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ѸȯֻЪΥĤߤȤƤ spelling_pronunciation ˤĤƤϤޤ¿εǰäƤƱŪǤαĤߤȿФ "pronunciation spelling" Ȥ٤ݤˤĤƤϡ̤ˤ⤢ޤ夲뤳Ȥʤ
ͳϡۤȤɤɸֻǤ롥ꥫѸǼάѤƤ lite ( = light) thru ( = through ) ϻ̱ƤۤǤϤ뤬ϤͿݤɸŪǤ롥lite 㥫ˤξ̾ȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ pronunciation spelling ΰŪʷ"a trade-name or advertising campaign" (Crystal, p. 77) Ѥ뷹Ǥ롥̾ϸŪǤʤƤϤʤ餺ߤʤΤäƤɸŪֻפƤޤäƤϺ롥ɸŪֻæ뤳Ȥ¸ߴԡ뤷̾ФƤ餦Ȥά
Crystal (77) ϡpronunciation spelling ȹͤƼʸƤ롥Τˡ𤬽ФܤαޤΨ⤽줾첿ξʡӥȤʤʬ롥
- Miami for the chosen phew (advertising holidays)
- EZ Lern (US driving school)
- Fetherwate
- Hyway Inn
- Kilzum (insect spray)
- Kwiksave
- Heinz Buildz Kidz
- Loc-tite
- No-glu
- Resistoyl
- Rol-it-on
- Wundertowl
ɸֻǤȤȤϡ路魯ȤǤ롥[2011-07-05-1]εֳ±ʣ <z>פǿ줿warez Ȥʤ뤬 "pronunciation spelling" ο̤ȤäƤ褤
pronunciation spelling 㤬 spelling pronunciation ٤ƾʤɸŪȤΥ졼٥Ž줬ʤΤϡȯ˹碌ֻѤȤȼΤԼǤ롥ֻϾݼŪǤ뤫顤˹碌ȯѲ뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤εդϵˤԼܤ̤߽ФΤǤꡤ¾Ǥ路ФΤǤ롥
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
̾ smoke ˤϼפʸȤơֱפȡֵʱפ2Ĥ롥The air was thick with cigarette smoke. ǤԤθAre you coming outside for a smoke? ǤϸԤθѤƤ롥ξ̩ܤǤꡤδطϴ (metonymy) ˤäưפǤ롥äơñ̾ smoke ΰ̣γդƤޤǤ롥
ȤBradley ϡŪˤ2Ťʻž (conversion) ǤǸƤ롥ʤۤɤǼ
Occasionally it happens that a noun in this way gives rise to a verb, which in its turn gives rise to another noun, all three words being exactly alike in sound and spelling. Thus, in the following examples: (1) 'The smoke of a pipe,' (2) 'To smoke a pipe,' (3) 'To have a smoke,' the noun of (1) is not, strictly speaking, the same word as the noun of (3). It is true that in cases like this our dictionaries usually treat the secondary noun as merely a special sense of the primary noun; and, indeed, very often, this treatment is unavoidable, because the difference of meaning between the two is so slight that in some contexts it disappears altogether. Still, it ought not to be forgotten that from the historical point of view the two nouns are really distinct: if English had retained its original grammatical system this would probably have been shown by a difference of termination, gender, or declension. (93--94)
ѸˤˤʻžˤĤƤ[2009-11-03-1]ۤ conversion γƵǰäƤεϸűѸ˻Ϥޤäοʿݤ̤롥űѸˤ̾ưʤɥƥȤ˰ۤʤͿäοʿˤꥫƥ֤ηṲ̄ȡƱ֤ƥޤǼͳ˱ǤϤäBradley ϡsmoke ̾ȤƤξϡαˤޤ줿ΤȤƤ롥̣ΤϡѤκǸˤ褦ˡűѸηߤǤȲꤹСֱפȡֵʱפϰۤʤŪħʷ֤ΤΡޥפʤɡˤİۤʤ̾Ȥ¸ߤƤȤȤǤ롥
smoke ˤĤƤϤޤDzäºݤ˸űѸηŪħݤäޤƤ㤬롥㤨Сbath ϡ(1) 'take a bath,' (2) 'bathe in the sea,' (3) 'take a bathe in the sea' Τ褦ȯŸƤƤꡤ(1) (3) smoke ξȰ㤤ۤʤ֤Ƥ롥ϡűѸ <th> 촴βǤĶ˱̵ [θ] ͭ [ð] ȤƸ벻ǤäȤͳ褹뺹ۤǡ[2011-03-30-1]ε-ths ȯפǿ줿褦 breathe, clothe ˤⶦ̤롥
Τ褦 bath bathe ˤ餫ȡsmoke 2ŤʻžȹͤϤĤ褦˻פ롥
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
̣ѲȵŪʸˡˤȿϤѤƤꡤоݤˤʤ䤹ǯ̾1Ĥˡɸ2λȤʬ˴ؤ롥
interested ˤϰۤʤ2Ĥθ롥ĤαѱѼŵĴ٤ʤǤϡMerriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary (MWALED; see [2010-08-24-1], [2010-08-23-1]) ˤζ̤Ǥʬ䤹ɽ路ƤʬŪ˰Ѥ롥
1a. wanting to learn more about something or to become involved in something
???The listeners were all greatly/very interested in the lecture.???
2. having a direct or personal involvement in something
???The plan will have to be approved by all interested parties.???
ܸˤСԤϡֶ̣äƤסԤϡطΤפζ̤Ȥʤ롥ԤŤɽ魯٤ȤƤԤΤۤŪ˹⤤1Ĥθ줬ۤʤʣθäƤ뤳ȼΤϡѸǤ¾θǤޤäȤǤϤʤܤ٤ϡѸǤξб̡꤬θɽ蘆뤳ȤǤ롥Ūʸˡ˽С1a θֶ̣äƤפ uninterested ǡ2 θطΤפ disinterested ɽ蘆Ȥ롥줾ʸ
- He is completely uninterested in politics.ʶ̣äƤʤ
- Her advice appeared to be disinterested.طΤʤʿ̵Ρ
Ȥ2 θŪޤ餫ǯǤ disinterested uninterested Ʊͤ 1a θֶ̣äƤʤפȤѤ뤳ȤƤƤȤݼŪɾԤϡĤƤΤ¸ߤ uninterested disinterested θζ̤줫Ƥ롤뤤 disinterested ξŪˤʤäƤޤäȤƷپĤ餷Ƥ뤬ȽϤɤΤ餤Ƥ
1ˡdisinterested ξˤĤơȤ interested 2ĤΰۤʤäƤξŪäξ̤ʤԹȤȽʹȤʤǤˤξˤϴƤǤʤ顤ȤȤä̤ξƤ椯ȤˤϸʤȤΤϡޤڤ̤äƤȤϤʤ
2ˡֶ̣äƤʤפθ disinterested uninterested ȴƱǤϤʤФжդ֤ޤǶ̣äƤʤפΰ̣ interested ȤϻȤʬȤ롥ξ硤ξλȤʬˤäơĤƤԲǽạ̈Τʤٹ礤ɸǽˤʤäȤȤǤꡤ餿ʶ̤줿Ȥˤʤ롥
3ˡϡֶ̣äƤʤȡ̵ؿפ̣б1̾¸ߤʤä*uninterest Ȥ̾Ѥ줺lack of interest ʤɤȤŪɽDz뤷ʤäȤdisinterest ȤϡطΤʤȡʿ̵פ̣̾Ȥ¸ߤƤΤǡƻΰ̣ѲϢươƱ줬̵ؿפθô褦ˤʤä̵ؿפФ1ɽǤ褦ˤʤäΤϡηƻΰ̣Ѳ椨ȹͤ롥
ޤȤСΤ褦ˤʤ롥uninterested disinterested ˤޤḤ̂Ѳη̤ȤơݼŪɾԤΤ褦ˤ̤줿ȤϳΤǤ롥ȿ̡¸ߤʤä̤ζ̤줿Τ¤Ǥ롥
ŪʼǤϡdisinterested οޤѤȤǧƤʤ褦줬̵Ǥ뤳ȤͤСָѡפѲΤϻ֤꤫⤷ʤ뤤ϡüԤεϽηСʤȤʼĥäʸ̮ǤϡѤȤΥåƥ޳Τ⤷ʤĿͤȤƤϤɤ餬˾ޤȽǤǤʤȽǤʤ̵ŪѲƤ椯ΤǤϤʤüԤˤäͭŪѲƤ椯ΤȤϿƤ롥
ʾε Trudgill (2--5) ˵ä
Trudgill, Peter. "The Meaning of Words Should Not be Allowed to Vary or Change." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 1--8.
IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) ݲɸʸפˤĤƤϡipa γƵǼ夲ƤIPA ϡȯοʤǰƬˡ첻Τ˰Ӥɽǽ뤿εηϤΩȤŪǺФ줿A. J. Ellis H. Sweet Ԥ߽Фߥåɽ (Romic) ȤˤʤäƤꡤO. Jespersen Ƥ International Phonetic Association ʹݲض IPA άˤͭϥСǤä P. Passy Ωԡˤ D. Jones 餬1888ǯˤޤȤ夲θ첻б뤿˸˾IJ졤ʣʵηϤˤʤäƤߤǤ2005ǯβѤƤ롥
Ūʲɽˤϡ̩кɽɽɬפIPA ϤξǤ褯ƤȤ졤ǺǤƤȯȤäƤ褤ꥫǤ IPA ʳˤȼȯηϤѤƤ뤬衼åѤܤǤ IPA αƶä˶IPA ܤǤϻԲϻͳϺˤƳ졤夷ƤߤܤμǤϡξѼȯб뤿νäʤ顤 IPA δάɽ (broad notation) ѤƤ롥
IPA Ϥˤϡĺ hel typist Web ӥȤƤ IPA Chart Keyboard Type IPA phonetic symbols ɤ
ۤˡIPA ˤˤĤƤν Bibliography of the history of the IPA ˤ롥
־ "The History of English in Ten Minutes - for iPod/iPhone by The Open University" ʤ롤Ѹˤ饹ȤǼû˳⤹ưȯ1ʬۤɤûư褬10ܤꡤYouTubeǤİǤ롥ʲϤ줾ؤΥ
Anglo-Saxon - The History of English (1/10)
The Norman Conquest - The History of English (2/10)
Shakespeare - The History of English (3/10)
The King James Bible - The History of English (4/10)
The English of Science - The History of English (5/10)
English and Empire - The History of English (6/10)
The Age of the Dictionary - The History of English (7/10)
American English - The History of English (8/10)
Internet English - The History of English (9/10)
Global English - The History of English (10/10)
Ѹˤ˴ؤİж¿ʤMacNeil-Lehrer Productions BBC ƥӥ The Story of English (1986) VHS 䡤ITV Υƥӥ The Adventure of English (2003) VHS/DVD 䡤The Teaching Company The Great Courses 1 The History of the English Language, 2nd Edition, Parts 1 to 3 (by Seth Lerer) ιֵ DVD ɽƤ뤬ʳˤϤޤ긫ʤ̤ˤΤǤлİжϿ¤ʤΤˤȤʤ˳ΤǤ롥"The History of English in Ten Minutes" by The Open University ϤʬǤΰĤιȤ
ܥ֥ǤϤʤʤưѰդ뤳ȤϤǤʤǤɽʤɤΥ奢褦ȿƤ롥ξɽˤȤŪɽǤ륦־ΥåȤ褫
Ѹ˥եѸ줬̤ήƤ¤ˤĤƤϤǤ¿εǰäƤ[2009-08-22-1]ε֥եѸǯʬۡפۤȡˡˤѸɽβǽäܤ٤ɽȤơѸбեѸ2।ǥ (binomial idiom) ɽʥХp. 60ˡmy heart and my corage, wepe and crye, huntynge and venerye ǡǤ롥ɽϡȥեѸδ֤Ѱ ( register ) κΤ뤳ȤѤŪʵˡȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ뤬ʡֱѸäλع¤פˤĤƤ[2010-03-27-1]εȡˡܿѸưפˤ뤿ȤźȤͤ롥Ԥϡפ ( gloss ) ܤȤűѸνΰüȸ뤫⤷ʤϤޤ17켭 (see [2010-12-27-1], [2010-11-24-1]) оˤĤʤʸŪǤ롥ʹߤǤ lord and master, my last will and testament ʤɤɽȤʤäƤ롥
ʤɽȤäƤ⡤ɬ and Τ褦³ǷФƤȤϸ¤ʤ㤨 court-yard ˤ mansion-house šˤϱʩбǤľʣǤꡤŪȤ롥
Ѹήϡñ˴¸θ֤ꡤμ䤷ꤹǤϤʤ¸θäϢȤɽǽƤ¦̤⤢뤳Ȥɾ٤ϢơʩξǤ1˺礷Ƥ hybrid γƵä[2009-08-01-1]ΡֱѸȥեǺ褫 ( hybrid )סˤ⻲ȡ
ݡ롦Х ס رѸθá١ҡʸ˥ӡ1976ǯ
ˤ餺;̾°ʷ֤ƽͭ his-genitive ȤäˡŤѸΤƤ롥ϸűѸ줫鸫롥Mustanoja (159) Ƥ뼡θűѸ줫ǤϡEnac his cynren "Enac's posterity" ΰդɽ魯
we gesawon Enac his cynren (Ælfric Num. xiii 29)
Τ褦ˡưŤǤ롥ͭ̾ϰ̾ȰۤʤΤʶʤΤ̤Ǥꡤ°ʤˤϡ;̾°ʤѤΤ°ʰʳˤ⡤ʤˡб;̾γʷ֤ȤϸűѸˤǤ⤢ä he Ninus, hym Olofernus ʤɡˡ
ѸǤ⡤his °ʤϤĤ⸫Ĥ롥Mustanoja (159) ˵Ƥ
- þe cnapenchild hiss shapp (Orm. 4220)
- Hengest his sone (Lawman B 16772); þat wes Hengest sune (A)
- Loth his eldeste sone (Lawman B 23248)
- ine Winchestre his toun (Lawman B 19630); Winchastre tun (A)
- Felyce hir fayrnesse (PPl. B xii 47)
- sche hadde be kyng Alexandre his lemman (Trev. Higd. I 155)
- þe whiche kyng his prayers to God þat day were moche worthy (Trev. Higd. VI 349)
- Gwenayfer his love (Lawman B 22247)
- at þare ditch his grunde (Lawman B 1589)
Ǹ2ϡhis Ω̾줬줾̵ؼðۤǤ롥㤫狼褦ˡLawman B Trevisa ˤ Higden Polychronicon ΥƥȡξȤˤǤ㤬¿ʳǤ15ޤǤι¤ϵǤ롥15ʹߤˤʤȡι¤٤ᡤ17ޤ¸³롥ʤؼ̾˸֤ her °ʤϾʤʤڤ뤬ʣб°ʤ *her *their Ϥʤ
Ѹ his °ʤεˤϽ⤢롥
(1) űѸνͭͿ (possessive dative) ü칽ʸ˴Ť䡥㤨Сher Romane Leone þæm papan his tungan forcurfon (OE Chron. an. 797) ǤϡͭͿ þæm papan äƤ椯 tungan his ˤ뽤Ƥ롥
(2) his Ϥμ is °ʸ -es, -is ƱȤʤΤǡ°ʸ촴ڤΥ줿ΤȲǤΤǤϤʤ
(3) űѸˤǤ Enac his cynren Τ褦б빽ʸäȤ顤ʬŪɽѤ뷹Ѹʹߤ˷³ȯŸΤȹͤΤǤϤʤ
(4) եбɽ (ex. pour escaper de Deu sen ire [Gilles de Muisis i 20]) αƶեǤ¿ʤ
Mustanoja (161--162) ϡ(4) ӽʤ顤(1), (2), (3) Ȥ߹碌ٻƤ롥
ѸˤŪʷ礫ʬ (synthesis to analysis) ؤĬήͤСhis °ʤȯȯŸϤޤää٤ȤǤϤʤषʤѸѤƤäΤΤ̣ۤ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
Ѹˤ˴Ϣ륤ϿޤǡۤϿޤϤʤΤǤϤʤɤ˻ĤťΥɸǤޤ̾ʬۤɽ魯ϿޤǤ Crystal, p. 25 Ȥ˺ˡ

֤ϡ878ǯǡͤ King Alfred Eddington Ǥ餫ɥ⥢ (Treaty of Wedmore) 뤷ȤޤäΤȥǡΤζǤ롥ϥǡͤˡΧŬѤϰȤȤǡthe Danelaw ȸƤФ뤳ȤˤʤäɤˤϸťΥɸǤޤ̾1400ʾ夢Ȥ뤬ΤۤȤɤ the Danelaw ϰˤ줤˸ꤵƤΤŪǤ롥פʸťΥɸǤȰʲΤ褦ʤΤ롥
-by Į: Derby, Rugby, Whitby
-thorpe ¼: Althorp, Bishopsthorp, Gawthorpe, Linthorpe, Mablethorpe, Scunthorpe
-thwaite ֳϡ: Applethwaite, Braithwaite, Rosthwaite, Stonethwaite, Storthwaite
-toft ֲȲߡ: Eastoft, Langtoft, Nortoft
ΥΥɸǤʣ̾θȾʬѤƤ뤬ȾʬɬťΥɸ쵯Ȥϸ¤餺ѸǤǤ뤳Ȥ¿㤨СStorthwaite ǤȾ stor ϸťΥɸǡ礭פ̣ǤꡤȾȾξǤȤ̲ϤStonethwaite ǤȾǤ餫˱Ѹ stone Ƥꡤξ캮߷̾Ǥ롥
ʣ̾ξǤޤޤƤȤȤϡξ̱²ʿ¤˶¸Ƥǽ롥⤷ǡͤĮ¼ϤϽ̱षΤǤС̾˱ѸǤޤȤȤϹͤˤξǤ1Ĥ̾˺ߤƤȤȤϡξ̱²ηŪʺƱ˿ʤǤȤɽ路ƤΤǤϤʤơ̩ʺϡťΥɸ줬Ѹ˷פΤʤƶڤܤΤϤʤȤ˲ͿƤΤǤ롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ϱѸǤܸǤ Netspeak ѤƤϤʤͥåȤȤѳȼοѼȯŸˤϴؿ롥[2011-07-01-1]ε֥ͥåȻϸѲβžΨκǤ®פ褦ˡθѲˤϡޤ˿ʳäȤǤ롥Netspeak ϸǤκüäƤѼǤꡤѸˤƤȼɽƤ롥
åȡŻҥ롤ƤȤ櫓 (texting) νդ˸ħȤơƼξάˡ롥¿ϡñƬʸĤʤ碌Ƭʸ (initialism) Ǥäꡤ"2" "4" 줾 "to" "for" б褦Ƚ (rebus) Ǥäꤹ롥ˤͷӿäƤ⥱Υѥåɾǿ餻ȤŪʸ̤롥Crystal (142--43) ꡤפʤΤ˵
initialism ΤϱѸǤϿȤǤϤʤrebus ⥯ǤߤΤ褦ʾάϤѤѸνѼ郎줿ȤȤ⡤ä˿ȤǤϤʤ㤨μܤƼξάƤ롥άưŤ⡤Netspeak μܤνդΤ˶롥ϤˤϫϤ餷ȤߵƱǤꡤȺ︺ʥͥåȾǤϥѥå⡤ܤǤϹʻˤȤưŤⶦ̤롥ĤޤꡤŪʸ줳ά椫 initialism Ǹߤ˰ۤʤ뤬ưŤƤꡤդˤΤʤǷ֤ڤƤΤǤ롥
⤽դϡɽʸ rebus Ū˱Ѥꡤꥷʸ alphabet ǤбäդޤޤƤ첻ɸʤäȡɤˤ٤βɺȤ᤹ΤȤƽȯȯŸƤ[2010-06-23-1]εʸμפȡˡNetspeak νդѼϡ츫Ū˸뤬ʸ餫¿ʬ˼ѤǤȤǡճݼŪȸΤǤϤʤ
| abbreviation | original phrase |
|---|---|
| afaik | as far as I know |
| afk | away from keyboard |
| asap | as soon as possible |
| a/s/l | age/sex/location |
| atw | at the weekend |
| bbfn | bye bye for now |
| bbl | be back later |
| bcnu | be seeing you |
| b4 | before |
| bg | big grin |
| brb | be right back |
| btw | by the way |
| cm | call me |
| cu | see you |
| cul8r | see you later |
| cya | see you |
| dk | don't know |
| eod | end of discussion |
| f? | friends? |
| f2f | face-to-face |
| fotcl | falling off the chair laughing |
| fwiw | for what it's worth |
| fya | for your amusement |
| fyi | for your information |
| g | grin |
| gal | get a life |
| gd&r | grinning ducking and running |
| gmta | great minds think alike |
| gr8 | great |
| gsoh | good sense of humour |
| hhok | haha only kidding |
| hth | hope this helps |
| icwum | I see what you mean |
| idk | I don't know |
| iirc | if I remember correctly |
| imho | in my humble opinion |
| imi | I mean it |
| imo | in my opinion |
| iou | I owe you |
| iow | in other words |
| iri | in real life |
| jam | just a minute |
| j4f | just for fun |
| jk | just kidding |
| kc | keep cool |
| khuf | know how you feel |
| l8r | later |
| lol | laughing out loud |
| m8 | mate |
| nc | no comment |
| np | no problem |
| oic | oh I see |
| otoh | on the other hand |
| pmji | pardon my jumping in |
| ptmm | please tell me more |
| rip | rest in peace |
| rotfl | rolling on the floor laughing |
| ruok | are you OK? |
| sc | stay cool |
| so | significant other |
| sol | sooner or later |
| t+ | think positive |
| ta4n | that's all for now |
| thx | thanks |
| tia | thanks in advance |
| ttfn | ta-ta for now |
| tttt | to tell the truth |
| t2ul | talk to you later |
| ttytt | to tell you the truth |
| tuvm | thank you very much |
| tx | thanks |
| tyvm | thank you very much |
| wadr | with all due respect |
| wb | welcome back |
| w4u | waiting for you |
| wrt | with respect to |
| wu | what's up? |
| X! | typical woman |
| Y! | typical man |
| yiu | yes I understand |
homonymic_clash ξˤʤȡη̤ȤƲ뤫Malkiel (2--12) 4Ĥβǽ⤷褦
(a) Ʊ۵2ˤĤơϾͤ٤Ūۣ椵ӽ¾μʤ⸫ĤˤϡǽŪˡʾʤȤĥä쥸Ǥϡʻ¸³롥flea ʤΤߡˤ flee ƨˡstraighten ʤޤäˤˤ straiten ʤФˡlie ʲˤ lie ʱĤˤʤɤǤ롥
(b) Ʊ۵줬¾ह뤫ɤ롥Ԥξϡ(1) ٤⤤(2) ¸Υѥ礷䤹(3) Ŭɽ¸ߤʤʤɤͤ롥ԼԤव줺˻Ĥˤ⡤ϰϤ귿ɽ˸¤ʤʸ롥㤨Сcleave ڤˤ cleave ʤäĤˤǤϡԤϡ֡ʤ뿮ǰˡ˼夹פθ˸ꤵƤ롥ʥǤϡξԤä뤳Ȥ⤢롥
(c) Ʊ۵ǤϤ뤬ߤ˰̣ƤˤϡξԤͻ礷ƤޤȤ롥㤨Сlight ʷڤˤ light ˤʤɤüԤˤäƤϰռΤʤǤ1Ĥ¿ǧƤ뤫⤷ʤ ([2010-02-07-1], [2011-07-21-1]) ޤͻ礬ʬŪǤȡȤȤ2ȿޤ줿3θȤ̣ʬäơ3줹٤Ƥʻ¸ǽ⤢롥
(d) ˶ܼˤĤơ1Ĥܼ2ĤʸˡǽôäƤͤˤƤϡǽΰѥǤεǽб̤ŵŪܼؤȷ֤եȤ륱롥Malkiel ǤϱѸ줫ϵƤʤ㤨мΤ褦ʥűѸζѲư slǣpan "sleep" ˤƸ߷Ȳ첻ͻ礷ȤˡǤѲ slept Ѥ褦ˤʤäȤǤ롥Malkiel (7) Ϥ "diachronic differentiation" ȸƤǤ롥¾3Ĥη̤ξȰۤʤΤϡʣʸˡƥ̩ܤ˴ؤ homonymic clash Ǥϡ(b) ΡֶפȤϹͤˤηϤ礭Ѳ褿ꥹ礭Ǥ롥ޤؼʡ sleep ǤϼѲ dental suffix ˤϢѥΤʤưפ˸ĤΤǥեȤ䤹ȤȤ
(a), (b), (c) ϸŵŪʬ(d) Malkiel ȼƤΤǤ롥ñ inflection ꡤ뤤 analogy ȤưƤ褦 homonymic clash δʤȤǤΤǤϤʤȤƤǤ롥
ۤˤ⡤Malkiel (2) ϸ촴ˤ lexical homophone ȶܼܼˤ grammatical homophone Ȥ̤ꡤhomonymy Τߤʤ餺 near-homonymy ޤǤͻμ˴ޤʤɡhomonymic clash ˹Ƥ롥[2011-04-11-1]εָѲˤƱ۵ɤɾ뤫פǿ줿褦ˡhomonymic clash ˤĤƤϲԤʤʤεpolysemic clash?([2011-07-21-1]) Ǹڤ Menner 亣 Malkiel ϡhomonymic clash ñѤǤ⤷ݤȤƤǤʤʸˡ̣ѲˤϢܼŪȤƤȤ館٤ȼĥƤ롥⤳μĥ˻
Malkiel, Y. "Problems in the Diachronic Differentiation of Near-Homophones." Language 55 (1979): 1--36.
Ʊ۵ ( homonymic clash ) ˤĤƴؿꡤhomonymic_clash γƵˤƤ"homonymic clash" ȤѸδפ˸ڤ
[2010-02-07-1]εhomonymy, homophony, homography, polysemyפǿ줿褦ˡhomonymy polysemy ̤붭ϤФΤǤ롥light ʷڤˤ light ʿˤϸ츻ؼԤˤȤäƤ̡θǤ homonyms üԤ̣ΤĤʤΤǤСüԤˤȤäƤ polysemes Ǥ롥ȿФˡflower flour ϸ츻ؼԤˤȤäƤƱ캬2ĤֻθǤ polysemes ˤʤȤǽ⤷ʤ̤üԤˤȤäƤ̡θǤ homophones ȤߤʤƤ롥˳ؽŪξԤδ֤˶ȤƤ⡤̣ѲޤѲôϤޤǰ̤üԤǤꡤѲˤƤϡθ촶ФŪǤ롥
homonymy polysemy ζ̤ۣǤȤȤϡhomonymic clash polysemic clash ζ̤ۣȤȤǤ롥ַڤפΰ̣ light ȤΤüԤϡ뤿 light weight Ѥ뤫⤷ʤǵäƤ뤳Ȥ homonymic clash ιưʤΤpolysemic clash ιưʤΤ
ޤ¿Ūʸϡô¿ä뤫Τ褦˸ΤĤüꡤˤäƤϸ줽ΤΤѤˤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨СHolthausen ϸűѸ ār "honor, dignity, glory, reverence, mercy, favor, benefit, prosperity, revenue" ʤɤθߤ˴Ϣ뤬ۤʤôäƤεǽ¿ѤˤʤäΤǤϤʤȼƤ (Menner 243) ⤷¤ǤС polysemic clash ˤ̤θξüȤȤˤʤ
homonymy polysemy Ѹζ̤ˤ餺˾ͤθݤªʤС꤬ͤñȯΡ֤⤷ʤΤǤϤʤΰ̣ѲθˤפǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Menner (243--44) ƱݤθڤŪͤƤ롥
From the point of view of the speaker ignorant of origins, the embarrassment and confusion which is caused by multiplicity of meanings is likely to be as great when a form represents two or more etymologically distinct words as when it represents one. Most students of homonyms and most semanticists pay little attention to this fact, but Jespersen pertinently remarks that 'the psychological effect of those cases of polysemy, where "one and the same word" has many meanings, is exactly the same as that of cases where two or three words of different origin have accidentally become homophones'. Because of this relationship, the conflict of homonyms should not be considered a merely curious and abnormal phenomenon, differing from other linguistic processes. The study of homonymic interference involves the whole problem of the word as an entity and illustrates some fundamental principles of semantics.
Menner, Robert J. "The Conflict of Homonyms in English." Language 12 (1936): 229--44.
Ʊ֤ʻˤäƶ֤θؤ (diatone) ŵǤ̾ưפˤĤƤϡ[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1], [2011-07-07-1], [2011-07-08-1], [2011-07-10-1], [2011-07-11-1]ΰϢεڤƤ̾ưκۤĴƤƻ⤳ε˴ؤäƤ[2011-07-07-1]εǤϴϢ˸ڤˡ֤ˤĤơƻϸ§Ȥ̾Ʊư֤롥СַưפǤ롥
ưλ¤ϡޤŪ˻ٻ롥Bolinger (156--57) ˤС3ζѸýΥץĴˤȡ¿ˤĤơƻ91% non-oxytonic ʺǽʳ˶ˤư63% oxytonic ʺǽ˶ˤǤȤñˤĤƤϡΰ֤뤳ȤϤǤʤΰ̣ʤñưȷƻθĿΨư줬60.7%롥ñζ̾ oxytonic ȲᤵΤǡΨϷƻ椷ư oxytonic ʷٻͤȤ褦
ưȤ֤ʬۤ˴ϢơBolinger ξʻθκۤ˸ڤƤ롥ƻˤäΤ¿ (ex. -ant, -ent, -ean, -ial, -al, -ate, -ary, -ory, -ous, -ive, -able, -ible, -ic, -ical, -ish, -ful) ưƬˤ¿ (ex. re-, un-, de-, dis-, mis-, pre-) 㳰Ūˤ켫Ȥ˶ -ose Τ褦ʷƻ⤢뤬㳰ŪǤ뤳ȤˤäƤäƺΩ (phonaesthesia) ʤ 缭 ( augmentative ) ȤƤεǽ碌ĤȤˤʤäƤ缭ˤĤƤ[2009-08-30-1]εɼפ⻲ȡˡbellicose, grandiose, jocose, otiose, verbose ʤɤǡǤ롥
ΤȤʤ顤Τʤˤ줿¿ηƻɬ non-oxytonic Ȥʤ뤷ΤʤƬˤ줿¿ư϶2ܰʹߤ֤뤳Ȥˤʤ oxytonic Ȥʤǽ⤤εȯŸˤϡܼμθɬפ뤬ܼˤѥ㤬ưνи˹ȤȤǤ礤˶̣ޤ̾⡤ƻƱͤˡƬǤϤʤ¿Ѥ뤳ȤͤС̾ưˤƱΩĤΤǤϤʤ
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.
ѸˤüԽĤˤǻȿǤƤΤƱ褦ˡѸο̾ˤޤλνĤˤǤФ̾̾θ츻ͭ̾ (onomastics) ȸƤФ뤬ä˿̾ onomastics ˴ؤ뽼¤ȤҲ𤷤Ѹ̾Ǥʤο̾ξͤޤäȤǤ롥
Ȥ礭 first name ˤĤƤ Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of First Names surname ˤĤƤ Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of Surnames ʬƤꡤ̾γס̾θǯο͵̾奤ɷ̾ʤɡ͡ʾƤ롥
- Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of First Names: ̾פΥȡ
- General Information of English Names: ޤɤdzפ
- List of English First Names and Meanings: ̾פΥ֥饦ȸ
- Most Popular First Names: ̡ǯ̤Ρ̾פΥ
- Kings and Queens of England Chronologically: 奤ɷΡ̾פΰ
- Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of Surnames פΥȡ
- List of English Surnames and Origins: פΥ֥饦ȸ
- Most Popular Surnames: ̡ǯ̤ΡפΥ
äˡγץڡ "History" ɬɤǤ롥ҤޤȤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
űѸ̾ϸ§ȤơޥűѸͳ褹ΤäϡűѸä97%ޥϤǤ뤳Ȥб[2010-05-16-1]εָÿȥޥΨǸűѸȸѸθäӤפȡˡ̾2Ǥ (dithematic) 襤˴ؤä¿Ѥ줿
8ȾꡤťΥɸ̾ѸϤ-son Ĥ (patronym) νϸťΥɸͳ褹롥
1066ǯΥΥޥȸοǯδ֤ʬθűѸ̾ Richard, William, Henry ʤɤ Norman French ֤̾줿¿Ѹ˷ѾƤ롥˻ĤűѸ̾ Edward, Alfred, Audrey, Edith ʤɾǤ롥
ĤθűѸ̾ϤޤΦޥƱ֤줿Robert, Roger ʤɡ
13ʹߡο侩 John, Matthew, Mary, Peter, Luke, Stephen, Paul, Mark ʤɤ Christian name Ĥ褦ˤʤ롥̾ͤ̾˴ŤΤǤꡤ奮ꥷƥإ֥饤쵯¿ä
16Henry VIII ˤˤꥫȥåŪͤ̾ήԤʤʤꡤä˴Ť̾¿Ĥ褦ˤʤä
äˡ17 Adam, Eve, Daniel, David, Isaac, Michael, Noah, Rachel, Rebecca ʤɤ˴Ť̾䡤Prudence, Charity, Constance, Temperance ʤɤɽ魯̾ѤԤ¿18Ѥ줿 Hope, Faith, Joy ʤɤĤäƤ롥
17̾ȤѤ뽬줿νϥꥹ⥢ꥫǶ
18, 19ˤϸŤ̾褷Miranda, Jessica, Wendy ʤɤʸŪ̾ Hector, Diana, Arthur ʤɤŪ̾Ƴ줿
Victoria īˤ Ruby ʤ̾θäѤ̾Ƴ줿
̾Ϻ̾¸̾ΰ֤ Sidney ä Sydney ʤɡˡ¾줫μѸʤɤˤ̤Ƥ롥
Ѹ̾˴ؤƤϡ[2010-12-08-1]εlast name ϤĤ̳Ūˤʤäפ[2009-09-14-1]ε֥եޥ줫Ѥؾ -kinפ⻲ȡ
εthe + ӵ + for/because ([2011-07-17-1]) ιʸȴϢơɸΡthe + ӵ, the + ӵפιʸ夲ʤ櫓ˤϤʤѸǤϤߤιʸǤ롥
(1) The older we grow, the weaker our memory becomes.
(2) It becomes (the) colder the higher you climb.
(3) The more facts you've got at your fingertips, the more easy it is to persuade people.
ջС̾ (1) Τ褦Ѥֽ°, פνˤʤ뤬(2) Τ褦ˡּ, °פνˤ뤳ȤǤ롥ξ硤 the ϾάǽǤ롥ޤ(3) the more easy Τ褦ˡ̾ more ˤ뱪ȤʤǤ⡤ιʸǤ more Ȥ뤳Ȥ롥
Ρthe + ӵ + for/becauseʸξƱͤˡܹʸ the ξȤűѸ se ζʷ (instrumental) ̤롥ιʸǡ The "by how much" ֤ɤפΰդδطȤơ the "by so much" ֤פΰդλؼȤƵǽƤꡤξԤƱơ֡ĤФۤɤޤޤġפΰ̣߽ФƤ롥OED νϡKing Alfred Pastoral Care (ca. 897) ꡥѸ줫 MED entry for "the (adv.)", 1. (c) ȡ
Ðæt her ðy mara wisdom on londe wære, ðy we ma ȝeðeoda cuðon.
űѸζʤΰˡͳ褹ʴطȻؼˤȤƤ the ¸ƤȤΤϤǤäǤ롥ѸǤĤƤζʤεǽθƤ¾ˤϤʤ䡤1Ĥ why 롥why ϵǽФ꤫֤⤫ĤƤζʤκפĤƤꡤޤ˲βФǤ롥[2009-06-18-1]ε֡5W1H٤ʤ̡6H١פǸűѸε̾ζɽwhy who ʷˤʤֲˤäơǡפ֤ʤפΰ̣
äƤthe + ӵ, the + ӵʸФȹͤΤϡؼζʤĤäƤ뤫ФǤϤʤ³ʴطˤȻؼ줬Ʊ빽ʸϡ"when . . . (then)", "where . . . (there)", "if . . . (then)", "although . . . (yet)" ʤɸѸˤढ뤬³¦Ȼؼ¦ƱѤΤϡthe ʳˤϤʤűѸǤ þā . . . þā . . . "when . . ., (then)" þǣr . . . þǣr . . . "where . . ., (there)" ʤɡξƱѤ㤬¾ˤäȤͤСthe + ӵ, the + ӵʸϲʲФʤΤǤ롥
ɸιʸϡФ for because ʤɤθɽ魯ȼ֤äޤޤä?פΰ̣ɽ魯ʸĤ롥
- I was the more upset because he blamed me for the accident.
- I like him all the better for his human weaknesses.
- If we plant early, it will be all the better for our garden.
- The danger seems to make surfing the more exciting.
- She began to work the harder, because her salary was raised.
- If you don't like it, so much the worse for you
- The child was none the worse for being in the rain all night.
- She doesn't seem to be any the worse for her bad experience.
the ϸűѸλؼ se ζ (instrumental case) þȳ ̤[2009-09-28-1]εָűѸη se ζޡפζɽȡˡ "by so much" ۤɤλؼŪʰ̣ɽ路³ӵꤷäơɸιʸϸűѸ줫ѤƤŤʸǤ롥
The Owl and the Nightingale (O&N) Ƭ (ll. 19--20) ˡιʸ롥Cartlidge Ǥ鸽ѸȤȤ˰Ѥ롥
Ho was þe gladur uor þe rise,
& song a uele cunne wise.
She [The nightingale] was happy having the branches around her
and she sang in all sorts of different modes.
Ho "nightingale" ؤþe gladur uor þe rise ֻޤ뤬椨ˤääפȲǤ롥ʸ̮ɤǤ⡤ʤޤȤäΤȽȤʤǤϹʸȤ̤ʸŪʲɬפΤ褦Cartlidge ˤȡ"Ich habbe on brede & eck on lengþe / Castel god on mine rise." (ll. 174--75) Ȥ褦˻ޤʬξȤƤ뤯餤顤ʥˤȤäƻޤϤפʤΤȤȤ狼롥ޤͤθ Arbore frondosa cantat philomena iocosa "A nightingale sings happily in a leafy tree" ˸ڤƤΤǤϤʤȤ롥the 1Ĥ᤹Τ⤿䤹ʤ the the Ǥ롥
Ѹˤ the ˤĤƤϡMED entry for "the (adv.)", 1. (a) ȡ
Cartlidge, Neil, ed. The Owl and the Nightingale. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2001.
εeuphony and cacophony([2011-07-15-1]) ˴Ϣơcacophony 1ġŪʸˤȡextremely carefully Τ褦 -ly Ϣ³٤Ȥ롥ξˤϡwith extreme care ʤɤɽѤΤŬڤȤ롥Fowler's Modern English Usage "-ly" ι (p. 473) ˤ⡤-ly Ϣ³ŪˤϹޤʤȤݡ⤬롥
Considerations of euphony and meaning make it desirable to avoid placing two -ly adverbs in succession when their function in the sentence is different. Thus We are utterly, hopelessly, irretrievably, ruined is acceptable because each of the -ly adverbs has the same relation to ruined. But the following show slightly uneuphonious contiguities: Many of the manuscripts were until comparatively recently in the keeping of Owen's family---English, 1987; he reverts to it (apparently disbelievingly) on several occasions---Encounter, 1987; Appearing relatively recently, Kyra represented change---New Yorker, 1987. The cruder type Soviet industry is at present practically completely crippled is avoidable by substituting almost for practically.
ǤϡʬŪ euphony δʤĤޤ cacophony Ȥơ -ly Ϣ³Ƥ뤬 euphony 뤤 cacophony δळȤϤǤʤΤǤϤʤƤȤꡤʣ -ly 줬³ΤȤƤƻˤˤϡʤǧ롥षξˤϵӱˤ궯դθ̤Ƥꡤeuphonious ǤȤᤵ줦롥
ȤṲ̄δطǤϤʤ°δط comparatively recently Τ褦ǤϡŪˤǧ٤ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ͳϡϤƤʤή줫餹 cacophonous ȤȤˤʤeuphony cacophony ϲϢ³ˤ˴ؤɾɽ魯ѸǤꡤ̣˸ڤΤǤϤʤȤȤСƱ褦 -ly Ϣ³ euphony Ǥ cacophony ǤɾΤ̯Ǥ롥-ly Ϣ³ΤϡäѤ̣ŪʴˤΤǤϤʤ
cacophony δ̵뤹櫓ˤʤΤ⤷ʤ̴طȽ°طȤǤȤȶΥѥۤʤ뤬̯ʺۤ euphony cacophony ȤʬƤǽ롥뤤ϡ§Ȥ cacophonous ǤϤ뤬³줿 -ly ϶դʸṲ̄椨ǧ٤夬ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
-ly ˤĤƤϡ[2009-06-07-1]ε -ly פȡ
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
ڲƱͤˡ첻ˤԲ롥euphony ֲĴפ cacophony ԲĴפζ̤ϡñˤĤƤ뤷Ϣ³ˤĤƤ롥̤ˤ (1) Ĵ֤˰ۤʤ벻Ϣ³롤(2) ҲϢ³롤(3) Ʊ첻ܤϢ³롤ʤɤξ cacophonous Ȥߤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ԲϤޤǼŪʴǤꡤʸˤäƤȤ館ϰۤʤ롥ѸˤƤϡ餫ή褦ʡͻŪʲ euphonious Ȥߤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ŪˤĹ첻Ⱦ첻 /j, w/ ɡή /l, m, n, r/ ĴɽǤ롥
İƲŬǤΤȯ䤹ΤȤ̤ΤȤǤϤ뤬ϢϤƤ롥ä˸ԤϱѸη˾ʤ̱ƶͿƤ롥Ūʰ۷¸ߤˡcacophony euphony ȤŪǡ֤Ƥ褦˸㤬롥*a apple ǤϤʤ an apple, *Amn't I ǤϤʤ Aren't I, *tobaccoist ǤϤʤ tobacconist ( n ˤĤƤ[2011-07-03-1]εnightingaleפȡ, *for conscience's sake ǤϤʤ for conscience' sake, *inpossible ǤϤʤ impossible ʤɤǤ롥ǸΤ褦Ʊ (assimilation) euphony ΰȤ
Τ褦ˡeuphony ۷˱ƶϤäƤ褦˸ϤĤ⤢뤬ŪϤäƤ뤫ȸФǤϤʤθβˡδѤʤɤ궯ƶϤͭƤ뤳Ȥ¿euphony ϡ[2011-04-09-1]εΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2)פǿ줿 eurhythmy Ʊͤˡ˸ƤϤ뤬Ū˼夤ϤȤƹͤ롥
Ǥϡcacophony Ͼ˷ԤȤСR. Browning Hopkins Τ褦ʻͤˤȤäƤϤषǤä cacophony ѶŪѤ뤳ȤǡʲϢ³ФṲ̄äΤǤ롥
Żҥˤܸδʸ (^_^)V (>_<) ʤɤľΩΤΤΤ¿бѸ smiley 뤤 emoticon Ϻ90ٷΤ̤Ǥ롥Crystal (132) ꡤ硼ޤ褦ŪѤƤΤϡǽ2Ĥ餤Ǥ롥
| Basic smileys | |
| :-) | pleasure, humour, etc. |
| :-( | sadness, dissatisfaction, etc. |
| ;-) | winking (in any of its meanings) |
| ;-( or :~-( | crying |
| %-( or %-) | confused |
| :-o or 8-o | shocked, amazed |
| :-] or :-[ | sarcastic |
| Joke smileys | |
| [:-) | User is wearing a Walkman |
| 8-) | User is wearing sunglasses |
| 8:-) | User is wearing sunglasses on head |
| :-{) | User has a moustache. |
| :*) | User is drunk |
| :-[ | User is a vampire |
| :-E | User is a bucktoothed vampire |
| :-F | User is a bucktoothed vampire with one tooth missing |
| :-~) | User has a cold |
| :-@ | User is screaming |
| -:-) | User is a punk |
| -:-( | Real punks don't smile |
| +-:-) | User holds a Christian religious office |
| o:-) | User is an angel at heart |
ѲȸƤȡָʪǤפȤ⤤ɽǤ褦˻פƤ롥餯ʪȤˤϤʤŤȻפ뤬Ȥ櫓19ˤ Darwinism αƶǸʪȤ줿ߤǤ⡤19줿ˡǤǤϤ뤬Ѳ˿ʲŬѤ褦ȤΩ줬롥㤨СSamuels Linguistic Evolution ʤɤϤɽǤ롥
䤿ȼƤ ([2009-06-17-1]) ⡤ʪȤκǤΤηޤʪηޡʤ뤤ϤȶˤϲȷϿޡˤȯۤ˴ŤƤ뤳ȤϸޤǤʤȤϤɤޤǤȤǤꡤ³ϤǤ롥ʪ¿Ƥꡤ椨˷ޤʤɤ뤬Ǹʪ¿롥ǤϡξԤȤͭʤΤϤɤϰϤˤƤǤꡤθ³ϤɤˤΤޤ夲뤳ȤΤʤˤĤƹͤƤߤ뤳Ȥǡħ⤭Ħˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
μȤˤơָޤʪޤפΥ֥쥹ȤԤʤäʲϡФ줿ոȼȸ˻פĤɲùܤվˤΤǤ롥
ʪˤ DNA ȤʪŪڵ˻٤Ƥ뤬ˤƤ DNA бʪǤ뤫
ʪǤ϶ᤤδ֤ǤۤǤʤǤϤɤʤ˸ߤ˰ۤʤäƤƤۤǽ㤨СƼΥԥ
ʪǤ2Դ֤ǤۤǤʤǤŪˤ3ʾδ֤Ǥθۤǽ
ʪǤϰۤʤɤθۤϤꤨʤǤϸȸŸκŪ˲ǽ
⤽ˤۤȤϲ̣ΤǤϤʤ
ˤʪλͺΤʤ̵פǤ
ʪǤ̾˻Ǥ椯ǤϿƤΤۤĹǽ
ĹפȤɽΤȤǤꡤ⤽ˤʿѼ̿ʤ복ǰʤ
ƱͤˡֿƻҡפȤɽΤȤǤꡤˤȤǰʤ
ʪǤϸΤ¸˼ȤƤħѲ뤳ȤϤʤǤϰۤʤؤΰܹԤȤߤʤħѲ⤢
ʪǤϸΤ줾ΤǤϸ̸Ϥ켫ȤΤʤΤǤϤʤüԤˤäƤˤʤ
ʸεѤǤϡ˼줿ʪԲǽ줿ˤĤƤϡθŪμܺ٤˵ϿƤпͰŪ褵뤳ȤԲǽǤϤʤ
ʪΰˤƤͥȤǰ뤬ˤΤбʪʤ褦˻פ
ƱͤˡʪˤѰۤΤǤϲǤ뤫
֥쥹ȤƤߤƤ狼äʳءˤΤߤʤ餺ʪʳءˤΤȤ褯ΤäƤʤΤʰոФʤ褦Ǥ⡤嵭γϡޤįǤνפƤ褦˻פ롥ޤϤϤǤ뤫Τ褦ʤ줤ʷºݤˤƱ֤֡θɤθۡʱƶˤ͡ˤäϤǤ[2010-05-01-1]εָˤƶפȡˡޤΡɤΤɽƤ뤬ºݤˤϤɤǡפƤΤȽȤʤʥƥϤĤեˤʤäΤѸϤĤѸˤʤäΤʤɤꡥϢơ[2011-05-03-1]εֱѸΡص٤ʣפ⻲ȡˡ
ޤϡľŪˤϼ䤹ʪȤΩӤƤ뤬ºݤˤ¿뤳Ȥդ
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
what with A and (what with) B Ȥʸ롥ʸƬʸǡABʤͳˤǡפȡ̾褯ʤͳΤѤ롥ĤμǤ "spoken" "informal" ȥ졼٥뤬ͿƤ롥ʲʸ뤬ǸΤ褦ˡand ʤ⤢褦
- What with the wind and the rain, the game was spoiled.
- What with drink and (what with) fright he did not know much about the facts.
- What with storms and all, his return was put off.
- What with one thing and another, I never get any work done.
- What with the cold weather and my bad leg, I haven't been out for weeks.
- She couldn't get to sleep, what with all the shooting and shouting.
- They've been under a lot of stress, what with Joe losing his job and all.
- I'm very tired, what with travelling all day yesterday and having a disturbed night.
- The police are having a difficult time, what with all the drugs and violence on our streets.
- What with the freezing temperatures, they nearly died.
إϥ¼ŵ٤ǤϤ what Ȥơ֡with ȼäơդ֤,ҤȤĤˤ,Ĥ(Ĥ).פȲ⤬ĤƤ롥פˤ what "partly" ֤֤ʬŪˡפۤɤΰ̣ɽ路ƤȹͤƤ褤Ǥϡˡ what εϲ
̾ȤƤˡ̤롥̾ what ϡŤֲ "something" ΰդ̾ȤƤѤƤ̾ˡ̾Ĥϡ֤뤳ȤƤפ̣븽δɽ I'll tell you what. You know what? ˸롥 "something" ˡȤžѤ졤֤֤¿ʤȤפΰ̣̾ something Τ⡤ʲʸ˸褦ŪˡȯãƤƤΤǡӤǤ
- The song sounded something like this.
- The sermon lasted something over an hour.
- He was snoring something terrible last night
OED "what" D. II. 2. (b) ˤȡwith ǤʤĤƤ for Ȥʸʤ褦ߤǤϸԤϹԤʤƤʤٹ (114--15) ʸ⻲ȡ
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
ε̾ưñ ([2011-07-10-1]) ǤϸѸˤ̾ưפθε̾ư̻Ū([2011-07-09-1]) 鼨褦ˡߡ̾ưפƤ oxytone θ⺣̾ưײƤ椯ǽ礤ˤ롥Sherman ϡ2˸¤215줬θȤƵȤƤꡤΰƤ (ºݤ˿213Τ) ΰʲ˺Ƹ
abuse, accord, account, advance, affront, alarm, amount, appeal, approach, array, arrest, assault, assent, assign, attack, attaint, attempt, attire, award, bastille, bespeak, blockade, brigade, brocade, canoe, career, caress, carouse, cartoon, cascade, cashier, chagrin, chicane, collapse, command, compare, conceit, concern, consent, control, croquet, crusade, cuirass, debate, debauch, decay, decease, decline, decree, default, defeat, delay, delight, demand, demean, demise, demur, derout, design, desire, despair, devise, direct, distain, disease, disgrace, disguise, disgust, dislike, dismay, dismount, dispatch, display, dispraise, dispute, disquiet, dissent, dissolve, distress, distrust, disuse, divide, divine, divorce, dragoon, eclipse, effect, embrace, employ, entail, escape, escheat, essoin, estate, esteem, exchange, excuse, exempt, exhaust, express, festoon, finesse, galosh, garage, garotte, guitar, halloo, harpoon, hello, hollo, hurrah, incuse, japan, lament, lampoon, machine, manure, marcel, maroon, massage, misprize, misrule, mistake, mistrust, misuse, neglect, obstruct, parade, parole, patrol, pirouette, police, pomade, pontoon, preserve, profane, ratoon, ravine, rebuff, rebuke, rebus, receipt, recruit, reform, refrain, regale, regard, regret, release, remand, remark, remove, repair, repeal, replay, reply, report, repose, reprieve, reproach, repulse, repute, request, reserve, resist, resolve, resort, respect, respond, result, retard, retort, retouch, retreat, retrieve, return, reveal, revenge, reverse, revert, review, revise, revoke, revolt, revolve, reward, romance, salaam, salute, secure, shampoo, siamese, silhouette, stampede, stockade, supply, support, suppose, surmise, surprise, surround, syringe, taboo, tattoo, tehee, traject, travail, trepan, trephine, trustee, vandyke, veneer, vignette
ΥꥹȤΤޤ Frequency Sorter ήȡ٤ι⤤줬¿ޤޤƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥500ޤǤ˥ȡeffect, result, report, police, control, return, support 롥⤤Ĥ̾ưפ̤ȤˤʤΤ
óȻ (Lexical Diffusion) δϡɤθ줬Ϥ䤯̾ư岽䤹ȤͤȤ뤳ȤפȤʤ롥Ƭˤ̤䡤ȤƤΤ뤤ʻ줴Ȥ٤ͿΤ⤷ʤϺĴȤʤ
Sherman, D. "Noun-Verb Stress Alternation: An Example of the Lexical Diffusion of Sound Change in English." Linguistics 159 (1975): 43--71.
̾ưפ뤤 diatone ˤĤ diatone γƵˤƤ[2009-11-01-1]ε̾ưεפǼ̾ưθΰ30ˤŪʰǤ롥ǡSherman (57--67) ˷ǺܤƤ SOED Ф줿 150 disyllabic diatones ΰʲ˺Ƹ
abstract, accent, addict, address, affix, affect, alloy, ally, annex, assay, bombard, cement, collect, combat, commune, compact, compound, compress, concert, concrete, conduct, confect, confine, conflict, conscript, conserve, consort, content, contest, contract, contrast, converse, convert, convict, convoy, costume, decoy, decrease, defect, defile, descant, desert, detail, dictate, digest, discard, discharge, discord, discount, discourse, egress, eject, escort, essay, excerpt, excise, exile, exploit, export, extract, ferment, impact, import, impress, imprint, incense, incline, increase, indent, infix, inflow, inlay, inlet, insert, inset, insult, invert, legate, misprint, object, outcast, outcry, outgo, outlaw, outleap, outlook, outpour, outspread, outstretch, outwork, perfume, permit, pervert, post-date, prefix, prelude, premise, presage, present, produce, progress, project, protest, purport, rampage, rebate, rebel, rebound, recall, recast, recess, recoil, record, recount, redraft, redress, refill, refit, refund, refuse, regress, rehash, reject, relapse, relay, repeat, reprint, research, reset, sojourn, subject, sublease, sub-let, surcharge, survey, suspect, torment, transfer, transplant, transport, transverse, traverse, undress, upcast, upgrade, uplift, upright, uprise, uprush, upset
įȤ狼褦ˡƬȤβ㤬Ƥ롥¿Ƭܸ캬פȤäƤꡤʬƥեѸout- up- ȤƬޤ17 (11.33%) 롥ޤin- mis- ϱѸˤեˤⶦͭƤƬǤ롥Τ褦˸ȡƬܸ캬פ2ϡ줫Ѹ줫ˤ餺̾ưפνפʥȤʤꤦ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Sherman, D. "Noun-Verb Stress Alternation: An Example of the Lexical Diffusion of Sound Change in English." Linguistics 159 (1975): 43--71.
̾ưפεˤĤ[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1], [2011-07-07-1], [2011-07-08-1]εǵƤ̻Ūλ¤ˤĤƤϤޤҲ𤷤Ƥʤä
Sherman ϡSOED Web3 ξ˽ʣƳǧ̾ư줬Ʊ֤ (homograph) ǤФΤʤǶؤʬ̤̤ȡʲ̤Ȥʤ (Sherman 51)
| potential diatonics | actual diatonics | |
|---|---|---|
| disyllabic N-V pairs | 1,315 | 150 (11.41%) |
| trisyllabic | 442 | 70 (15.84%) |
| polysyllabic | 1,757 | 220 (12.52%) |

[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1], [2011-07-07-1]εǡ̾ưפεäƤε[2011-07-07-1]Ǥϡ̾פʬϥޥߤƬη뤬ưפٻưŤޤǤȤʸϤĤ
ˤϤưŤ褦˻פ롥̾ưȯζ̲Ǥ롥̾ưʤ diatones Υڥ[2009-11-01-1]εȤ¿뤬ֻ϶̤ĤʤΤΡȯΤ˶̤롥ʻž (conversion; see [2009-11-03-1]) դȤѸΤȤǤ뤫顤ȤƱȯζ̤ĤʤȤŪ˺ȤϤʤǤΰ֤ʻζ̤ĤʤС˱ۤȤϤʤȤȤǤϤʤ
[2011-02-11-1]εֶޤο캬ξפǽҤ٤̤ꡤѸˤ϶פȤ drift ˤäȯ캬ȤǤ⤤٤ħ롥캬 conversion Ȥβ¥ʤƤȤϳΤʻζ̤ѶŪˤʤȤظƤΤǤϤʤʣʸФʻžȤ˸ƤΤǤꡤʻζ̤ۣˤ뤳ȤȤ櫓ʤƤ櫓ǤϤʤʻζ̤ݤäޤޡĺǾ¤θǡ㤨С̾줫ưǤ̯ˡС˱ۤȤϤʤơξ˱̯ˡȤơ̾ưȤʬԤ߽Ф줿ΤǤϤʤ̾ǤưǤ캬Ʊưƶ̤ݤ --- ̯ˡȸƤФƲȸƤܤconversion ¥ʤ륲ޥŪ drift Ť˵դ餦ʵǽŪ (functionalist) Ĭή --- Ѹ̾ưθݤΤ褦ª뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1]εǡ̾ưפε˴ϢơޥȤƤطʤϢϡ[2011-04-15-1]εֱѸζѥѸѼפǤⰷä
Ѹ¿¿ʼȤƥƥեѸˤǶʬۤ̾ưȤʤ뤳θݤˤĤơBolinger ̾ʤӷƻˤưʸǤΰ֤κۤȤƤ롥ʲ˴ϢսѤ롥
. . . stress patterns are apt to congeal in the way position in the sentence may predispose them, which means that nouns and adjectives will tend to be forestressed, verbs to be end-stressed, and ultimately, in many cases, to carry this stress with them regardless of position. (164)
English seems to be more averse to postponing the first of the two major accents than to anticipating the second. While nouns and adjectives are certainly free to occur in terminal positions, their somewhat greater frequency early in the sentence brings them under the influence of this more consistent pull to the left. The pull to the right at the end is weaker, except in emphatic utterances, but since verbs are less free to roam they are more apt to it. (164fn)
Bolinger εʤȯŸȼΤ褦ˤʤŪ12¿ϡǥեȤǤϸƬ1ۤ롥ϡѸʤȤ⥲ޥˤζʤȿǤΤǤ (see [2009-10-26-1]) ä̾ƻ줬ʤȿǤΤϡʸŪᤤʳǸΨ⤤Ǥ롥̾ƻ¾θ٤ʸǤΰ֤¤ξʤǤꡤʸˤƸ뤳ȤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨ư٤ʸƬˤƸ뤳Ȥ¿ȤȤǤ롥
ưϾҤʤŪ˽ˤưʸǤΰ֤̾ƻۤɼͳǤϤʤʸˤΨ⤤ѸȥѥǤʸκǸˤ붯ˤȤʤΤǡʸ֤䤹ưθۤ2岽Ψ㤤̾ƻФơ2ݤ䤹ΤϤΤǤ롥 associate, duplicate, estimate ʤɤ -ate ĸ¿ϡ̾ǤϺǽ첻ۣ첻Ȥʤ뤬ưǤ2ݤƤ뤳Ȥա
ʸΤɤΰ֤Ū˸䤹ȤǤ̾졦ƻưκۤ줾ʻˤ2οκۤˤĤʤäƤȤ϶̣ޤǤεȤС̾ưʬۤˤɤĤޤǤȰǤ롥̾ζǸǤޤäưϤޤ2ĤäƤ롥줬1˳ʾ夲줵СưפȤʤ롥Ǥϡγʾ夲ưŤϲäΤBolinger ϤޤǤϽҤ٤Ƥʤ
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.
Ѹˡ2;ñ̾ thou бʣ you ˼ä줿طʤˤĤƤϡޤǤˤ¿εǿƤ ([2009-10-11-1], [2009-10-29-1], [2010-02-12-1], [2010-03-26-1], [2010-07-11-1], [2010-10-08-1], [2011-03-01-1]) 2;̾˴ؤƻ𤬤䤳ΤϡƱμ ye гʡͿʤ you ݤ߹ޤƤäȤ⤦ĤѲؤäƤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ԥ thou/you ִˤĤƤϼ˸Ū˸椬Ԥ you/ye ִˤĤƤθϤޤʹФʤ
[2009-12-25-1]εphonaesthesia 羮פǷǤɽįƤơդȵդȤ롥you/ye ִˤ phonaesthesia ͿƤΤǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥ɽˤС1;̾ ϡֶᤤȤ첻Ѥ뷹ΤФơ2;̾ϡֱȤƸ첻ФäƤȤ롥Ǥ me, we, you ȤƵ⤦ϰϤ礹 I, my, me, mine ⤹٤Ƥɤ餫Ȥ첻Ǥ롥첻ȯꤹС;פǤ롥you, your, yours Ϥ첻Ǥ롥1;ʣ̾ we ζθȡus, our, ours ʤɤ첻Ϥɤ餫Ȥи첻°Ǥ phonaesthesia αΩƤϤޤʤ
Τ褦 phonaesthsia ϤޤǼ夤Ǥ뤳ȤǧĤĤ⡤Ƥλ you/ye ִͤƤߤСyou θ첻ֱ2;̾ˤϤŬڤäȤȤΤǤϤʤˡ첻ȯȤƤǤϤ뤬thou you ȤεӱΩ you μʤؤξʤ¥װäΤǤϤʤʤʤߤˡyou 첻ܤФʤäΤ /j/ ˤ֥åȤ롥¾ youth ꡥ[2009-11-12-1]ε<U> Ϥʤ /yu:/ ȯ뤫פ⻲ȡ
Ĥηо[2009-12-25-1]ɽ phonaesthesia αΩȤƵΤ⡤٤ĤǤ̾ؼǤ롥Τ⤷ʤye ֤Ȥ you 줿аޤˤϡηλظ phonaesthesia ȤߤǤϤ뤬ŪʷͿƤΤǤϤʤ
ʣå㡼Ȥơˤʤʣ롥ȯ -s ξƱֻͤ <z> Ȥʤz ʣפǤ롥Crystal (137) ʲΤ褦˻ŦƤ
New spelling conventions have emerged, such as the replacement of plural -s by -z to refer to pirated versions of software, as in warez, tunez, gamez, serialz, pornz, downloadz, and filez. (137)
줾ȯκۤȼʤֻΰ۷֤路̤ȴǤ롥Τ路ͳ褹ΤȤС<z> ʸΤΤİͤ[2010-07-17-1]ε֤֤ȤĤäƤ <z>פǼꤢ褦ˡ<z> ϤƱƤʸ<s> 餫˴ԤȤ <z> ʲȤ䤱Ωġ
ֳ±ʣ ( plural of piracy ) ȤǤƤӤʤ뤳 <z> ʻˤλѤϡߤǤ NetSpeak ǤαȤƤλѤ˸ꤵƤ褦COCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) θˤȡwarez 4㤬ҥåȤ warez ʳξǤθϥҥåȤʤˡʲϤΤ1ǡ2004ǯ Houston Chronicle εǤ롥
CW Shredder - www.spyware info.com/merijn/ Developed by the same author as Hijack This!, CW Shredder removes a very common piece of spyware known as the Coolwebsearch Trojan. It takes advantage of a flaw in a key component of Windows - Microsoft's version of the Java Virtual Machine - to install itself via pop-ups often found on porn and illegal software (a.k.a. "warez") sites.
¾ BNCweb "*z_NN2" ȤƸƤߤȡBOYZ ¿ҥåȤϥꥫο͵롼 Boyz II Men 䥢ꥫѸ Boyz n the Hood ؤθڤˤΤǡ±ʣȤϼۤʤ롥ȤϤͭ̾侦̾ʤˤɸŪֻѤ뤳ȤϾȹǤϹ븽ݤǤ㤨 Heinz Ҥ "Heinz Buildz Kidz" ˡΩ̤äƤǤ϶롥
ʤߤˡKirg(h)iz ֥륮͡פҥåȤϥֻ˽सΤñʣƱǤˤʤʰ۷Ȥ Kirg(h)izes ⤢ˡ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
ѸǺǤԵ§ʶޤưϲϡbe ưǤ롥Τ˸ѸΤ٤ƤưϿ;Ρˡˤޤ뤬ʬϵ§Ū˶ޤ뤷Ե§ʶޤΤǤ顤ۤʤˤμϺǤ4ĤǤ ( ex. have, has, had ) Ȥbe ˴ؤƤϡ˸¤äƤ is, am, are, was, were 5̤롥ˤ3;ñʳθ߷ȰۤʤĤΤ⡤be ưΤߤǤ롥Ǥ٤ι⤤ưǤꡤϢ (copula) ȤüʵǽôưʤĽưˤǤ⤢Τǡbe Ūˤ㳰ŪԵ§Ǥ뤳ȤԻĤǤϤʤ
Ѹ̤Сbe ưζޤˤѰۤʲϡBurrow and Turville-Petre (36--37) ˵ƤѸ2 be ζɽǤ롥줾 (Ancrene Wisse) (Gawain) ΥѥǤ롥
| Acnrene Wisse | Gawain | |
|---|---|---|
| infinitive | beon | be, bene |
| present indicative | ||
| sg. 1 | am, beo | am |
| sg. 2 | art, bist | art |
| sg. 3 | is, bið | is, betz |
| pl. | beoð | ar(n), ben |
| present subjunctive | ||
| sg. | beo | be |
| pl. | beon | be(n) |
| past indicative | ||
| sg.1 | wes | watz, was |
| sg. 2 | were | watz, were |
| sg. 3 | wes | watz, was |
| pl. | weren | wer(en) |
| past subjunctive | ||
| sg. | were | wer(e) |
| pl. | weren | wer(e), wern |
| past participle | ibeon | ben(e) |
OALD8: (often ironic) the people who control an organization, a country, etc
COBUILD English Dictionary: You can refer to people in authority as the powers that be, especially when you want to say that you disagree with them or do not understand what they say or do.
Burrow, J. A. and Thorlac Turville-Petre, eds. A Book of Middle English. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005.
֥ʥפ뤤ϡ֥ʥɥס桼饷եꥫʬۤĥ߲ (Turdidae) Υ° (Luscinia) Ļ衼åѿĻǡ˿֤ͺĤμ̾Ǥ⤢롥ꥹǤ̾ Luscinia megarhynchos ؤ
ʸؤǤͭ̾ʤĻϡºݤĤΤͺʤΤŪ˽Ǥ롥1213λϤλ˽줿Ȥ debate poem η The Owl and the Nightingale (O&N) Ǥϡαͫݵ¦̤ɽեФơʥϿγڤФ¦̤ɽƤ롥κʤǤϡȤȤǤ롥
ơnightingale θűѸη֤ nihtegale ʽ̾ˤǤ롥niht + gale ֲΤ͡פȤʣǡԤȴϢűѸư galan ֲΤפϡҲ giellan Ȥ۷֤̤ơѸ yell ֤֡פˤĤʤ롥Ʊ¾ΥޥǤ⸫ Du nachtegaal, G Nachtigall )
դΤϡűѸǤ2 n ޤޤƤʤȤǤ롥ѸǤ n 礤 nyhtegale ʤɤֻ (see MED entry for "nighte-gale") ȤѸǤ O&N Ȥơn ޤ niȝtingale ʤɤκ⸽Ϥ (see MED entry for "nightin-gale") Atkins (p. 2, fn. 5) ˤСO&N Ƥ븽¸2Ĥμܡ13κǸλȾΤΤȤˤˤθĴ٤ȡC ܤ n ꤬16n ʤ5ʤ5Ϥ⡤ֻηϤκۤˤ B section ȤƶʬƤƥȤβս˸ˡJ ܤǤ l. 203 Nihtingale nyhtegale ޤäȤ
츻ŵʤɤˤȡѸǤ n 2첻ɡѷȤƤ뤬¾ñǤΤ褦 n Ϥޤ긫ʤ16ؿͤΥȤĥ깭ΤѤҤĥ farthingale ϡե verdugale μѤǤ nightingale ξƱͤ n 롥¾ˤϡŤȤ The Peterborough Chronicle 1137ǯεϿ顤þolenden þoleden ΰ̣ѤƤ㤬Ĥ롥ϼ̻ˤȵ졤n γΤȤϤʤ
[ŋ] ɡ nightingale θ˽餫줿ͿƤ褦˻פߥνǸ Florence Nightingale (1820--1910) פФ롥
Atkins, J. W. H., ed. The Owl and the Nightingale. New York: Russel & Russel, 1971. 1922.
ѸαΧηϡѸθŪѲΤΤϢưƤ롥
űѸŵŪʱΧϡԤ˰ζۤΧ (accentual meter) ǤꡤĸƬҲ碌Ƭ (alliteration) ħŤƤȤѸˤʤȱΧμήϸűѸζΧ˲äԤ˰βۤᱤΧ (syllabic meter) ǤǤ롥ʤġ첻ʡܻҲˤ碌ӱ (rhyme) ӤˤСűѸ줫ѸˤƱΧ180٤žиΤ褦ǤꡤžظˤθŪѲäΤǤϤʤȵ롥
űѸ줫ѸˤƤλϡѸˤˤƷŪѲλΧžˤܤаʲ2˹ʤ롥
(1) ޤοȼñ줬
(2) ե줫̤μѸˤꡤǽᤢ뤤ϺǸ夫2ܤβ˶ĸ줬
ޤ (1) ˤĤƤűѸθζϡƬ§Ȥ1 ([2009-10-26-1], [2009-10-31-1]) ħƬˤȤäƤԹ礬褫äӱˤȤäƤԹäӱôʬΤʤˤ뤳Ȥ¿äȤѸˤƶޤषƤȡ켫Ȥñ줬¿ʤ롥ƬˤȤääˤʤѲǤϤʤӱˤȤäƤͭѲȤʤäޤޤοտŪֻưȯãߤŪˤֻ̾פֽưưפΤ褦ʼ嶯 (iamb) äӱˤȤäƹԹʾ郎äƤä
(2) ˤĤƤϡե줫̼ѤˤꡤѸ˥ե췿ζѥ⤿餵줿ȤȤ̣ ([2011-04-15-1], [2009-11-13-1]) θ˶ĥեѸϵӱˤϤäƤĤκȤʤä (1) (2) װˤäơΤȤƸνΤۤ˶ĸ줬ӱѤǤû˭٤ˤʤä
Ѹλˤ벻ᱤΧȵӱϡľŪˤϥեꥢäƤƳǤ롥ŪμäƤʤСѸˤߤ줿褦ʱ߳ƳϤʤäűѸ줫ѸˤƤθѲϡΧѶŪ˸ƤӴȤϸȤ⡤줬ꤷȤϸ
ͥåȤˤꡤλѤΤ뼡ˤ봷ѲĤĤ롥ϢäϤȤꡤNetSpeak ͭνȯãάʸˡ¿ѡѴϺʤɡǯ̿ѤȯŸˤȤʤѲβžΨϡθ˾塤ǤΤȤ롥ơεѳˤȤ櫓礭ʱƶƤΤѸǤ뤳ȤϵƤʤ
¿θѲĹ餯¸³뤳ȤˤʤΤ뤤ϰΤΤǤ꼡褿뿷ѲִΤϸǤʬʤäơѲΨ˾äȤǤ뤫ɤ̤ΤʤȤѲβžΨʤ̡ˤȤǤϡ餯˾ʤȤơ⤳βžΨϤäƤ椯Τͽۤ롥
ĹCrystal, The English Language 8 "The Effect of Technology" κǽѤ롥
The speed with which Internet usages are taken up is unprecedented in language change --- another manifestation of the influence of the technology on English. Traditionally, a new word entering the language would take an appreciable time --- typically a decade or two --- before it became so widely used that it would be noted in dictionaries. But in the case of the Internet, a new usage can travel the world and receive repeated exposure within a few days. It is likely that the pace of language change will be much increased through this process. Moreover, as word-inventors all over the world now have a global audience at their disposal, it is also likely that the amount of linguistic innovation will increase. Not by any means all innovations will become a permanent feature of the English language; but the turnover of candidates for entry at any one time is certainly going to be greater than at any stage in the past. Nor is it solely a matter of new vocabulary, new spellings, grammatical constructions, patterns of discourse, and regional preferences (intranational and international) can also be circulated at an unprecedented rate, with consequences that as yet cannot be anticipated. (140)
ߥ˥Ѥγλˤϡ礭Ѳ롥ʸ桤ѡץ饤á饸Dz衤ƥӡԥ塼ͥåȡȯθˤϡбѲȸѴѲ³ǯΥͥåȴϢѤϢΥߥ˥ѳκǽϤäƤȤϹͤ줺ߤǤͽۤΤĤʤѤλȤϴְ㤤ʤʤȤ⸽ߤ˻뵻ѳˤΤʤǤϡΥͥåȤۤ絬Ϥ˸ѲͶѳϤʤ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
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