѤȹͤƤ롥ޤ1400ǯ t źä㤬ʤϤ餯 "accidental" Ǥꡤºݤˤ᤯źä֤ԤʤƤȿ¬Ƥ롥
ܤǤȡWright (295) ˤС[n] θǤ [t] sermon, sudden, vermin ˸ [s] θǤ once, twice, ice, nice, hoarse ˸Ȥ顤ȯŪʤճ¿θ t θźääƤ褦

Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Wright, Joseph. The English Dialect Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1905. Repr. 1968.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-02-16-1] [2013-10-03-1]

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2013-08-18 Sun

#1574. amongst -st [preposition][phonetics][euphony][analogy][suffix][morpheme][-st]

-st θź (paragoge) ˤĤƤϡε#1573. amidst -st ([2013-08-17-1]) ޤᡤ##508,509,510,739,1389,1393,1394,1399,1554,1555,1573 γƵǰäƤήǡ amongst ˤĤơ
OED ˤȡź÷15˵äƤꡤ󤲤ƤȤƤ amongest ֻ16Ƭ "1509 Bp. J. Fisher Wks. (1876) 296 Yf ony faccyons or bendes were made secretely amongest her hede Officers." ǤŤľܤΥǥȤʤäȹͤ amonges Τ褦ʷ֤ϤǤѸǹѤƤMED among(es (prep.) 򻲾ȡˡapheresis ʸƬüˤФ 'mongst 16ȾФ鸽Ƥ롥
(69) ˤСamong amongst Τ˰̣ΰ㤤Ϥʤ٤101Ǥ롥ꥹѸǤϥꥫѸ amongst λ٤⤤첻ǤϹĴ (euphony) amongst Ѥ뷹ȤŦ⤢뤬BNC ѤĴǤϤΤ褦ʷ̤ϽФʤäȤƤ롥λŦŪʤΤϡ#1554. against -st ([2013-07-29-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ-st źäϸ³괧θƬҲȤη˵ȤȤδϢˤƤǤ롥⤷ amongst + 첻ηȤСǤϤ뤬Ʊ euphony 뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ơܥ֥ǤϤޤ -st θźäˤĤ against, amidst, amongst, betwixt, unbeknownst, whilst 6ˤĤƤߤƤOED 츻ŵлξƤߤ褦

againstc1300
betwixtc1300
whilsta1400
amongstC15
amidstC15
unbeknownst1854


unbeknownst ̤Ȥơ㤬14--15˽ޤäƤ롥ޤäƤȤߤ뤫ФäƤȤߤ뤫ϴĤѸʹ -st 췲δˤ䤫Ϣ礬ȯãƤ褦˻פ롥Ϥ㤤ʤ⡤ -st 򸫽ФȤΩƤΤϹԤ᤮

ͧ ԡظѸˡŵ١Ʋ2006ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2013-08-19-1]

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2013-08-17 Sat

#1573. amidst -st [preposition][genitive][phonetics][analogy][-st]

#1554. against -st ([2013-07-29-1]) #1555. unbeknownst ([2013-07-30-1]) ʤɤε˰³-st źäꡥ
amidst ϡűѸ on middan ͳ褹Ѹ amid Ū°ʸ -es ղä amiddes ꡤˤ -t ղäǤ롥amid ν ?a1200 Layamon Ǥꡤamiddes 14Ⱦ˽ФƤ롥Ѹ줫ϡMED amid(de, amiddes (adv. & prep.) 򻲾ȡ
-t źä amidst ˤĤƤϡOED ʸĤФ "1565 T. Stapleton tr. Bede Hist. Church Eng. 66 Warme with a softe fyre burning amidest therof." Ǥ뤬amidest ֻ15鸽Ƥ褦 apheresis ʸƬüˤη̤ȹͤ myddest ̾ȤƤǤϤ뤬Ϥ15ʸڤƤꡤamidst ߤ˱ƶäƤǽ롥̣ΤϡOED "midst, n., prep., and adv. θ C1 ˤȡ14 m 줿ֻǤϤ뤬mydmeste Ȥ֤ʸڤ뤳ȤǤ롥

 1. In the middle place. Obs.
 Only in first, last, and midst and similar phrases recalling Milton's use (quot. 1667).

[c1384 Bible (Wycliffite, E.V.) (Douce 369(2)) (1850) Matt. Prol. 1 In the whiche gospel it is profitable to men desyrynge God, so to knowe the first, the mydmeste, other the last.]
1667 Milton Paradise Lost v. 165 On Earth joyn all yee Creatures to extoll Him first, him last, him midst, and without end.


first, last, and midst Ȥ礬ȤꡤǾ -st ȤϢۡʤ Coda ǤβˤѤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
-st θź (paragoge) against, amidst, amongst, betwixt, whilst ʤɤΤˤϡ̣Ūˡִ֡פǾϢۤ줦ǤͭƤ褦ˤפ뤷ǽȤƤⶦ̤Ƥ롥Фλ⡤-(e)s ޤơ褽Ѹ줫ѸˤƤλ˥ѥѥȸƤ롥ʤ⡤餫 (analogy) ѤƤǤ롥
ʤѸˤ amid amidst λȤʬˤĤơ (70) 국ξԤȤʸŪǡ١ˤԤΤۤ12ܰʾ٤򼨤amidst ϥꥹѸǹޤȤħ롥ޤOED ˤȡ"There is a tendency to use amidst more distributively than amid, e.g. of things scattered about, or a thing moving, in the midst of others." Ȥ̤ꡤamidst ϸŪʰ̣Ȥ줬¤Ȥ -st βŪʽŤỌ̇̄ζĴȤΤ˲餫δط򵿤ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
-st źäˤĤƤϡۤˤ[2013-07-29-1]εˤĤν򻲾ȡ

ͧ ԡظѸˡŵ١Ʋ2006ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2013-08-18-1]

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2013-08-16 Fri

#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ [lexical_diffusion][language_change][speed_of_change][schedule_of_language_change]

óȻŵŪSˤĤƤϡǶǤϡ#1569. óȻSؤȽ (2) ([2013-08-13-1]) ǡˤ#855. lexical diffusion critical mass ([2011-08-30-1]) #5. ڥե륨󥶤󼡴ȸóȻ"take-off" ([2009-05-04-1]) ޤ lexical_diffusion νǰäƤʹּҲˤȻŤλ¿ּ˱äSʤʹԤ뤳ȤиŪΤƤ롥ιꡤήԤšʤΥȥɤʤɡҲؤǤϤߤΥѥǤ롥
ѲˤƤΥѥΤϡʻ¤ȤСˤʤʤΤŪϲǽʤΤƥåΤ褦ʿŪʥǥ򻲾Ȥ뤳ȤϡŪΤˤϻͤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ⤽Ȥʤǥ뤬ƥåǤ뤫ɤϡ[2013-08-13-1] (2) Ǥ⿨줿褦ˡǤϤʤ
Denison (58) ϡѰ۷ˤ밵Ϥslow-quick-quick-slow Υѥ򼨤SθưϤǤȤƤ롥

Now, speakers reproduce approximately what they hear, including variation, and even apparently including the rough proportions of variant usage they hear around them. However, if there is some slight advantage in the new form over the old, the proportions may adjust slightly in favour of the new. Thus the status quo is not reproduced with perfect fidelity. The speaker has (unconsciously) made a slightly different choice between variants --- albeit a statistical choice, reflected in frequencies of occurrence. And this effect of choice is greatest when the two variants are both there to choose from. In the very early stages of a change, so the argument runs, the new form is rare, so the pressures of choice are relatively weak and the rate of change is slow. In the late stages of a change, the old form is rare, so that the selective effect of having two forms to compare and choose between is again weak, and once again the rate of change is slow. Only in the middle period, when there are substantial numbers of each form in competition, does the rate of change speed up. Hence the S-curve.


ѲβκǽȺǸϡŷȿ2Ĥ variants Τ줫ŪͥǤ뤿ˡɤ򤹤뤫¤ʤʤϡˤ㤤Ѳβפ¿򤬥եեƥեեƥ˶᤯ʤȡΰϤƯˡθ̤߲䤹ѲΥԡɤȤˤʤ롥
Denison (60) Ϥޤ¾Ԥε˵ʤ顤Τ褦ˤҤ٤Ƥ롥

Suppose that the small impetus towards change has to do with some structural disadvantage in the old form . . ., then after the change had taken place in a majority of contexts, reduction in numbers of the old form would perhaps reduce the pressure for change, allowing the rate of transfer to the new form to slow down again. Or words that are particularly salient, or maybe especially frequent or infrequent, or of a particular form, might resist the change for reasons which had not applied --- or at least did not apply so strongly --- to those words which had succumbed early on. Even if the impetus towards change is not structural but to do with social convention . . . there would still be the same slow-down towards the end.


ƱΰϤεϹ¤ŪǤҲŪǤƱͤ˸ΤǤϤʤȼƤ롥ѲκǽȺǸ˴ؤΤŪ salience Ǥꡤեեƥեեƥն˴ؤΤ non-salience ǤȤԤŦȻפDenison εϡѲSΤ˾嵭Τ褦ФȤϤǤΤΡºݤˤϤޤϿʤޤʤȤʤΤǡñʵǤϤʤȤդɬפ롥

Danison, David. "Log(ist)ic and Simplistic S-Curves." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 54--70.
Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. 5th ed. New York: Free Press, 1995.

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2013-08-15 Thu

#1571. state estate [french][latin][phonetics][euphony][loan_word][doublet]

ѸˤɸΤ褦ʡƬ e ̵ͭˤ (doublet) 롥ȤƤ special -- especial, spirit -- esprit, spouse -- espouse, spy -- espy, squire -- esquire ʤɤꡤstable -- establish Ϣ줾ФǤȯΤ̣ۤˡζ̤Ƥ뤬ե󥹸졤˥ƥƱ̤뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤƬ e ΩƬǤäϤ狼䤹Τ櫓Ǥʤ
ޤѸȸե󥹸б٤Ƥ⡤Ƭ e ˴ؤƶ̣бѻ롥sponge (E) -- éponge (F), stage -- étage, establish -- établir ʤɤǤ롥Ѹ2ŸˤĤƤ⡤ʩбˤĤƤ⡤e /sk, sp, st/ λҲȤδطˤǤ餷Ȥ狼δطϡŪ˹ͻȤ褯Ǥ롥
e ̵ͭˤ餺餹٤ƤθθƬϡƥˤƬҲ /sk-, sp-, st-/ ̤롥¯ƥˤϡθƬҲȯˤäΤľ i e 첻źä줿ϰβ (euphony) Ǥꡤ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) ǤߤƬź (prosthesis) ŵȤ롥㤨Хƥ spiritus ϡťե󥹸 ispirtu(s) ʤɤȯŸʥۡॺp. 52ˡ̤Ȥƥƥ˵ĸťե󥹸ñǤϡ¤ esc-, esp-, est- ʤɤθƬŪȤʤäΤǤꡤλ˸ťե󥹸줫Ѹ˼Ѥ줿⡤ƱθƬ򼨤ϡѸ estate, especial, esprit, espouse, espy, esquire, establish ʤɤȤäƤ롥e ĸťե󥹸η֤¤ǡe Τʤƥθ򻲾Ȥ֤Ѹ˺Ѥ졤state, special, spirit, spouse, spy, squire, stable ʤɤäƤ롥
ºݡѸѸǤϡξ֤礭ʰ̣ˡʤʻѤ뤳Ȥ⤳Ȥ⤢ꡤ㤨 establish stablish ΥڥǤϡѸǤϸԤΤ̤ۤäʤThe Authorised Version Ǥξ֤Ѥ졤Shakespeare ǤϤǤ establish ͥȤʤäƤ롥Τ褦ʥڥϡˡstablish Τ褦ˡ줿뤤Ϥ줾줬̣ˡζ̤ȯãơ2ŸȤӤΤǤ롥
ơե󥹸ˤ¦ǤΡesc-, esp-, est- Τθ򸫤Ƥߤ褦ťե󥹸ˤƲؤη̤ȤθƬǤϡˡs æ³̵ȤλҲϢ³줿 s æκפϡľ e 첻ե󥹸ǤϥĤ <é> ֤뤳Ȥ餦 (ex. éponge, étage, établir)
äȤ⡤ե󥹸 e ʤ /sk-, sp-, st-/ ǻϤޤ줬ʤ櫓ǤϤʤ15˥ե󥹸˼ޤ줿ƥñϾҤΤ褦 e Ƭźä뤳Ȥ¿ää16ʹߤ˥ƥ줫ѤǤϡѸˤ¿ξƱͤˡƥ e ʤη֤Ȥ졤Ѥ줿
Ȥơstate -- estate ˤ衤stage (E) -- étage (F) ˤ衤η֤Ʊƥ /st-, sk-/ θƬҲ̤ΤΡťե󥹸Ǥβءθβȯãե󥹸줫ѸؤμѡƥλȡѸǤ2ŸȯŸȲäȤä⳰μŪˤꡤߤȤƤߤʣʴطȤʤäȤȤǤ롥

U. T. ۡॺA. H. å إե󥹸ˡ١罤ۡ1974ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-05-06-1]

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2013-08-14 Wed

#1570. all over the world all the world over [preposition][adverb][word_order][reanalysis]

̾ʬϤˤСall over the world ˤ over ֻȲ򤵤졤all the world over Ȳ򤵤ֻ줬֤ƤѸμƵǤ뤫顤ԤȹͤΤǤϤʤȤϤäȤǤ롥ȤϤŪˤ͡ŪʬϤǽǤ롥
ŪˤߤСξɽ礭ʺϤʤ줾ζϡʸ̤ꡤƱɽ over ˽ФƤǤ˽ФƤǤΰ㤤ˤʤűѸѸǤϡֻ줬Ūθ˲ɽ⸫줿Ǥ롥䡤ֻ줬Ūθ˲פȤɽλϻ⤷ʤѸޤǤϡŪ̾ϷŪͿʤгʤʤɤ˳ѲƤꡤŪʵǽ򼨤ŪʵǽΤɽ魯ˡֻ侮ǤǤ졤᤯ź뤳ȤäѸʹߤ˳ʤष̾礽켫Ȥdzʤ򼨤ȤǤʤʤȡ̾϶᤯侮ȤȤ˹¤ʤƤȲᤵ뵡ֻŪפ뤤ϡŪֻפȺʬ (reanalysis) 褦ˤʤäȤԤθΤ̤ۤǤäȤϳΤǤ뤷¾ƤǤּפθ礬ŪǤä顤ֻŪפνǸ경ȤϼǤ롥
ˤʤֻ줬˲ŤϿषѸ˻ޤǡˤƤֻθ֤ʤٹ (213--14) ε󤲤ƤƸ褦

While the cock... / Stoutly struts his dames before.---Milton.
For having but thought my heart within. / A treble penance must be done.---Scott.
She must lay her conscious head / A husband's trusting heart beside.---Byron.
His leaves that live December through.---Housman.
As the boat-head wound along / The willowy hills and fields among.---Tennyson.
The corn-sheaves whisper the grave around.---Mrs. Hemans.


ΤۤˤϡŪʶˤƤŤ礬롥ɸ all the world over Ǥꡤall the year around ʤɤƱǤ롥ٹ (214) Ǥϡ¾ȤȤɸζˤĤƼΤ褦ʵҤΤǡͤޤǤ˰ѤƤ

Cp. I'll search all England through.---Anne Brontë; Which they keep all the year through.---Charlotte Brontë; Here I stayed the winter throgh.---Watts-Dunton. Ȳ򤹤٤Ǥ뤬ֻ¿ϸưƬˤĤƬʬΥƤޤȤʤꡤ줬žֻȤʤäΤǤ뤫顤ˡΤΤˤϤʤԻ׵ĤʤCp. all the world over, all over the world.


ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-08-1]

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2013-08-13 Tue

#1569. óȻSؤȽ (2) [lexical_diffusion][language_change][speed_of_change][wave_theory][variation]

[2013-07-26-1]ε˰³lexical_diffusion ʸóȻˤθѲȤƤˤĤơεκǽΰѤǿ줿 Denison (2003) 򤸤äɤDenison Ĺ餯ŵŪʸѲοʹԥѥȤ lexical diffusion ξħǤSƤˤĤƹͤľ褦ˤʤäȽҤ١Ūʲսꡤ٤餫ˤƤ롥lexical diffusion ˤĤƻƤռȽŤʤʬ¿äᶽʳʤɤʲ˲վ񤭤ޤȤ褦

(1) lexical diffusion ϸѲ slow-quick-quick-slow ȿʹԤȾƤ뤬ʤΤ褦ʥѥΤˤĤƤιŪϡ̵ǤϤʤΤ (ex. Bloomfield, Labov) Фе̤˸Ƥʤ
(2) SطʤˤŪʣꤦ뤬¿ξ硤̵Ƚ˥ƥå (logistic curve) ȤƤ롥
(3) óȻΥդYɽ魯ΤȤˤĤƿ˵Ƥʤä"lexical diffusion" Ȥ̾Ȥꡤ̾Ѳ˴ͿäΤ100%ȤY˿롥ʸפοŪʴĶοüԸĿͤοѤγ硤춦ƱüԿ͸γʤɡͤY¿ˤ錄롥
(4) Yɽ魯ͤпʤΤʤΤˤꡤظˤؤ礭ۤʤ뤬ιͻϤʤƤʤ
(5) X֤ɽ魯Ȥ˵;ϤϤʤĿͤολ֤ȤȤ館뤳ȤϤǤΤϡĿͤΰΤʤǤθѲȤ̤ζ̣ȴؤäƤ
(6) ѲSϡʬʾڵʤȤͳ뤤ѲߤޤäչԤꤹȤͳˤꡤȾʬʤȤ¿餯S⡤Τ褦ԴʶΤۤ¿
(7) ۤȤɤθóȻϡФƤ뿷礷Ƥ椯ѥܤƤ롥Ω variants ϡ٤ƤθѲˤĤơ1ġ1Ĥη2ĤͿƤʤΤºݤˤ¿ variants ϤǤϤʤ3İʾ variants ؤθѲǥϡ2ĤξΥǥȤ˰ۤʤΤǤϤʤǽŪˤ variants ȤߤʤϤɤΤ褦˷Τ
(8) 1ˤ򡤸Ѳ«ǤȤơʤS«ǤȤ˴Ѥ㤨СűѸȶѸŪꤷƤ뤬ѸϷѤλǤ뤫顤Ѹˤ礭SȤ븫ˡ̵θġθѲɽ魯S«ͤȤȤϡäɤȤʤΤ̣ΤǤ롥

(3) ιͤYȤˤĤ­褦#1550. ȾóȻްռ (3) ([2013-07-25-1]) "double diffusion" Ȥͤ˿줿double ɤ multiple γȻͤȤΤYʤΤǤϤʤYƱΤμȤȤ館СȻȤ wave_theory ˤŤȰۤʤʤȤˤʤ
٤ɷŪʸä

Denison, David. "Log(ist)ic and Simplistic S-Curves." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 54--70.

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2013-08-12 Mon

#1568. Norman, Normandy, Norse [norman_conquest][map][etymology][back_formation][suffix]

Map of Normandy in 1066

Υޥ󡦥󥯥 (the Norman Conquest) ϡեαʩ̤Υޥǥ (Normandy) ˽夤Υޥ (the Normans) μ William ˤ륤󥰥ǤʾϿ޻ȡˡ1066ǯ˵äνϱѹ˾λȤäƤ褤衼åѻˤȤƤϡ8³Ƥ󥰤Υ衼åѹӤΰǤ롥Υޥ̲ͤпȤΥ󥰤ΰɤǤ뤳ȤϡNorman θ츻狼롥
Norman Ȥϡ嵭Τ褦˥󥰥˽̲󥰤ؼ̱²̾ǡ1200ǯκȤ Laȝamon's Brut ˽Ф롥 OF Normant (F NormandˤκǽҲæ֤μѤǤꡤOF Normant Τ ON Norðmaðr (northman) μѤǤ롥ǽҲæϡOF ʣ Normans, Normanz ñ (back-formation) 줿̤Ǥ뤫⤷ʤҲ ð ξüϡDu. Noorman, G Normanne ʤɥޥη֤ˤȿǤƤ롥
Ѹ줫ѸˤƤϡOF AN Normand ˴Ť d ķ֤ѤƤߤޤɸŪѤƤΤ d ʤ Norman Ǥ롥̾Ȥղä Normandy ǤϡOF ǸƤ d ݻƤ롥MED Normandī(e (n. & adj.) ˤ14ФOED Ǥ11 Normandig Ȥ㤬Ȥ̾Τ̱ۤ²̾ʸڤᤫäȤȤˤʤ롥
Ϣơ她ǥʥͤ䤽θɽ魯 Norse Ȥϡ16ФǤ롥ϡDu. noorsch (noord + -sch) μѤǤꡤȤƤ north + -ish Τ褦ʹ¤ȤȤˤʤ롥ͤޤǤˡѸ -ish ȤɤƤʤȤ French, Welsh ʤɤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1157. Welsh ˤߤ벻Ѳ˭٤ ([2012-06-27-1]) #133. ƻĤ -ish γηϩ ([2009-09-07-1]) ε򻲾ȡ

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2013-08-11 Sun

#1567. ѸܸΥ饤󥳡ѥ򤤤ĤҲ [web_service][corpus][efl][link][japanese]

־Ѥ뤳ȤΤǤ륳ѥ򤤤ĤҲ𤷤
ޤ#1441. JACET 8000 Υ١ˤå٥ʬϥġ ([2013-04-07-1]) Ǽ夲ëϡBusiness Letter Corpus Υ饤󡦥󥳡󥵡ǸƤ롥27ΥѥθǽȤʤäƤ뤬ᥤ100Ķʤ Business Letter Corpus (BLC2000) Ȥ˥դ POS-tagged BLC 2Ĥ1970ǯʹߤαƤ¾νʪǡǤ롥
Instructions for the First-Time User ǤޤȤƤ褦ˡΥѥΤʤˤϡ167Ķ State of the Union Address (1790--2006) ʤɥǡɤǤΤ⤢ꡤͭѤǤ롥Ѻʸγؽ䡤ȼǡ١Υ󥳡󥵡Τ˻ͤˤʤ롥
ʤƱȤǤϡҤγƼ拾ѥ N-Gram Search Ԥʤ Bigram Plus εǽ󶡤Ƥ롥N-Gram θˤϡܥ֥#956. COCA N-Gram Search ([2011-12-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
ϡѹΥ꡼ (University of Leeds) 絬Ϥ Leeds collection of Internet corporaѸϤᡤե󥹸졤ܸʤɤ͡ʸΥѥ򥪥饤ǸǤ롥
ܸΥѥξˤĤƤϾܤʤKOTONOHA ָܸ񤭸նѹեѥϽ¤Ƥ褦ܸۤ쥳ѥξ󸻤ȤƤϡѥܸؤΤξ --- ѥҲͭѡ

Referrer (Inside): [2013-10-09-1]

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2013-08-10 Sat

#1566. existential there ε (2) [adverb][syntax][oe][grammaticalisation][existential_sentence]

ε[2013-08-09-1]˰³¸ߤ there εˤĤơ֤ɽ魯ؼŪˡ there locative there ȸƤ֤Ȥˤȡlocative there λؼŪʰ̣ޤꡤʸˡŪʵǽӤӤ褦ˤʤäΤ existential there ǤȤΤŪʸˡ (grammaticalisation) 1ȤȤǤ롥
Bolinger ϡʸˡȤѸ줳ѤƤʤexistential there εȯã嵭ήǤȤ館Ƥ롥ʲϡBreivik ʸΰѤǤBreivik ¸ߤˡ there2 Ȥơؼˡ there1 ȤƸڤƤˡ

Bolinger argues that there2 'is an extension of locative there' . . . and as such does refer to a location, but he characterizes this as a generalized location to which there2 refers 'in the same abstract way the the anaphoric it refers to a generalized "identity" in It was John who said that' . . . . According to Bolinger . . ., '[there2] "brings something into awareness", where "bring into" is the contribution of the position of there and other locational adverbs, and "awareness" is the contribution of there itself, specifically, awareness is the abstract location. . .' (337)


Bolinger ϡŪʰ֤ɽ魯 there1 Ūʵդɽ魯 there2 ذܹԤȹͤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Breivik Bolinger Τθ "impressionistic account" (337) ȤŪɾƤꡤεǽΰܹԤʸڤʤȼĥ롥षthere1 there2 ˡϡѸˤ̤ȤϰۤʤΤΡǤ˽űѸǤΤ˶̤ĤƤϤƤ롥

There is no evidence in the material utilized for the present investigation that there2 originated as there1, meaning 'at that particular place'. We have presented conclusive evidence that there2 sentences occurred already in early OE. The factors governing the use or non-use of there2 in older English were, however, different from those operative today. If there2 did indeed derive from there1, the separation must have occurred before the OE period. Whether or not there2 carried any semantic weight in OE and ME is a question we know nothing about. However, to judge from my material, it does not seem likely that OE and ME there2 was used to refer to what Bolinger, in his discussion of present-day English there2, calls an 'abstract location'. (346)


there1 there2 ϸߤ˵Ū̵طǤȤޤǤϸʤΤΡBreivik ϡ˻ޤǤξˡϤäʬƤȤĴƤ롥
ǽɤ߹˰¸񤷤ڵιۤȤäˤĤƹͤǤ⤢롥

Breivik, L. E. "A Note on the Genesis of Existential there." English Studies 58 (1977): 334--48.

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2013-08-09 Fri

#1565. existential there ε (1) [adverb][syntax][oe][existential_sentence]

¸ߤɽ魯 there is/are . . . . ʸѤŪ there ϡ¸ߤ there (existential there) 뤤ϵ there (expletive there) ȸƤФƤ롥OED Ǥ there, adv. θ4ˤˡƤ롥ϸűѸȤʤäƤꡤŤĤȤ狼롥ޤMED Ǥ thēr (adv.) 3a, 3b θΤȤˡ there ˡ¿ȤȤ˵ҤƤ롥
¸ߤ there ȯˤĤƤϡMustanoja (337) ʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ANTICIPATORY AND EXISTENTIAL 'THERE.' --- The use of anticipatory and 'existential' there goes back to OE . . . . In this function there occurs mainly in conjunction with intransitive verbs: --- an cniht þer com ride (Lawman A 26187); --- now knowe I that ther reson in the failleth (Ch. TC i 764); --- whilom ther was dwellynge in Lumbardie A worthy knyght (Ch. CT E 1245); --- him thenkth ther is no deth comende (Gower CA i 2714); --- and some þer were . . . That pleined sore (Lydgate TGlas 179). There is occasionally found also with transitive verbs, usually before an auxiliary of tense or mood: --- whan it was ones itend . . . þere couþe no man it aquenche wiþ no craft (Trev. Higd. I 223). . . . / It is unnecessary to explain this use of there as a reflection of Celtic influence on English, as has been done by W. Preusler . . . . The construction occurs in other Germanic languages too (e.g. Sw. där ligger en bok på bordet).


¸ߤ there űѸ줫鸫줿ȤϳΤʤ褦ʬۤˤĤƤϵ롥 (367) ˤȡԤˤäƤϡʸ Chron Bede ǤϾʤ Ælfric ˤ¿ȤԤ⤢Сʸ Beowulf ʤɤαʸǤ¿ȼĥԤ⤢롥OED 侮ꤤĤ󤲤褦

þa com þær gan in to me heofencund Wisdom. (Ælfred tr. Boethius De Consol. Philos. iii. 1)
þa com þær ren and mycele flod and þær bleowun windas. (West Saxon Gospels: Matt. (Corpus Cambr.) vii. 25)
7 þær is mid Estum ðeaw, þonne þær bið man dead, þæt. . . (''Or 20, 19--20)
On ðæm dagum þær wæron twa cwena (Or 46, 36; in Latin "Duae tunc sorores regno praeerant")
þær wæs sang and sweg samod ætgædere fore Healfdenes hildeswican (Beowulf 1063)


Traugott (218--19) ˤСűѸǤϤιʸǤ뤳ȤϳΤʤ褦ޤʸ̮θȡȤ櫓äդħäΤǤϤʤȤǽŦƤ롥

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
С סرѸ I١Ѹ8罤۽Ź1980ǯ
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 168--289.

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2013-08-08 Thu

#1564. face [face][politeness][terminology][euphemism][honorific][phatic_communion][t/v_distinction][solidarity]

#1559. в񤤤̤ΰ ([2013-08-08-1]) ǿ줿 Goffman face-work ϡǯθҲؤܤ politeness ˤͭ˾ȤߤʤƤ롥
ˤ륳ߥ˥ˤ衤¾μҲŪʸήˤ衤ͤŪŪʥͥ륮䤷ʤ餽˽Ƥ롥ʤͤϤ虜虜Τ褦ʤȤ򤹤ΤҲ񤫤ݤ¤ƤޤǡήޤΤϤʤߵˤΤȤΤǤǤ뤬㤨 phatic communion ʸŪѡˤϤɤΤ褦ˤߵ­˴طȤΤꥫμҲؼ Goffman ϡͤϤߤ face ȤǰäƤꡤºŤ礦Ȥ԰ (face-work) ˤäƼҲĤǤȼĥGoffman (213) ˤȡface ȤϼΤ褦ʤΤǤ롥

The term face may be defined as the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact. Face is an image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes---albeit an image that others may share, as when a person makes a good showing for his profession or religion by making a good showing for himself.


ܸˤܤ򼺤ס̻ҤŤ󤺤פʤɤɽΤ face γǰʬ䤹Ѹˤ "to lose/save face" Ȥ롥
face-work ιҤϡHudson (113--14) ʲ̤˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The basic idea of the theory is this: we lead unavoidably social lives, since we depend on each other, but as far as possible we try to lead our lives without losing our own face. However, our face is a very fragile thing which other people can very easily damage, so we lead our social lives according to the Golden Rule ('Do to others as you would like them to do to you!') by looking after other people's faces in the hope that they will look after ours. . . . Face is something that other people give to us, which is why we have to be so careful to give it to them (unless we consciously choose to insult them, which is exceptional behaviour).


ͤˤϼ¾Ȥǧ̻ҡפ롥ʬϤʤ褦ϤƤƱˡ¾ͤ⤽ΩơĤʤ褦ϤƤ롥줬face-work θ
Brown and Levinson politeness θ衤face ˤ positive face negative face 2ब̤ȸ롥ξԤȤ˼¾ºŤɽ魯ԤϤοͤؤºŤ򼨤ȡԤϤοͤθºŤ뤳Ȥб롥ζ̤ɬʬ䤹ΤǤϤʤHudson ˤ줾 solidarity-face power-face ȸƤӤƤ (114)

Solidarity-face is respect as in I respect you for . . ., i.e. the appreciation and approval that others show for the kind of person we are, for our behaviour, for our values and so on. If something threatens our solidarity-face we feel embarrassment or shame. Power-face is respect as in I respect your right to . . ., which is a 'negative' agreement not to interfere. This is the basis for most formal politeness, such as standing back to let someone else pass. When our power-face is threatened we feel offended. . . . Solidarity-politeness shows respect for the person, whereas power-politeness respects their rights.


ƤԤ˸ƤӤ mate, love, darling, Hi! ʤɤ solidarity-politeness Ǥꡤܾοͤ˸ƤӤɾΡplease ʤɤǫɽնʸˡʤɤ power-politeness Ǥ롥Ѹ T/V distinction äοƤߤ thou ȷɤ you ϡۤʤ졤 face ºŤ politeness ι԰٤ȤȤˤʤ롥
Ϣơ#1059. ϽŻ뤫ְռŻؿܤƤ T/V distinction ([2012-03-21-1]) ȡ#1552. T/V distinction face ([2013-07-27-1]) εӡ#1126. 衼åѤμ׸ˤ T/V distinction ε ([2012-05-27-1]) ĥäε򻲾Ȥ줿ִפˤĤƤܸɤߤ䤹ʸȤƤϡܿϺΡظμҲءȤΤ٤3Ϥ󤲤Ƥ

Goffman, Erving. "On Face-Work: An Analysis of Ritual Elements in Social Interaction." Psychiatry 18 (1955): 213--31.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
ϺظμҲءȤΤ١ҡӡ2013ǯ.

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2013-08-07 Wed

#1563. ṽ¤ [syllable][phonetics][phonology][metrical_phonology][terminology]

ε#1562. Χߤ yod-dropping ([2013-08-06-1]) ǡȴDzṽ¤ (syllable structure) ʬϤ򼨤 Hogg and McCully (35--38) ˵äơṽ¤ζʽŪʳܤʲǤϡgrind /graind/ Ȥ1βṽ¤˼롥
ǤľŪʬˡϡʬ᲻եåȤ¤٤벼ޤ (1) ˡǤ롥ŪˤⲻŪˤ⡤첻ȻҲȤ̤뤳ȤȤƤƤ褤ȻפΤǡɸͿƤ롥

Syllable Structure

(1) 츫餫ʤ褦ˡҲϻҲɤηʤ첻첻ɤηʤΤ̾Ǥ롥äơ줾򥰥롼ײƲǤΰ֤˱ƥ٥Ĥ뤳ȤϼǤ롥λϤޤôҲ OnsetΤ첻 NucleusôҲ Coda ʬ뤳ȤŪ˹ԤʤƤ롥줬(2) ʬϤǤ롥
ʳǤͭʲṽ¤ʬϤϤǤ뤬˳زʤȡ塤Ǥ롥(3) Τ褦 Nucleus Coda ޤȤ Rhyme ꤷOnset бȤʬϤƤ롥
Ǥϡ(3) Τ褦ʰ츫ʣʳزʤỤ̄ͭʤΤ1ĤϡOnset ˤȼ¤äƤȤȤ롥ѸǤ /graind/ ȤϢ³ϵ뤬㤨 */pfraind/ ϵʤϡOnset /pfr/ ˤäƤҲϢ³¤椨ǤꡤOnset 걦ʬι¤ΩͳˤΤǤ롥Ʊͤˡbrim, bread, bran, brock, brunt *bnim, *bnead, *bnan, *bnock, *bnunt ӤС Onset /br/ */bn/ ˤäƤΤǤꡤθʬΤβݤ˱ƶƤʤȤ狼ޤRhyme Ȥ줽ΤΤȤꡤӱˤꡤñ̤ľŪˤޤȤޤʤΤȤǧ϶
ˡRhyme ʤ뤤Ϥ겼Υ٥ˤʬλˤꡤ¿β䶯ҤǤȤ롥ʬƤнŤ (heavy syllable) Ǥȸ졤ʬƤʤзڤ (light syllable) Ǥȸ롥Nucleus Coda ι¤̡˸ڤȤ⡤Rhyme ʲι¤Ȥư礷ƸڤǤΤǡRhyme Ȥ٥ηк˻񤹤롥
ʾͳǡOnset Ф Rhyme ̤ϤȤ롥Rhyme ʲ Nucleus Coda ضʬˡեåȤ˲¤Ӥˤ벻ʤɡ(3) ѼȤΤ⤢뤳ȤդŪ˲䱤ΧʬϤǽˤ뤿βǤꡤƻΩƤǤ롥

Hogg, Richard and C. B. McCully. Metrical Phonology: A Coursebook. Cambridge: CUP, 1987.

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2013-08-06 Tue

#1562. Χߤ yod-dropping [phonetics][phonology][diphthong][vowel][syllable][metrical_phonology][variation][yod-dropping]

Ѹˤ /juː/ Ȥ徺2첻 (rising diphthong) 롥ѸѼˤäƤۤʤ뤬2첻ˤϤĤħ롥ΤζŪѰ̻ۤŪѲ˴ؤħȤơ#841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1]) 롥 /juː/ /j/ æ/uː/ ȤƼ¸벻ΤȤ
߿ʹ yod-dropping 򵭽ҡΤˡHogg and McCully (42--45) ǽҤ٤Ƥ metrical phonology ʱΧˤˤʬϤѤǤ뤫⤷ʤȻפäΤǡҲ𤷤ƤҲ X + /juː/ ʤ벻ϡޤκδ칽¤äƤʬϤ롥

Jod in Metrical Phonology

ˡδ칽¤ Nucleus ˤ /i/ /j/ Ȥ Onset ذưꤹ롥³/i/ ưȤˤäƶ Nucleus 1ΰ֤ˡ³ /u/ ΥԡФ롥
Τ褦ʬϤϤĤ롥ޤ칽¤ Onset /Xj/ ꤷƤޤȡcue /kjuː/, few /fjuː/ ʤɤǤʤnew /njuː/, lewd /ljuː/ ʤɤǤ꤬롥ʤʤ2⡼餫ʤ Onset ˤ1⡼ʹ٤̵໤ƱʲǤʤȤʤȤŪ¤뤫Ǥ롥¤˽С/n/ /l/ ʹ٤⤹뤿ˡOnset 1⡼Ȥʤ뤳ȤϤǤʤϤºݤˤ1⡼ˤʤäƤΤǡ㳰ŪΤȤʬϤɬפ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ޤʬϤ /Xj/ θˤĹ첻ʤȤ礹롥ȤΤϡNucleus 2⡼ˤ /i/ /u/ 줬֤˥ԡ뤳Ȥ򤳤ʬϤ׵ᤷƤ뤫Ǥ롥
ˡclue, drew, threw ʤɡȤ Onset 2⡼2Ҳˤʤˤϡ/j/ ذưƤ椯ζڡʤˡ/j/ ȤǽŪæƤޤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤҲϢ³ľ yod-dropping ɬܤǤ뤳Ȥ򤦤ޤ롥
ѰۤȤƤ yod-dropping ϡѸѼˤäƤۤʤ뤬dew, enthuse, lewd, new, suit, tune ʤɤθˤ /j/ ̵ͭɤˤäƼ롥Ūˤ̻Ūˤ⡤yod-dropping ε䤹ԤҲ X Ǥ뤫ˤäƤ٤Ϸޤ뤳ȤΤƤ뤬򤤤˾ʬϤȤ߹ळȤǤ뤫βȤʤ

Hogg, Richard and C. B. McCully. Metrical Phonology: A Coursebook. Cambridge: CUP, 1987.

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2013-08-05 Mon

#1561. 14Norfolk ̱μҲŪ [sociolinguistics][me_dialect][history][geography][demography][geolinguistics]

űѸ West-Saxon y ɽ蘆첻ѸǤˤ i, u, e ʤɤȤƸ뤳ȤˤĤƤϡ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1])#563. Chaucer merry ([2010-11-11-1])#570. bury 첻ʬۡ ([2010-11-18-1])#1434. left hemlock Kentish ([2013-03-31-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲
14Ⱦ񤭸դɸबȯãƤȤˡɤɸŪʷ֤ȤƺǽŪ򤵤줿ˤꡤѸ busy, bury, merry ʤɤ˸褦ʡֻȯμδط뤷Ƥޤä#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1]) Ǥϡָġθɸɤͳ褹뤫ϥȤ褦ʤפȽҤ٤ɸಽ˺ݤơѸ kin sin ˤĤʤñʤɡ¿ͳ褹 i ȿǤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤϻ¤Ǥ롥Ȥ i ¿äȤ¤ˤĤƤϡ餫ǽ⤷ʤ
ˤĤơ¼ (33--35) G. Kristensson ("Sociolects in 14th-Century London." Nonstandard Varieties of Language: Papers from the Stockholm Symposium 11--13 April 1991. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1994. 103--10) ε˵ʤ顤14Υɥή Norfolk пȤο͡ôäƤҲŪŦƤ롥14ƬΥɥؤΰ̱ꥹȤΤʤǡNorfolk пȼԤȥåפκ¤ƤNorfolk ͸ήϾʤȤ1360ǯޤǤ³Ƥꡤ Norfolk ̱ϼȤƹ侦Ȥ˴ؤ뿦Ȥ˽ƤᡤɥˤƼҲŪͥʽĤƤȹͤ롥ơμҲŪϰ̤ȤȤˡ餬ζäƤϤ i ϰ̤徺ǽŪ˥ɥˤưҿȯȤƼ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ

ɥˤΡեпȤο͡Ͽ͸ξĤޤ̤DZƶͿ뾦ͤγȤ狼롥ϼǥɥȤϰæƤOE /y(:)/ Ф /i(:)/stret ˤ褦 OE /æ:/ Ф /ɛ:/ ޤ /e:/fen ˤ褦 OE /e/ Ф /e/milk ˤ褦 OE /eo/ Ф /i/flax, wax Τ褦ʸǤ /a/old, cold Τ褦ʸǤ /ɔ:/fen, fair Τ褦ʸǤ /f-/ Ǥ롥ɥѸˤ뤳Ѽ14Ⱦơ14ȾǤϽפʼҲȤΩĤ褦ˤʤäȸäƤʤǤαѸϡ͵ʡʾͤγ°ãˤäƻѤ졤餯ʼι⤤Ȥʤꡤե󥹸ȥƥ줬Ѹϰ̤򼺤äܤΡ˴ģǻȤ줿ŪʸȤʤäܹⴱ¿ϥΡեΰ̱ܽĤ˽°Ƥ褦˻פ롥¼pp. 33--35


Ǥϡʤ Norfolk ΰ̱λۤɤޤǤäΤ1Ĥˤϡϰ褬󥰥ɤǺǤ͸̩٤ι⤤ϰǤäȤ󤲤롥פʤȤϡNorfolk ͤ¿󥰥ɤ礭٤⤿餹ӻȤ˽ƤȤǤ롥ˡNorfolk ϸűѸŪˤꥹǥʥϤο͸¿Ƥꡤ̱¾ϰ (villein) ⼫ͳϰ̤ͭƤˡȳưȯãȾͳֶ¥줿Ȥ⤢ä
ʾΤ褦ʿ͸ʬۡкѳưŪ郎ؤäơNorfolk ɥˤ뤳ȤȤʤäȤȤ¤ȤСϤޤˡ#1543. ء ([2013-07-18-1]) εν˼֥ˡΰŪħפοޤˤȤǰϤäɤΤۤȤɤε˴ͿƤʤʤ졤ΰ衤̱кѡҲ񳬵顤Ի֡Իԡ١ˡ

¼ Ƿإ硼αѸ١ҡ2011ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2013-11-23-1]

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2013-08-04 Sun

#1560. Chaucer ˤƬ [alliteration][rhyme][chaucer]

Chaucer αΧȤФޤӱ (rhyme) פ⤫֤ѻȤƬ (alliteration) ˺줿櫓ǤϤʤηŪˤϸ줺Ȥ⡤ȤȤǸŪѤ뤳ȤϤ롥
㤨С¼ (5) ˤСThe Knight's Tale ꡤѥȥ륷ƤηƮξ̤ƬŪѤƤ롥

Ther is namoore to seyn, but west and est
In goon the speres ful sadly in arrest;
In gooth the sharpe spore into the syde.
Ther seen men who kan juste and who kan ryde;
Ther shyveren shaftes upon sheeldes thikke;
He feeleth thurgh the herte-spoon the prikke.
Up spryngen speres twenty foot on highte;
Out goon the swerdes as the silver brighte;
The helmes they tohewen and toshrede;
Out brest the blood with stierne stremes rede;
With myghty maces the bones they tobreste.
He thurgh the thikkeste of the throng gan threste;
Ther stomblen steeds stronge, and doun gooth al,
He rolleth under foot as dooth a bal;
He foyneth on his feet with his tronchoun,
And he hym hurtleth with his hors adoun;
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Out renneth blood on bothe hir sydes rede. (I(A)2601--35)


¼ (6) ϡ/s/ ᤤư/h/ Ϸι餫ʤޤ/b/ ϷΤۤȤФͻҤɽ路ƤꡤΤηƮdz夬봶Ū˼ƤʬϤƤ롥ޤ¼ (13) ̤βսǡƬˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ʤۤˡƬˤĤƤ (alliteration) γƵ򻲾ȡ

ʸغʤϸ˵ڤФء㡼ʥꥺࡤɸ졤ʸѶڤӴѶŪˡʣ졤𡤽̾ڤɸꡤ̿̾ʤɤƬȤΤȤϡƬѹʸ˿ƩƤ뤫ƤǤʤѸȤäƤ붯ջɽμʤȤƤƬν򼨤Ƥ롥󥿡ͥåȤ̤ƸѸ˸ƬõƤߤȡդ "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers" 顤Big Ben, Coca-Cola, Super Sonic, Donald Duck, Mickey Mouse ʤɤ褯ˤΤƤ롥ޤꥹĮ "Pen to Paper" "Marie Curie Cancer Care" Τ褦ƬȤäŹƬδĤܤԤäΤ褦ˡѸȱѸο͡ˤȤäơƬڤäƤ⤭ʤɬ׷礯٤餶ɽʤȹͤ뤳Ȥ롥


Φ⤿餵줿ӱȤˡŪƬȤηѾ򺮤碌 Chaucer αѸѤܤͤChaucer αѸȺ˴ؤȤƤϡϢơ#257. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ ([2010-01-09-1]), #298. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ (2) ([2010-02-19-1]), #524. Chaucer ѤѸ --- stevene ([2010-10-03-1]), #525. Chaucer ѤѸ --- drasty ([2010-10-04-1]), #526. Chaucer ѤѸ --- Ƭ for- ư ([2010-10-05-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

¼ Ƿإ硼αѸ١ҡ2011ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2016-11-07-1] [2016-08-24-1]

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2013-08-03 Sat

#1559. в񤤤̤ΰ [function_of_language][politeness][face][phatic_communion]

νפʵǽ1Ĥˡphatic communion ʸŪѡˤ롥򴹤ȤϡȤδطۡݻ뤿ȯäǡĹ碌פȹͤȤ狼䤹ŵǤꡤѤϤƤŪŪȤϵΤΤȹͤۤŬڤ⤷ʤǤϡʤȤɬפʤΤ㤨Св񤤤̤ΰˤơǤդȤɬܤǤ롥ʤ͡ϵ餸ɬפΤ
¿̾Υߥ˥Ǥϡޤв񤤤ΰ蘆졤ߥ˥Τ³̤ΰ蘆ƽλ롥̡в񤤤̤ΰϤνǥåȤȤ򤵤Ƥ뤬ȯۤžơޤ̤ΰ蘆졤ߥ˥Ժߤ³в񤤤ΰ蘆롤ȹͤƤߤ褦̯ʽΤ褦˻פ뤬Ǥ⤷ƶ롥ߥ˥ԺߤûͽۤȤ㤨ˤƲ񤹤ϤȤ̤ξ̤Ǥϡ֤㤢͡ס֥ХХפȷڤѤޤ뤳Ȥ¿Ĺֲ񤦤ȤϤʤͽۤȤ㤨гǤǸ3ǯֲ񤨤ʤ⤷ʤȤ̤ǤϡڤѤޤˡդԤ̤ΰҤ٤롥դǽҤ٤ǤʤϤʤऱʤѰդꡤ̤ꤹʤɤϫ뤳Ȥ餢롥ʱ̤ʻ̡ˤ˻äƤϡĤ줿ԤϡˤƤ԰٤ˤƤ⡤򵷤Ȥθ¤ԤΤǤ롥
̤ˡ³Ժߴ֤Ĺ㤷ơ̤ΰ䵷ĹƱͤˡ֤򤪤Ƽ˺Ʋ񤹤ȤԺߴ֤Ĺ㤷ơв񤤤ΰ䵷ĹȤȤ⡤ïиΤäƤ롥face-work Goffman ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Greetings provide a way of showing that a relationship is still what it was at the termination of the previous coparticipation, and, typically, that this relationship involves sufficient suppression of hostility for the participants temporarily to drop their guards and talk. Farewells sum up the effect of the encounter upon the relationship and show what the participants may expect of one another when they next meet. The enthusiasm of greetings compensates for the weakening of the relationship caused by the absence just terminated, while the enthusiasm of farewells compensates the relationship for the harm that is about to be done to it by separation. (229)


ĹԺߴˡȤδ֤ˤޤǹۤƤҲŪطζƤ椯Ȥ򤱤ʤθޤ븺ʬ碌ƤȤΤ̤εǤꡤºݤθʬ夫䤪ȤΤƲεʤΤǤϤʤդˤ밧ϡ̤Ƚв񤤤˺ݤεΰʤΤ褦ʸݤϡΤľ򴹰ʳ䡤ʤҲŪطۡݻƳǧƤǡмҲؤ°ȤäƤ褤СμҲؤȤʬǤ롥

Goffman, Erving. "On Face-Work: An Analysis of Ritual Elements in Social Interaction." Psychiatry 18 (1955): 213--31.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-10-24-1]

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2013-08-02 Fri

#1558. ֥ͥåǧҲ첻ο [phonology][phoneme][vowel][consonant][altaic][japanese][language_family][world_languages][austronesian]

ܸΥ롼ĤˤĤƤͭϤ1Ĥˡȥͥ (Austronesian) ȥ륿 (Altaic) θ줬ͻ礷Ȥ⤬롥ȥͥ²βŪħȤƤϡ᤬¿̤벻ǤʤȤΤꡤΤܸŪñʲηϤˤ̤롥
ܸβǤŪʤˤĤƤϡ#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1]) ӡ#1023. ܸμȿ ([2012-02-14-1]) ǿ줿ǤϴϢƥϥ磻ˤ⿨줿ϥ磻⥪ȥͥ²°ǡ8ĤλҲ /w, m, p, l, n, k, h, ʔ/ 5Ĥ첻 /a, i, u, e, o/ ̤ˤʤʥ꡼p. 95ˡȤˤϤäȲǤʤ줬ΤǤ롥
Ū˥ȥͥ²ܤƤѥץ⡤ηϤñǤ롥ΤʤǤ⡤ѥץ˥塼˥ Bougainville Province 4ͤۤɤüԤˤääƤȥ (Rotokas) ϡ6ĤλҲ /b, g, k, p, r, t/ 5Ĥ첻 /a, e, i, o, u/ η11ǡʤб11ʸˤ⤿ʤEthnologue ꡤϢϿޤˡ꡼ (106) ˤСǾβǿǤꡤȤ櫓ҲξʤˤĤƤ1985ǯΥ֥ͥå (199) ϿƤۤɤǤ롥
ҲˤĤƤС¿ؤΤϡ#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1]) Ǥ⿨줿ӥոǤ롥80--85ĤλҲĤȤ첻κǾϡΥ֥ϥ2첻⤿ʤ첻Ǥκ¿ϥ٥ȥʥΥǡΤ˶̤Ǥ55첻ĤȤϹ
Ʊ֥ͥå (198--201) ǤϡˤĤƤζ̣פ¾ˤ⤤ȵ󤲤Ƥꡤ츫βͤ롥ΤӤäפϡLanguage statistics & facts ⻲ͤˤʤ롥

Сʡɡ꡼ƥ󡦥ޥ塼ޥꥢݥ󥹥 ԡ ˼ ؿʸ޴ա١νӡ2005ǯ
Υꥹޥ ԡ ɰ졦 إ֥ͥå١̼ҡ1985ǯ

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2013-08-01 Thu

#1557. mickle, much θ캬ͥåȥ [etymology][indo-european][suffix][cognate][word_family]

#564. Many a little makes a mickle ([2010-11-12-1]) ȡ#1410. Ƚ󵢡 ([2013-03-07-1]) εǡߤǤϸȤ¿̡פ̣ mickle ȤˤĤƽҤ٤Ѹ much ϢʤűѸ myċel ƱǤꡤ2Ҳѷ뤤ϸťΥɸ mikill μѤФơѸμȤˤ /k/ Ĥ褦ˤʤä֤Ǥ롥Ѹʹߤϡ̤ä much ͥˤʤꡤmickle ɤФĤɸäʤҤθűѸ myċel ȸťΥɸ mikill ϡդΥޥĸ *mik-ila- ̤롥
ޥĸ⤵˱󤯸츻̤ȡΡ礭¿פɽ魯ϡĸ *meg- ˤɤ夯θ캬ϤӤ¿͡ʷϩ̤ƱѸäƤƤ롥
դΰĸ *mag-no ȯŸƥ magnus (great) ˴ŤǡѸäΤȤƤϡmagnate, magnitude, magnum; magnanimous, magnific, magnificent, magnifico, magnify, magniloquent ʤɤ롥
ӵĤĸ *mag-yos- ʥƥ māiorˤϡmajor, major-domo, majority, majuscule, mayor ꡤ̾첽֤Ȥ maestoso, majesty, maestro, magisterial, magistral, magistrate, master, mister, mistral, mistress Ѥ줿ޤǾĤĸ *mag-samo- ʥƥ maximus) ϡmaxim, maximum äƤ롥
Ĥĸ *mag-ya- ϡƥν Maia ޤƤꡤѸȤƤ may ʡԸšվ̼ˤƱǤ롥
̤Ĥĸ *meg-ə-(l-) ϡꥷͳơacromegaly, omega ʤɤΤߤʤ餺mega-, megalo- ƬȤƤ¿θ줬ѸäꥷκǾ megistos ȤˤȤƤϡalmagest, Hermes Trismegistus äƤ롥
󥹥åȸƱ mahā-, mahat- ϡMahabharata, maharajah, maharani, maharishi, mahatma, Mahayana, mahout ѸäƤ롥
mickle, much ƱˤĤƤϡڡ륯θ츻ŵ⻲ȡ¾θ캬Υͥåȥ򰷤äȤƤϡ#695. 캬 fer ([2011-03-23-1]), #1043. mind θ캬ͥåȥ ([2012-03-05-1]), #1124. Ϥ礦ͤ⸬ʿʹ֡ ([2012-05-25-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Watkins, Calvert, ed. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. 2nd Rev. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.

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