01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǯ衤ָѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) ȼʬ̾դ˴ؿ³Ƥ롥֥塼פˤϡѲ®١ϩȻνϤޤ륿ߥ륿ߥʤɤν꤬ޤޤƤꡤּ˱äƴѻѲμΥѥȤ館褦ȤտޤƤ롥
óȻ (lexical_diffusion) ˤޤĤŪͤФȤѲΥ塼ؤδؿνȯäθ塤ʸʤɤƤΤǡդǤäޤȤƤ⡤դäƤͽꡥ
Aitchison, Jean. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
Briscoe, Ted. "Evolutionary Perspectives on Diachronic Syntax." Diachronic Syntax: Models and Mechanisms. Ed. Susan Pintzuk, George Tsoulas, and Anthony Warner. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 75--105.
Britain, Dave. "Geolinguistics and Linguistic Diffusion." Sociolinguistics: International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society. Ed. U. Ammon et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2004.
Croft, William. Explaining Language Change: An Evolutionary Approach. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2000.
Denison, David. "Slow, Slow, Quick, Quick, Slow: The Dance of Language Change?" Woonderous Æ#nglissce: SELIM Studies in Medieval English Language. Ed. Ana Bringas López et al. Vigo: Universidade de Vigo (Servicio de Publicacións), 1999. 51--64.
Denison, David. "Log(ist)ic and Simplistic S-Curves." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 54--70.
Ellegård, A. The Auxiliary Do. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1953.
Fries, Charles C. "On the Development of the Structural Use of Word-Order in Modern English." Language 16 (1940): 199--208.
Görlach, Manfred. Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.
Hooper, Joan. "Word Frequency in Lexical Diffusion and the Source of Morphophonological Change." Current Progress in Historical Linguistics. Ed. William M. Christie Jr. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976. 95--105.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Leaders and Laggers of Language Change: Nominal Plural Forms in -s in Early Middle English." Journal of the Institute of Cultural Science (The 30th Anniversary Issue II) 68 (2010): 1--17.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Kroch, Anthony S. "Function and Grammar in the History of English: Periphrastic Do." Language Change and Variation. Ed. Ralph Fasold and Deborah Schiffrin. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 52. John Benjamins, 1989. 132--72.
Kroch, Anthony S. "Reflexes of Grammar in Patterns of Language Change." Language Variation and Change 1 (1989): 199--244.
Labov, William. Principles of Linguistic Change: Internal Factors. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994.
Lass, Roger. Phonology. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
Lass, Roger. Historical Linguistics and Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
Lieberman, Erez, Jean-Baptiste Michel, Joe Jackson, Tina Tang, and Martin A. Nowak. "Quantifying the Evolutionary Dynamics of Language." Nature 449 (2007): 713--16.
Lightfoot, David W. Principles of Diachronic Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.
Lightfoot, David W. "Cuing a New Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 24--44.
Matsuda, K. "Dissecting Analogical Leveling Quantitatively: The Case of the Innovative Potential Suffix in Tokyo Japanese." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 1--34.
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Nevalainen, T. and H. Raumolin-Brunberg. Historical Sociolinguistics. Harlow: Longman, 2003.
Niyogi, Partha and Robert C. Berwick. "A Dynamical Systems Model of Language Change." Linguistics and Philosophy 20 (1997): 697--719.
Ogura, Mieko. "The Development of Periphrastic Do in English: A Case of Lexical Diffusion in Syntax." Diachronica 10 (1993): 51--85.
Ogura, Mieko and William S-Y. Wang. "Snowball Effect in Lexical Diffusion: The Development of -s in the Third Person Singular Present Indicative in English." English Historical Linguistics 1994. Papers from the 8th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Derek Britton. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1994. 119--41.
Ogura, Mieko and William S-Y. Wang. "Evolution Theory and Lexical Diffusion." Advances in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak and Marcin Krygier. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1998. 315--43.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.
Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. 5th ed. New York: Free Press, 1995.
ҡָѲΣӻ֤ηŪ桽ϼˡʬϻӡסܸز137ݥָѲΥǥץϥɥȡء2008ǯ1130
Sapir, Edward. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1921.
Schlüter, Julia. "Weak Segments and Syllable Structure in ME." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 199--236.
Schuchardt, Hugo. Über die Lautgesetze: Gegen die Junggrammatiker. 1885. Trans. in Shuchardt, the Neogrammarians, and the Transformational Theory of Phonological Change. Ed. Theo Vennemann and Terence Wilbur. Frankfurt: Altenäum, 1972. 39--72.
Sherman, D. "Noun-Verb Stress Alternation: An Example of the Lexical Diffusion of Sound Change in English." Linguistics 159 (1975): 43--71.
ѡʬˤβȽưdoȯãΰ¦̡סThe Northern Review ̳ƻءˡ١121984ǯ47--57ǡ
Swadesh, Morris. "Lexico-Statistic Dating of Prehistoric Ethnic Contacts: With Special Reference to North American Indians and Eskimos." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 96 (1952): 452--63.
Wang, William S-Y. "Competing Changes as a Cause of Residue." Language 45 (1969): 9--25. Rpt. in Readings in Historical Phonology: Chapters in the Theory of Sound Change. Ed. Philip Baldi and Ronald N. Werth. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State UP, 1977. 236--57.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ѸֻɸಽˤϡȥɸŪʤΤ뤬ΥޥνѸˤϤ줬̵˵Ѹˤʤäƽ˺ɸಽѸɸಽʤߡ17--18ɸֻΩ绨ĤǤ롥γѤˤСѸֻɸबޤǤʤäȤȤˤʤ롥ϤǴְäƤϤʤֻɸȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤ٰӤֻȤȤǤСλˤĿͤ侮ĤΥ٥ǼƤפĤ롥褯ΤƤΤϡ(1) "AB language" ֻ, (2) Ormulum κ Orm ֻ(3) ֥ƥ Brut եǤ Laȝamon ֻǤ롥
(1) "AB language" ̾ϡƻΤλ Ancrene Wisse ޤ Cambridge, Corpus Christi College 402 Ȥ (= A) ȡϢ佡ޤ Oxford, Bodleian Library, Bodley 34 μ (=B) ͳ褹롥2ܡʵڤӴϢ뤤ĤμܡˤˤϡʤӤֻηϤѤƤꡤʣμ̻ˤäƤ줬ѤƤ뤳Ȥ顤餯13Ⱦˡνƻܼ濴Ȥʤäơɸֻ夲ߤʤƤΤȿ¬Ƥ롥
(2) Orm ϡLincolnshire ΥƥνƻΤǡ1200ǯˡʬ䤹ʪ Ormulum 路¸ͣΥƥȤ2ԤĶʸǤꡤ줬äۤɰӤֻǽƤ롥Orm ϡ첻̤ˤäƸ³ҲŤͤʤɤιɵ椷äֻηϤԤߤʬκʤǼΤǤ롥 Orm ֻϡ¾μܤˤहΤȯƤ餺ƸĿŪֻɸಽλϸ16θŪֻԤȤäƤ褤
(3) Laȝamon ϡWorcestershire λʺפǡ13Ƭ˱ʸǯ嵭ʸDZѸǤ˸ŤᤫʤäƤȤܤƬ (alliteration) 䡤ʸáֻ褵Υ른åʷϵ⤹ȤLaȝamon ϡºݤ˸űѸˤäֻɤ̤ȤơˤűѸֻռŪѤðۤǤꡤθĿŪֻɸಽλߤȤߤ뤳Ȥǽ
ʾ塤Horobin (98--102) ȤƼɮ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ܸˤϡֱפμ٤ʬƻؤä˭٤ˤꡤѸˤϡַפɽ魯줬ηƤΤμ˱ƻȤʬʡ#1894. Ѹ͡ʡַסܸ͡ʡֱס ([2014-07-04-1])#1868. Ѹ͡ʡַס ([2014-06-08-1]) ȡˡΤ褦äϡԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ˴ؤȤợ⤿롥ºݤˤϡΤ褦ʻ㤬ɤƱμĥʸȸ̩ܤʴطٻΤʤΤΤȽǤ뤳ȤΤȤϡ#364. The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax ([2010-04-26-1])#1337. ְñʸաס ([2012-12-24-1]) ʤɤεմƤ
Ǥ⡤μʹʹۤɤ⤷ȤΤ¤ǤꡤĤɤƤȻפäƤWardhaugh (234--35) ˡźθ줫λ㤬ƤΤǡʲ˰ѤƤ
If language A has a word for a particular concept, then that word makes it easier for speakers of language A to refer to that concept than speakers of language B who lack such a word and are forced to use a circumlocution. Moreover, it is actually easier for speakers of language A to perceive instances of the concept. If a language requires certain distinctions to be made because of its grammatical system, then the speakers of that language become conscious of the kinds of distinctions that must be referred to: for example, gender, time, number, and animacy. These kinds of distinctions may also have an effect on how speakers learn to deal with the world, i.e., they can have consequences for both cognitive and cultural development.
Data such as the following are sometimes cited in support of such claims. The Garo of Assam, India, have dozens of words for different types of baskets, rice, and ants. These are important items in their culture. However, they have no single-word equivalent to the English word ant. Ants are just too important to them to be referred to so casually. German has words like Gemütlichkeit, Weltanschauung, and Weihnachtsbaum; English has no exact equivalent of any one of them, Christmas tree being fairly close in the last case but still lacking the 'magical' German connotations. Both people and bulls have legs in English, but Spanish requires people to have piernas and bulls to have patas. Both people and horse eat in English but in German people essen and horses fressen. Bedouin Arabic has many words for different kinds of camels, just as the Trobriand Islanders of the Pacific have many words for different kinds of yams. Mithun . . . explains how in Yup'ik there is a rich vocabulary for kinds of seals. There are not only distinct words for different species of seals, such as maklak 'bearded seal,' but also terms for particular species at different times of life, such as amirkaq 'young bearded seal,' maklaaq 'bearded seal in its first year,' maklassuk 'bearded seal in its second year,' and qalriq 'large male bearded seal giving its mating call.' There are also terms for seals in different circumstances, such as ugtaq 'seal on an ice-floe' and puga 'surfaced seal.' The Navaho of the Southwest United States, the Shona of Zimbabwe, and the Hanunóo of the Philippines divide the color spectrum differently from each other in the distinctions they make, and English speakers divide it differently again. English has a general cover term animal for various kinds of creatures, but it lacks a term to cover both fruit and nuts; however, Chinese does have such a cover term. French conscience is both English conscience and consciousness. Both German and French have two pronouns corresponding to you, a singular and a plural. Japanese, on the other hand, has an extensive system of honorifics. The equivalent of English stone has a gender in French and German, and the various words must always be either singular or plural in French, German, and English. In Chinese, however, number is expressed only if it is somehow relevant. The Kwakiutl of British Columbia must also indicate whether the stone is visible or not to the speaker at the time of speaking, as well as its position relative to one or another of the speaker, the listener, or possible third party.
֤Ǹΰ̣ʬƤˡۤʤäƤ㤫Ϥޤꡤ;Τʤɤʸˡ (category) κۤ㡤ƷɸηϤΤ褦ʼҲŪʹܤ˴ؤޤǵƤ롥ԥᥦդβƹͤǤΡäμˤʤ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
2֤ε#2708. morn, morning, morrow, tomorrow ([2016-09-25-1])#2709. tomorrow, today ([2016-09-26-1]) ǡtomorrow today θ츻äΤǡϴϢ yesterday 夲
tomorrow, today ֻ̾פζ礫ȯãΤȤϰۤʤꡤyesterday ϡ켫ΤֺʤΡˡפΰ̣ĸűѸϢ ġeostran (< Gmc *ȝestra; cf. G gestern, Du. gisteren) ̾ dæġ դʣŪ ġeostran dæġ ͳ褹롥yesterday ϸűѸ졦̾Ѥä
¾ΥޥǤ뤬ťΥɸ䥴ȸǤƱɽֺפǤϤʤפ̣⤢ꡤʬŪˤϡˤ餺ֺ1ƤפۤɤؤɽȤȯãƤǽ⤢롥OED ˤСѸǤ yesterday פ̣㤬ʲΤ褦1ĤǧȤԻĤǤ롥
1533 T. More Apologye 201, I geue them all playn peremptory warnynge now, that they dreue yt of no lenger. For yf they tarye tyll yesterday..I purpose to purchace suche a proteccyon for them [etc.].
yester(n) ֺġפΰ̣ƬȤŪѤȡyestereve, yestermorning, yesternight, yesternoon, yesteryear Τ褦ʸ줬ޤ뤳Ȥˤʤäˡθ줫 yester ʬΩƷƻȤ (back_formation) 졤16ʹߡֺΡפΰ̣Ѥ褦ˤʤä
tomorrow, today, yesterday ϴñȤäƤ褤ơɤäƤˤϤۤñǤϤʤȤʬ롥
εmorn, morning, morrow, tomorrow ([2016-09-25-1]) tomorrow θ츻˿줿Ϥθȡ⤦1ĸϢ today ˤĤõäƤߤ褦
tomorrow θȤƤϡֻ to ˡ֡īפɽ魯̾ morrow ͿʷղäΤȹͤ졤Ǥ˸űѸǤ tō morgenne ȤȤѤƤΰ̣ϡεDz⤷ȤꡤǤˡˡפȯŸƤѸǤϡmorrow Τɤä͡ʷŪȯãˤä to morwen to morn ߤˤơԤɸŪ tomorrow ˡԤʤɤ˻Ĥ tomorn Ϣʤä衤ֻǤ뤫顤ޤˡפȤȯã15ʻžˤꡤ̾ȤƤѤ褦ˤʤä
#2698. hyphen ([2016-09-15-1]) Ǵñ˿줿褦ˡ to morrow ʬ줿Ѹ to-morrow ȥϥեǷ礵졤1Ȥ֤褦ˤʤäʤǤѸκǽˤϡض٤ Shakespeare First Folio ʤɤǡޤʬΤ̤ۤäˡϥեǤĤʤֻ20Ƭޤ³θ塤ϥեæߤɸŪֻ tomorrow Ω
today ˤĤƤ⡤餯Ʊͤλ𤬤äȻפ롥űѸֻ tō dæġ (on the day; today) Ǥꡤ16ޤǤʬ줿θ20Ƭޤ to-day ȥϥեդ֤줿̾ȤƤˡϡtomorrow Ʊͤ16Ǥ롥
tomorrow today ȯŸηаޤƤ¿ߤ˴ϢŤڥǹͤɬפ
#2698. hyphen ([2016-09-15-1]) ε tomorrow ˿줿Ȥ916դηǼĤǡmorrow ȤˤĤƤμ䤬줿ߤ˴Ϣ롤morn, morning ʤɤȤȤˡθ츻ɤäƤߤ
űѸǡīפɽ魯ϡmorgen Ǥ롥ޥĸ *murȝanaz ͳ褷ɥĸ Morgen, morgen ƱǤ롥Ѹ morn ϡθűѸ morgen μгʷ morne mornes ʤɤû̷뤤ѸȯŸ morwen, morun, moren ʤɤû̷ͳ褹ȹͤ롥morn ϸߤǤϡԻդǡīǡפɽ魯ۤåȥǡפɽ魯
ѸǺǤ̤ morning ϡ morn -ing ĤΤǡѸˡīפΰ̣ǽФ롥 -ing ϡФˤʤ evening ˤղä줿Ȥ롥evening ξˤϡñȤǡաפɽ魯űѸ̾ ēfen, æfen ư æfnian դˤʤˤ -ing ˤ̾첽ȤʣʷаޤéäƤ뤬morning ϤΤ褦ηаޤåפơȤˤɽŪ -ing դƤߤȤȤˤʤ롥
ơűѸ morgen ΤθβŪȯŸ͡äȤ櫓2첻Ҳ n Ѳˤ餵줿n æ morwe ʤɤη顤#2031. follow, shadow, sorrow <ow> ([2014-11-18-1]) ˽Ҥ٤ѲФơmorrow ߡmorrow ѰϸꤵƤ뤬Իդǡīפ̣롥ʤ n æϡи even ˤƤꡤ eve ա롨ˤѸƤ롥
ơīפɽ路θϡƱˡפȤ̣碌äƤ뤳Ȥ¿դ̲˽λӤȤƹͤȡīפȤ̾īפؤ顤ؼоݤȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) θǡθפΡפؤȹäƤäȹͤ롥tomorrow ⡤ֻ to ̾ morrowפȤǤꡤ֡īˤơפۤɤäƱͤžơˡפ̣褦ˤʤäʤܸǤ⡤Ťϡ֤סʴɽȤƤ <ī>ˤǡīפ̣ѸξƱͤΰ̣ĥФơפ̣褦ˤʤäȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
ʤǿ줿 eve աˤϡ٤īλӤȤȡֺաפؤȤ¿ؼоݤֺΡפؤȹꡤɡפ̣褦ˤʤä
ǯ٤⡤920?2223ǥ߹ɤ˹ԤäƤɸϡƥθĿΥơޤؿͭŪ˷ӤĤơ¤1Υޥɥޥåפͻ礹ȤΤäλߤäĿͤӽĤκȤ̤ơïɤΤ褦ʥơޤ˴ؿäƤΤ褯狼äޤǴطʤäĿͤɤ륭ɤǷӤĤȤȯꡤؤͭյäĿͤȽĤǤβȿʤ٤֤ǥǥåǸΤǡ٤Ϲ⤤Ȼפ
*
«ʳʤˤĤ졤ɤ̲ݲƤ椭ʤΤƵʤФʤʤĿͤΥɤ¿ФƤΤϻʤΤ褦ʹ⼡ʳǽƸĿʹ֤δؿӤĤƤȤ⤢롥˺ǽ¿ȯˤθΥ롼סǥåǾ˼«뤫θȴޤǽǤΥޥɥޥåפǡ鿭Ӥᥤ֥ΥɿĤꤹ뤫ȤΤ⡤٤ʥפ롥
ˤ衤ʤʤ⤷äΤǡ¾εˤƤߤȻפ
رʳظʡָѲѰ۸˥åȡŤ3åסȽǤǤʤѲѰۤλ¤ȸ˻äƤʼŤѤäˤʤޤˡؤĹȯɽֱѸƬ a- ѲˤĤơפǤϡܼ (productivity) ν¬ˡˤĤʬ䤹ƤεǤϡĹεĤơΤȤΥϥɥȤ˴ؤ벾פ
ܼˤ availability profitability ̤롥ԤϡܼѤ§¸ߤ뤳ȤؤˤŪʸ줬֤ФƸԤϡθ§ºݤ˻Ѥ졤ñȤƶƤ֤ĤޤꡤܼͤݤˤϡǽϤȼºݤ˿äǽϤ̤Ƥɬפ롥
ܼ¬ȤȤˤʤȡǽϤ availability ¬ºݤñȤƶƤʤΤ顤ҴŪ¬褦ʤΤǤ롥äơƸǽϤǤ profitability ¬ꡤ availability 䤷̤äƤߤ褦ȤȤˤʤ롥profitability μפ¬ˡȤ3ĤۤɤƤƤ롥⡤ѥ伭Ѥ뤳ȤȤʤäƤ롥
(1) ܼΥüŪˤϼϿƤꡤѥʸڤñθ (lexeme) ٥ǿĿ
(2) ֤ǤΡܼĿο
(3) ܼ줬 hapax_legomenon ǤΨ٤εϤΥѥˤ줬1٤ʤȤȤȡθι⤵ȤشطˤȤƤsee #938. (4) ([2011-11-21-1])ˡ
(1), (2), (3) ¬ˡˤϰĹûꡤɤ줬ǤͥƤ뤫뤳ȤϤ䤹ʤޤ¬Ǥ profitability ȺǽŪ˵ availability Ȥδ֤ˤʤطΤ褯ʬäƤʤ㤨С(1) ͤ⤯Ȥ availability Ϲ⤯ʤȤߤʤ㤬롥㤨С -th, -ment ñΥ¿ߡΤܼȤϤߤʤȤǤʤ (cf. #1787. coolth ([2014-03-19-1])) դˡ(2) ͤ㤫äȤƤ⡤äƤ availability 㤤ͽ¬Τפȹͤ륱⤢̾ưʣʤɡˡޤ(3) ǹ⤤ͤȤƤ⡤üԤľŪȤ̷⤹륱褦
üԤľѤȤơʤΤ餷ȤϳΤҴŪ¬ꤹˤϤɤФ褤ΤŪˤŪˤϻĤƤ롥
ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥʲε¾ǰäƤΤȡ#935. (1) ([2011-11-18-1])#936. (2) ([2011-11-19-1])#937. (3) ([2011-11-20-1])#938. (4) ([2011-11-21-1])#876. Ѹˤ뤫Ф˹⤤ ([2011-09-20-1])#940. ¤ ([2011-11-23-1])#2363. hapax legomenon ([2015-10-16-1])
#2704. Ź ([2016-09-21-1]) ȴϢơʸͷӤΤˡ֥Ź浡פäƤߤޤϡǤñ n ʸեȤˤˤꡤʸ沽 (encipher) 뤤沽 (decipher) εǽХåɤ Perl Text::Cipher::KeywordAlphabet ⥸塼ѤƤ롥
ΰŹΤʤǺǤŤñʤΤ1Ĥ˥Ź椬롥̾ϡJulius Caesar ŪѤƤȤإꥢﵭ٤Τ뤳Ȥˤ롥뼰ñե٥åȴˡȤ⥷եȡեȤ롥ʿʸΥե٥åȤγʸ n ʸʬ餹ȤˤäưŹʸΤǡϥꥷʸѴǤΰŹ n = 3 DZѤƤѸ26ʸե٥åȤǡ n = 3 Ǥ륫ŹбɽˤꡤʿʸǤϾʸŹʸǤʸѤ롥
| ʿե٥å | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | s | t | u | v | w | x | y | z |
| Ź楢ե٥å | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | A | B | C |
| ʿե٥å | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | s | t | u | v | w | x | y | z |
| Ź楢ե٥å | J | U | L | I | S | C | A | E | R | T | V | W | X | Y | Z | B | D | F | G | H | K | M | N | O | P | Q |
#2700. Źˤ륳ߥ˥ ([2016-09-17-1]) ǡŹ̾θоȤΰŹ椬̾θȺǤۤʤäƤ¦̤1Ĥˡɤо롥ľȿ뤿ᡤ⤷Ʊ褦оäƤΤɤΤ褦ʸ쥳ߥ˥ŸΤΤ
20ȾоθŹ椬ޤޤǡѤƤŹϤ٤оθŹäоθŹǤϡȼ꤬ƱΥԡäƤ롥Ϥθʿʸ֥뤷ưŹʸäꡤϤθΥԡDzʿʸ᤹ξԤȤ˶̤θʤȥ르ꥺˤ뤫餳ǽŪ˥ߥ˥ΩĤΤǤ롥оϡˤߤŪǤ롥㤨ܸʸˡʤӥ르ꥺˤȤСܸäϤθƤ沽ʸФꡤܸʹϤθΥԡ沽Ƥ᤹沽沽βǤϡʸˡν§Ŭѽդˤʤ뤬ƱĤʸˡǤ롥Τ褦оθŹ̾θȺŪͭƤ뤿ᡤθ䤹
20ȾоθŹʤΤޤ줿оθŹˤ륳ߥ˥ǤϡȼѤ븰Ū̯ˡǴϢŤƤϤΤΡ¾ۤʤäƤΤǤ롥⡤ϱѸäƤ뤬ܸʹäƤ뤫Τ褦Τ褦ɽȱѸ줫ܸؤμưߤƤ뤫Τ褦ʥ奨ˤʹ뤬Ȥɬ⤦ޤʤȤΤϡ¦θʤǤܸʸˡˤϡ꤬ȼ˺¾ͤݴɤƤΤǤꡤˡ꤬Ȥ¦θʤǤϱѸʸˡˤ˺ꤢƤȤ뤫Ĥޤꡤϥߥ˥Ωäơʸˡ夲Ȥ2οʸˡޤǺ夲Ƥξǡ2ʸˡĤĥåͿϤʸˡѤʿʸŹ沽롥ơϡΰŹʸ2ǤϤʤ1ʸˡ˽äɤ߲ΰŹʸϡ2ʸˡ沽Ƥˤ⤫餺褷2ʸˡˤäƤ沽ǤʤȤ̯äƤΤǤ롥
̾θ쥳ߥ˥δФ˴ƤȡоθŹˤ륳ߥ˥λȤߤϼ¤˴̯ޤ̾θξQˤä餳оθȯϰŹػ˾βȤƤߤʤƤΤ
913դǷǼĤɸμ䤬줿Jane does nothing but watch TV. He does something more than just put things together. Τ褦ʸ˸2ܤư watch put ϸäƤ뤬ϸȹͤ٤ʤΤȤǤ롥
ѸǤϡ (bare infinitive) 礭ʬ4δĶǸ롥1ĤϡưγưʤɤŪ˸³ΤǡThey made her pay for the damage. The crow saw Gray score two magnificent goals. तǤ롥ҤȤĤϡʬʸ䤽˽ऺ빽ʸˤ What the plan does is ensure a fair pension for all. Turn off the tap was all I did. ʤɤʸ˸롥ˡI had said he would come down and come down he did. Τ褦ʷ֤ʸʤɤˤ⸫롥Ǹˡɽ魯ֻ (but, except) ˸³ She did everything but make her bed. Τ褦Ѥ (Quirk et al. 15.15; Biber et al. 11.2.2.3)
ɸμ˴ϢΤϡκǸˡΤȤǤ롥but, except ֻ³Ȥ¾ˤüʿɤΤ褦ʬϤ٤Ͻפ̡Ūˤϸ줬³üֻȤƤ⤦1Ĥ (more) than ѤʸˤĤƤ⡤ֽ̣פǤϤʤbut, except ʿŪˤȤ館줬³ֻ˶ᤤΤȹͤƤI would rather [sooner] die than disgrace myself. Τ褦ʸ⻲ȡˡˡϢ I intend to build the boat as well as plan it. ʤɤ碌ƹθ
but, except ˤĤƤϡֻ̾Τ褦˿ȤǤ㤨 He does everything in the house but [except] putting the children to bed. Τ褦˸ư̾뤳ȤǤ롥ޤĤto ⤢ꡤNothing remains but to die. I have no choice [alternative] but to agree. ʤɤ⤢Τǡ䤳
θ˴ؤ뿶üϡbut, except ֻŪˤ³ˤѤ뤳ȤȴϢ˰㤤ʤŪˤϤɤΤ褦ʷаޤǤΤ褦ʹ¤ƤΤܤĴ٤Ƥʤʸ contamination ƤΤǤϤʤ롥#737. ʸ contamination ([2011-05-04-1]) ˵ (4) ʤɤ⻲ȡ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
#2699. Źؤȸء ([2016-09-16-1]) 褦ˡŹ (cryptology) ʸ (grammatology) δطϿ1ܤˡ̤ʸβɤȰŹβɤϡˡȤƤ롥2ܤˡŹ沽沽оݤȤʤΤϡۤȤɤξ硤졤ʤʸǤ롥3ܤˡŹɤѤˡϡ¿ξ硤ʸŪ˴Ť٤ʿؤ׳ؤμˡǤ롥äơʸϰŹؤŪʴäͿŹؤϼطʤ˿ŪŪʴʸ̤եɥХåȤطΩäƤ롥
Ȥơ⤽⸶ϡˤƤʸηϡˤ켫ΤŹäȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤʸѤǤΤϡϼԤμͤ˸¤졤¿ΰ̱̽ˤȤäợ̵ʵˤʤäε#2700. Źˤ륳ߥ˥ ([2016-09-17-1]) ǵŹ楳ߥ˥ܼ˾Ȥ餹ȡʸϤޤˡ¾Ūʥɤˤ¾Ūܿδط夲¾Ūʥߥ˥ϩפΤ˹ƤΤǤ롥ºݡϼԤμͤϡʸηϤΥ饯ꤿ륳ɤ̱̽ƿʰ̱̽ϤˡȿƤˡˤ̤ͥȸפݻǤ褦ؤϡḽˤƹȤŪŹ̩˴褦Ȥư䤽μ֤ˤ⡤ΤޤƤϤޤ롥
ˡ#2417. ʸݼƿ ([2015-12-09-1]) ꤹ뵭ŹʳءˤˤѤǤεɤ֤ȡʸȰŹ褯Ǥ롥Ź椬ƿäƤȤΤϥȡȥȤƤ⡤Ź椬ݼͭȤϰ̤ο¤ޤǤ롥㤨СŹϤäζ٤˴ؤƿȡͭѤˡȤƹѤ졤٤Ȥ夹뷹롥ŨΰŹɼԤˤִ֤ͭޤǤϡʰŹ泫ȯܳŪˤʤ뤳ȤϤʤʴ¸Źΰ빩פϾ˹ԤʤƤˡŹˤϡηŪ˶ΩƤơŹȯɤŹȯɤ֤ƤȤǡΤȤƤϤषˤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤȤȤʤͳȯޤǤϡޤݼŪˤȤɤޤȸ뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥
ε#2699. Źؤȸء ([2016-09-16-1]) κǸ˿줿褦ˡϥåȤߵȤȤȯãƤȹͤˤ⤫餺ǿϥåƿȤߵŹ浻ѤȯãƤϡˤ륳ߥ˥˴ؤ̷ȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ褯ͤƤߤȡŹϸ쥳ߥ˥̷ܼ⤹Ȥ⡤षΤ¦̤ˤ˿䤷ʤΤȤߤʤΤǤϤʤȤΤϡŹ楳ߥ˥ˤƤϡˤȤϤΤΡषåȤߵϤȤ˶Ǥ롥
ºݡ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) οޤˤơΡ֤Ȥ (message)פְŹפɤؤƤ⡤οޤϤΤޤѤǤ롥ۤʤȤ⤢롥Ź楳ߥ˥ǤäʹľܤĤʤܿ (contact)פβϩտŪ˶ꤵƤꡤ¾ŪǤ뤳Ȥˡ̾θ쥳ߥ˥ˤƤ⡤٤¾ꤵ뵡Ϥ롥㤨СҤҤä修ʤɤǤϡʪŪˡܿ¤Ƥ롥ȤŹ楳ߥ˥ǤϡʪŪˡܿ¤뤳ȤޤߤϤ뤬ʾ˽פˡȤơָη (code) פˤҤͤäȤʤѤ롥äʹˤͭʤ¾ŪʥɤѤ뤳ȤˤꡤŪ¾ԤܿǤʤФƤΤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡ̾θ쥳ߥ˥椹ȡŹ楳ߥ˥ܼ⤭Ħˤʤ롥äʹ꤬¾Ūʥɤˤ¾Ūܿδط夲¾Ūʥߥ˥ϩȤΤŹ楳ߥ˥Τ褦ֻפФơפȤ礤դϡŪʰŹΰϰŹ楳ߥ˥ˤ phatic_communion θΤǤ (see #1771. ܼŪʵǽ1ĤȤƤ phatic communion ([2014-03-03-1])#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1])) ŹŪƤߤΤ⤪⤷
ΡذŹɡ٤ɤŹ (cryptology) ϸؤ1ʬȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬Ǥ⸶ŪžּŹ䡤ʸ֤봹ŹСʹߤΰŹȲɤϿء׳ءʪؤαѤΤΤǤꡤؤΰϰϤ礭æƤ褦˻פ롥ʹߤ˳ȯ줿ͥŹ桤˥ޤΰŹ桤̻ҰŹʤɤϡ٤ʿءʪؤѤŹǤꡤϤؤνФǤϤʤΤ褦
ĤǰŹؤϸؤ̩ܤϢݤäƤΤϻ¤Ǥ롥ذŹɡ٤ˤŹˤѤȤǡξʬθˤĤƹͤƤߤ1ܤϡȤŹ沽ƿȤκϤܾۤ˸ǤȤȤ䤽¾εƿȤ⤢Ūˤϲ餫θǽ줿ʸϤŹ沽оݤǤꡤ椨ˡʿʸפȸƤФ롥ŹԤϡʿʸ˲餫Υ֥ʰŹ沽뤿α黻ˤܤ̵̣ʸ櫓ǹԤʤäƤ뤳Ȥϡ̣ͭǸ餷ƥȤ̵̣Ǹ餷ʸѴȤȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤŹԤϤʤ٤ʿʸΤĸ餷Ϥͤˤۤʤ餺Źݤϡοͤ餷Ȥϲؤ餷̤ȤϲؤΤˤĤơ˿Ƥ뤫ˤäƤ롥ʤȤ櫓աˤˤʸνиΨʤɤŪʻ̤ƤФۤɡŹԤϸ餷̽Ϥ뤷դ˰ŹɼԤϤȤʿʸ᤹ȤǤ롥ΤΤƥȤǤʾ塤θ塤ʣʱ黻ä褦Ȥ⡤餫θŪ夤Ʋ餶ʤ
2ܤˡŹ沽沽Ѥ븰ޤŹˤʬˤơñ䤽¾ɽʤɸŪñ̤äȤ¤롥κǤʤŹˤƤϸǤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤȤ⸰꤬褵ΰŹˤƤϡϰ̣ʤɤ䥭ե졼ǤꡤθäϿ줿ñ䤽¾ɽǤ뤳Ȥ̤äϡŹԤԤ˶ͭƤʤФʤ餺ߤˤȤäƴΤǤñȤŵƤΤäȤä䵭ϰŵˤ˽αƤȤϥƥ꤬롥äơ2ͤǽ餫ΤäƤΡʤ̸β餫ñ̤ȤΤǤ롥դˤСŹɼԤˤȤäƤϡͤߤ뤿ˡθäɽΥꥹȤΤʤʤȤάȤʤ롥Τ褦ˡʿʸΤߤʤ餺ŹθΤΤ¿ξ硤Ǥ롥
3ܤˡϸȤƤͭĤĤߤ˰ۤʤŪʵηϤǤ뤫顤¾δ֤κȤϡŹ桦κȤ˶ᤤºݡ2Ǥϡꥫ轻̱ʥ²θѤʥ۰ŹʤΤ߽ФѸäʥ²ȤʤäơŹ沽Ѹʿʸʥ۸ѴΥʥ۸ƥȤãϤ롥ϡդΥʥ²οͤǤΥƥȤѸؤʤƤ餦ŨɥĤˤϡʥ۸˴ؤ븦ϰڤʤɥĿͤβɼԤʥ۸줫ѤϤʤä¸ΤޤΤƤʤϡ켫ΤŹΥ르ꥺˤʤꤦȤ
Ǹˡ̤ʸȤδϢ⤢롥#2427. ̤ʸ ([2015-12-19-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡޤɤƤʤʸηϤϾʤʤ#2486. ʸɤˡ ([2016-02-16-1]) ǿ줿ʸɤˤҤȤȡǻȤƤˡϡ˶ŤۤɡȤʸäȤ׳ؤؤȤʳŪʼˡؤȿʲƤƤꡤ̤ΰŹɤμˡȤƤ褯Ƥ롥ΤȤϡʿʸפ餫θǽ줿ƥȤǤȤȤȤƤΤ顤ԻĤǤϤʤŹؤ̤ϡʸβɤˤ˹뤳ȤǤ롥
ܼŪǶ̣䤤Ȥơʹ֤ϤġɤǡʤŹ沽ɬפΤ줬ߥ˥ΤȯãƤȤȤȡåƿȤưߵϰ̷Ȥ⤤롥ƿȤơޤϡŹؤůؤȤ⤤٤Τˤʤ
ˡ ˡذŹɡ岼١Ĭҡ2017ǯ
Ѹνˤߤˡ (punctuation) ȯãϡ̤˶ʹߤνȤäƤ褤 (see #574. punctuation 4Ĥεǽ ([2010-11-22-1])#575. Ū punctuation ˤ500ǯۤɡ ([2010-11-23-1])#582. apostrophe ([2010-11-30-1])#2666. Ѹʶˡ ([2016-08-14-1])) ϥե (hyphen) ˤƤ㳰ǤϤʤѤ褦ˤʤꡤ̲Τ1570ǯʹߤǤ롥ºݡhyphen ȤƤ̾Ѹ˸Τ1620ǯդˤʤäƤǤꡤƳ٤θϡ"together" ̣륮ꥷ huphén (hupó "under" + hén "one") ƥͳDZѸäΤǤ롥ˤ⡤ζɵ漫ΤѤƤꡤ͡˸ƤФƤ㤨ФλѤŻ뤷 John Hart (c. 1501--74) joiner ȸƤǤ
ºݡϥեλѤϼܻκǽӤƳǧ롥͡äŪʵǽϡΤƱͤǤꡤ䤽ΰζܤ˴ؤδط뤳ȤˤäñǹԤޤɬפȤˤϡʬ䵭 (divider) ̤ʣηǤδϢ̩Ǥ1ˤޤȤˤϡϢ (linker) ̤ˤ衤ñ̤ŪѤǤ (Crystal 260--61)
ϥեˡϡǤ夷ΤʤλѤˤϡ١ɤ줬롥㤨СѼ֤Ȥ٥ɤȤƤ⸫졤ꥹѸǤϥꥫѸϥե¿Ѥ뷹롥ʥѸʤɤǤϡѼŪʿȤ⤤롥ޤĿͺ⤢ꡤe-mail vs email, ice-cream vs ice cream 䡤flowerpot vs flower-pot vs flower pot ʤɡɤ줬㤷̻Ūˤ⡤2ǽƤΤ˥ϥեդ졤˸˥ϥեʤ1Ȥ֤褦Ѳ뤲줬Ĥǧ롥㤨Сtype writer > type-writer > typewriter Ǥꡤۤ today, tomorrow, tonight ʤɤ to- Ƭĸ to day > to-day > today Τ褦ˡ褦ʷϩéäƤ (Crystal 266)
Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.
98դǷǼĤɸ˴ؤ䤬줿̤ˤϡ괧Τʤ few ϲĻ̾ˤĤơ֤ۤȤɤʤפŪʴްդäѤ졤괧դ a few ϡ־פȹŪʰ̣ͭȤ롥Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤܸˤʤ⡤ѱѼŵˤͤˤޤ褦˻פ롥㤨 OALD8 ˤСfew "used with plural nouns and a plural verb to mean 'not many'" Ȥꡤ a few "used with plural nouns and a plural verb to mean 'a small number', 'some'" Ȥ롥Ĥޤꡤfew many ꡦеȤƤΰ֤Ťa few some ƱȤƤΰ֤ŤǤ롥 few Ū˷a few ϹŪ˷ȤȯΤȹͤ롥
ˤ̤äƤߤ褦few ȤϡűѸ fēawa, fēawe, fēa ʤɤηǡ§ȤʣηƻȤơʤޤ̾Ūˤ̤ѤƤΰ̣Ϥޤ many ¿; OE maniġˤеȤƤΡ־ʤפǤꡤѸ괧ʤ few ƱǤ롥
a few ɽˤĤƤϡűѸǤ괧̤ȯãäˡ⤽ΩƤʤäĤޤꡤΤ褦 few a few ΩϤޤ¸ߤƤʤäΤǤ롥Ѹꡤ괧줬ȯãƤȡ褦䤯 "a small number of" ۤɤΰ̣ a few Ƥ롥OED Ǥν1297ǯ "1297 R. Gloucester's Chron. (1724) 18 Þe kyng with a fewe men hym~self flew at þe laste." Ƥ롥
ϡʤΤ褦ʰ̣ζ̤ȤȤǤ롥 few ˤĤƤϡűѸ many еȤơĤޤ "not many" ȤƤΰ֤ŤʹߡߤޤϢʤȼѤ줿ȹͤФ褤a few ˤĤƤϡ괧Ūʡ֡ʹŪ¸ߡפδްդ few դä줿ȹͤΤǤϤʤ#86. one ȯ ([2009-07-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ괧 a(n) εϿ ān (one) Ǥ롥ơθ꼭 ne ղääΤnān (< ne + ān) Ǥꡤ줬 none ˤ no ؤȯã롥Ĥޤꡤ괧 a(n) ϡȤƤ1ѶŪ˼Ȥϡ no ֤Ȥǡ¸ߤδްդ
ʾޤȤȡfew ΤΤ many Ȥư֤Ť졤ȤŪʴްդäƤ뤬a ղä줿 a few 괧ΤĹꡦ¸ߤδްդӤӤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤȤǤϤʤƱȤϡԲĻ̤̾ɽ魯 little a little ˤĤƤ롥Ԥ much ȤơԤϤ a դȤǹŪʴްդĤȤˤʤäȹͤ롥
ͤޤǤ OED few, adj. 1Ƥ
1. Not many; amounting to a small number. Often preceded by but, full, so, too, very, well.
Without prefixed word, few usually implies antithesis with 'many', while in a few, some few the antithesis is with 'none at all'. Cf. 'few, or perhaps none', 'a few, or perhaps many'.
ε#2695. Ѹˤʬζ̡ ([2016-09-12-1]) ˰³ʬ˴Ϣꡥ
#1903. ʬˡ ([2014-07-13-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡʬδȯˤϡƥȤ륢ɤνƻΤθسؽƥ˥åͿƤʬ˹װϡФǤϤʤCrystal (10--13) ˤС7ޤǤȯãƤɽ䡤St Augustine ˤ륭ꥹȶˡȤʸŪҲŪװͿƤ
ɽȯãȤȤϡդäդȤ϶̤ΤȤƵǽ褦ˤʤäȤȤǤꡤɤͥϺȤȤǤ롥̤δ餤С³ġɤߤˤפؤδƤƤΤȤϡֶΤߤʤ餺ˡ (punctuation) ̤ȯãˤط
By the seventh century in England, word-spacing had become standard practice, reflecting a radical change that had taken place in reading habits. Silent reading was now the norm. Written texts were being seen not as aids to reading aloud, but as self-contained entities, to be used as a separate source of information and reflection from whatever could be gained from listening and speaking. It is the beginning of a view of language, widely recognized today, in which writing and speech are seen as distinct mediums of expression, with different communicative aims and using different processes of composition. And this view is apparent in the efforts scribes made to make the task of reading easier, with the role of spacing and other methods of punctuation becoming increasingly appreciated. (Crystal 10)
ˡꥹȶȤδطǤСSt Augustine ʤɤνꥹȶζ㤬ŪᤰäƥƥȤ̯ʺۤˤȤʬޤˡŻ뤹뷹߽ФȤ
The origins of the change are not simply to do with the development of new habits of reading. They are bound up with the emergence of Christianity in the West, and the influential views of writers such as St Augustine. Book 3 of his (Latin) work On Christian Doctrine, published in the end of the fourth century AD, is entitled: 'On interpretation required by the ambiguity of signs', and in its second chapter we are given a 'rule for removing ambiguity by attending to punctuation'. Augustine gives a series of Latin examples where the placing of a punctuation mark in an unpunctuated text makes all the difference between two meanings. The examples are of the kind used today when people want to draw attention to the importance of punctuation, as in the now infamous example of the panda who eats, shoots and leaves vs eats shoots and leaves. But for Augustine, this is no joke, as the location of a mark can distinguish important points of theological interpretation, and in the worst case can make all the difference between orthodoxy and heresy. (Crystal 12--13)
ޤ嵭2ȤŪ˴ؤ뤬ֶʤǤϤȤƤɤ˴ʤΥƥȤ褦ˤʤäȤ⡤ʬδ¥ʤ뤳Ȥˤʤä㤨СʸϤǤϤʤñ콸Ȥ٤ glossary तǤ롥μñϤ⤽˺ϿѡѤǤꡤФɤ߾夲ȤϡƳǧӤǻȤ뤳Ȥ¿ȸζ뤳ȤäᤵƥȤȤäƤ褤 (Crystal 10--11)
Τ褦˸ߤ˴Ϣ뤤ĤʸŪҲŪ̮űѸ7ޤǤ˹ήʬδޤδǧʤΤΡ褽̲ȹͤ롤
Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.
αѸνǤ뤵Ƥʬ (distinctiones) ŤˤǤϤʤष³ (scriptio continua) ̤äȤˤĤơ#1903. ʬˡ ([2014-07-13-1]) ǽҤ٤ºݡűѸʸʤɤǤϸζڤ꤬ʤΤ¿űѸѸμܤˤƤ⸽ΰӤʬϤޤãƤʤ
ʬȤݤΤΤʤä櫓ǤϤʤ#572. ¸ǸŤαʸ ([2010-11-20-1]) ǤߤǽΥ롼ʸʸǤ顤ȸδ֤˶ǤϤʤȤ⾮ݤ֤ƤꡤʬԤʤƤȤ狼뤷7餤ޤǤˤϼܤ˵줿ѸˤƤ⡤֤ζϹԤʤƤݥȤϡֹԤʤƤפȤȡָ˰ӤƹԤʤƤפȤȤϰۤʤȤȤʬؤΰܹԤϡŤ³ξ˿ʬˡˤ֤äƤǤꡤξν¸ߤ֤ĹäΤǤ롥Ѹζˡ (punctuation) ˤˤĤư̤˸褦ˡֶεϤ뤳ȤϤʤޤǽĿͤΰջ֤Ǽͳ˥ȥ뤷Ƥ褤ʪä
ˤ϶֤֤ʤμͳͿƤǤϤʤ֤ˡɤĹΥڡ뤫ȤͳͿƤ礦ɸѸʣˤơ2Ǵ֤Υʤ֤뤫 (flowerpot)ϥե뤫 (flower-pot)Υ֤뤫 (flower pot) ȽǤ˰ѤͤƤΤȻ褦ʾǤ롥䡤ξˤϤ3Ĥ褷ʤξˤ϶̯̤ˤĴȤʥŪʼͳͿƤΤǤ롥㤨С礭Ūñ̤̣Ūñ̤ޤȤᤢ뤿Ĺζ֤줿ꡤǥ٥ξñ̤ζɽ魯Τ˶Ϥʶ֤ʤɡθ촶Фܾ̯ȿǤ줿
Crystal (11-12) ϤξÆlfric ⶵƤ롥
Very often, some spaces are larger than others, probably reflecting a scribe's sense of the way words relate in meaning to each other. A major sense-break might have a larger space. Words that belong closely together might have a small one. It's difficult to show this in modern print, where word-spaces tend to be the same width, but scribes often seemed to think like this:
we bought a cup of tea in the cafe
The 'little' words, such as prepositions, pronouns, and the definite article, are felt to 'belong' to the following content words. Indeed, so close is this sense of binding that many scribes echo earlier practice and show them with no separation at all. Here's a transcription of two lines from one of Ælfric's sermons, dated around 990.
þærwæronðagesewene twegenenglas onhwitumgẏrelū;
þær wæron ða gesewene twegen englas on hwitum gẏrelū;
'there were then seen two angels in white garments'
Eacswilc onhisacennednẏsse wæronenglasgesewene'.
Eacswilc on his acennednẏsse wæron englas gesewene'.
'similarly at his birth were angels seen'
The word-strings, separated by spaces, reflect the grammatical structure and units of sense within the sentence.
äդǤϡٻ (pause) (intonation) ĴʤɤޤƼαΧŪʼʤǤȻ褦ʵǽ̤ȤǽդǤˡͿƤȤΤϡषˤϸʤħȤ٤Ǥ롥Ϣơ#1910. ٻߡ ([2014-07-20-1]) ⻲ȡ
Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.
#868. EDD Online ([2011-09-12-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡJoseph Wright ˤ The English Dialect Dictionary ŻҲץȤ Innsbruck ؤǿʤƤĤǶᴰȤΤ餻ޤǥ־ΥӥǤϥȼɬפäľܼͳ˥Ǥ褦ˤʤä EDD Online ɤ

ǽ⽼¤Ƥꡤ㤨оΥåȤΤ褦ˡȴϢƼ˸ڤƤϰϿdzǧǤ뵡ǽ롥礦ɸ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ˴ؤĴδطǡڤƤϰ褬ϿdzǧǤȻפäƤäΤǡ
ޤΤθ The English Dialect Dictionary ΥڡȤƳǧ뤳ȤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡdialect area, part of speech, phonetic, etymology, usage label, source, morphemic, time span ʤɳƼ參ƥˤ륵ǽ
ѥޥ˥奢ǤΤǡȤʤ餢줳ȤäƤߤ뤳Ȥ᤹롥
Wright, Joseph, ed. The English Dialect Dictionary. 6 vols. Henry Frowde, 1898--1905.
ε#2692. ťΥɸѸ˴ؤ Gersum Project ([2016-09-09-1]) Ҳ𤷤 Gersum Project Norse Terms in English: A (basic!) Introduction ˡե줫μѸ椷ʤťΥɸ줫μѸ˴ؤͤʤɤڤƤ
When it comes to numbers, French influence, mainly as a result of the Norman Conquest, is much more significant: approximately 10,000 words were borrowed from French during the Middle English period (of which around 7,000 are still used), whereas there are about 2,000 Norse-derived terms recorded in medieval English texts. Of them, about 700 are still in use in Standard English, although many more can be found in dialects from areas such as the East Midlands, Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire. The significance of the Norse impact on (Standard) English lies instead in the fact that most of the Norse-derived terms do not have a technical character (consider, for instance, skirt, leg, window, ugly, ill, happy, scare, bask, die) and even include a number of grammatical terms, the most notable being the third person plural pronouns they, them and their (because personal pronouns are not easily borrowed between languages). The presence of these terms was probably facilitated by the similarity between Old English and Old Norse, both of which were Germanic languages. In fact, it seems very likely that the speakers of the two languages were able to understand each other by speaking their own language, of course with some careful lexical choices and a good deal of pointing and, when appropriate, smiling.
Ѹäפϡ츻ԳΤʤɤߡˤʤ餶ʤͿƤлͤˤʤ롥˵Ƥͤ⡤¾ΤΤ礭ۤʤäƤʤѸμѸ˸ꤷƿȡե줫Ϥ褽1ʤ7줬ߤޤǻĤˤꡤťΥɸ줫Ϥ褽2ʤ700줬ɸѸ˻ĤˤäȤƤ롥ťΥɸ줫μѸп⸽ߤޤǤλ¸ΨŪ㤤Ȥ뤬ѸäΥˤޤǿƩƤȤ̣ǡŪʿϤ롥ޤνθСȤƤťΥɸѸοȤȤõƤűѸüԤȸťΥɸüԤ̤礨ȤѶŪʻŦܤͤ롥
¾Ѹ˴ؤפ cat:loan_word statistics γƵȡ
ä ICEHL19 (see #2686. ICEHL19 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2016-09-03-1])) γزܤȯɽˡCambridge ؤ Richard Dance Cardiff ؤ Sara M. Pons-Sanz ˤ Gersum Project ηв𤬤äűѸ줫ѸˤŵŪʰ̣ (semantic_borrowing) Ȥ bread ȡν loaf ȤδطˤĤƸˤܤĴ̡Jespersen ξΰ̣ٻڵϤʤȤŪʷƳ줿ʤνˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ#2149. ̣ ([2015-03-16-1])#23. "Good evening, ladies and gentlemen!"ϴְ㤤 ([2009-05-21-1])#340. ťΥɸ줬ѸͿƶ Jespersen ɾ ([2010-04-02-1]) ǿƤˡ
Gersum Project ϡθťΥɸαѸФƶϲɾƤ餤ʤ餯ϥǥޡͤΰʱѸؼ Jespersen ΰŪʱѸ˴Ѥ椨ˡɾɬפȤΩäƤ褦ʴϢơ#1183. ťΥɸαƶɾܻؤơ ([2012-07-23-1]) ȡˡץȤHPˤȡʢؤƤ꤬ȤޤˡץȤ "The Gersum project aims to understand this Scandinavian influence on English vocabulary by examining the origins of up to 1,600 words in a corpus of Middle English poems from the North of England, including renowned works of literature like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl, and the Alliterative Morte Arthure." Ȥ礿̤ϡ3Ԥۤ뤳ΥƥȤˤťΥɸͳñΥǡ١Ȥơ뤳Ȥˤʤ褦
ťΥɸμѸȤŪطʤ˴ؤμˤϡƱHP Norse Terms in English: A (basic!) Introduction ͭѡ
Simpson αѸŵΥȥ (x) ˡμƤˤ⤵ƤʷˤޤȤޤäƤΤǡʲ˰Ѥ롥
It is sometimes said that the proverb is going out of fashion, or that it has degenerated into the cliché. Such views overlook the fact that while the role of the proverb in English literature has changed, its popular currency has remained constant. In medieval times, and even as late as the seventeenth century, proverbs often had the status of universal truths and were used to confirm or refute an argument. Lengthy lists of proverbs were compiled to assist the scholar in debate; and many sayings from Latin, Greek, and the continental languages were drafted into English for this purpose. By the eighteenth century, however, the popularity of the proverb had declined in the work of educated writers, who began to ridicule it as a vehicle for trite, conventional wisdom. In Richardson's Clarissa Harlowe (1748), the hero, Robert Lovelace, is congratulated on his approaching marriage and advised to men his foolish ways. His uncle writes: 'It is a long lane that has no turning.---Do not despise me for my proverbs.' Swift, in the introduction to his Polite Conversation (1738), remarks: 'The Reader must learn by all means to distinguish between Proverbs, and those polite Speeches which beautify Conversation: . . As to the former, I utterly reject them out of all ingenious Discourse.' It is easy to see how proverbs came into disrepute. Seemingly contradictory proverbs can be paired---Too many cooks spoil the broth with Many hands make light work: Absence makes the heart grow fonder with its opposite Out of sight, out of mind. Proverbs could thus become an easy butt for satire in learned circles, and are still sometimes frowned upon by the polished stylist. The proverb has none the less retained its popularity as a homely commentary on life and as a reminder that the wisdom of our ancestors may still be useful to use today.
ޤǤϡϵʤɤǤѤ븭ηäȤºФƤºݡ16--17ˤϡʸؤͺ۽ѤβڤäJohn Heywood (1497?--1580?) 1546ǯ˸ǵʤ路Michael Drayton (1563--1631) ͥåȤ16βǤϸˤʤ줿ۤɤȤ18ʹߡμͤδ֤ǻȤŤ줿ɽȤƷΤ褦ˤʤäȤϤ̱δ֤ǤϸηäȤϢʤȸˤƤΤǤꡤʸѤ줿櫓ǤϤʤѤ register ѲƤΤΤꤨ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ롥
ʤǸŤαѸϡŪƻŪʶǼ "Proverbs of Alfred" (c. 1150--80) Ǥ롥ؼԤ˥ƥ뽤ƻؤγعⶵʤɤǸڤ뤳ȤˤꡤϹ졤ܤˤ¸褦ˤʤä
Simpson, J. A., ed. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs. Oxford: OUP, 1892.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2008.
n-gram ϡפ䥳ѥؤˤŪʳǰʤǤʡ#2324. n-gram ([2015-09-07-1]), #956. COCA N-Gram Search ([2011-12-09-1]) ȡˡƥȤꤷƤ n-gram ġϥͥåȤ¾ˤߤƤ뤬ƴʰץġCGIǼƤߤХåɤ Perl ⥸塼 Text::Ngrams ѤƤ롥
Ρ#2683. Huang θܼ ([2016-08-31-1]) ˰³ϡSaeed ΰ̣ΥƥȤܼ롥ɾΤ̣γǡỤ̄ιʬ夷ƤꡤŪʴäؤ֤ΤŬƤ롥̻Ūʰ̣ϤۤȤɰäƤʤ
Part I Preliminaries
1 Semantics in Linguistics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Semantics and Semiotics
1.3 Three Challenges in Doing Semantics
1.4 Meeting the Challenges
1.5 Semantics in a Model of Grammar
1.6 Some Important Assumptions
1.7 Summary
2 Meaning, Thought and Reality
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Reference
2.3 Reference as a Theory of Meaning
2.4 Mental Representations
2.5 Words, Concepts and Thinking
2.6 Summary
Part II Semantic Description
3 Word Meaning
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Words and Grammatical Categories
3.3 Words and Lexical Items
3.4 Problems with Pinning Down Word Meaning
3.5 Lexical Relations
3.6 Derivational Relations
3.7 Lexical Universals
3.8 Summary
4 Sentence Relations and Truth
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Logic and Truth
4.3 Necessary Truth, A Priori Truth and Analyticity
4.4 Entailment
4.5 Presupposition
4.6 Summary
5 Sentence Semantics 1: Situations
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Classifying Situations
5.3 Modality and Evidentiality
5.4 Summary
6 Sentence Semantics 2: Participants
6.1 Introduction: Classifying Participants
6.2 Thematic Roles
6.3 Grammatical Relations and Thematic Roles
6.4 Verbs and Thematic Role Grids
6.5 Problems with Thematic Roles
6.6 The Motivation for Identifying Thematic Roles
6.7 Voice
6.8 Classifiers and Noun Classes
6.9 Summary
7 Context and Inference
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Deixis
7.3 Reference and Context
7.4 Knowledge as Context
7.5 Information Structure
7.6 Inference
7.7 Conversational Implicature
7.8 Summary
8 Functions of Language: Speech as Action
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Austin's Speech Act Theory
8.3 Categorizing Speech Acts
8.4 Indirect Speech Acts
8.5 Sentence Types
8.6 Summary
Part III Theoretical Approaches
9 Meaning Components
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Lexical Relations in CA
9.3 Katz's Semantic Theory
9.4 Grammatical Rules and Semantic Components
9.5 Components and Conflation Patterns
9.6 Jackendoff's Conceptual Structure
9.7 Pustejovsky's Generative Lexicon
9.8 Problems with Components of Meaning
9.9 Summary
10 Formal Semantics
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Model-Theoretical Semantics
10.3 Translating English into a Logical Metalanguage
10.4 The Semantics of the Logical Metalanguage
10.5 Checking the Truth-Value of Sentences
10.6 Word Meaning: Meaning Postulates
10.7 Natural Language Quantifiers and Higher Order Logic
10.8 Intensionality
10.9 Dynamic Approaches to Discourse
10.10 Summary
11 Cognitive Semantics
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Metaphor
11.3 Metonymy
11.4 Image Schemas
11.5 Polysemy
11.6 Mental Spaces
11.7 Langacker's Cognitive Grammar
11.8 Summary
Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
815俷ʹīˡ83ФνǺܤƤ˳عDZäȤǤ롥ֳعǤϲ硤褦Ƴ줿ŨαѸΤޤͤˤʤʤ褦ȤΤȤäǤ⡤줿դȡפФᤷˤʤפȤä
ʸ (direction_of_writing) ˤĤƤ ##2448,2449,2482,2483 ǰäƤʸäȤƸСܸα뤤ϱĽȤѰۤѲϡνηϤμΤΡºݤˤ˺ݤƺѤƤϤϡˤƼҲŪʤΤäϲƥΤޤȤĤ졤ܸΥȽŤ蘆줿褷Ȥ줿ϱϾäΥΩνεȤȤ˸ߤǤѤƤ롥
ϸѤ줿Ȥʾˡä˶ᤤΤǤȤ̾ (169--70) ϡ桦ܸѲˤĤơΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
ϡƱ貤Ƹαƶˤäޤ줿ΤǤˤ⤫餺ĽʻѤƤȤ⤢äơ½ޤǤˤϡֱܸͭŪסֺᲤפȤΩ夷ƤȤϤǤˤӤӤդ줿ΥϤθμҲͭžѤˤ餺ޤǰӤѤʤäΥФɾդϷưλȿǤƷ㤷žϤ礭Ϯ줿ΤǤ롥
岽Ȥƹ⤤ɾͿηϡ貼ˤ³͡ʾ°ޡǯˤʤäƤ⡤쥳ɤβۻҤΤ褦ʥξʤǤϡ豦äɽ˺Ƥ뤳Ȥ˽Ҥ٤
Ūˤޤ路ʿ褬ȯ䡤դ礭žܺŪʤΤΩ줫鶯Ϥ˻ٻ褦ˤʤ롥˻٤ƺαȤư졤ޤǤκήΩ뤳Ȥˤʤä
ʿ褬˽ꡤֵʼפֻǧؤȡͤžȡλ٤äƱưϼ®դӲƤΥ˭ʸؤƴ˲ơɾϵ徺롥˿ʤߡ϶वơĤ˲Ϻ줵뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥
ºݡ1946--48ǯοʹĴˤС3ǯ֤Ȥû֤ΤˡʤǤäƱ麸ؤȰܹԤȤʬäƤʲ̾ӡp. 171ˡդ٤ϡΰǤҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤŪʿäȤǤ롥Τ˽鱦¸Ƥľˤä˱ΩäƤȤϤä麸ηϴϩäˤʤäơδϩܿͤ˼˳ǧ졤줿ȤȤ̾ (177) ۩ֺؤܸɽѳפΤͣ졤κ߽ФΤʤΤסĤޤꡤᱦẸȤޤϹήۤƤΤΡοäȤ٤ΤǤ롥
͡οä߽Ф˻äΤ⡤Τۤοǯ֤Ǻž뤲ȤʰݤȵäοäϡԤ夲äȤΤǤϤʤ
̾ زо졽ܸɽζ١ȽŹҴȿӡ2003ǯ
첻ϲΰǤ롥ΤȤǤꡤŵŪˤ϶ʤɤʹ˱äƱư¤Ƥ椯ʹ֤ޤ¿ưʪѤƥߥ˥äƤ롥첻˴ؤơŪʴääƤʲͤνŵϡCrystal (34) ӸͰ (26--28, 34)
ȡˤοư°ˤϡȿȲ٥뤬롥ȿȤϡ1ô֤βȤοưʤι⤵ɽ魯ñ̤ˤ Hz ʥإġˤѤ롥20Hz㤤Ķ (infrasonics) ȸƤФ졤ʹ֤ɤȤƴ뤳ȤϤ뤬Ǥϴʤޤ20000Hz⤤Ķ (supersonics) ȤϤ꼪Ǥϴ뤳ȤǤʤʹ֤ȤƴΤǤΤ20--20000HzȤȤˤʤ롥ޤϷȤȤʹ벻ϰϤʤꡤä˼ȿι⤤ʹˤʤȤ롥
ȤƤϡʹ֤ʹ뤳ιӰζޤǤȤʤƤ櫓ǤϤʤȯ¦⤢ꡤ̾ȯäǤ100--4000HzѤ롥̾ȯ90--130HzǤͽȯ250--330HzǤ롥ޤ줿Ф֤ε㤭400Hzȹ⤤NHKλ440--880Hzߵ֤Υ770--960HzǤ롥
ʤߤˡưʪʹ벻ϰϤϿʹ֤ȰۤʤäƤ롥Ļ200--8000Hz10--12000Hz̤15--50000Hzͥ60--65000Hz륫150--150000Hz1000--120000HzȤޤޤǤ롥줾줬ʹǽϤѤƼȼΥߥ˥ΩƤƤ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
ˡ٥˰ܤϲȤο˴ؤ°Ǥꡤ礭ɽ魯ñ̤ˤ dB ʥǥ٥ˤѤ롥ʹ֤̾βä60dBۤɤǤꡤ䤭30dBʹǤ⾮ʲ0dBǤ롥ӤȤơʹĤ70dBʹߵ֤Υ80dBɲʹ֤β100dBʹԵΥ120dBǤ롥
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
Ͱ ʡʴƽˡز縦桡䤫ճʳˡޤǡ١2016ǯ
2016ǯ822--26˥ɥĤ University of Duisburg-Essen dzŤ줿 ICEHL19 (19th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics) ˻ä

ϡ2ǯ֤ۤɸ椷Ƥ etymological_respelling ˤĤ "Etymological Spelling Before and After the Sixteenth-Century" ȤȯɽƤαѸʬˤιݳز˻ä뤳ȤˤꡤسĬή褯İǤ뤳ȤǧICEHL19γزäȳسĬήˤĤơرʸʸʳ칶Ѹ˸𤹤뵡äΤǡƤγάܥ֥ˤܤƤICEHL18ˤĤƤϡ#2004. ICEHL18 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2014-10-22-1]) ȡˡʲICEHL19θȯɽ˴ؤPDFƤ
ץ
ȯɽ
åװ
ȯɽݤξ
(1) زα
ICEHL-1 (1979)
ICEHL-2 (1981, Odense)
ICEHL-3 (1983, Sheffield)
ICEHL-4 (1985, Amsterdam)
ICEHL-5 (1987, Cambridge)
ICEHL-6 (1990, Helsinki)
ICEHL-7 (1992, Valencia)
ICEHL-8 (1994, Edinburgh)
ICEHL-9 (1996, Poznan)
ICEHL-10 (1998, Manchester)
ICEHL-11 (2000, Santiago De Compostela)
ICEHL-12 (2002, Glasgow)
ICEHL-13 (2004, Vienna)
ICEHL-14 (2006, Bergamo)
ICEHL-15 (2008, Munich)
ICEHL-16 (2010, Pécs)
ICEHL-17 (2012, Zurich)
ICEHL-18 (2014, Leuven)
ICEHL-19 (2016, Essen)
ICEHL-20 to come (2018, Edinburgh)
ICEHL-21 to come (2020, Leiden)
(2) Ĵֱ
Gabriella Mazzon (University of Innsbruck) --- Shift in politeness values of English Discourse markers: a cyclical tendency?
Simon Horobin (University of Oxford) --- 'No gentleman goes on a bus': H. C. Wyld and the historical study of English
Erik Smitterberg (University of Uppsala) --- Late Modern English: Demographics, Prescriptivism, and Myths of Stability
Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade (University of Leiden) --- Usage guides and the Age of Prescriptivism
Daniel Schreier (University of Zurich) --- Reconstructing variation and change in English: the importance of dialect isolates
(3) ȯɽ
Phonology
Stress
Metrical matters
Inflectional Morphology
Morphosyntax
Word-formation
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(4) å
The Dynamics of Speech Representation in the History of English (Peter J. Grund and Terry Walker)
Intersubjectivity and the Emergence of Grammatical Patterns in the History of English (Silvie Hancil and Alexander Haselow)
Diachronic Approaches to the Typology of Language Contact (Olga Timofeeva and Richard Ingham)
Early American Englishes (Merja Kytó and Lucia Sievers)
(5) سĬήʤɵŤ
ICEHL-18 ˸줿historical sociopragmatics θ corpus ǹԤפȤݤäĬή˿䤷ʤƤʴĴֱȥåפΥ˥塼ȡˡ
ʸˡǧθؤΥץС
ּŪʡѼؤδؿضƤ롥
ֽγزǤϡ"Standard English", "phonology", "morphology", "syntax" ʤɤɤǤꡤ"corpus", "xxx English", "pragmatics" ʤɤϽФƤʤä (R. Hickey)
ŪǥʬǤ phonology, morphology, syntax ʤɤߡʸԤνпϤпؤʤɤȤδϢꡩˡ
ʸˡΩʤʤäƤ롥
˰³åפ4ѰդƤꡤ¤Ƥ
ȤƤϡűѸȸѸ¿äδ֤ѸȽѸŪʤä
ܿȴϢƸ츻ʸạ́ˤȯɽ¿ä㤨С
- "Food for thought: Bread vs Loaf in Old and Early Middle English texts" (Sara M. Pons-Sanz)
- "Buried Treasure: In Search of the Old Norse Influence on Middle English Lexis" (Richard Dance and Brittany Schorn)
- "The Penetration of French Lexis in Middle English Occupational Domains" (Louise Sylvester, Richard Ingham and Imogen Marcus)
बץȤʤȤƤγزȤ֤Ť
- ŪʥСȤǤΥåסʸʸǡˡ
- ץȤδ衤вʤɡ
Ťפľ㤨С嵭 Bread vs Loaf ʤɡˡ
ܿͤˤȯɽ4ͤȻǰʤ龯ʤä
ݳزλäˤĤƤϡ#2327. ݳز˻äĹû ([2015-09-10-1])#2326. SHEL-9 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2015-09-09-1])#2325. ICOME9 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2015-09-08-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ
#302. űѸΥեѸ ([2010-02-23-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡɤȥΥޥǥܿϡΥޥͤ (norman_conquest) ˤ¸ߤȤϤޤΤƤʤΤȤϡѸȥեܿ⤽龯ʤʤ¸ߤȤȤǤꡤѸ˾ΰ̣롥
å̵ (Ethelred the Unready) κʤϥΥޥǥͤΥ (Emma) ǤꡤϥϤνΥޥǥ (Rollo) ηåɤε¹¤˥衼2 (Guillaume II)Υꥢ (William the Conqueror) οͤǤ롥̤δ餤ȡꥢϡåɤȥޤޤ줿Υɥڲ (Edward the Confessor) ˤȤäơ©ҤȤΩǤ롥
٥λˤޤ̤ (860?--932?) ϡ˥ΥޥͤȸƤФ褦ˤʤäǡͤμΤǤꡤ²Ȥ9ޤǤ̥եΥϸն꽻911ǯˤϥꥹȶΤȤˡϽΥޥǥȤե3 (Charles III) ˿òȤƼ줿ʹߡΥޥǥϺ̤ƥեɤβȤȷӤĤϤȤƬ
ơ3ܥꥷ㡼1 (Richard I) ̼ޤϡ֥ΥޥСפȸƤФۤɤǤꡤå̵ (968--1016) ȷ뺧뤳Ȥˤʤä2ͤޤ줿ɥɤϡ쥨ޤθκƺꥫ̡ (Canute) äζΤΥޥǥ˰ꡤǶˡäΥޥߤˤʤäƤơɤǥǡīȡΥɥɤΥޥǥäƤƥɥڲȤ¨̤ΤǤ롥
Τ褦طʤˤꡤɤȥΥޥǥΤĤʤϡƳ1000ǯ夫鸫줿ΤǤ롥
üȯΥޥͤη濴˲ȷϿޤƤϢơīηϿޤˤĤƤϡ#2620. īηϿޡ ([2016-06-29-1]) ȡ#2547. 奤ɷǯΰ ([2016-04-17-1]) dzǧǤ롥
衼IĹ
ꥷ㡼Iʹ
̡ȡᥨޡᥨå̵ ꥷ㡼II
ɥڲ եå
ꥷ㡼III ١Iʰˡᥢ
衼IIʥꥢ
ץȥ (prototype) ˴Ṭ̌Ǥϡΰ̣ʣΰ̣ħ̵ͭ«ͤȤŪʰ̣ȯۤæựħ٤κǧᡤ̣Ȥϰ̣ŵͿ褦Ȼߤ롥ץȥϡ̸ϤᴶŪʪŪʰ̣ĸäŬѤ졤̤ƤǤϿŪҲŪǤĸäؤŬѤǤΤռ顤Coleman and Kay ϡѸ lie ʱˤ˥ץȥװ̣ʬϤä
Coleman and Kay (43) ĴμȵŸñ㤫Ǥ롥ʸηˤ褯ޤȤƤΤǡѤ롥
We have argued that many words, and the word lie in particular, have as their meanings not a list of necessary and sufficient conditions that a thing or event must satisfy to count as a member of the category denoted by the word, but rather a psychological object or process which we have called a PROTOTYPE. In some cases, a prototype can be represented by a list of conditions; but these are not necessary conditions, and the evaluative logic according to which these conditions are found to be satisfied, or not, is in general one of degree rather than of simple truth and falsity. . . .
In particular, we formulated (on the basis of the sort of introspection usual in semantic and syntactic research) a prototype for the word lie, consisting of three elements: falsity, intent to speak falsely, and intent to deceive. Stories were then constructed which described speech acts embodying each of the eight possible combinations of these three elements; these were presented to subjects, to be judged on the extent to which the relevant character in the story could be said to have lied. The pattern of responses confirmed the theory. The stories containing and lacking all three elements received by far the highest and lowest scores respectively. Further, in comparing each pair of stories in which the first contained all the prototype elements of the second plus at least one more, the majority of informants always gave the higher lie-score to the first. Of the nineteen comparisons of this type, each of which turned out as predicted, eighteen produced proportions significant at the .01 level. We then compared each pair of stories which differed in the presence of exactly two elements, to see if these comparisons yielded a consistent pattern with respect to the relative importance of the prototype elements. A consistent pattern was found: falsity of belief is the most important element of the prototype of lie, intended deception is the next most important element, and factual falsity is the least important.
䤫˷Фlie lie Ǥ뤿κǤפʥѥʥץȥǡˤϡüԤȯƤȿƤפȤǤꡤˡüԤȤƤפȤǤꡤǸˡȯƤºݤ˵ǤפȤ³νû졤⤤Τۤɱ餷Ǥꡤ㤤ۤɱäݤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ɤ餬Ǥꡤɤ餬ǤʤΤȽǤϸĿͤˤäƤˤäƤɤưץȥŪʱǤ뤫ǧȡΰæٹ礤˴ؤƤϡüԤδ֤Ǥ褽ФפȤȤͤߤ줿
ץȥװ̣Υåεͤޤäʬ䤹Ǥ롥
Coleman, L. and P. Kay. "Prototype Semantics: The English Word lie." Language 22 (1980): 26--44.
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