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ε#2438. 첻ܤϡȯֻЪΥκθ (2) ([2015-12-30-1]) ǡ첻ܤαѸֻˤˤյˤĤƹͻκɾߤǤϡ첻ܤαѸ첻˾ΰյϲ첻ܤϡʤ1Ū˲ѲǤ뤫顤δΰյɾǽפǤ롥
Ѥ Brinton and Arnovick (313) 첻ܤβ˾ΰյˤĤƾܤΤƤ롥
[The Great Vowel Shift] eliminated the distinction between long and short vowels that had characterized both the Old and Middle English phonological systems. The long vowels were replaced by either diphthongs or tense vowels, which contrasted with the lax short vowels. Thus, the vowel system underwent a significant change from one based on distinctions of quantity (e.g. OE god 'deity' vs gōd ('good') to one based on distinctions of quality. While modern English does have long and short vowels (e.g. sea vs ceased), this distinction is now merely an allophonic difference, completely predictable by the voicing qualities or number of consonants that follow the vowel.
첻ܤȤơѸ첻ηϤ̤˴ŤΤ˴ŤΤؤƤ뤲ȤλŦϡŪĽפƶǤ롥緶ˤСҲγ̿ž褦ѿȤ֤ǤϤʤ첻̤ζ̤Ż뤹ܸΤ褦ʸüԤˤȤäơѸβγؽϰפʤ첻ܤǤΰüȤȤˤʤ롥ܸüԤˤȤäƤϡ첻ܰ첻ηϤΤۤߤ䤹ä˰㤤ʤ
벻Ѳθβ˾˰֤ŤŪɾȤߤϡޤǤԤƤ㤨С첻Ѳ˴ؤƤϡ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1])#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1])#2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1])#2081. ¸ˤ첻ܤʬϡ ([2015-01-07-1]) ƤȤǤ롥
Τ褦Ūɾ켫Τϡä˸ؤˤƲ̣ΤʤΤΤ褦ɾطʤˤϡή (drift) Ū (teleology) ȤäѲѤε̣⸫줹롥첻ܤ̤ơ˵ (historiography) ȤĤߤˤĤƺƹͤ뵡Ȥʤä
2015ǯ hellog ɡ꤬Ȥޤ2016ǯꤤޤ
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
첻 (gvs) ˤĤƤϡѸˤdzؤ֤٤ֻǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ¿夲Ƥ첻ܤαѸ˾ΰյϲ1ĤˤϡѸ첻˾塤絬ϤηŪ˵äѲǤȤɾϤ˲äơѸˤȯֻЪΥμװȤƤȤ館븫夷Ƥ褦˻פܵǤϡ#775. 첻ܤϡȯֻЪΥκθ ([2011-06-11-1]) ˰³ֻηϤؤξȤ첻ܤɾ٤פʱѸ˳ʤɤ餳˴ؤսȴФ
It will be noticed that the Great Vowel Shift is responsible for the unorthodox use of the vowel symbols in English spelling. The spelling of English had become fixed in a general way before the shift and therefore did not change when the quality of the long vowels changed. Consequently our vowel symbols no longer correspond to the sounds they once represented in English and still represent in the other modern languages. (Baugh and Cable 197)
. . . the Great Vowel Shift further confused English spelling. In Old and Middle English, the spellings of stressed vowels in English correspond reasonably well to their pronunciations. The arrival of the printing press in England in the late fifteenth century standardized spelling and fixed orthography to late Middle English conventions. When the long vowels shifted in the subsequent centuries, the spelling system did not change to record the new pronunciations. The spelling currently used for stressed vowels, then, is the spelling appropriate for the unshifted vowels. We no longer have a close correspondence between the spelling and the sounds. (Brinton and Arnovick 313)
It is a particular irony that, at the same time as printing was being introduced, the vowel sounds of London speech were undergoing the greatest change in their history. If printing had come a century later, or the Great Vowel Shift . . . a century earlier, the present-day spelling system would be vastly more regular than it has turned out to be. As it is, the spelling of thousands of words now reflects the pronunciation of vowels as they were in Chaucer's time. (Crystal 274)
The Great Vowel Shift radically altered most of the English long vowel system, and although spelling had been pretty much fixed by Johnson's time, more recent phases of the Great Vowel Shift have rendered the spelling system of English less phonetic in character. (Fennell 158)
The spelling of vowel sounds was disrupted in the period 1500--1700 by the most dramatic sound change in the history of English, what is now known as the Great Vowel Shift. . . . The change had far-reaching consequences for the spelling system too, as traditional spellings began to represent new sounds. . . . So where Middle English had a more straightforward system whereby a letter represented long and short values of a single vowel sound, this pattern was disrupted and replaced with a much less predictable system. (Horobin 158--59)
Over the last 500 years or so the relationship between sound and spelling has been further obscured in all varieties of English by changes in the long vowels which have come to be known as the Great Vowel Shift . . . . (Knowles 83)
The Great Vowel Shift (GVS) is the name given to a number of important and related pronunciation changes which affected these long vowels during the 15th, 16th and perhaps early 17th centuries and which resulted both in the differences between the sound-spelling correspondences of the continental European languages and those of Modern English . . . (e.g. French dame /dam/, English dame; French lime /lim/, English lime) and in the differences in pronunciation of the stressed vowels of pairs of words such as divine/divinity and serene/serenity, and also ultimately, though not directly, in (i) Modern English words such as meet and meat being alike in sound, and (ii) the difference in pronunciation of the OO of food, good and blood, etc. (Upward and Davidson 176--77)
٤ƤԤ첻ܤֻηϤؤαƶǧƤ뤷ʤˤϤαƶ礭ĴԤ⤢롥#775. 첻ܤϡȯֻЪΥκθ ([2011-06-11-1]) Ǥ⼨褦ˡֺθפȤߤʤƤ褤ɤϵǤ롥Ǹ Upward and Davidson ΰѤŪΤ˻ŦƤȤꡤ첻ܤϡθ¾μβѲȼȤơȯֻκƤɾΤͣμȤȤư櫓ˤϤʤ褦˻פ롥Ѹ˳ˤơ첻ܤŪֻκȵȤưƤطʤˤϡ<a> = /a/ Τ褦ʥƥ첻Ȥ첻б "orthodox" ȤΤʸηϴѤ礭ͿƤˤ衤첻ܤʬƤȾͤƤ롥ŪˤϤäȤͤ⤷ʤŪˤɾȽۤɰĤǤϤʤʤѶŪɤĤɾͳ⡤ʤˡ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Ѹֻ˴ؤ#2235. 3ʸ§ ([2015-06-10-1]) εạֻ̇̄ <ax> 뤤 <axe> ˿줿ѱѼȡLongman Advanced American Dictionary, 2nd ed. ʤɤΥꥫϤǤϸФ "ax, axe" νǵƤꡤLongman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 5th ed. ʤɤΥꥹϤǤ "axe (also ax American English)" νǵƤ롥Τ褦˸ߤǤֻαƺʤڥȤäƤ褤19ȾˤϡꥹѸǤ2ʸ <ax> Τۤ侩Ƥ褦Ǥ롥Horobin (167) ˸ڤƤ롥
The various factors involved in the adoption of a particular spelling as the OED headword is apparent from a comparison of the treatment of axe in the first and second editions. The first edition (published in 1885) employed the spelling ax for its headword, noting that this spelling is 'better on every ground, of etymology, phonology, and analogy, than axe, which has of late become prevalent'. But, despite its continued support for the spelling ax, the second edition of 1989 adopted axe for its headword, noting that, despite its many advantages, ax had by this time fallen out of use entirely.
ꥹѸˤƴѤȤ <axe> Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤǡOED ȤƤ⤽ѤȤҤʤ <axe> Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤȤˤĤƤϿƤʤǡ3ʸ§ξʤȤǤȤȤϼĥǤǤ롥ꥹѸˤ <ax> ٤ȤʤäƤϡ餫㳰 ox ΤߤȤʤ롥
ʤOED Online ˤС츻εҤ2Ǥ龯ѹƤꡤ"The spelling ax is better on every ground, of etymology, phonology, and analogy, than axe, which became prevalent during the 19th century; but it is now disused in Britain." ȤʤäƤ뤳ȤդäƤ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
2֡#2434. ƻѲޤ -e ѸޤǻĤäͳ ([2015-12-26-1]) ȡ#2435. eurhythmy 뤤 "buffer hypothesis" ŬѲǽ ([2015-12-27-1]) εǡInflectional Levelling of Adjectives in Middle English (ilame) ˤĤƹͻ#2434εˤΤϡ¤ϷƻΡñפμѲޤȤ -e ΤȤǤäơƱ褦 -e ٤ޤǤ褯ݤƤƻΡʣפζޤˤĤƤϿƤʤä#532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1]) ˵ɽʬ褦ˡʣˤƤϡѲȶѲζ̤ʤ§ȤƤĶˤơñƻ -e äΤǤ롥#2435εǰä "eurhythmy" "buffer hypothesis" ϡƻѤĶκۤȤäʣξˤϾ嵭Τ褦ĶȤʤΤǡʤʣޤ -e 褯ݻ줿ΤˤĤƤϡ̤ȤưʤФʤʤ
ФơŪˤϡñʣ̤ (number) Ȥʸˡ (category) ѸθηϤˤƤ褯ݼ餵ƤǤ롤Ƥ̾̾ˤƤϡĸ줫űѸФƸѸ˻ޤǰӤƿζ̤ݤƤưΰ (concord) ˤƤ⡤ȤƤϾ˴ͿŪǤ³ƤƻǤϡŪ˶ѸʹߡɸʤʤäȤϻ¤Ѹη㤷οʿȾüĬήΤʤӡѸޤʣ -e 褯ݤäƤȤȤϡѸθηϤˤƿȤƤ夷ƤȤΤǡϰʲ Minkova (329) θƱդ롥
My analysis assumes that the status of the final -e as a grammatical marker is stable in the plural. Yet in maintaining the syntactically based strong-weak distinction in the singular, it is no longer independently viable. As a plural signal it is still salient, possibly because of the morphological stability of the category of number in all nouns, so that there is phrase-internal number concord within the adjectival NPs. Another argument supporting the survival of plural -e comes from the continuing number agreement between subject NPs and the predicate, in other words the singular-plural opposition continues to be realized across the system.
ǤϡʤѸǤϿȤʸˡƤޤǺĤȤʤƸߤǤĤäƤˤΤϸˤʸˡƤΰŪǤꡤˤȤ٤Ǥ롥ˤĤƤεϡ "Syntactic Agreement" ꤹ6.6 (141--44) ǿƤΤǻȤ줿
Minkova, Donka. "Adjectival Inflexion Relics and Speech Rhythm in Late Middle and Early Modern English." Papers from the 5th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics, Cambridge, 6--9 April 1987. Ed. Sylvia Adamson, Vivien Law, Nigel Vincent, and Susan Wright. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1990. 313--36.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
ε#2434. ƻޤ -e ѸޤǻĤäͳ ([2015-12-26-1]) ǡ̵ȶȤ֤빥Χ (eurhythmy) ݻ褦ȤϤƻξü٤餻ȤҲ𤷤Minkova ϡΤ褦 -e ˾֤Ȥߤʤ "the buffer hypothesis" (326) ȸƤǤ롥
βϡƻޤ -e ʳˤ⡤Ѹ˾͡ʸݤŬѲǽǤ롥㤨С#712. ΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2) ([2011-04-09-1]) #643. ΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ ([2011-01-30-1]) Ǥ夲褦ˡˡβʬƻ learned, naked, wicked 䡤ƥѸ solid, squalid, timid, vivid ʤɤˤƺǽ줺ˤΤ⡤buffer hypothesis
Minkova (326--28) Ǥϡ¾ŬѲǽ㤬ĤƤ롥㤨СűѸνѲ̾ñ°ʤͳ褹 -e myn herte rote Τ褦ʹ¤ˤѸޤݤƤ¤ŦƤ롥ޤhad were ϡưȤѤˤϡȤñȤȯ뷹äΤФưȤѤˤϡ -e դ2ȤƸ뤳ȤäȤŦʤƤ롥Ʊͤˡη֤ˤĤơư want ³ˤ I want to go. Τ褦 to ȤʤΤФư should ³ˤ I should go. Τ褦˸ȤʤΤ⡤buffer hypothesis ͿΤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ˡasleep, afloat, aswim, aghast, aglow, aslant ΤäѤˡѤ¿ƻˤơ1˶ʤΤ⡤ꥺबͿ
Ҥ٤褦ˡbuffer hypothesis θ̤ˤ̤ƤޤǾöŪǤ뤳Ȥդ䤹ϤȯŪϤǤϤʤ̲Ǿ˼夯ѤƤϤȤߤ٤
Minkova, Donka. "Adjectival Inflexion Relics and Speech Rhythm in Late Middle and Early Modern English." Papers from the 5th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics, Cambridge, 6--9 April 1987. Ed. Sylvia Adamson, Vivien Law, Nigel Vincent, and Susan Wright. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1990. 313--36.
ѸˤǤϡ̾졤ư졤ƻΤ褦ʼ礿ʻˤơ -e ؿʿˤüƤäȤаޤ롥-e ξü®٤ (cf speed_of_change, schedule_of_language_change) ˤĤƤϡʻ֤Ǻä̾ưζˤƤϾüŪᤫäƻˤüϤä٤Chaucer ɽѸǤ⽽ʬݤƤ (Minkova 312) ϡʤƻѲޤ -e ٤ޤǾüΤˤĤƹͤ
Minkova ηꤷƤСäñηƻμѲޤˤ -e ϡݻ䤹ΧưŤäȤȤǤ롥㤨Сthe goode man Τ褦ʡ괧ܷƻ̾פȤ칽¤ˤƤϡñƻ˶ -e դȤˤäơ嶯嶯ιΧ (eurhythmy) ݤ䤹Ĥޤꡤ֤ȱΧפˡŪ -e ŪפȤ줿Τȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
դ٤2Ĥ롥1ĤϡűѸѸŪᤵƤ -e eurhythmy ݤĤ٤üȤ줿ȤΤǤꡤ-e eurhythmy 餿˳٤ŪˤʤĶ줿櫓ǤϤʤȤȤeurhythmy θ̤ϡѶŪȤöŪʸ̤ȤȤˤʤ롥
2ܤˡ-e ݻȤ eurhythmy θ̤Ĺ³15--16ʹߤˤϷ̤ȤƸüζϤĬή˶ʤäȤ¤롥λ¤ϡeurhythmy Ф뵿ǰ뤫⤷ʤeurhythmy θ̤켫ΤˤäϤꤷȤϡʬˤ뤳Ȥeurhythmy ϡŪ˱ѸȤηϤ˹夯ѤƤװǤǧƤ褤ηǺѤƤ¾νװȤδطˤŪ˵ǽƤȲ᤹٤Ǥ롥äơ15--16˷ƻޤ -e ṳ̈Ȥ "dysrhythmy" ȤƤ⡤ eurhythmy ưŤ¾νװκϤäΤȹͤФ褯λ˴ؤ eurhythmy ⼫ΤѤɬפϤʤMinkova (322--23) ϡƻ -e ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . the claim laid on rules of eurhythmy in English can be weakened and ultimately overruled by other factors such as the expansion of segmental phonological rules of final schwa deletion, a process which depends on and is augmented by the weak metrical position of the deletable syllable. The 15th century reversal of the strength of the eurhythmy rules relative to other rules is not surprising. Extremely powerful morphological analogy within the adjectives, analogy with the demorphologization of the -e in the other word classes, as well as sweeping changes in the syntactic structure of the language led to what may appear to be a tendency to 'dysrhythmy' in the prosodic organization of some adjectival phrases in Modern English. . . . The entire history of schwa is, indeed, the result of a complex interaction of factors, and this is only an instance of the varying force of application of these factors.
ѸˤˤƻˤĤƤϡ#532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1])#688. ѸηƻηϤοʿ ([2011-03-16-1]) ۤilame (= Inflectional Levelling of Adjectives in Middle English) γƵȡ
ʤ伫Ȥ⤳ˤĤʸ2ܤۤɽƤޤ[1] Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Levelling of Adjectival Inflection in Early Middle English: A Diachronic and Dialectal Study with the LAEME Corpus." Journal of the Institute of Cultural Science 73 (2012): 255--73. [2] Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Decreasing Relevance of Number, Case, and Definiteness to Adjectival Inflection in Early Middle English: A Diachronic and Dialectal Study with the LAEME Corpus."إ硼įơ٥硼20ǯǰʸԡˡǡ2014ǯ273--99ǡˡ
Minkova, Donka. "Adjectival Inflexion Relics and Speech Rhythm in Late Middle and Early Modern English." ''Papers from the 5th International
ֻȯߺѤˤĤơ#894. shortening ʬ (2) ([2011-10-08-1]) #2407. margarine ȯ ([2015-11-29-1]) ǿƤƱߺѤδ顤adviser advisor κ۲ä McDavid ˤ뵭ߤĤΤǾҲ𤷤
adviser advisor ϡ#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) 㼨褦ˡۤʤټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) ĥڥǤ롥̣ϡadviser ŪʽԤؤΤФơadvisor ä˥ꥫѸؤλƳؤξۤʤȤϤäƤ⡤ֻΤߤǤꡤȯˤƤ̾襤 /ədˈvaɪzɚ/ Ȥʤ롥ʲ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡMcDavid ͤȯɽ1942ǯȤʳǤϡadvisor Ф /ədˈvaɪzˌɔɚ/ Τ褦ȯʹ줿餷
McDavid ϡadvisor ֻȯȯãΤ褦ʬϤƤ롥ޤŪʰ̣Ǥ adviser Τߤ¸ߤƤȤˡؤˤֻƳפ̣ΤȤ <advisor> ʤֻ߽Ф줿ϡadjustor, auditor, chancellor, editor, mortgagor, sailor, settlor, tailor ʤɡ-or ĸ¿Ū俦Ȥɽ路Ƥˡ˾褸ƽκ۲߽ФȤ̤ޤadvisory supervisor Τ褦ֻؤäƤ⤷ʤΤ褦ֻζ̤߽Ф줿Ȥˡadvisor ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) θˤꡤǽ /ɔɚ/ ȯ褦ˤʤä
Ĥޤꡤadvisor Ϥޤ줿̣Ȥ̿ơֻˤƿ˺Ф졤ƺǸȯѷȤˤäơ adviser ΩǤȤΩȤȤˤʤ롥θϾҤ̤ adviser ƱȯؤȲƤäΤǤꡤߤǤ advisor ϻŪΩ (cf. #2432. Bolinger λŪǡ ([2015-12-24-1])) ȤƵǽƤȲ᤹٤
McDavid, Raven I., Jr. "Adviser and Advisor: Orthography and Semantic Differentiation." Studies in Linguistics 1 (1942).
ε#2431. դμΩ˴ؤ Bolinger ε ([2015-12-23-1]) ǡBolinger λŪ (visual morpheme) ȤѸФˤȡΰˤϡ𤷤ʤľŪɽ㤬ȤBolinger (335--38) ϸѸˡֻȤơĤμʬƻҲ𤷤Ƥ롥¾䤤ʤ⤷褦
(1) Ʊָ (homonyms) 㤨С"Sea is an ocean and si is a tone, as you can readily see." ȤͷӤ˸褦Ǥʸ̮ΥҥȤͿƤ뤬3줬ñΤȯж̤ĤʤˤƤ3ԤΤ˶̤롥äơܤ˸Ƕ̤ǤȸƤǤ褤⤷ȤǤϡ"The big clock tolled (told) the hour." "The danger is safely passed (past)." Τ褦ˡñФλȤʬۤȤɰ̣ΰ㤤˷ӤĤʤ褦⤢롥
(2) ֻΰ̣ȯã (semantic evolution of spellings) ŪˤƱñֻۤʤ餻뤳Ȥˤꡤ̣ǽ㴳㤨륱롥let us let'sgood and good ʤɤǤ롥gray grey ǤϡԤ She has lovely gray eyes. ʤɤΤ褦˹ŪѤ뷹ΤФơԤ It was a grey, gloomy day. ʤɤΤ褦ŪѤȤ롥check/cheque, controller/comptroller, compliment/complement ʤɤȤȤ館뤫⤷ʤʤHall (17) ϡ (2) μֻ "semantic representation" ȸƤǤꡤʸإȤƤ fantasy ȸۤȤƤ phantasy ΰ㤤䡤Ye Olde Gifte Shoppe ʤɤˤ;Ū final_e θ̤ܤƤ (cf. #13. ѹΥѥ֤ ye äƤ椷 ([2009-05-11-2])#1428. ye = the ([2013-03-25-1])) (1) (2) ΰ㤤ϡԤ homonymy ǡԤ polysemy бȹͤФ褤
(3) (constellations) ֻĸ췲˶̣ͭĤȤֻỌ̇̄ӤĤ褦ʾ롥㤨Сټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) -or ϡadjustor, auditor, chancellor, editor, mortgagor, sailor, settlor, tailor ʤɤ˼褦ˡ-er ٤ҿι⤵ްդ褦Ǥ (see #1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])) ޤ -y -ie ǤϡԤΤۤؾ (diminutive) ȤƤʤ褦˴롥Τ褦ʻ㤫顤ˤ phonaesthesia νǤȤ "graphaesthesia" ʤѸäƤ褤ΤǤϤʤ
(4) Ūʳݻ (visual paronomasia) ŪϸȤơ˰Ƥ City Haul ǤȤտŪʸֻȤƸŤᤫ The Compleat Military Expert ʤɡֳ±ʣ <z> ([2011-07-05-1]) #825. "pronunciation spelling" ([2011-07-31-1]) ⻲ȡ
(5) ֻǤϤʤ (punctuation) ѤΤ⤢롥the dog's masters the dogs' masters ϸߤ˰ۤʤ̣ɽ魯the longest undiscovered vein the longest-undiscovered vein ۤʤ롥#1772. greengrocer's apostrophe ([2014-03-04-1]) ⡤μ˿
ʾ "visual morpheme" ϡˤΤͿƤ뵡ǽǤ롥
Bolinger. "Visual Morphemes." Language 22 (1946): 333--40.
Hall, Robert A., Jr. "A Theory of Graphemics." Acta Linguistica 8 (1960): 13--20.
դμΩˤĤơľŪˤϡ#2339. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (1) ([2015-09-22-1]) Ȥĥäε#2340. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (2) ([2015-09-23-1]) Ǽ夲ƤϡդäդȤ (medium) 齽ʬΩƤȤȤˤĤơBolinger (333) λŪ (visual morpheme) ˴ؤʸΰѤ̤ơĥ
The fact that most writing is the graphic representation of vocal-auditory processes tends to obscure the fact that writing can exist as a series of morphemes at its own level, independent of or interacting with the more fundamental (or at least more primitive) vocal-auditory morphemes. Recognition of visual morphemes is also hampered by the controversy, not yet subsided, over the primacy of the spoken versus the written; the victory of those who sensibly insist upon language as fundamentally a vocal-auditory process has been so hard won that any concession to writing savors of retreat. Yet, so long as a point-to-point correspondence is maintained, it is theoretically possible to transform any series of morphemes from any sensory field into any other sensory field, and keep them comprehensible; the only condition is that contact with the nervous system be maintained at some point. More than theoretically: it is actually done for the congenitally deaf-and-dumb reader of Braille, who 'reads' and 'comprehends' with his finger-tips. Just as here is a system of tactile morphemes existing with no connexion (other than historical) with the vocal-auditory field, so there is nothing unscientific in the assumption that a similarly independent visual series may be found.
Ȥ櫓 "the victory of those who sensibly insist upon language as fundamentally a vocal-auditory process has been so hard won that any concession to writing savors of retreat" ȽҤ٤ƤȤϡȤ⤦ޤְ̤Ǥϡդϡΰҿ修椨ˡäդ̤˰֤Ť뤳Ȥ¿ؤǤϡΰ̤θФơषδܤϲǤȤĥʤƤΤǤꡤη̡ؼԤˤȤäƤääդͥθ⤬ǥߥåǤϳΩƤȤְ̤ȸؼԤιͤΤ褦˱ԤΩƤȤˡޤ˸ؼԥθ¤줿ǤϤ뤬դμΩȤ̣Ǥְ̤ǰߴ뤫Τ褦ʸƤȤΤ顤ä
٤餯äդȽդʤɤˤȤäƤΤʤ褦ˡΤޤޤɾؼԤˤؼԤˤ٤ȹͤ롥سθȤƤϡޤդΰǤ롥
Bolinger ʸηϰʲ̤Ǥ (340) ɴ̣
1. Visual morphemes exist at their own level, independently of vocal-auditory morphemes. Even a perfect phonemic transcription would, if used for communication, immediately become a system of visual morphemes. In modern English, education has made the visual system part of the public domain, so that it exhibits some evolutionary tendencies unsecured to vocal-auditory morphemes.
2. In the implicit reactions of literate people, eye movements combine with other implicit movements. There is as good reason to posit eye movements as the physiological correlate of 'thinking' and 'understanding' as there is to posit laryngeal movements as such a correlate.
3. In view of the close integration of the 'language organization', it is probably necessary to revise the dictum that 'language must always be studied without reference to writing'. This in no way detracts from the value of that dictum as applied to all languages at some stage of their development and to largely literate speech communities today; it is merely a recognition of a shift that has taken place in the communicative behavior of some highly literate societies.
4. If it is true that the residue of language after the vocal-auditory is subtracted has provided a redoubt from which attacks could be made on linguistic science, then an appreciation of visual morphemes by both parties to the controversy may prove a step in the direction of reconciliation.
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Visual Morphemes." Language 22 (1946): 333--40.
#2408. ץʸˤߤѰۤȻΤѲ ([2015-11-30-1])#2412. ʸϡϡ ([2015-12-04-1])#2417. ʸݼƿ ([2015-12-09-1]) εǡʸηϤݼˤĤƵȶʤȤǹͤƤߤСܸɽηϤݼŪǤϤʤΤˡ#2386. ܸʸˡʸԡˡ ([2015-11-08-1]) #2387. ܸʸˡʶԡˡ ([2015-11-09-1]) ˤ֤ä褦ˡܸɽηϤ͡ѲФƤȤϻ¤Ǥꡤΰ̣ǤϡݼŪפȤʤ⤷ʤüʰ֤Ťˤ̤ȤƤ⡤ʿ̾Ҳ̾Ȥ3ĤʸηϤ礵ɽηϤˤϡи̤ΰˤ⤫餺ǯ³Ƥ (cf. "[The writing system of Japanese is] too expensive a cultural luxury for any people in the present age" (qtd. Gardner 349 from Boodberg 20)) ʹߡ (romanisation) εŪ˲פϤʤ줺˺ŪɽηϤΤޤߤ˻äƤΤǤ롥
ܸɽηϤݼϡä˥ե٥åʸįȰͤ˱ǤΤ⤷ʤܸʤδˤΥˤݻ (transliteration) ˡƤҤФɾɤǤߤԤɾԤ⥢ե٥åʸǰäʪΤ褦ǤꡤܸɽηϤɾϡѤ뤷ƤԤˤȤäƤϡषǤ롥
㤨Сɾ Gardner ˥βפԤȤѸˤֻפʤȤӤƤ롥ϡʸηϤݼȤŪʵ̤". . . societies formed to advocate the use of romanization for Japanese . . . fared little better than societies for the reformation of English spelling" (349).
Ȥ櫓ܸμԤͳƤ뤯꤬⤷Gardner ϡ(1) ݽѤоݤȤߤ뷹(2) ȤʤǽϤΧ١ҤξħȤߤ뷹(3) ɽβͤǧ뷹(4) ̤Ʊ۵̼ʤȤƤδѡͳȤƵƤ롥(1) (2) ʸᤰҲʸŪװ(3) (4) ϸŪʸŪװȤ줾Ƥʬ Gardner (349) Ѥ
The passive resistance to romanization draws much of its strength from the high regard for writing as an art. The point is difficult for a westerner to grasp, but good calligraphy is considered as much an index to a man's character as his appearance.
The acquisition of reading and calligraphy represents an investment of long hours of exacting discipline and endless memory work. Why should a statesman, a businessman, or an ordinary citizen---much less a scholar---accept easily the idea of throwing away this proud achievement in order to learn a foreign system that he will read haltingly at first and in which his handwriting will scarcely be distinguishable from a schoolboy's?
[The pronouncement is frequently heard] that the character cannot be separated from the word, or even that the character is the word. The Japanese feel that the understanding of a literary passage would somehow be impaired if the complex reaction to the characters were not brought into play.
Strongest of all is the firm conviction on the part of many Japanese that because of the enormous number of homonyms that exist in the technical and semi-learned language, this would be confusing or unintelligible if reduced to romanization.
ܸɽηϤ¦顤Ȥ櫓ե٥åȤ˴ƤǤԤλįȡݼ˵ŤȤǤ롥
Gardner, Elizabeth F. "Review of UCJ: An Orthographic System of Notation and Transcription for Sino-Japanese. By Peter A. Boodberg. (University of California Publications in East Asiatic Philology, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 17--102.) Pp. iii, [86]. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1947." Language 26 (1950): 346--55.
ե٥å (alphabet) 뤤ñʸʸηϤȤƤˤĤơ¿θ⤬ʤƤǯޤǡäΤǤϥե٥åȤʸȯŸĺˤȤǧŪäߤǤ⤽Τ褦˿ƤԤϾʤʤ (cf. #1838. ʸ ([2014-05-09-1]))
кʬȤ餤Сե٥åȤϳΤ˲ʸ⡤ɽʸ⤹ƤȤϤΤ褦ʸβ̤ǽΤ٤ƤǤ櫓ǤϤʤष#2344. ɽʸɽʸɽʸ ([2015-09-27-1])#2389. ʸηϤεȯã (1) ([2015-11-11-1])#2401. Ǥʸǡ ([2015-11-23-1]) εʤɤǷ֤Ƥ褦ˡϡʸܼɽ쵡ǽ (logographic function) ˤȹͤƤ롥Ǥ⡤ե٥åϺ
ʸηϤȤƤΥե٥åϡ̤ͥʸͥȯŸ롥μҲϡե٥åȤѤʤ椨ˡ̱ʳؤȯŸ뤳ȤǤΤȤϿäǤˤʤˤĤơӥ (226--27) ϼΤ褦˵Ƥ롥
ե٥åȤ̱ȯŸԲķäȤ褯롥Ψ礤˹ȡޤҲ˱ΤξȤ˲ʳʬǤϡ֥ե٥åȸ̡פ餦Ȥ礭Ȥ⤤롥ʤʤΤӤȡʳؤϤɤǤȯãΤǤʬŪʻͤȯã㤨Х˥塼ȥ䥢奿Τ褦ʿʪڽФϤ뤫˰Υ̤ȤʤäʬŪʻͤϡñ줬11ʬ륢ե٥åȤθˤäưޤ줿ȤΤñˤСե٥åȤϴԸŪʻͤơŪʻͤƤȤȤˤʤ롥
˽Ҥ٤̱ȥե٥åȤˤĤƤΰոˤϡҤο¤ꤽե٥åȤ̱ȯŸΤȤ⡤͡˲̱뵤ե٥åȤΤά奨ץȿͤ3ǯ첻Τʤե٥åȤΤäƤȤȤϤˡεȤäƥҥդȤ餬ʬˡ̱ɬƤʤäȤȤΤ
ʳؤȯŸᤰĤΰոϡ⤷ʸΤޤʣΤˡɤ߽ڤ˸ˤʤäȤʤäϤ狼롥ʬŪʻͤդɤȤäʸŪɽŪʸȤȤ˷ӤĤΤϤФƤ롥?衼åѸ²ο͡ȤȤȡȤ¤ӤĤ褦ʤΤͤϵޤʤʤΤȡͥ줿ԤϡƤֵ̡פɤǤ롥ʸŪʿ㤤ˤϡʸΤʤФʤʤ줬ɤʤ˽פǤ⡤ʸɤȤäۤΰ̤ƤʤɤΤȤϤ˥塼ȥ䥢奿ʤ顤ȤǶƤƤ⡤䥨ץȤΥҥդХӥ˥ܸʸǤäȤƤ⡤ؤ֤٤Τϳؤ˰㤤ʤΤǤ롥
ޤӥ̤βս (265)̱ˤĤƼΤ褦ˤҤ٤Ƥ롥
ե٥åȤȼǽϤ̱ƱŪʴط⡤츫äȤ餷ɡɾΤΤʸФ䤹С¿οͤǤο͡ҲŪ뤯ʤС˴Ϳꡤ餫褦ˤʤ뤫⤷ʤΤ˺̱Ȥζϡɤ߽ǽϸ˽Ͽ٤ȤΤQˤʤäƤ롥ȤϤˤϡɤ߽Τ䤹ʳˤ⡤Ҥ礦¿ΤȤطƤ롥кѡҲʸξʤɤ⡤ǽϤ̱դĹƤˤϡ˹ԹǤʤФʤʤ奨ץȤ˺ŪʼҲ¤Ѳʤäȡ뤤ϸ奮ꥷˤ줬Ȥ˥ҥդȥե٥åȤΰ㤤뤳ȤϤǤʤϺܤμΨι⤵ʣʸΤˤϤǤʤΤƱ餤ʤȤǤ롥
ʸȤʬäǧΤ졤ʤ¤ꡤɸθϺ֤ⷫΤ⤷ʤ
ӥɥ롼ˡһ ۻҡˡʸεˡҥաե٥åȡ١ϸҡ2006ǯ
19Ⱦ˥ͤ˺줿2ɽʸ롥⥢ꥫ轻̱θɽΤ˹ͰƤ줿ʸ
1Ĥϡե٥åȤȸƤФʸǤ롥ϡ² (Cherokee) Υ (Sequoyah; 1760--1843) Ǥ륤 (Iroquoian) ɽ뤿1821ǯ˹ͰƤΤǡ֥ե٥åȡפȸƤФ줳뤬ºݤˤϲʸ (syllabary) Ǥ롥85εˤꡤ6Ĥ첻22λҲ200ۤɤβǷ䲻ɽ魯ϱѸΤʤäѸüԤγԤܿʤǡɽʸηϤȻפΩäɽʸιͰƤܻؤƤε椬ɬפȤʤ뤳ȤΤäᤶʸιͰƤؤžϤʸμ200äǽŪˤ85ʸعʤäϥꥷʸإ֥饤ʸαƶĤĥƥʸäȤƤ뤬ͿƤ벻ϥƥѸʤɤȤϤޤäۤʤ롥
ʸƤȡϿǯΤ¿Υ²ο͡ˤäƽ줿ޤȯ North Carolina ǡ1830ǯʹߤϥ²¿ܽ Oklahoma ǤѤ뤳Ȥˤʤä1827ǯˤϡʸϥܥȥǥǥ줿ˤǤ⤷䤬ƥ²90%ʸɤ褦ˤʤäȤ顤̱²μΨθ̤äȤˤʤ롥ʸϸ˿ष修ǥΰŪҤʤɤˤϻĤäΤ롥ޤǯλߤʤƤ褦ʲˤʸɽComrie et al. 206; ӥ 224--25 ⻲ȡˡ

19ȾФ James Evans ʤ붵դʥǹԤƤ르췲 (Algonquin) °륯 (Cree) ɽʸͰƤŪˤ12Ȥβʸ˸ûҲ֤뤳ȤǤ1833ǯޤǤˡθʸˤʤ줿ޤƱʸ Choctaw, Chippewa, Slave ʤɤΥꥫ轻̱θɽΤˤѤ줿ʸʸƱͤˡ̱²μΨθä褦ʲˡComrie et al. (205, 207) ʸɽ

ξʸηϤˤĤƤϡOmniglot: Writing Systems & Language of the World Cherokee language, writing system and pronunciation Cree syllabary, pronunciation and language ȡ
ӥɥ롼ˡһ ۻҡˡʸεˡҥաե٥åȡ١ϸҡ2006ǯ
Comrie, Bernard, Stephen Matthews, and Maria Polinsky, eds. The Atlas of Languages. Rev. ed. New York: Facts on File, 2003.
̤ʸβɤؤ̴ϡ͡ΥޥͶ鷺ˤʤJean-François Champollion (1790--1832) ˤå (Rosetta stone) ˵줿ץʸʥҥաˤβɡSir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (1810--95) ˤܸʸβɡMichael George Francis Ventris ˤ륯쥿ʸBβɡζͺˤʸβɤβʤɤɤȡΥߥƥʤ說說롥߲ɺȤʤǤꡤܳŪʲɤ֤ܤƤΤˡޥʸ롥ηвˤܤΥʤ
ΰפʤɤȯʪ˵Ƥʸηϡˤϡ줬ΤʸǤʤ¤ꡤȯϤ٤̤ʸȤư롥ˡŷͤνиαˤ褯ɤʤǤ椯Τ⤢СޤäνФʤΤ⤢롥ץʸʸBΤ褦ˡֲɤʸȸƤФƤϤƤ⡤٤ƤɤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ̤ɤʬĤäƤȤΤ̤Ǥ롥̤ɤȴɤϡޤ٤ȤȤ館ɬפ
嵭âäǤ⡤ˡ뤤Ϥ̤ۤɤȤäƤ褤ʸηϤʤ¿¸ߤ롥ӥ (175) ˤޤȤƤ̤ʸƸ褦ɽΡ*פΰϡؼԤδ֤ǰոפƤʤȤ
| ʸθƤ̾ | ȯ줿 | ǸŤȤΤǯ | ʸΡ̤ | 졧Ρ̤ |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʸ | 饯 | 3000ǯ | ̤ | ̤ |
| ʸ | ѥ | 2500ǯ | ̤ | * |
| ֵҥա | ӥ֥ʥХΥ | 2ǯ | ̤ | ̤ |
| ʸA | 쥿 | 18 | ϴ | ̤ |
| եȥα | եȥʥ쥿 | 18 | ̤ | ̤ |
| ȥꥢʸ | ̥ꥢ | 8 | ϴ | |
| ʸ | ʥ | 200ǯ | ϴ | |
| ϡʸ | ꥫ | 150ǯ | * | * |
| | 19 | ̤ | ̤ |
Ѹ code-switching macaronic ʸˤĤơ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1])#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching ([2015-10-01-1]) ʤɤǼ夲ƤϢơʩκߤ15ηбġȤεϿʸĴ Rothwell ʸɤΤǡƤҲ𤹤롥
ĴоݤȤʤäʸ York Memorandum Book ȸƤФΤǡϼΤ褦ʸǤ (Rothwell 213)
The two substantial volumes of the York Memorandum Book provide some five hundred pages of records detailing the administrative and commercial life of the second city in England over the years between 1376 and 1493, setting down in full charters, ordinances of the various trade associations, legal cases involving citizens and so on.
York Memorandum Book ˤϡʩκߤ뤬ߤμ͡Ǥ롥Rothwell ʬˤС11κߤΤ롥Rothwell (215--16) ʸϤȴФơվ
(i) "English words inserted without modification into a Latin text"
(ii) "English words similarly introduced into a French text"
(iii) "French words used without modification into a Latin text"
(iv) "French words similarly used in an English text"
(v) "English words dressed up as Latin in a Latin text"
(vi) "English words dressed up as French in a French text"
(vii) "French words dressed up as Latin in a Latin text"
(viii) "French words are used in a specifically Anglo-French sense in a French text"
(ix) "French words may be found in a Latin text dressed up as Latin, but with an English meaning"
(x) "On occasion, a single word may be made up of parts taken from different languages . . . or a new word may be created by attaching a suffix to an existing word, either from the same language or from one language or another""
(xi) "Outside the area of word-formation there is also the question of grammatical endings to be considered"
3Ĥθ줬ؤꡤξ "dressed up" ̵̣ͭαʤɤθȡΤ褦ˤ٤ʬबȤȤ롥(x) Ϥ뺮 (hybrid) ˴ؤǤ (see #96. ѸȥեǺ褫 ( hybrid ) ([2009-08-01-1])) Τ褦˸ȡüѡαƶˤ뿷ʸȯạ̃θcode-switching ʤɤν˸ߤ̩ܤ˴ϢƤ뤫ڤʬ˺롥
Rothwell ϷȤơΤμαʩκߤϡ̵Τʼ̻ˤλʪȤ "recognised policy" (230) äȤߤʤ٤ȼĥƤ롥ޤ14--15ˤϡȼפγˤбġȤεϿʸǰƤ¿ͲȼäŪʸä礷Ƥˤơϸߤθñߤڤꤹɬפ줿˰㤤ʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥Rothwell (230) ۩
Before condemning the scribes of late medieval England for their ignorance, account must be taken of the situation in which they found themselves. On the one hand the recording of administrative documents steadily increasing in number and diversity called for an ever wider lexis, whilst on the other hand the conventions of the time demanded that such documents be couched in Latin or French. No one has ever remotely approached complete mastery of the lexis of his own language, let alone that of any other language, either in medieval or modern times.
Rothwell ȤԤˤĤƤϡ#1212. ɤˤѸˤ붵λϤޤ (2) ([2012-08-21-1])#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching ([2015-10-01-1])#2349. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1])#2350. Prioress Anglo-French ϰ̤Ϥۤ㤯ʤä ([2015-10-03-1])#2374. Anglo-French Ȥ (1) ([2015-10-27-1])#2375. Anglo-French Ȥ (2) ([2015-10-28-1]) ǤƤΤǡ⻲ȡ
Rothwell, William. "Aspects of Lexical and Morphosyntactical Mixing in the Languages of Medieval England." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. D. S. Brewer, 2000. 213--32.
ε#2424. digraph (2) ([2015-12-16-1]) ǤϡŻ (digraph) 뤤ʣʸ (compound grapheme) ȤƤ <th> ȤƼ夲2ʸ <h> ȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1]) ȤѤƤȤҲ𤷤ޤŪˡܸեΥ夲ξǡ䥢ޤǸɤŪǤΤФơѸ <h> Ϥ켫ΤñʸǤȤƤѤȤۤŦ줫ˡȤƤ櫓ǤƤ櫓Ǥʤˤäơ褦ȯ̵ǽ̤٤ۤʤʤѰդƤΤȤȤĥäǤ롥
ˤĤʤƹͤƤߤû첻 /e/ Ĺ첻 /eː/ ̤ˡɤΤ褦ˡ뤫˼ޤ⤽ζ̤ʤȤ褬롥ƥû첻 edo (I eat) Ĺ첻 edo (I give out) Ǥ롥ƥʤɤǤϡؼԤȽ䤹褦Ԥ edōԤ ēdō ɽ뤳ȤϤ뤬¤θŵƥƥȤˤƤϤΤ褦Ĺ (macron) ϸʤ첻ĹûƤñǤ뤫ϡʸ̮ȽǤΤƥήäƱͤˡܸΡֱסʤˤȡֱʼסʤؤˤˤֱҡפˤƤ⡤첻ĹûŪ˼Ƥʤ
ˡȯѤơĹǤ뤳ȤȤˡ롥ҤΥƥؼѤĹ椬ޤˤѸʤɤǤ첻ξ˥դȤǡĹȤԤƤޤѸ Richard Hodges ˤ붵Ūֻˤ⥦饦ȵ椬ƳƤ (see #2002. Richard Hodges ֻפʤֻ ([2014-10-20-1])) Ȼ褦ȤơҲ̾ˤ֥פФ֥פ˸Ĺʲˤ롥֡פϡ֥פƱͤˤä1ʸʬΥڡȤǡʤȤ⸫ɤϥƥĹ䥢ۤŪǤϤʤǤϡIPA International Phonetic Alphabet; ݲɸʸˤĹ /ː/ ֡פ˻ƤȤ롥ǵƼϡñȤǤϰ̣ʤɬǽŪ˥ᥤʸ˽°뤫ѤƤ뤳Ȥդ
³ơʿ̾Ρ֤פΤ褦ˡƱʸ֤Ȥˡ롥ѸǤѸǤ met /met/ Ф meet /meːt/ ʤɤʸ֤Ȥ̤˸줿
ޤ#2423. digraph (1) ([2015-12-15-1]) Ǥ夲褦ʡϢ³ʣʸ (discontinuous compound grapheme) λѤ롥Ѹ줫ѸˤƹԤ줿red /red/ rede /reːd/ Τ褦ʽΩǤ롥rede 2ܤ <e> 1ܤ <e> ĹˤƷꤷƤ롥
ǸˡꥷǤϤޤäۤʤʸѤû첻 ǡĹ첻 ɽ魯
Τ褦ˡˤäƼʤۤʤ졤ۤƱǽ餫ˡǼƤʤ뤤ϡʤˤΤǤ롥
ε ([2015-12-15-1]) ˰³ƤꡥѸŻ (digraph) 뤤ʣʸ (compound grapheme) Τ<ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> Τ褦2ĤʸǤ <h> ǤΤϾʤʤ٤ƤˤƤϤޤ櫓ǤϤʤŪˤäơ <h> εǽϡ1ʸǤɽ魯ŵŪʻҲǤΤIJ餫ħ (distinctive feature) ѲȤΤ岽˻ꡤꡤꡤꡤ̵ѲΤϰꤷƤʤ1ʸǤб벻Ǥˤ֤ǽäƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ǥ겼Υ٥ħƯ뵡ǽäƤȤ̣ˤƤϡ<h> ϵǽŪˤΩʸȤȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1]) ˶ᤤΤ褦˵ǽȤƤŪǤʤ顤κۤȤƤΩʸ <h> ٤äƤȤʤɤʤ
ܸβ̾դȯǤͤ褦ᥤʸǡ֤פαˡۤΩʤ褦äȡ֤פȤʤ롥ϡͭˤȤħƯƤꡤǽȤƤϾҤ <h> Ƥ롥Ʊͤˡեˡˤ <é>, <è>, <ê> ʤɤΥ⡤ᥤȤʤʸ <e> ŪղäơĤĴ䳫ĴĹĴʤɤɸ뤳Ȥ롥Ĥޤꡤᥤβμ̤ˤäȤѤäȤŪʵǽ̤Ƥ롥ܸեΥϡΤ褦ˡǽŪǤΤƱͤˡɤˤƤ⤢ޤŪǡޤΤǤ롥
Ȥʣʸ <th> ˤ <h> ϻ𤬰ۤʤ롥<h> ϡñȤǤʸǤȤƵǽ롥<h> ϥᥤ⥵֤̳ΤФ䥢ñȤǥᥤ̳뤳ȤϤǤʤСܸեǤϡ֤ܤŰȯȤ٥ñ̤¸ߤ뤬ѸǤϤ줬¸ߤޤǻŪΩ <h> Ȥ1ʸǽŪˤϥᥤΤߤʤ餺֤ˤѤȤȤǤ롥˰³ƶĴ뤬Τ褦˱ѸˡǤϡǽŪ˥٥ΰۤʤΤ̤ʤѤƤȤʤΤǤ롥
ʤ2Ĥΰۤʤ٥ʬȤơ (ligature) 롥<ae>, <oe> 2ĤñʸǤ¤Ӥ <æ>, <œ> 1ĤʣʸǤб롥䡤ξ硤ϤǤʣʸǤǤ뤳ȤơñʸǤˤʤäƤȸ٤ (see #2418. ꥷƥѸˤ <oe> ([2015-12-10-1])#2419. ꥷƥѸˤ <ae> ([2015-12-11-1]))
Ѹˤ <ai>, <ea>, <ie>, <oo>, <ou>, <ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <qu>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> 2ʸǤ1ñ̤ȤʤäβǤɽ魯Ż (digraph) ¸ߤ롥#2049. <sh> Ȥΰֻˡ ([2014-12-06-1])#2418. ꥷƥѸˤ <oe> ([2015-12-10-1])#2419. ꥷƥѸˤ <ae> ([2015-12-11-1]) ۤεǼ夲ƤϤΤ褦 digraph ˤĤbeautiful ˤ <eau> ʤɤλŻ (trigraph) 䤽ʾȤ߹碌⤢뤬ǽҤ٤ digraph ε trigraph ʤɤˤƤϤޤϤǤ롥
⤽⡤ƥΤˡ̤Хꥷ䥻ϤθΤȯãƤ alphabet ȤϲŪˤ礭ۤʤǤѸˡΤޤޤޤŬѤȤȤϡ褦ʤޥե٥åȤƼ줿űѸꡤǤοʸοϰפʤäΤǤ롥ǤΤۤ¿äΤǡ̤ʸɽ褦ȤСɤƤʣʸȤ߹碌1ĤβǤбȤ褦ˡɬפȤʤ롥㤨 /æːa/, /ʤ/, /ʃ/ ϳơ <ea>, <cg>, <sc> digraph ɽ줿 (see #17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1])) ĤޤꡤѸ줬ޥե٥åȤǽɽ뤳Ȥˤʤäǽʳ顤digraph Τ褦ʸȤ߹碌뤳ȤϡȾԲäȹͤ롥Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤϡ餫ѤĤġ¿ͤʲѤäʤѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸؤȯŸƤä
"digraph" ȤѸˤĤƤǤ롥θƾΤϤɤ餫ȤʸǤ2Ȥ߹蘆äȤŪ¦̤˾ƤƤ뤬2Ĥ1ĤβǤбȤǽŪ¦̤Ĵ硤"compound grapheme" (Robert 14) ȤѸ줬ŬڤRobert (14) ˼褦
We term ai in French faire or th in English thither, compound graphemes, because they function as units in representing single phonemes, but are further divisible into units (a, i, t, h) which are significant within their respective graphemic systems.
compound grapheme ʣʸǡˤϢ³2ʸǤɬפʤ"[d]iscontinuous compound grapheme" Ϣ³ʣʸǡˤ⤢ꤦ롥ѸΡ#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) Ǥꡤ<name> <site> ˤơ<a .. e> <i .. e> Ϣ³Ȥ߹碌ˤ2첻 /eɪ/ /aɪ/ ɽ蘆Ƥ롥
ʣʸǤˡϡˤ롥Robert ΰѤǼƤ褦ˡ<th> ȤʣʸǤϡñʸ <t> <h> Ȥ߹蘆äκۤƤʤ顤ñʸǤ뵡ǽ̤ƤȤ¤롥<t> <h> ñΤʸǤȤ1Ǥɽ魯ǽͭ뤬ƱˡΤˤϡͽۤ2ǤǤϤʤ̤1ǤˤбΤλŦϡʣʸǤȤϡΤΤΤ褦ʹ뤫⤷ʤǶĴΤϡʸ˥եåȤɽ븽ԤαѸˤƤϡ<th> ȤʸȤˡ(1) 2Ĥñʸ <t>, <h> ̤λʤǤν¤ΤʤΤ뤤 (2) 1Ĥʣʸ <th> ƤΤȽǤǤʤȤȤ(1) (2) ʸΥ٥뤬ۤʤäƤꡤ餫νʬäƤ褵ʤΤեåȤ th ɽ롥㤨С<catham> <catholic> ˤơƱɤ <th> ǤԤ (1)Ԥ (2) ȤƵǽƤ롥(*)<cat-ham>, *<ca(th)olic> ʤɤȡǫ˶̤ˡäƤ褵ŪˤϹԤƤʤʤɤʬɤϡʸŪȽǤˡǤζڤ꤬ɤǤ뤫ȤȽǡ뤤ϸȤƤǧΤ˺ѤޤƤΤǤ롥СѸ켰ʣʸǤλѤϡʬŪǤ졤ֻɽäƤ뤳ȤξںǤ롥
ΡʣʸǤפϤۤˤ櫓ǤʤŪˤϤ礭ǤϤʤ⤷ʤκۤƱ <th> ˸ʤ⡤2Ĥΰۤʤ٥ǵǽƤǽȤȤϡʸαդ٤Ǥ뤳ȤǧʤФʤʤǽŪ˥٥ΰۤʤΤ̤ʤ˥եåȤ¤٤ȤפǤ롥
Hall, Robert A., Jr. "A Theory of Graphemics." Acta Linguistica 8 (1960): 13--20.
űѸ줫Ѹˤơ̾ʸư̾-ing ȸʬ -inde (or -ende or -ande) ŪͻŪʺФȤϡε#2421. ʬư̾ζƯŪȯã ([2015-12-13-1]) Dz⤷ȤǤ롥ŪˡѸʹߡ-ing Ȥͣη֤ư̾줪Ӹʬξǽ̤ƤȤˤʤä
Ѹˤơ嵭 -ing -inde ˲ä -en(ne) ⲻŪʺ˻ͿƤΤǤϤʤȤ롥θϤ夤첻ȼ夤ɡħŤ졤ʬ -inde d æ뷹äꤹ (cf. #2121. Ѹˤˤ /t/ æ ([2015-02-16-1])) Τˤ٤Ƥ /-ən/ ۤɤ˼̤Ƥޤäǽ롥Mustanoja (569--70) ϡθκˤޤؤˤĤơʤҤ٤Ƥ롥
One has to take into consideration . . . certain phonological and morphological processes which seem to have brought about a confusion between the verbal noun, the present participle, and the infinitive. . . . [T]he present participle occasionally ends in -en instead of -end, as in he saȝ þe roke And þe brinfires stinken smoke (Gen. & Ex. 1164), probably also in þat heo heora wil-daȝes wælden weoren (Lawman A 1799), and the inflected infinitive may end in -ende, as in to flende (Lawman B, to fleonne, A) and suffraunce may aswagend hem (Patience 3; cf. also Purity 1291). In the North and N Midlands, in the 15th century even in the South, -ng may occur as -n (e.g., drynkyn for drynkyng, Norfolk Gilds). Cf. also unknowen for unknowyng (Deonise 5, MS Kk) and, conversely, I am moche beholdyng [for beholden] unto hym (Malory MD 86).
While admitting that the examples here given are uneven with regard to their chronology and dialectal distribution, it is difficult to believe that this confusion of forms did not bring the noun in -ing into close connection with the present participle and the infinitive and thus promote its use as the gerund.
ϤޤϲŪʼ岽ȤʾäΤ⤷ʤ줬Ūͻ߽Ф쵡ǽξͶȯȤʥꥪΤǤСޤ˸첻μ岽ޤοƤӡSVOؤθȤѸ˾ΥʥߥåѲ⤦1ĤλȤʤ롥ѲˤƤϡΤ褦ˡְưפȤ롥
Mustanoja εƤǤϿʤ嵭ɾˤϡƱͻäȽɬפ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ѸǤϡʬ (present participle) ư̾ (gerund) Ʊ -ing Ȥ뤬εǽϲʬƤ롥2Ĥνư礷ơ-ing פȸƤʸˡȤ⤤뤬Ū˸ƤʬƤΤˤŪʻ𤬤롥Ťϸʬư̾ϡǽκϤ뤳Ȥʤ顤ŪˤΤ˰ۤʤäƤĤޤꡤ2νưϡϴΩƤˤǸߤߴäƤȤаޤ롥ʲ (118--20, 187--91) ȤơʽŪͿ褦
űѸǤϡư̾ȸƤ֤Ȥεǽϡto դˤäɽ蘆Ƥư -ing ղä֤ϤˤϤäϽ̾Ǥꡤ줿̾ϡߤư̾ȰۤʤꡤưȤƤۤȤɤ⤿ʤ̾äξ֤ϡۤѸΤ³ѸѸˤơ褦䤯 -ing (1) Ū(2) ȶ(3) λư֤ǽȤʤꡤ(4) ̳ʤμʤɡưŪʤӤӤ褦ˤʤäΤ褦ˡư̾̾ȤƽȯȤȤ˾ưȤƤʤƤäʸˡܤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ʬϡűѸ줫Ѹ̤ơ-inde, -ende, -ande ʤɤθȼä¸ߤʸѰۤˤĤƤѸä#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) ȡ˵ϿޤȡˡѰ۷ΤʤǤ -inde ϡޤưפ /in/ Ȥʤäư̾ -ing ޤƱͤ /in/ Ȥʤ뤫顤ư̾ȸʬϲŪͻ礹ǽƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ŪͻβǽȤơǤξԤεǽϤɤˤɸŪˤСϤΤϡbe + (on) + -ingפȤʸǤȹͤƤ롥űѸbēon + -indeפʤɤ칽¤ԤʤƤ13ʹߡ嵭β־ͻˤbe + -ingפƤ롥űѸǤϡֻ -ing ̾Ѥbēon + on + -ingפιʸԤʤƤֻ on Ū˼岽[on] > [ən] > [ə] > [ø] ȺǽŪ˾üƤޤȡŪˤιʸιʸƱΡbe + -ingפؼ̤ʳˤơư̾줪ӸʬȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤ2Ĥνư줬֡Ū˷ӤĤ뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ롥
嵭ȯŸβѸʸˤŪ˼Сʲ̤ˤʤ롥3ʸɽ魯̣ζդ줿
(a) The king is on hunting.
(b) The king is a-hunting.
(c) The king is hunting.
ޤȤСʬư̾ϡ֡γ¦̤ˤߤ˺Ѥʤ顤ƯŪȯãƤȤȤǤ롥踽ʬɽ魯 -inde ư̾ưŪʤͿ̾ɽ魯 -ing ϸʬˤβ֤ߤФΤǤ롥
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
ʸεˤĤƸȤȤʤΤϡΤ褦ʿޤΤ褦ʡʸɤפȤ٤ʸʳΤΤĤʸȤʤΤȤǤ롥#2389. ʸηϤεȯã (1) ([2015-11-11-1])#2390. ʸηϤεȯã (2) ([2015-11-12-1])#2399. ݷʸǯɽ ([2015-11-21-1])#2416. ʸη (4) ([2015-12-08-1]) εǤϡΡʳפΤΤֳסֳʸסֻϸʸפʤɤ͡˸ƤǤ
ʸʸɤζ̤ΤˤĤ뤳ȤŪˤСʸȤϡŪθŪñ̤ȷӤĤǤꡤΤ褦ñ̤ȴϢŤƤʤ褦ʵϡܥȸƤ֤٤ΤųŪʰʪ˻ĤƤ뺯פĤ顤ɤνִ֤顤ˤʸ褦ˤʤΤꤹ뤳Ȥ1Ĥܰ¤Ȥơʸ餷פ˼̼Ūʳ褫æơŪˡ뤤ϴŪѷƤ뤫Ȥब롥ȤΤϡ䤹ŪشάƤȤȤϡκפơ餯θŪñ̤ȷӤĤƤ뤳Ȥ뤫
ʸȤƤγΩʤʤŪñ̤Ȥ̩ʴطˤȡκפγٹ礤Ȥϡɬפ櫓ǤϤʤȤϡΤˤФϢư뤬§ȤΩ2Ĥμªɬפ롥2ĤƱ뤷Ƥޤȡޤʸˤʤ餶뤽ʳΤΤʸפȸƾΤĤġʸǤ륨ץʸֳʸȸƤ֤Ȥ褦ˡѸκ (cf. #2399. ݷʸǯɽ ([2015-11-21-1])ˡ
ǡļˡˤȤäޥȥåƤߤκפʤꡤܥʤꡤʳʸʤϡΥޥȥåŬʰ֤֤ϤǤ롥ƤäݤޤǤϤ뤬Ǥ褦
Ū ŪʴŪ
Ū
ֳʸ ùμ Ͽ
ŷ
ԥȥ
ʸ ̾ ե٥å
ݷʸ
Ū
ε#2418. ꥷƥѸˤ <oe> ([2015-12-10-1]) ˰³ <ae> ֻˤĤơUpward and Davidson (219--20) ȤĤļ夲롥
ꥷ <oi> ŵƥޤǤ <oe> ȤƼ褦ˤʤäƤΤƱͤˡꥷ <ai> ϥƥؤ <ae> ȤƼ줿 (ex. G aigis > L aegis) Ż (digraph) ɽ蘆줿2첻ϸŵʹߤΥƥdz경ᡤֻ <ae> <e> ñΤɽ蘆褦ˤʤääơѸǤϡŵʹߤΥƥեʤɤäˤƤ <e> ŵƥľܻȤƤμѸ֤ľˤƤ <ae> 褦ˤʤäñˤäƤϡꥷΥꥸʥ <oi> ȹ碌ơ3ֻβǽˤĤäƤ㤬 (ex. daimon, daemon, demon; cainozoic, caenozoic, cenozoic)
ѸǤ <ae> ֤뤳Ȥ⤢ä <e> ؤñ㲽夷⾯ʤʤ(a)enigma, (a)ether, h(a)eresy, hy(a)ena, ph(a)enomenon, sph(a)ere ʤɤǤ롥ޤ˺ <ae> ݻƤΤϡꥹֻˤäǤ롥aegis, aeon, aesthetic, aetiology, anaemia, archaeology, gynaecology, haemorrhage, orthopaedic, palaeography, paediatrics ʤɤȤʤ뤬ꥫֻǤ <e> ñ㲽뤳Ȥ¿Michael Ȥ̾⡤<ae> ݼ餷Ƥ롥
ʤ20ޤǤϡ<oe> (ligature) <œ> Ȥư뤳Ȥ̤äΤƱͤˡ<ae> ̾ <æ> ȤưƤޤaerial <æ> ñ <e> ֤뤳ȤʤΤϡ줬ꥷ aerios ̤ΤǤꡤ2Ż <ai> ͳ褹ΤǤϤʤޤǸʸȤ߹碌 <a> + <e> ͳ褹ΤǤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Ѹ <amoeba>, <Oedipus>, <onomatopoeia> ʤɤֻ˸Ż () ηˤ꽾 <e> <oe> Ѥ줿ꡤԤƤѤȤʤʤɡñˤäƤɤ줬ä褦㤨 Phoebus, Phoenician, phoenix ʤɤϸ츻ŪֻȿǤƤꡤޤ夷Ƥ뤬<comoedy>, <tragoedy> ʤɤ夷ʤä
Ѹֻ <oe> κѤưŤʹߤ˼Ѥ줿ƥꥷä츻ŪֻηˤȤСʤ줬μθäФäƴѻ뤫롥ޤ<oe> ϡŵͳ褹ͭ̾ŵŪ˸롥Oedipus, Euboea, Phoebe तꥷޤθŵλʪǰɽ魯⡤ <oe> ݻ䤹 (ex. oecist, poecile) ʳѸʤɤä⡤<oe> ڤŵŪʸǤ (ex. amoeba, oenothera, oestrus dioecious, diarrhoea, homoeostasis, pharmacopoeia, onomatopoeic)
ʤ<oe> 16ʹߤΰˤơ (ligature) <œ> Ȥɽ뤳Ȥ̤ä<oe> ȯˤĤƤϡꥹѸǤ /iː/ бꥫѸǤ /i/ 뤤ϵ /ɛ/ б뤳ȤŦƤޤϾʤեѸͳ褹 <oe> ⤢뤳ȤźƤ (ex. oeil-de-boeuf, oeillade, oeuvre)
ʾ OED o ιफεҤ Upward and Davidson (221--22) ȤƼɮ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ʸѤդȤΤϡäդФݼŪǤ롥ΤȤϡޤǤʸդ˴ؤ뵭ˤȤƤˤĤƤϡ㤨С#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1])#753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1])#2292. ֻȯϥפǤĤʤ줿2ۤΥܡȡ ([2015-08-06-1])#2405. ֻȯЪΥ --- ѸֻԵ§μŪװ ([2015-11-27-1]) Ȥ줿
ʸˤϡݼ˲äơä˸ˤƤƿäʸɤ߽ǽϤϡøˤΤ߽ǧ줿̩εǽǤꡤϸϤҿݻˤ⤢ä礭äޤ¯ŪʸϤȽŪʰҿʬΤǤä顤ȶӤĤʸޤּפ뷹äƿ뤯餤˼ʸǤ뤫顤ϼԤ佡ͤ䤹䤹ȤѲϤʤʸݼƿ̩ܤ˴طƤ롥
ʸΤŪʻ˭٤ˤ롥#2408. ץʸˤߤѰۤȻΤѲ ([2015-11-30-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡѲʤäȹͤʸʥҥաˤλ㤬뤷Ʊ褦ʥδ俽ˤˤߤ롥ƣ (172) ϡե٥åȤȯե˥ͤƿˤĤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ۤɥե٥åȤȯڤ˹ե˥ͤǤä鼫ȤϼʬΤȤʸΡּפȤȤѤǡοʸƼѰʾΤΡĤޤʸؤȤůؤȤȤϤޤꤷʤä褦Ǥ롥ФǤʤϤʸǤ뤷Ⱦ塦ʸ⤢ޤΤƤʤͳϡԻԹǤϡøƤ羦ͤƬʤˤȤˤ̩åȡˤƤȹͤƤ롥
ʤΰѤμǡƣ (172) ϡ֤椨ꥷͤե٥åȤˤ褻ϡñ첻εä襳ϤȤŪʤΤ⡤μѤʸǤ줿طݤʸ뤷ȡĤޤϤƥե٥åȤ˳طݤκȤǤäȤäƤ褤ǤפȤҤ٤Ƥꡤ̣ꥷʸϡ̩ۤ˴٤ʤäȤȤ
ʸݼ˴ؤ⤦1ĤװȤơʸηϤϸʾθҲۤƹŤȤ𤬤뤫⤷ʤ郎ơ̤θˤŬѤ䤹Ȥˤʤ뤫顤ɤӤΨ⤤ϰܤɤĹĤ뤫顤ʬݼŪפ˸Ȥװ뤫⤷ʤ㤨СǴǤӤȤƤ⡤ܸǻĤꤵСȤʸηϤ¸³뤳ȤˤʤꡤĹǡݼŪפȸӥ (77) ϡǤӤ䤹Фʸ¸Ψι⤵ˤĤơΤ褦ɽƤ롥
Ĥλˤ⡤οʸοϤ뤫˾롥ʸ⤺äȴñ˾ǤƤޤʸΤۤϡ˱Ѥ줿ǡ깭Ȥ褦ˤʤ뤳Ȥ᤺餷ʤʸˤäƤϤȤ٤ʤ餺롥ܸʸꥷΥե٥åȤäȤץȤޥΥҥդϡϤʤäʸʤĤäǤꤹΤͳ꤫ǤϤʤñ㤵䡤ޤɽǤ뤫ɤĤηˤʤΤǤʤȤϳΤ⤷ä顤Ͼäե٥åȤ˼ä줿ܿͤѤ뤳ȤʤäˤʤкѤϡʸΰҿƽפʸ¸ߡȤΤ٤ƤʸŪʱ̿ôΤ
ƣ Ϻؾݷʸ١̼ҡҹ̼ҳؽʸˡӡ2012ǯ
ӥɥ롼ˡһ ۻҡˡʸεˡҥաե٥åȡ١ϸҡ2006ǯ
ɸ˴ϢƤϡʲεǰäƤ
#2414. ʸǯɽʥӥǡˡ ([2015-12-06-1])
#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1])
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])
#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])
#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])
#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])
#1853. ʸη (2) ([2014-05-24-1])
#2389. ʸηϤεȯã (1) ([2015-11-11-1])
#2390. ʸηϤεȯã (2) ([2015-11-12-1])
#2398. ʸη (3) ([2015-11-20-1])
#2399. ݷʸǯɽ ([2015-11-21-1])
ϡӥˤʸηϤ뤤ϽηϤηޤ
ʸ
ϸʸɹϻƶɲ衤ꥫ轻̱γʸ¿ƻϩɸؤȲʳؤε桤
ϸʸ
ġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġȽġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġġ
ʸ
ʸ
ƥ
Ҳƥ
ե٥åȡƥ
ƥ ɽ졦ƥਢ ɽ졦Ҳƥਢ Ҳե٥åȨ ǥե٥å ɽ졦ǥե٥åȨ
ʸ B ʸץʸե˥ʸ ꥷʸ Ѹʸ
ܸΤʸ إ֥饤ʸ ƥʸʥʸ˨եʸ
ʸ ޥʸ ӥʸ եɸʸ īʸ
Ѹֻ John Hart (c. 1501--74) ˤĤơ#1994. John Hart ˤ츻ŪֻؤȽ ([2014-10-12-1])#1942. 츻Ūֻνᤰäơ ([2014-08-21-1])#1940. 16ֻԤη ([2014-08-19-1])#1939. 16ˡᤰ ([2014-08-18-1])#1407. Ѹ3Ĥ ([2013-03-04-1])#583. ɥĸ켰̾ƬʸѤϱѸˤ⤢ä ([2010-12-01-1])#441. Richard Mulcaster ([2010-07-12-1]) εǸڤƤ
Hart ϡɽΩˤֻפε˯Ǥꡤ1ʸ1פۤؤʤƤ³ William Bullokar (fl. 1586) ȤȤˡޤƤŪäˡο͡ˤޤȤ˼夲뤳ȤϤʤäǤ⡤Hart ƤΤʤǡ˷̤Ȥɸֻ˺Ѥ줿פʹܤ2Ĥ롥<u> <v> ʬ <i> <j> ʬǤ롥줾ʬγפˤĤƤϡ#373. <u> <v> ʬ (1) ([2010-05-05-1])#374. <u> <v> ʬ (2) ([2010-05-06-1])#1650. ʸǤȤƤ j Ω ([2013-11-02-1]) ǿ줿̤տŪ˶ʤ褦Ȥʪ Hart οͤäHorobin (120--21) ϡ Hart ιˤĤơΤ褦ɾƤ롥
In many ways Hart's is a sensible, if slightly over-idealized, view of the spelling system. Some of the reforms introduced by him have in fact been adopted. Before Hart the letter <j> was not a separate letter in its own right; in origin it is simply a variant form of the Roman letter <I>. In Middle English it was used exclusively as a variant of the letter <i> where instances appear written together, as in lijf 'life', and is common in Roman numerals, such as iiij for the number 4. . . . Hart advocated using the letter <j> as a separate consonant to represent the sound /dʒ/, as we still do today. A similar situation surrounds the letters <u> and <v>, which have their origins in the single Roman letter <V>. In the Middle English period they were positional variants, so that <v> appeared at the beginning of words and <u> in the middle of words, irrespective of whether they represented the vowel or consonant sound. Thus we find Middle English spellings like vntil, very, loue, and much. Hart's innovation was to make <u> the vowel and <v> the consonant, so that their appearance was dependent upon use, rather than position in the word.
ˡˤĤʤ2ФʸǤʬˤĤơHart ΤߤιǤ櫓ˤϤʤΥǥƤΤ٤Ƥˢ˵櫓ǤϤʤäȤȤõƤ褤
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1]) Ȥεĥäǡʸǯɽϲ٤ϥӥ (12) ǯɽʤ˾ܤơͭѡ
| ɹϻʵ25,000ǯʹߡ | ֻϸʸפλ塥ʸŪߥ˥ |
| 8000ǯʹ | ǴڤΡ֥ȡפ˻Ȥ롥 |
| 3300ǯ | 饯Υ륯ǡͤǴĤ˵ߤϤ롥 |
| 3100ǯ | ݥߥܸʸλѤϤޤ롥 |
| 3100ǯ?3000ǯ | ץȤǥҥդλѤϤޤ롥 |
| 2500ǯ | ѥɤ˥ʸȯ |
| 18 | 쥿ʸAи |
| 1792ǯ?1750ǯ | ХӥϥӤμϥˡŵǤ˹ޤ롥 |
| 17?16 | ѥ쥹ʤǡǸŤΤΤȤ륢ե٥åȤ롥 |
| 1450ǯ | 쥿ʸBи |
| 14 | ꥢΥåȤǥե٥åŪܸʸȤ롥 |
| 1361ǯ?1352ǯ | ץȡĥμ |
| 1285ǯ | ǥ襤ॻ2ȥҥåȷ |
| 1200 | ιιùʸǤϤޤ롥 |
| 1000ǯ | 泤ǥե˥ե٥åȤλѤϤޤ롥 |
| 8 | ̥ꥢ˥ȥꥢե٥åȤи |
| 650ǯ | ץȤǥҥդǥƥåǤ롥 |
| 600ǯ | ꥫǥޥʸʳʸˤλѤϤޤ롥 |
| 521ǯ?486ǯ | ڥ륷쥤μ٥ҥȥʸܸʸɤΥȤʤäˤޤ롥 |
| 400ǯ | ˥ե٥åȤɸΥꥷե٥åȤˤʤ롥 |
| 270ǯ?232ǯ | ̥ɤǥ֥顼եʸȥƥʸˤꡤ硼ļ˹ޤ롥 |
| 221ǯ | īδס |
| 2 | ǻ椬ȯ롥 |
| 1 | ܤࡿإ֥饤ʸǵ롥 |
| 75ǯ | ܸʸκǸʸ롥 |
| 2 | ̥衼åѤ˥롼ʸи |
| 394ǯ | ץȤΥҥդˤǸʸ롥 |
| 615ǯ?683ǯ | ᥭǥѥ벦ŵޥԻԥѥۡ |
| 712ǯ | ܺǸŤʸءظŻٴʴǽƤˡ |
| 800ǯ | ǰѤȯ롥 |
| 9 | ǥ롦ե٥åȤͰƤ롥 |
| 1418ǯ?1450ǯ | ĩβμϥ롦ե٥åȤͰƤ롥 |
| 15 | 衼åѤ1ʸĤβưγͰƤ롥 |
| 1560ǯ | 楫ȾǥǥǡޥΡ֥ե٥åȡפϿ |
| 1799ǯ | ץȤǥåȡȯ롥 |
| 1821ǯ | ꥫ轻̱ˤ²Ρ֥ե٥åȡפͰƤ롥 |
| 1823ǯ | ץȤΥҥդݥꥪˤɤ롥 |
| 1840ǯʹ | ҥˤݥߥܸʸβɡ |
| 1867ǯ | ץ饤ȯ |
| 1899ǯ | ǹùʸιޤ줿ιȯ롥 |
| 1900ǯ | ˤ륯ΥåȯʸA, BƱꡥ |
| 1905ǯ | ʥȾΥ顼ӥȡ롦ϡǥǥԡȥʥʸȯ |
| 1908ǯ | 쥿ǡ֥եȥαספȯ롥 |
| 1920ǯ | ʸȯ |
| 1940ǯ | Żҷʥԥ塼ˤȯ |
| 1948ǯ | إ֥饤줬饨θѸȤʤ롥 |
| 1953ǯ | ȥꥹˤʸBβɡ |
| 1950ǯʹ | ޥʸβɡ |
| 1958ǯ | ΥԥƳ |
| 1980ǯ | ɥץåȯʸŻҲ롥 |
| 2012ǯ1223 | ޥǸߤ祵뤬 |
ɸ ethnomethodology ʥΥɥˤϡ1967ǯ˥ꥫμҲؼ Harold Garfinkel κФѸǤꡤ쥳ߥ˥˴ؤҲŪʥץؤäδäȤʤ뵬ϡꡤQõ뤳ȤŪȤ롥 (anthropological linguistics)Ҳ (sociolinguistics)ʬ (conversation analysis)٤̱² (ethnography_of_speaking) ʤɤΰȽŤʤʬꡤغŪʬǤ롥Trudgill μҲѸ켭ŵꡤϢ4ĤѸβͿ
ethnomethodology A branch of sociology which has links with certain sorts of sociolinguistics such as conversation analysis because of its use of recorded conversational material as data. Most ethnomethodologists, however, are generally not interested in the language of conversation as such but rather in the content of what is said. They study not language or speech, but talk. In particular, they are interested in what is not said. They focus on the shared common-sense knowledge speakers have of their society which they can leave unstated in conversation because it is taken for granted by all participants.
ethnography of speaking A branch of sociolinguistics or anthropological linguistics particularly associated with the American scholar Dell Hymes. The ethnography of speaking studies the norms and rules for using language in social situations in different cultures and is thus clearly important for cross-cultural communication. The concept of communicative competence is a central one in the ethnography of speaking. Crucial topics include the study of who is allowed to speak to who --- and when; what types of language are to be used in different contexts; how to do things with language, such as make requests or tell jokes; how much indirectness it is normal to employ; how often it is usual to speak, and how much one should say; how long it is permitted to remain silent; and the use of formulaic language such as expressions used for greeting, leave-taking and thanking.
ethnography of communication A term identical in reference to ethnography of speaking, except that nonverbal communication is also included. For example, proxemics --- the study of factors such as how physically close to each other speakers may be, in different cultures, when communicating with one another --- could be discussed under this heading.
conversation analysis An area of sociolinguistics with links to ethnomethodology which analyses the structure and norms of conversation in face-to-face interaction. Conversation analysts look at aspects of conversation such as the relationship between questions and answers, or summonses and responses. They are also concerned with rules for conversational discourse, such as those involving turn-taking; with conversational devices such as discourse markers; and with norms for participating in conversation, such as the rules for interruption, for changing topic, for overlapping between one speaker and another, for remaining silent, for closing a conversation, and so on. In so far as norms for conversational interaction may vary from society to society, conversation analysis may also have links with cross-cultural communication and the ethnography of speaking. By some writers it is opposed to discourse analysis.
ethnomethodology ϡεǽ (function_of_language) Ȥˤ⵿ꤲ롥ȤΤϡethnomethodology ϡߥ˥ƻȤƤǤϤʤŤƻȤƤȤ館뤫Wardhaugh (272) ۩"people use language not only to communicate in a variety of ways, but also to create a sense of order in everyday life."
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ʳؤȤƤθؤǤϡդϤȤˤĤƿøȤळȤϤʤ#1876. ġ ([2014-06-16-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡդϤϸˤΤ¸ߤ롥#1455. gematria ([2013-04-21-1]) ʤɤθꤤꡤʸʩ̾ηӤꡤ֡δȤȤƤնɽλѤꡤŪʡֵؼоݡפƱ뤷 (#1770. semiotic triangle դľܤˤĤʤäƤȤθ ([2014-03-02-1])) դؤΰڤϡ褷ŪʤΤȤऱ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ޤƤˤƤϡդϿ˸ŪʰݤоݤäȤ櫓դϰڤ줿ϽĶĶȤħˤϢȻפ뤬θϤҿȤװ⤢äʸɤ߽ǤԤø˸¤Ƥꡤ͡ĶŪǽϤͭԤȿƤˤʤʸϡ줬ɽ魯λؼоݤ۵뤬椨ˡʤʤǽ椨ˡ˰ڤ줿ƱˡԤϤ۵뤬椨ˤ⡤ڤ줿ΤǤϤʤ
տŪ˹ߤĤ줿פԤ۵ȤȤǤСʸ˸¤餺䵭Ǥ褤ºݡʸ뤺ä顤Ŀ͡²ȤʤɤɸϽڤƤ롥ϤΤνͭꡤҿؼΤѤ줿ȹͤ졤ΰͭ븢ϼԤ۵ǤˤäƤ롥ʸϤϡʳˤäϤѤΤȸ뤳ȤǤ˴ؤƣ (101) θŪǤ롥
ʤȡʸʸȤƤθϤ⤿ʤΤȤϺΤѤϤʤۤɰȤΤΤڤǤäΤǡʸˤ餤äƤ⡤פʰ̣äƤ롥Ǥϴλʸ٤ʬäΤ˱ơϤ٤ФȯãΰãȤäƤ褤٤ˤϡˤäȽ褤
ȤäơˤʤäƵޤ˰λѤˤʤäȤǤϤʤϼ¤ͪפΤ顤ꥨȤǤ⥤ɤǤǤȤƤʸˤϤǯˤʤʤɤ⡤ϤϤ٤̤롥ʸ˸ŤΤ롥ʸǤƤʤ顤ΰϤʸͤ䳨äƤäά͡ʺ״ˡʸȯơ䤬ưˤʸ褦ˤʤ뤬ȤʸȤϿϤĤΤǤäʸˤޤڤ˽äơ⼡¿οͤȤ褦ˤʤäǯäƤϤϤñˤϾǤʤԤʤɤǡܿͤˤФФˤ뤬ʤɤ⤽Ϥ̾Ĥ˰㤤ʤ
ܤΰʸ⡤ۤΤ⤦1ĤȤȤˤʤ롥
ƣ ʸʸˡ١ȽŹ1971ǯ1991ǯ
ѸΥե٥åȤ23ʸܤ <w> ϡѸǤ double u ȾΤ뤬եǤ double vé ȾΤ (cf. Italian doppio vu, Spanish uve doble, Portuguese vê dobrado) θƤΰ㤤ϡ<u> <v> ƱʸǤȤǧƤκƱ˴ŤƤ (cf. #373. <u> <v> ʬ (1) ([2010-05-05-1])#374. <u> <v> ʬ (2) ([2010-05-06-1]))
Ȥȥƥˤ <w> ʸϤʤ/w/ <v> 뤤 <u> ʸɽƤŵʹߡ7ޤǤ /w/ ΤҲŪ /v/ ؤȯãǤȤƤʸǤȤƤ w ϾäƤäθλˤĤơ (73) ˸äƤ餪
ȤƥǤϾü [w] ϡޥϸǤħŪ˻ĤäƤäˡƬˤƤ [w] ϸǡɤƤ [w] ɽ椬ɬפȤʤä7˰ֶᤤɽ魯 u Ťͤ uu ȤɽˡȯΤǤ롥w ̾ double-u ϤΤȤ褯ɽ路Ƥ롥եǤϡdouble-v [dublve] ȸƤФ롥
Τ褦ˤȯ줿 uu ϥΥޥǥ˹ꡤΥޥեΤʤΥޥ˻Ĥ [w] ɽʸȤƻȤ줿ɤǤ8ˡuu ϥ롼ʸѤ ƿ (wen) ˤȤäؤƼ˻Ȥʤʤä uu 11˥Υޥͤˤä w ȤƵ͢ΤǤ롥
Τ褦ʤȤ顤Ƭ w ĸդΤۤȤɤ졤뤤ϡޥϤθդǤ롥㤨Сway, wake, walk, week, west, wide, work, word, world Ǥꡤwindow, want, weak, wing ʤɤϥǡͤ⤿餷դǤꡤwait, war, ward, wage, wicket, wise, warranty ʤɤϥΥޥͤ⤿餷ޥ쵯θդǤ롥
OED W, n. θ츻ȡűѸǤϤĤ Northumbrian ΥƥȤ <uu> λѤ§Ūä8˥롼ʸ <ƿ> (West-Saxon wynn, Kentish wenn) ֤줿θ塤<ƿ> 1300ǯ餤˾ǤƤ롥
ơ"double u" "double v" űѸˤ <v> ¸ߤʤäθѸ˻ޤ <v> <u> ΰʸΤȤȤ館ƤΤ褦ʻ𤫤顤Ѹˤ <w> θƾΤȤ "u" Ѥ졤"double u" ȤƸꤷΤԻĤǤϤʤΥޥեˤƤϻҲȤƤ <v> Ǥ¸ߤƤꡤѸ줫Ƴ줿οʸ⡤<v> Ʊͤ˻Ҳɽ魯ΤѤ줿ᡤ<v> νŤʤäȤƷޤ졤"double v" ȸƤФ褦ˤʤäΤ
<w> ȴϢơ#1825. <F> εȯŸ ([2014-04-26-1]) ε⻲Ȥ줿
رѸθ츻ŵ١罤۽Ź1990ǯ
ɸνѸϡü register ʻѰ衤ˤ°ɽ魯ߤ˽Ťʤʬ¿Τ̩ޤϡWilliams (203--04) ˤѸˤĤƤѤ褦
Cant (related to chant, and originally the whining pleas of beggars) is often used to refer particularly to the language of thieves, gypsies, and such. But it has also been used to refer to the specialized language of any occupation, particularly to the mechanical and mindless repetition of special words and phrases.
Argot (a French word of unknown etymology), usually refers to the secret language of the underworld, though it too has also been used to refer to any specialized occupational vocabulary---the argot of the racetrack, for example. Jargon (once meaning the warbling of birds) is usually used by someone unfamiliar with a particular technical language to characterize his annoyed and puzzled response to it. Thus one man's technical vocabulary is another's jargon. Feature, shift, transfer, artifactual, narrowing, acronym, blend, clip, drift---all these words belong to the vocabulary of semantic change and word formation, the vocabulary of historical linguistics. But for anyone ignorant of the subject and unfamiliar with the terms, such words would make up its jargon. Thus cant, argot, and jargon are words that categorize both by classing and by judging.
Slang (of obscure origin) has many of the same associations. It has often been used as a word to condemn "bad" words that might pollute "good" English---even destroy the mind. . . . / But . . . slang is a technical terms like the terms grammatical and ungrammatical---a neutral term that categorizes a group of novel words and word meanings used in generally casual circumstances by a cohesive group, usually among its members, not necessarily to hide their meanings but to signal their group membership.
Trudgill Ѹ켭ŵ˥ȥΤ롤slang, argot, jargon, antilanguage ˤĤƤѤ롥
slang Vocabulary which is associated with very informal or colloquial styles, such as English batty (mad) or ace (excellent). Some items of slang, like ace, may be only temporarily fashionable, and thus come to be associated with particular age-groups in a society. Other slang words and phrases may stay in the language for generation. Formerly slang vocabulary can acquire more formal stylistic status, such as modern French tête (head) from Latin testa (pot) and English bus, originally an abbreviation of omnibus. Slang should not be confused with non-standard dialect. . . . Slang vocabulary in English has a number of different sources, including Angloromani, Shelta and Yiddish, together with devices such as rhyming slang and back slang as well as abbreviation (as in bus) and metaphor, such as hot meaning 'stolen' or 'attractive'.
argot /argou/ A term sometimes used to refer to the kinds of antilanguage whose slang vocabulary is typically associated with criminal groups.
jargon . . . . A non-technical term used of the register associated with a particular activity by outsiders who do not participate in this activity. The use of this term implies that one considers the vocabulary of the register in question to be unnecessarily difficult and obscure. The register of law may be referred to as 'legal jargon' by non-lawyers.
antilanguage A term coined by Michael Halliday to refer to a variety of a language, usually spoken on particular occasions by members of certain relatively powerless or marginal groups in a society, which is intended to be incomprehensible to other speakers of the language or otherwise to exclude them. Examples of groups employing forms of antilanguage include criminals. Exclusivity is maintained through the use of slang vocabulary, sometimes known as argot, not known to other groups, including vocabulary derived from other languages. European examples include the antilanguages Polari and Angloromany.
줾Ѹλؤϡ줾Ťʤ礤ʤ⡤ȼǤäƤ롥ϡơѸʸˤƶ̤ôäƤȤξںѸȤΤΤѸȼҲäƤꡤäѸ
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
#2392. ˡαѸȴˤˡܸ ([2015-11-14-1]) ˤ褦ˡܸ̾ɽˡǤʿ̾ʸϡźǤޤˤߤ뼫ͳ碌Ƥ롥ץȳؼԤβƣ (218) ϡहϡץʸ餤ʤΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
ܸʸϤȤȥʤȤŬ٤۹Ǥּͳפϡ奨ץȸˤɽʸɽʸ۹礷褦ʾСߤǤ¾ιˤۤȤΤʤּͳפǤμͳΤˡ䤿ϡʸˤɤˤ⡤̵ռΤˡ̵̤ʥͥ륮䤷ƤΤ⤷ʤޤμͳΤ餺Τ餺ΤˡΤʸϡפ֥ࡼɤˤʸϡפĤŤ館뷹䤿ΤˤĤƤ뤫⤷ʤȤ⤫μμͳϡƸ䳰ͤܤʸˡäưĤξ㳲ȤʤäƤΤǤϤʤ
ʤۤɡʿ̾ʸѶŪˤȤ館мͳȤʤ뤬öŪˤȤ館ΤǼŪȤȤˤʤ롥
ޤʿ̾ʸϡܸüԤˤȤäƤüԤˤȤäƤ⡤ؽ뤦Ǥ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤǤˤδ˴ƤޤäƤԤˤȤäƤϡˤΤɽʸηϤǤɽʸηϤǤʿ̾ߤƤȤΤϡξǤؤäƤȤȤλǤ⡤ɽʸηϤǤΤʤǤȻ̤ƤꡤʣȤȤ⡤ξդλˤĤơܸʸηϤȯãˤȴϢŤʤ顤ƣ (217--18) ʲΤ褦˱ԤƶƤ롥
ȤȴɽʸǤƱɽʸǤ뤬̾ϴɽդƤɽΤäʤʸϤ䤿ĹʤΤǡܸʸϤδ֤˴ΤޤȤ褦ˤʤäȸƤ֤ΤϡǴϻβ̵뤻ơܷߤ뤫Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤɽƤɽդΤ롥ޤβỌ̇̄ȤΤޤޤ˴ⶴߤࡥͻ̵ηȤϤʤη̤Ȥơ줬ƤعǤϡˤ¿λ֡Ȥǯην˽Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤä
ǤϡɽʸηϤǤܤˤƻ̾3ؤʬ3郎٤ѤƤ¤äȤȤ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ܤȯãʸηϤȤλˡˤĤơƣޤ⤦褦δ˷3Ĥ°äƤ뤳ȤȤȡܸɽΤȯã̾3ϡδ°Τ褦ݻѲꤷ
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hewayesterdayCHURCHnigotta.
٤Ƥϥե٥åȤȡѰۤǤ륤åΤʸǽƤ롥̾ΤʬϻǡʸΤʬϻǡåΤʬܸ첻ȤɤȤΤ롼Ǥ롥äơʸ /karewakinoːʧaːʧiniitta/ Ϻ㡼˹ԤäˤȲɤǤ롥
ʿ̾ʸŪɤǤԤϡΤ褦ʤȤ˼ƤΤǤ롥ʤäȤ⡤ɽʸǤɽʸǤ륢ե٥åȤȤƤΤǡȤˤϤʤʤ餺
ƣ Ϻؾݷʸ١̼ҡҹ̼ҳؽʸˡӡ2012ǯ
ƣ ʸʸˡ١ȽŹ1971ǯ1991ǯ
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