01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ѸˤǤϡűѸꡤλɽ魯Τ have λ be λ2बԤʤƤbe λϼư졤褽ưư˸ꤵ졤have λ٤ФȤΩʤ¸ߤǤϤäѸˤ have λޤޤˤӡưư have λؤȾ괹Ƥä
嵭ϡbe λοˤζʽŪʳѤǤ롥Ϣ뵭Ȥơ#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1])#1814. 18--19 be λο CLMET dzǧ ([2014-04-15-1])#3031. have λ be λ --- Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy ([2017-08-14-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Ƕ be λ have λΨ̻Ūܤ餫ˤ Smith (2012: 1537) ĴߤĤΤǡҲ𤷤Ƥ头Ȥ type ٤ token ٤Ψʤӳ١ˤƤʴȤʤäƤΤ Smith ̤2001ǯ "Role" ʸˡ
| Type | Token | |||
| Be | have | Be | have | |
| OE | 16% (11) | 84% (57) | 21% (18) | 79% (85) |
| EME | 11% (12) | 89% (92) | 24% (69) | 76% (214) |
| LME | 11% (9) | 89% (70) | 11% (12) | 89% (96) |
| EModE | 8% (10) | 92% (115) | 4% (13) | 96% (319) |
| 19th C | 3% (8) | 97% (311) | 4% (38) | 96% (839) |
ܥ֥ǤϡѸˤˤüѤˤĤƿ¿εǾҲ𤷤ƤѸ˸ǤϡѸ줬ɤθ줫ɤΤ褦ʡɤθ˼ڤƤΤȤϡ OED ʤɤѤĴ̤ƾܤ갷ƤƤꡤ¿ΤȤ餫ˤƤ롥ʶŪˤ borrowing statistics ʤɤγƵȤ줿
ǤϡѸˤȤϢοեˤĤơƱͤ䤤ȯƤߤȤɤʤեϤɤθ줫ɤΤ褦ʡɤθ˼ڤƤΤϱѸˤȤԤʤΤľĴ٤ƤߤȤϤʤäޤ Jones and Singh (31) ˴ؤʿɽĤΤǡƸʤȤȤ Guiraud (6) Ĵ̤ˤɽȤΤȡˡ
| Century | 12th | 13th | 14th | 15th | 16th | 17th | 18th | 19th |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arabic | 20 | 22 | 36 | 26 | 70 | 30 | 24 | 41 |
| Italian | 2 | 7 | 50 | 79 | 320 | 188 | 101 | 67 |
| Spanish | 5 | 11 | 85 | 103 | 43 | 32 | ||
| Portuguese | 1 | 19 | 23 | 8 | 3 | |||
| Dutch | 16 | 23 | 35 | 22 | 32 | 52 | 24 | 10 |
| Germanic | 5 | 12 | 5 | 11 | 23 | 27 | 33 | 45 |
| English | 8 | 2 | 11 | 6 | 14 | 67 | 134 | 377 |
| Slavic | 2 | 1 | 4 | 6 | 11 | 10 | ||
| Turkish | 1 | 2 | 13 | 9 | 6 | 14 | ||
| Persian | 2 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 3 | 1 | ||
| Hindu | 1 | 4 | 8 | 5 | ||||
| Malaysian | 4 | 10 | 6 | 5 | ||||
| Japanese/Chinese | 36 | 25 | 21 | 7 | ||||
| Greek | 8 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 2 | ||
| Hebrew | 9 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 |
γǰѸΤäƤбѸθôطˤĤƤäȸŪǤȻפΤ˺ǶвäGörlach (110) consociation dissociation ȤôطˤĤƾҲ𤷤ƤʤȤȤ Leisi ˤΤȤΤȡ
Words can be said to be consociated if linked by transparent morphology; they are dissociated if morphologically isolated. Consociation is common in languages in which compounds and derivations are frequent (OE, Ge, Lat). Dissociation occurs when foreign words are borrowed, or when derivations become opaque . . . .
㤨Сheart hearty heartiness ϷŪƩƤꡤŵŪ consociation δطˤȤ롥foul filth filthy filthiness ˤĤƤ⡤ǽ foul filth Ʃ٤ϼ㴳뤬ʤűѸǤϲֵ§ˤꡤ٤Ʃ٤äȤˡΤȤƤ consociation δطȤconsociation ȤäƤ٤κΤꤦôطǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥
Ѹä3ع¤ʤɤϡŵŪ dissociation δط#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) 餤ĤСask -- question -- interrogate, fair -- beautiful -- attractive, help -- aid -- assistance ʤɤ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) ͭ̾cow -- beef, swine -- pork, sheep -- mutton ʤɤθôط dissociation Ȥ롥
eye -- ocular ʤɤ̾졦ƻб⡤dissociation δطȤȤˤʤ롥ܸäС¸ȴδط뤤ϴɤߤǤзɤߤȲɤߤδط⡤ŵŪ dissociation ȤäƤ褤֤͡סʴˤȡִסʴˤδطϡ嵭 eye -- ocular δط˻Ƥ롥Ϣơ#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Görlach, Manfred. The Linguistic History of English. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.
Leisi, Ernst. Das heutige Englische: Wesenszüge und Probleme.'' 5th ed. Heidelberg, 1969.
ʤ doubt ֻˤȯʤ <b> ΤȤΤϱѸֻ˴ؤѤʵ֤Ǥ롥ޤǤ¿εǼ夲ƤפʤΤĤƤ
#1943. Holofernes --- 츻Ūֻ黿ԡ ([2014-08-22-1])
#3333. ʤ doubt ֻˤȯʤ b Τ ([2018-06-12-1])
#3227. ֺ¡֥ڥǤɤѸˡפ4doubt <b>--- ѸΥڥס ([2018-02-26-1])
ְŪʢѸȯ֤꤬פʤͳȤʹ˹Ԥä顤ȿͤˤƤΡָɡפȡפäDMMѲå֥ˤ륤ӥ塼
doubt <b> ˤĤƤϡ16ͭ̾ʸڤ롥Shakespeare ˤδ Love's Labour's Lost Τʤǡоʪ1͡ʳؼԤ Holofernes (ˤϼºߤ Richard Mulcaster ǥȤȤˤ <b> ȯ٤ȼĥ뤯꤬롥δ1593--94ǯ˽줿Ȥ뤬ޤ inkhorn_term 褬깭ƤΤäcf. #1408. ([2013-03-05-1])ˡλطʤǰƬ Holofernes ɤȡ̣襤ѤäƤ롥γ˿ʬϡ#1943. Holofernes --- 츻Ūֻ黿ԡ ([2014-08-22-1]) ǰѤ⤦Ĺˡ1623ǯ1եꥪưѤSmith Ǥ pp. 195--96 ˡ
Actus Quartus.
Enter the Pedant, Curate and Dull.
Ped. Satis quid sufficit.
Cur. I praise God for you sir, your reasons at dinner haue beene sharpe & sententious: pleasant without scurrillity, witty without affection, audacious without impudency, learned without opinion, and strange without heresie: I did conuerse this quondam day with a companion of the Kings, who is intituled, nominated, or called, Dom Adriano de Armatha.
Ped. Noui hominum tanquam te, His humour is lofty, his discourse peremptorie: his tongue filed, his eye ambitious, his gate maiesticall, and his generall behauiour vaine, ridiculous, and thrasonical. He is too picked, too spruce, to affected, too odde, as it were, too peregrinat, as I may call it.
Cur. A most singular and choise Epithat,
Draw out his Table-booke,
Ped. He draweth out the thred of his verbositie, finer than the staple of his argument. I abhor such phnaticall phantasims, such insociable and poynt deuise companions, such rackers of ortagriphie, as to speake dout fine, when he should say doubt; det, when he shold pronounce debt; d e b t, not det: he clepeth a Calf, Caufe: halfe, hawfe; neighbour vocatur nebour; neigh abreuiated ne: this is abhominable, which he would call abhominable: it insinuateth me of infamie: ne inteligis domine, to make franticke, lunaticke?
Cur. Laus deo, bene intelligo.
Ped. Bome boon for boon prescian, a little scratched, 'twill serue.
1եꥪΤΤΰѤʤΤǡɤΤ⤷ʤΤȤ Holofernes (= Ped) ʳؿ꤬ƥѡʤȤѡˤ褯ºݤˤʤƤǥեᤷΤȻפ뤬줫400ǯʾ夿äߤʤ֤ʤ doubt ֻˤȯʤ <b> ΤפȤѤʵηǵ³ƤȤΤϡʤȤ©ĹǤ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. Essentials of Early English. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2005.
ΤĤιϰˤϡѸüԤǤ뤬θѸ졤θ졤̸ʤɤȤƹѸѤƤ͡롥Τ褦ʹϰ ESL (English as a Second Language) ϰȸƤФƤ롥¤ ESL ϰϡ餯¿ɼԤפäƤʾˡ˹ʬۤƤ롥 Trudgill and Hannah (127--28) ˰͵ ESL ϰѤƤߤ
In the Americas, English is an important second language in Puerto Rico, and also has some second-language presence in Panama. In Europe, in addition to the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland where English is spoken natively, English has official status in Gibraltar and Malta and is also widely spoken as a second language in Cyprus. In Africa, there are large communities of native speakers of English in Liberia, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya, but there are even larger communities in these countries of second-language speakers. Elsewhere in Africa, English has official status, and is therefore widely used as a second language lingua franca in Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zambia, Malawi and Uganda. It is also extremely widely used in education and for governmental purposes in Tanzania and Kenya.
In the Indian Ocean, Asian, and Pacific Ocean areas, English is an official language in Mauritius, the Seychelles, Pakistan, India, Singapore, Brunei, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Guam and elsewhere in American-administered Micronesia. It is also very widely used as a second language in Malaysia, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Nepal and Nauru. (In India and Sri Lanka, there are also Eurasian native speakers of English.)
ϰ¿ǤϡɸѸǤϤʤ岽ȼαѸ (indigenised English) ȯŸƤߤȯŸ³Ƥ롥 "New Englishes" ȤΤ졤äƤѸ¿Ͳ˹Ƥ롥
θ̤ ESL ϰѼˤĤơܥ֥Ǽ夲ƤΤ¿Τǡesl εȤ櫓ʲε⤴Ȥ
#56. Ѹΰ֤ŤѤĤĤ ([2009-06-23-1])
#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])
#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])
#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])
#2469. αѸ ([2016-01-30-1])
#2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1])
#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1])
Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English. 5th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2008.
Ѹ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) ȤСThere is/are . . . . ιʸפ⤫̤֡ be ư There ϷΥߡμȤȤ館졤̣ομ be ưθ̾롥μ줬ưθȤΤϡѸ̾θ˾Ȥ餻㳰ŪȤۤʤư˷餷ΤʤФʤʤȤѸΰŪ쵬§ϡߡ there ˤäƽ餵Ƥ롥ˤ衤̤ǤʤפιʸǤ뤳Ȥ餫
Moro (149--50) ˤȡJespersen (155) ϱѸޤ¿θĴ¸ʸפˤ¸ԡˤưθ뤳ȡŵŪʼ餷ʤȤŦ
Whether or not a word like there is used to introduce [existential sentences], the verb precedes the subject, and the latter is hardly treated grammatically like a real subject.
㤨СɥĸǤ Es gibt viele Kartoffeln "(lit.) it gives many potatoes; There are many potatoes" Τ褦ˡϷŪˤŪȤɽ蘆롥եǤ Il y a beaucoup de livres. "(lit.) it there has lots of books; There are many books" Τ褦ɽϤ꿿ŪȤɽ롥롼ޥ˥Ǥ Sunt probleme "(lit.) are problems; There are problems" Ȥʤꡤthere ΤϤʤϤ꿿ưθ֤롥Ǥ You gui "(lit.) you have ghosts; There are ghosts" Ȥʤ롥
Moro ϱѸ there is/are ¸ʸˤߤ֤ϡष be ưΥǥեȤŪħݻ̤ǤȤƤ롥̤ be ưʸμ졤㤨 John is in the garden ʤ John is a student John ϡʤư֤櫓Ūư˸֤ƤΤˤäƷ夲 (raising) 줿̤ǤȤΩȤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥;ư (impersonal_verb) ȤƤ be ưȤ˴ŤؿΤϡܤ Moro 3ϤȤ줿
¸ʸΤϡ#1565. existential there ε (1) ([2013-08-09-1]) ȡ#1566. existential there ε (2) ([2013-08-10-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Moro, Andrea. A Brief History of the Verb To Be. Trans. by Bonnie McClellan-Broussard. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT. P, 2017.
Jespersen, O. The Philosophy of Grammar. London: Allen and Unwin, 1924.
¿¿ͤ¸ߤѸѼɤΤ褦˥ǥ벽ƤȤ館뤫Ѹ (World Englishes) ˶ʬ뤫Ȥϡ¿ιͻƤܥ֥Ǥ model_of_englishes γƵǼ夲Ƥǥ뤽켫Τ¿¿ͤǤ롥
ǤΤƤΤϡ#217. ѸüԤƱߥǥ ([2009-11-30-1]) ˤ Kachru ƱߥǥǤ롥ENL (English as a Native Language) αߤˤȤơμϤ ESL (English as a Second Language) ˼ EFL (English as a Foreign Language) ֤Ƥǥ줾 Inner Circle, Outer Circle, Expanding Circle ȤΤ롥
ΥǥϤȤƤʬ䤹̤ˤƤ뤬Ȥϰ¿Schreier (2117--19) ε˰͵ޤȤƤ
(1) 㤨եꥫ¹ŵŪ ESL ϰȤ뤬ƱοΤ ESL ŪʱѸѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤɤǤϤ뤬ѸüԤ⤤뤷뵡Τʤʤ̿͡ϱѸäʤESL EFL ȤäʬϡѸѤФ븽¤ˤ¸ߤʤͤʽȤƤޤäƤ롥
(2) Τɤ줯餤γο͡ѸäƤСESL ϰǤȸƤ٤ΤñʿǤϤʤ褦˻פ롥षѸѤμҲˤɤΤ餤礵Ƥ뤫ȤҲŪפʤΤǤϤʤҲΤɤؤѸ褯ѤɤؤޤѤʤΤιθɬפ
(3) Kachru ǥϡENL, ESL, EFL Ȥäʬƥꥫ뤫ѤǤȤΩäƤ뤬ϸ¤ȿǤƤʤ㤨ХɱѸϡߤǤ ENL ϰȤƤߤʤƤ뤬Ūˤϥɸ줫θؤФƤΤǤꡤβϴˤäƤ ESL ϰȸƤ֤Τդ路äޤ˥ϥꥹΩ她ҥŪʸȤƺѤ̤ȤƱѸ¸ߴΩ⾮ʤäƤ뤬ϥ˥ ESL ϰ褫 EFL ϰؤȰ֤ŤѤƤȤȤǤϤʤ
פˡKachru ǥϰμҲŪΰ䥫ƥꥫѤζʬȤƤ뤬ºݤˤϾϰͤǤϤʤʬ⤽ۤΤǤϤʤȤȤѤ⤹롤ȤȽäȥʥߥåǽ٤ǥ뤬ɬפ
ʥߥåإǥȤƤϡ㤨С#414. language shift θ줿Ѹüԥǥ ([2010-06-15-1]) #1096. Modiano Ʊߥǥ ([2012-04-27-1]) ƤƤ롥ޤϢơ#56. Ѹΰ֤ŤѤĤĤ ([2009-06-23-1]) ⻲ȡ
Schreier, Daniel. "Second-Language Varieties: Second-Language Varieties of English." Chapter 134 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2106--20.
ܸѤ֥եȥ˥åפȤϡ֥ǤפǤ뤫Τ褦˰̤ˤѤ褦ˤʤäƤñȤƤ photogenic ϤǤ¸ߤSNS Ȥǥоˤäƿ̿ޤ졤ܸǤޤäȤȤ֥եȥ˥åפ photogenic θߤˡˤĤƤϡǯ56˥åפ줿ˤ륳ƥ֥եȥ˥åʥĤ photogenic ʥǥǼ夲Ƥꡤƻ#4393. ޤ false friends --- photogenic ȡ֥եȥ˥åס ([2021-05-07-1]) ɽ
OED ˤȡñȤƤ photogenic photographic ʼ̿ʽѡˤΡˤƱȤ1835ǯ˽ФƤ롥μפʸǤּ̤̿Τ褤פȤƤνϡ٤1922ǯΤȤǤ롥OED ȤƤ "Originally U.S. Of a person or thing: that is a good subject for photography; that shows to advantage in a photograph or film." Ȥ롥ꥫ1922ǯΤȡ "film" Ȥ⤢Τǡϥϥꥦåɤ̵Dzĺ뤷ȯŸ̵طʤϤϤʤ¤ˤϡּ̤̿Τ褤פȤֱDz̤Τ褤פΤۤ˶ᤫäΤǤϤʤȵʤ롥ºݡRoom ΰ̣Ѳŵˤ photogenic ικǸ˼ΥȤߤĤ
The modern popular meaning, 'photographing attractively', evolved in the United States in the 1920s, especially in connection with the cinema. In recent use, the word is often little more than a synonym for 'good-looking', or at most as a synonym for 'handsome'(of a male) or 'pretty as a picture' (of a female).
photogenic ȤñȿϡѸǤܸǤ⡤Ȥ櫓Фʤ뿷ǥоȤȤ˱ɤƤȤ롥100ǯۤɤλϤΤΡζϤȤƤⶽ̣
Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.
ˤ͡ʱѸѼ郎ꡤҤä World Englishes New Englishes ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿䥢եꥫˤŪʷаޤ ESL (English as a Second Language) Ѽ郎¿¿ΥեꥫѼ˶̤Ƹ뱤ΧħĤŦƤ롥Ǥ2褦1Ĥ "syllable-timing" ȸƤФꥺ (rhythm) ⤦1Ĥϸζ (stress) ΰ֤˴ؤ뷹Ǥ롥ʲ Mesthrie and Bhatt (129) ȤƲ⤹롥
syllable-timing Ȥϡꥺδθ1ĤǡɸѸ줬 stress-timing ֤ΤǤ롥Ԥϲʥ⡼ˤֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡܸե줬Ԥ϶ֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡɸѸɥĸ줬cf. #1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1])#3644. Ѹ stress-timed ʸűѸ syllable-timed ʸ졩 ([2019-04-19-1])ˡ
եꥫϤνˤ syllable-timing ĤΤ¿δؤξ˾äƤ ESL Ѽˤ syllable-timing ΥꥺबۤȤȤ㤨СɷեꥫѸ졤ͷեꥫѸ졤쥢եꥫѸ졤ʥꥢѸ졤ʱѸ졤ɱѸ졤ѥѸ졤ݡѸ졤ޥ졼Ѹ졤եԥѸʤɤ syllable-timing Υꥺħ̤ħȤơѼˤϡ첻ˤ첻ŪƤݤȤ⤢롥Ѹʸ̮Ǥϡsyllable-timing ΥꥺϤ̣ǤͥȤäƤ褤
Ѽˤϡζ˴ؤƤⶦ̤Ƥߤ뷹롥ФɸѸȤϰۤʤ֤˶֤뤳Ȥrealíse Τ褦˶֤¦˴ΤȤ櫓¿롼ѸʤɤǤ adólescence Τ褦˺¦˴Τߤ롥ޤѼǤɸѸ ábsent (adj.) absént (v.) Τ褦ʡʻˤäƶ֤ư븽 (diatone) ϤߤʤȤ
ŪˤСظαƶβDZΧε§άΤȤäƤ褤ܸüԤˤȤäơͥױΧħǤꡤŸˤܤƤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
ѸˤˤơGod ʿˤϥ֡ (taboo) ζǤ공ǰǤ롥#4457. ѸͤդĬή ([2021-07-10-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡΥ֡濴ϽŪȤषŪ뤤ϿͼŪʤΤȤʤäƤ뤬ֿΥ֡Ͼ¸ߤƤۤɺʥ֡Ǥ뤫顤ʬбնɽ (euphemism) ˭٤˳ȯƤHughes (13) ¿նɽ¤٤ƤΤǡƸƤߤ褦
| Term | Date | Euphemism |
|---|---|---|
| God | 1350s | gog |
| 1386 | cokk | |
| 1569 | cod | |
| 1570 | Jove | |
| 1598 | 'sblood | |
| 1598 | 'slid (God's eyelid) | |
| 1598 | 'slight | |
| 1599 | 'snails (God's nails) | |
| 1600 | zounds (God's wounds) | |
| 1601 | 'sbody | |
| 1602 | sfoot (God's foot) | |
| 1602 | gods bodykins | |
| 1611 | gad | |
| 1621 | odsbobs | |
| 1650s | gadzooks (God's hooks) | |
| 1672 | godsookers | |
| 1673 | egad | |
| 1695 | od | |
| 1695 | odso | |
| 1706 | ounds | |
| 1709 | odsbodikins (God's little body) | |
| 1728 | agad | |
| 1733 | ecod | |
| 1734 | goles | |
| 1743 | gosh | |
| 1743 | golly | |
| 1749 | odrabbit it | |
| 1760s | gracious | |
| 1820s | ye gods! | |
| 1842 | by George | |
| 1842 | s'elpe me Bob | |
| 1844 | Drat! (God rot!) | |
| 1851 | Doggone (God-damn) | |
| 1884 | Great Scott | |
| 1900 | Good grief | |
| 1909 | by Godfrey! |
ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ˤơΤαѸǤϼ줬ɬܤʤäޤűѸѸǤϼ줬ʤʸȤ夲ޤ¤ϸѸǤ귿ʸˤƤϡʸˡʸ̮䤦ȤΤǤ뼫ʼ줬ά뤳ȤϡʤޤQuirk (12.47ˤꡤ;̤˼줬άѥƤޤ
1;μξά
(I) Beg your pardon.
(I) Told you so.
(I) Wonder what they're doing.
(I) Hope he's there.
(I) Don't know what to say.
(I) Think I'll go now.
2;μξά
(You) Got back all right?
(You) Had a good time, did you?
(You) Want a drink?
(You) Want a drink, do you?
3;μξά
(He/She) Doesn't look too well.
(He/She/They) Can't play at all.
(It) Serves you right.
(It) Looks like rain.
(It) Doesn't matter.
(It) Must be hot in Panama.
(It) Seems full.
(It) Makes too much noise.
(It) Sounds fine to me.
(It) Won't be any use.
(There) Ought to be some coffee in the pot.
(There) Must be somebody waiting for you.
(There) May be some children outside.
(There) Appears to be a big crowd in the hall.
(There) Won't be anything left for supper.
פä¿¿ͤʼάʤȤݤǤϤʤǤ礦2;ΤǤϵʸܤǤꡤ3;ΤǤ it there 㤬¿ʤɡηǧޤ
ѸǤϸ§ȤƼ줬ɬܤǤ롤ȤȤϱѸؽǤʶ̾ȤƤޤǤ⡤Τ褦˼άλϳΤˤޤѸŪˤάϷ褷ƵǤϤʤäȤȤϡƤǽҤ٤ƤȻפޤ
#4463. ְѸס ([2021-07-16-1]) ȡ#4464. ɱѸˤλʬ ([2021-07-17-1]) ǥɱѸ (Indian English) 夲ɱѸ˸¤ʤΤESL (English as a Second Language) EFL (English as a Foreign Language) ʤɤѼѻȡʤɸѸȰۤʤħ¿⤫Ӿ夬äƤ롥Τ褦ħɤߤ뤫˴ؤ2ĤΩΩ줬롥
1ĤϡüԤǥȤꤷƤɸѸԴˤǤʤä椨θŪæȸΩǤ롥줿Ѹ״ѤȸƤǤ⤦1ĤϡħŪȤȤ館ޤƼΩѸѼǤȸΩ岽Ѹ״ѤȸƤǤ1990--91ǯ줿Ѹ״Ѥ Randolph Quirk ȡ岽Ѹ״Ѥ Braj Kachru δ֤褬äѸθˤˤͭ̾Ǥ롥
Ω줬¤θƤΤŪʴϡơθħˤĤƤεȯãĴꡤ2콬θȤʤɤȽǤȤˡϤǤϲ褷ˤʤȤΤϡϽ˸ŪȤϡѼФ١äȤи쥤ǥ
ɱѸ츦˴ؤƤСεǻȤƤ Sharma (2089--90) ˤȡθϤ褽줿Ѹ״ѤΩĤΤ¿äǶǤϡ岽Ѹ״ѤΩĤΤƤƤȤѸ쵬ϤѼʤɳ˶Ĥ "exo-normative" ʸ顤ϤȤۤ夲 "endo-normative" ʸذܹԤƤƤ褦Sharma (2090) θդȤ "Indian English . . . undergoing a shift from exonormative to endonormative stablization but not as fully nativezed and diversified as native varieties" ȽҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡߤΥɱѸϡξˤ֡ϴŪʰ֤ŤˤȤΤ¤Τ褦˻פ롥
Sharma, Devyani. "Second-Language Varieties: English in India." Chapter 132 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2077--91.
Ÿ͡ʱѸѼ "World Englishes" θϡ40ǯۤɤδ֡˼ҲؤΩ줫ܤƤޤοǯ֡եȤƤαѸ¸ߴʴҲݤȤ٤ΤˤʤäѸ츦ˤƤ餫ˤξ⤬졤㤨 World Englishes ˴ؤؽѻ郎³ȯƤEnglish World Wide (1979)English Today (1984) World Englishes (1985) ʤɤǤ롥
World Englishes ϡʱѡ˸ؤ͡ʳ٤뤳ȤǤ롥Ѹˤ͡ʳ٤1ĤǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ˼夲ƤǤ롥Mesthrie and Bhatt ν (1) ˤȡWorld Englishes ؤΥץȤ6Ƥ롥
as a topic in Historical Linguistics, highlighting the history of one language within the Germanic family and its continual fission into regional and social dialects;
as a macro-sociolinguistic topic 'language spread' detailing the ways in which English and other languages associated with colonisation have changed the linguistic ecology of the world;
as a topic in the filed of Language Contact, examining the structural similarities and differences amongst the new varieties of English that are stabilising or have stabilised;
as a topic in political and ideological studies --- 'linguistic imperialism' --- that focuses on how relations of dominance are entrenched by, and in, language and how such dominance often comes to be viewed as part of the natural order;
as a topic in Applied Linguistics concerned with the role of English in modernisation, government and --- above all --- education; and
as a topic in cultural and literary studies concerned with the impact of English upon different cultures and literatures, and the constructions of new identities via bilingualism.
Τ褦ʳϡ¤˻Ƥ롥ʤ World Englishes ȤƱѸˤΩ줫鸫ˤʤäȤ¿˸Ƥ褦ˤʤäʬγ1ڡȤΤϡФзȯŪǤ롥
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
12ȤȤ2ǯ˳ϤֱѸˤȸ츻ץǤäȿʤƤ뤦ˡŤƤߤСĤȤ2Ȥʤޤ11ΤΤ餻Ǥ
2ָ731ڡ15:30?18:45ˡī㡼ɶˤֱѸˤȸ츻11֥ͥȽססꤷƤäޤѸ줬Ūϰ̤ۤߤͽۤǤʤαѸ줬Ƥ͡ʡǺߡפܤޤؿꤪߤݤϰʲ̤Ǥ
16ɤǤϡͥȽפϴ̯ʷǶ¸Ƥޤͥȼμȯϥƥ䥮ꥷؤƴ߽ФѸϤ̤ñѤ뤳ȤǸäʤ˭ˤޤפȼռιޤ꤫顤Ѹ줽ΤΤɾޤޤΤ褦̷⤹ʸDZ뤳ȤˤʤޤѸ줬褤赱Ƥ˾Ƥޤ
4--5äǤꡤ֤ΤΤȤʹ뤫⤷ޤѸθľܤĤʤǤŪ˼微äѸ줬ˤƸˤưҿƸ뤳ȤˤʤäΤˤϡܤ16ѸˤȤäƤζ줷ߤλ֤äƤȤɬפˤʤޤˤѸƸεˤĤơȰ˹ͤƤȻפޤ
ǯɤϹŪ¸ߴƤ뤬ȼäƥɤѤѸ졤륤ɱѸ (Indian English) ؤܤޤäƤƤ롥ΥɱѸˤϰճĹˤ롥ʤߤƤ400ǯۤɤϤ롥
Sharma (2077--85) ϡɱѸˤҲŪʴˤ4Ĥλ˶ʬƤ롥ñ䤤ʤʲ˼
(1) The early presence of English in India (17th--18th century)
ꥶ٥11600ǯ쥤ɲҤΩ졤ꥹȥɤθפܳŪ˻Ϥޤä쥤ɲҤϡ1858ǯΥꥹˤľޤdz³뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ϱѸȥɤȤܿϼŪʤΤǡߤθԴ˽٤ˤȤɤޤä18ϥꥹȶعΩ졤˱ѸѤɤο͡δ֤˹äƤä
(2) Colonial language ideologies (18th--19th century)
1757ǯ쥤ɲҷץå襤ǥ٥뷳˾ɤФ륤ꥹλ۸Ωɤ100ǯ1857ǯ˥ȿȤȯð줿塤1858ǯϥꥹˤľϤޤäꥹˤϡ̱ϥɤФ2ĤΩ륤ǥäθʸǧ "Orientalist" ȡꥹθʸˤäƥɤؤ褦Ȥ "Anglicist" ȤǤ롥Orientalist ΩȤƤϡѸؤĤȸƤФ William Jones ʤɤΩ18ˤͥä19 Anglicist ΥǥޤäƤΥԡ1835ǯ Thomas Macaulay "Minute on Indian Education" ˷¤ƤꡤǤϱѸͥΤ줿ɿͤμͤΤʤˤ Rammohun Roy Τ褦 Anglicist ΩȤΤcf. #3315. ֥ϥɸס ([2018-05-25-1])ˡη̡19桤顤ǡˤѸѤ¤ä
(3) English and the Independence movement (19th--20th century)
1塤ꥹۤΩܻؤ̱²ưäѸǤϤʤλѤʤ Mahatma Gandhi αư˾ħ褦ˡȿѸΥǥƬƤ̱ɤλƳԤǸ˥ɤνȤʤä Nehru ѸؤƤӤ1947ǯΩ뤲ȡŪʴϱѸݻʤȤĴ褷ƤʹߡɤǤαѸѤϷ³ƤĤƤΤ褦ʥꥹɸѸؤƴݤĥɿͤϸäƤ
(4) English in independent India: planning and use (20th century)
ʤѤä415θ줬ѤƤ륤ɤǤϡʣ¿Ѥ꤬ߤ롥Τʤ22θ줬ϰѸȤǧƤ롥ܤθȤƤϥҥǥ줬ѸȤơѸ줬ѸȤƻꤵƤ롥Ωľˤ϶Ȥƥɤ줬졤Ѹ̤ɬװȤݻΤΡϻѤʤʤäƤ٤ΤͽƤ¤ˤ֤ŪȤ꤬ꡤȤΩŪΩˤѸλѤߤޤ뤳ȤϤʤäߤǤϥҥǥ줬ͥǤϤ뤬㤤DZѸΥХ̤ȤʤäƤƤꡤ֥ɤѸפȤȤ館äƤƤ롥
Sharma, Devyani. "Second-Language Varieties: English in India." Chapter 132 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2077--91.
ܥ֥ǤѸ (waseieigo) ˤĤ͡ʳ٤ƤDZѸ줬2ȤѤ졤ѸǤƸ˼ޤƤǡѸΤۤˡ֡ѸפʤΤѻ줿ȤƤԻĤϤʤºݡä4ˤ錄äƱѸդäƤɤѤ륤ɱѸ (Indian English) ΤƤߤȡְѸפȤ٤ɽ¿Ĥ뤳ȤǤ롥Sharma (2087) ꡤĤƤߤ褦
ޤɤɽѸǤ˰ܤؤ (loan_translation) ʤ (calquing) ˤѸ줬롥äƤʤȱӤؤ open hair ȸƤꡤ֤äȴƻ롦Ĥפΰ̣ to stand on someone's hand ȤѤꤹ륱
ȤȤʤɽˤʤ˱ѸǤѤ¤줷Τ⤢롥eve-teasing ʥϥˡprepone 롤夲ˡrevert back ʥåֿˤʤɤϡˤѸ餷ߤ뤬ʤȤɸѸǤѤʤprepone ʤɤϷȤ٤ǡɸѸ postpone ʱ롤겼ˤǥȤȿդƬ֤Ǥ롥ɸѸǤϤʤѤʤΤȵդԻĤ˻פäƤޤۤɡŪˤ̣Ūˤʬ䤹
ɱѸ˸¤餺 ESL (English as a Second Language) ˤƤϡ¿쾯ʤ줳μΡ֡ѸפȤ٤ɽϤդƤ˰㤤ʤޤܥ֥Ƿ֤夲Ƥ褦ˡѸˤˤƤֱסֱסֱʩפɽ̤߽Ф졤ѤƤcf. #4101. Ѹޤפεåȡ ([2020-07-19-1])ˡźܿȤǤϡ֡פθݤӤäΤǤϤʤ
ʤ֡Ѹפɽ魯ѸѸä¸ߤʤ˺äƤߤ "indigenised English expressions" ȤäȤѸʤ "indigenised English expressions in Japan(ese)"Ѹʤ "indiginised English expressions in India(n English)" դϤ
Sharma, Devyani. "Second-Language Varieties: English in India." Chapter 132 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2077--91.
NHK饸ֺ¡δñѸ in Englishפ8ΥƥȤȯޤֱѸΥܥʵפϢܤƤޤ5Ȥʤޤϡ֤ʤ̤ˤ will ȤΡפǤĤΤ褦ɽˡʤ٤פ⤷ޤ

ǤפʥݥȤϡѸϤȤ륲ޥˤϡȤ̤Ȥ (tense) ϤʤäȤȤǤ2ĤʤԤߤ̤˰ƤޤŤ˾ջ̳֡ʤɤްդ will shall Τ褦ˡư (auxiliary_verb) ¸ߤƤޤˡưϡѤƤ뤦δްդޤꡤñʤ̤ɽ魯ˡؤȯŸƤޤ줬Ѹʹߤ˰Ṳ̄ɽΤѤ褦ˤʤꡤߤ˻ޤ츫Ȥβ̤ơ2ʬäѸλߡ̤3ʬ˰ܹԤ褦ˤߤޤ̤ will/shall ŪˤϿԤˤޤΤǡޤ˱ѸληϤΤʤ˴˥եåȤƤ櫓ǤϤʤˤΰΤǤ
̤ will Ū˽и夷ƤطʤϡѸˤǤ͡˸椵ƤƤޤܥ֥ǤϢ뵭ƤޤΤǡܤŪΤꤿϡʲεɤߤ
#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1])
#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])
#2189. ˤ will Իѡ ([2015-04-25-1])
#3692. Ѹˤϲ2Ĥʤ ([2019-06-06-1])
#4408. ̤ΤȤʤΤ˸߷ɽ魯 ([2021-05-22-1])
#2209. ĸˤư̤ޡ ([2015-05-15-1])
ޤ74դֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ˤơϢֻǤ̤Ǥ⸽߷Ѥ롩ޤΤǡβ⤪İ
줿餷Ѥʵ䡥ʤ <th> 2ʸʤΤ1ĤλҲбƤΤʤѤο1ʸѰդʤäΤȤ䤤Ǥ
Ѹ <th> ȤֻӤбȯ /θ, ð/ ϡƹ٤ǸޤѸǺǹ٤θǤ괧 the Ϥᡤthey, their, that, then, though ʤɡ"th-sound" ϤʤʤȯʤѸΥñˤ褯ޤѸؽԤˤȤäơάʤ櫓ˤϤʤֻǤȯʤ櫓Ǥ"th-sound" ˤĤƤϡth γƵǼ夲ƤΤǡ
<th> ɽ魯̵ /θ/ ˤͭ /ð/ ˤ衤ȯȤƤϤޤ1ҲбƤ櫓ʤΤǡֻȤƤ1ʸƤ٤ȤͤϡΤޤ1ĤλҲ /t/ Ф1ĤλҲ <t> б1ĤλҲ /f/ Ф1ĤλҲ <f> бΤƱ褦ˡ1Ĥ "th-sound" Ǥ /θ/ 뤤 /ð/ Фơ餫1ĤλҲбƤƤԻĤϤʤϤǤȤξˤϤʤ <th> 2ʸ䤷Ƥ櫓Ǥ֤ȤƤϡٸ˸ˡ<th> 2ʸǤϤʤ1ʸǽФ֤ڤʤΤˡȻפΤ̵̤ȤǤ
ɸ䤤⤷ΤϡѸ˾νפäƤ뤫Ǥ¤ϡűѸ졦ѸλˤϡФ "th-sound" б1ĤʸäΤǤ2ѰդƤꡤ1Ĥ "thorn" Ȥ̾ʸ <þ> Ȥ⤦1Ĥ "edh" Ȥ̾ʸ <ð> ȤǤԤϸΥޥ줬Ƥ롼ʸ (runic) ήѤΤǤꡤԤϥ <d> ˲դΤˤʤäƤޤűѸˤ̤ѤƤޤѸˤʤä <ð> Ѥ졤<þ> ͥȤʤޤƱѸ˥ƥեˡαƶˤꡤѸƱҲФ2ʸ䤹 <th> ֻƬƤޤơѸˤϡѤȯڤ˺ݤ <th> ͥŪФ줿Ȥ⤢ꡤ1ʸ <þ> ϤĤ˿ह˻äΤǤդηаޤˤĤƤϡ#1329. Ѹˤˤ eth, thorn, <th> ([2012-12-16-1])#1330. Ѹˤ eth, thorn, <th> ([2012-12-17-1]) Ȥ
ɸѤʵκˤռϡ֤ʤ <th> 2ʸʤΤ1ĤλҲбƤΤʤѤο1ʸѰդʤäΤפȤȤǤѸŪˤߤȡ¤ϤҤä֤䤦ͤΤפʤΤǤĤޤ"th-sound" ФƸűѸ졦ѸǤ1ʸ <þ>, <ð> äѰդƤΤˡʤѸˤ2ʸʤ <th> ˤ虜虜֤줿ΤפȤȤʤޤ
ε#4459. ʤ drive βʬ driven ϥɥ饤ǤϤʤɥʤΡ ([2021-07-12-1]) ϤȤơܥ֥ǤϸűѸθѤ뤳Ȥ¿κݤĹ첻Τ첻ξ macron ȸƤФ벣ĹˤդȤ¿ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, ȳ ǡǤ롥ǤСѸ drove бűѸη֤ drāf äȤ˿줿ǤĹ첻Ǥ뤳ȤΤ ā ɽѤƤ롥
դ٤ϡ macron դɽϡޤǸθűѸؽԤصΤ˸ԼԤդѤˤºݤθűѸμܤˤϤޤäʤäȤȤǤ롥macron ˸¤餺θűѸܤʤɤ˰Ƥζ (punctuation) ϡűѸؼԤΤԼԤѸݤäƤƤΤǤ뤳Ȥ¿ºݤμܤΩäƤߤȡΤ褦ϤʤȤȤʤʤĤޤꡤꤿ褦ʡäΤ褦äʤΤǤ롥ΤȤŪ˽Ҥ٤Ƥʤȡ¿θűѸؽԤƤޤ
ŪˤСűѸϸѸ٤ơֻȯδطȥ졼ȤǤ롥Ѹ knight, through, climb /naɪt/, /θruː/, /claɪm/ ɤळȤϳؽʤ¤бűѸ cniht, þurh, climban /kniçt/, /θurx/, /clɪmban/ ɤळȤŪ䤹űѸϡѸˤȯֻЪΥ (spelling_pronunciation_gap) ꤫餪褽ȤƤȰŪ˸롥
űѸˤȯֻΰספɾƤϤʤΤˡ֥̤ɤФ褤פȤ§Ǥ褽ޤΤΡ#17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡȯֻɬ11ˤʤʤΤ⤢롥<f, s, þ, ð> ϡŪˤϤ줾̵ͭ (/f, v, s, z, θ, ð/) 뤷<c> <g> ˤʸˤȹŲ롥ԤˤĤƤϡǤ /ʧ/, /j/ ϳơ <ċ>, <ġ> ɽ뤳Ȥ¿űѸǤ⡤ȯֻ줤11ˤʤäƤʤϡΤǤ롥
κǤΤ첻ĹûǤ롥ѸˤˤƤϡűѸ줫鸽Ѹ˻ޤǡ첻ĹûϾ˽פʶ̤Ǥ³Ƥ㤨к夲 drive (OE drīfan) ǤСû첻 drifen ǤвʬǤꡤĹ첻 drīfen Ǥ³ˡʣߤȤ "we/you/they may drive" ۤɤɽ路Τǡ첻Ĺụ̂ǽ礭㤨ΤǤ롥¸ܤˤƤ macron ʤɤʤ <drifen> ֤ƤȤ˵Ĥ
θ¤ˤơűѸ⸽ѸƱֻͤȯϤưפƤʤäȤ⤤ΤǤ롥٤ȤʤСΤ˸űѸϸѸϥޥäűѸˤȯֻϡȤ櫓첻Ĺû˴ؤƤСΤΤäΤǤ롥ϡѸˤˤƤФиƨƤ˽פʻ¤ȹͤƤ롥
Ϣơ#1826. 첻ĹûľܼȤǤʤ ([2014-04-27-1])#2092. ե٥åȤ첻ľɽ魯Τ ([2015-01-18-1])#2887. Ϣ3֤ʤѸ첻ɽΤʤΤס ([2017-03-23-1])#3954. 첻Ĺûʬ褦ȤѸο ([2020-02-23-1]) ȡ
ɸѤʵ䤬ޤΤ2첻ĸ drive /draɪv/ ǰƬ֤Сʬ driven */ˈdraɪv(ə)n/ ȤʤꤽʤΤǤñ첻 /ˈdrɪv(ə)n/ Ȥʤޤʤߤ˲ drove /droʊv/ 첻βؤޤƱ褦2첻äƤޤʬñ첻ΤϤʤʤΤǤ礦
ѸˤδߤƤޤűѸǤϡư϶ޡʤѤΤȡˤλˤä͡ʬवƤΤǤư˴ؤƤжѲ1Ȥ롼פ°ƤޤѸǤ driveʸ-- droveʲ-- drivenʲʬˤ3ĤμǧޤűѸǤ4ĤμꡤưǤ drīfan-- drāf1-- drifon 2-- drifen ʲʬˤΤ褦Ѳޤ <v> ʸϤʤ <f> ѤƤޤˡǡ1פȡ2פΤ褦ʶ̤äȤ˶ä⤷ޤζ̤ϼ¤ be ư was were ˻ĤäƤޤcf. #3812. was were δط ([2019-10-04-1])ˡ
ơ drīfan 1 drāf ˤ첻ξ˲ĹˤޤĹ첻Ѹˤ븶 drive 2첻Ӳ drove 2첻ϢʤޤűѸǤ⸽ѸǤ⡤2⡼ĹǤ뤳ȤѤϤޤơűѸβʬ drifen ñ첻ΤۤϡΤޤޤƱñ첻ݤ driven ȤʤäƤޤѸˤ̤ơ1⡼ûä櫓Ǥ
Ѳ1° drīfan ֤⡤ŪˤƱ褦ߤФƸ˻äƤޤ㤨иѸ ride -- rode -- ridden, write -- wrote -- written ϡűѸǤϳơ rīdan -- rād -- ridon -- riden, wrītan -- wrāt -- writon -- writen Ȥʤꡤʬˤñ첻ޤ
äơɸѤʵˤϡΤ褦Ǥ礦űѸλ夫鸽˻ޤǡdrive ʤ֤ưˤˤĤƤϡ֤Ͼ2⡼Ĺ첻äƤʬϾ1⡼û첻äƤȤȤǤ
äȵˤʤϻĤޤridden, written ˤĤƤϳơ <d>, <t> λҲŤʤäƤꡤˤä첻û /ɪ/ Ǥ뤳ȤŪ˼ƤޤҲνŤʤäƤʤ ride, write Ȥϡֻ夢餫˰ۤʤäƤޤȤ driven ˤĤƤ *drivven Ȥ֤Ƥ餺ޤǸ drive ˻ driven ȤֻǤҲŤʤäƤʤΤǤ
ϡѸˡˤϻҲ <v> Ťͤ뤳ȤǤʤȤüʵ§뤫ǤϽŤͤ *drivven ȤȤǤε§椨ˤ driven ˴ŤƤ롤ȤȤǤǤϡʤ <v> ϽŤͤƤϤʤΤǤ礦ϤʤʤʣʷаޤꡤDz⤹뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤȤ <v> <u> ѰۻΤȤ٤ȯãƤȤͿƤޤϢơҡ#1827. magic <e> Ȥ̵ط <-ve> ([2014-04-28-1])#4069. ʤ live ȯưǤϡ֥סƻȡ֥饤פʤΤǤ ([2020-06-17-1]) ɤߤ
Ѹϡ² (indo-european) Τʤ1ȶǤ륲ޥ (germanic) °롥ɥĸ졤졤ɸ졤եꥸʤɤƱȶθǤ롥ȶθˤϡ¾ȶˤɬѻʤ̤ħ롥ϡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) ˽Ҥ٤ȤǤȤ櫓פʤΤϡޥˤƤϡ˸ŪʶȤȤ¤Ǥ롥
ǤϡָŪʶȡפȤϲޤ (stress accent) ˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦ȤȤϡ벻ܤȤˡ줬ȯ뤫夯ȯ뤫Ȥͥ륮ζδߤȤΤȤǤ롥ˤϡ⤦1̤˹㥢 (pitch accent) ȤΤ롥ܸ줬㥢ȤθʤΤǡȤȤΰ㤤䤹Ȼפ뤬פ˶ΤΤȯιʥԥåˤˤäƶ̤륢ȤǤ롥ԥΤαդˤȤСƱΥɤθפ϶ζʥեƤԥΤˤˤäѤΤȤǤꡤƱɤȤäƤ1㤤ɤȹ⤤ɤȤǸ夹Τ㥢ȤȤä褤ܤϡ#2627. Ȥʬ ([2016-07-06-1]) Ȥ줿
ˡŪʥȤȤΤϡʤʸ̮ˤƤ⡤ζϸ§ȤƤθηޤäȤȤ㤨Сvisit, visits, visited, visiting ʤɤϡۤʤĤƤ뤱ɡȤѤʤ1Ƥ롥
ѸؤǤȡָ˸ŪʶȤפΤ褦˻פΤϼ¤ϱѸȤ⥲ޥΤ˶̤ħʤΤǤ롥ơβŪħϡŪˤ⥲ޥβΤߤʤ餺ˤʱƶͿƤޥŪħ¿¤ϤΥȤ˴ؤħʪȤäƤ褤餤ʤΤǤ롥
ϡѸ˸ԤĤȤ˶ĴƤȤǤ롥ǶѥѥȤäƤѸ첻θŵ Prins (33) ˤ⡤μݤεҤäΤǾҲ𤷤Ƥ
One of the chief characteristics of the Germanic languages was and still is their strong dynamic accent. Indo-European was characterised by a musical accent which was not fixed, and though in later time this was often replaced by a dynamic accent which was combined with the musical accent, this accent was still free at the time when the Germanic group of dialects began to differentiate from the other Indo-European dialects. The strong dynamic accent of Germanic was, however, fixed and generally fell on the stem or first syllable. This had important results for the vowels in the weaker-stressed syllables . . . .
Prins "dynamic accent" "musical accent" ȤѸϡơ嵭Ρֶȡפȡֹ㥢ȡפɤؤƺ٤ʤѸ --- ƥޥ --- ˤϡ褽ΡָŪʶȡפ˱̿ŤƤȤäƤ褤ۤɽפħǤ롥
Prins, A. A. A History of English Phonemes. 2nd ed. Leiden: Leiden UP, 1974.
Ѹˤˤͤ (swearing) 夲̾ʸ Hughes 롥Ѹͤդ⡤¾θոȰۤʤ餺ƻμҲۤȿǤĤѲƤȡĤޤήԤΰǤ뤳Ȥ䤫Ƥ롥ϤƬˡSwift ΰŪ2ĤΰѤƤ (236)
For, now-a-days, Men change their Oaths,
As often as they change their Cloaths.
Swift
Oaths are the Children of Fashion.
Swift
ѸͤդˤˤϡĤ礭Ĭήѻ롥Hughes (237--40) ˰͵ơŦƤ褽ḽˤƤѲȤȤ館Ƥ褤
(1) ֿʤΡˤˤơפΤ褦 by to ʤɤֻѤ (asseveration) ϸƤ
(2) ͤդΥפˤĤơŪʤΤŪŪʤΤؤθ夬ߤ롥
(3) C. S. Lewis "the moralisation of status word" ȻŦ褦ˡɽ魯줬ƻŪʰ̣礤ӤӤѻ롥㤨 churl, knave, cad, blackguard, guttersnipe, varlet ʤɤϤȤȳʬ̾äƻŪʡְפްդ褦ˤʤꡤͤղƤ
(4) ϫƯפȴϢơvagabond, beggar, tramp, bum, skiver ʤɤͤղηϡϲƤꥶ٥īħŪˤߤ줿
(5) ͤդ̩ܤʴطĥ֡ (taboo) ˤĤơǯŪʥפͼŪʥפؤθ夬ߤ롥
ѸͤդĬήɤ븦ϡֱѸ˼ҲפΰȤ٤ˤϼ¤꤬͡ޤޤƤ롥㤨С嵭ˤ̤ꡤ֡䤽ȴϢնʸˡ (euphemism) ȯŸȤδϢΤꤿʤäƤ롥ޤŵŪʸѲΥפȤɲ (amelioration) 䰭 (pejoration) ˤ̩ܤ˴طˡǯ political correctness (= pc) ˡȤδϢⵤˤʤȤslang ˤȤŤʤꡤҲŪӸŪʹͻоݤˤʤ롥ƲοΰȻפ
Hughes, Geoffrey. Swearing: A Social History of Foul Language, Oaths and Profanity in English. London: Penguin, 1998.
African American Vernacular English (= AAVE)ͱѸˤĤ aave γƵǼ夲ƤAAVE εȯãäƤϷ㤷褬깭Ƥߤ³Ƥ롥ĤޤŪʲͿƤʤȤäƤ褤
褯ΤƤΤϡ쥪쵯 (creolist hypothesis) ꥹѼﵯ (Anglicist hypothesis) ΩǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1])#2739. AAVE Creolist Hypothesis Anglicist Hypothesis ˬ ([2016-10-26-1]) ʤɤǾҲ𤷤
AAVE ػˤϡ2Ĥȶδ֤ˤȤñˤ뤳ȤϤǤʤۤˤ⤤ĤΩ줬ΤLanehart (1826--27) ϥɥ֥åˤ6ĤΩüŪ˲⤷ƤƤ롥վǰѤ褦ʤʤLanehart African American Language (= AAL) ȤƾΤѤƤˡ
(1) Anglicist (aka Dialectologist), which purports that Africans in American (sic) learned regional varieties of British English dialects from British overseers with little to no influence from their own native African languages and cultures;
(2) Creolist, which purports that AAL developed from a prior US creole developed by slaves that was widespread across the colonies and slave-holding areas (though Neo-Creolists acknowledge there likely was not a widespread creole but one that emerged in conditions favorable to creole development);
(3) Substratist, which purports that distinctive patterns of AAL are those that occur in Niger-Congo languages such as Kikongo, Mande, and Kwa;
(4) Ecological and Restructuralist, which is a perspective within the Anglicist position that acknowledges the difficulty of knowing the origins of AAL but proposes that we can say something useful about Earlier AAL (not nascent AAL) given settlement and migration patterns as well as socio-ecological issues;
(5) Divergence/Convergence, which purports that AAL diverges and converges to white varieties over the course of its history with respect to changes in and degrees of racism, segregation, inequalities, and inequities that fluctuate across time and differs (sic) regionally; and
(6) Deficit, which purports that AAL is based on the assumption that Africans in America and their culture are inferior to whites and their language learning as a result was imperfect and bastardized.
ơβˤϡ˸ŪθȿǤƤʬ⤢СԤٻԤΥǥǧŪΩ줬ǻȿǤƤʬ⤢롥Ԥफ餳䤳ʤ롤ȤΤ뿼ǺߤǤ롥
Lanehart, Sonja L. "Varieties of English: Re-viewing the Origins and History of African American Language." Chapter 117 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1826--39.
դäդ̤ΤǤȤԤϤäƤ롥ΤˤϽդ1ĤνפʵǽǤꡤ켫Τϴְ㤤ǤϤʤϡäդȽդϡɽ魯2ĤΩΤǧƤ롥ΤξԤδطϿ§ȤƸߤΩƤ롥ʤ봶ФäդİСդϻФȰۤʤäƤ뤷ǽˤƤⴰ˰פ뤳ȤϤʤȹͤƤ롥
äդȽդϸ§ȤƸߤΩΤǤꡤԥäȰפ뤳ȤϤʤȤȤĤġǤϱѸˤǤξԤϤɤΤ餤ΥƤΤ뤤ߴäƤΤȤȤȤܸˤǤȤΡָʸԡ˰ספǤ롥
ܸˤ٤ФȤĤΰոѸˤˤƤϡѸ줬դդ줿Ȥ줬ƱäդɤΤ餤褯ȿǤƤСŪ褯פ褦˻פ롥ܸǤδʸʸʸ´ʸʤɡäդ礭æդѤƤѸǤϤۤɤ礭ʰæϤߤʤä
ѸˤλǤСդäդ˺ǤܶᤷƤΤѸä⤷ʤȯΤޤֻ˾äȤǤ⡤դ˰ҿͿɸ줬¸ߤʤäȤǤ⡤ξΤܶᤷƤȤ
ΩĸűѸ䡤³ѸˤƤϡξΤεΥŪ礭ä褦˻פ롥űѸαʸϡָʸءפȤϤƱäդɽ路ΤȤϹͤʤˤƤϡ֥ȥɸפ⸽졤ѸǽޤǤ٤αƶϤݤäѸ줫ѸˤƤϥƥեʤɤΰҿää̤ήդǤƱäդι⤤ʤ줿Τ褦ˤĤơSchaefer (1285--86) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
[M]ost of what has come down to us in writing should be considered as influenced by the very medium that allows us to look into these historical linguistic data. However, if we compare the poetic evidence from the early 8th century to the prose evidence from the 12th, it is probably the latter that brings us closest to what may be considered to mirror the spoken language of the respective period. Albeit that the former must have been heavily informed by the pre-Christian oral culture, its form most certainly does not reflect conceptually 'spoken' language. Moreover, English was only firmly reestablished in writing in the 14th and 15th centuries. In that period English in writing obviously profited very much from the literate languages Latin and French . . . . The influence of Latin continued well into the Modern period and hence made the disparity between prose writing in the then establishing standard and the actual spoken language even wider.
ѸˤǤϡषˤäդȽդεΥޤäƤƤȤͤ롥饸ƥӡͥåȤʤɤεѤ˻٤ơΤˤ륳ߥ˥Ūξδ֤ζܤ⽾ۤΤǤϤʤʤäƤƤ뤳ȤطƤ
ƱռεȤơ#3210. 夬ˤĤ졤դεϿŪäդФȤʤ뤫ݤ ([2018-02-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
Schaefer, Ursula. "Interdisciplinarity and Historiography: Spoken and Written English --- Orality and Literacy." Chapter 81 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1274--88.
Ѹ˳ιֵʤɤηи顤Ѹ˾塤Ʊ䤹ȤΤĤ롥ȥΥޥͤδط⡤Τ1ĤǤ롥ϡʬˤäޤѸ˾פ2ĤλˤĤƴܻ롥
(1) ѸˤǤϡ8Ⱦ11ˤ̲пȤΥ (Vikings) 뤤ϥΥɿ (the Norse) ɡʤȤ櫓ˤ˿꽻ȤˤĤơɬܤȤƼ夲롥ΤȤǤťΥɸ (Old Norse) Ѹ¿ʱƶڤܤ
(2) ľλ1066ǯˡͭ̾ʥΥޥ (Norman Conquest) äꥹ¦եΥΥޥǥ (Normandy) ˵サƤΥޥ (Normans) ī˴ȤǤ롥ΥΥޥͤΥΥޥǥ衼 (Guillaume) ǤꡤѸˤȥꥢ (William) Ǥ롥οʪƱǯꥹޥ˥ɲȤ״ơ˥ꥢ1 (William I) ȸƤФ褦ˤʤäѸ˾פʤΤϡꥢޤΥޥͤեΤˤϥΥޥΥեˤȤƤꡤθ3ˤ錄äƥɤեۤβ֤ˤ롥δ֤ˡѸϥե줫αƶ礭뤳Ȥˤʤä
αѸ˾פ2Ĥλϡ̤ˤ̡λȤƤȤ館Ƥ뤬ϸǤ롥Ū٤碌Ǥ뤳Ȥ⼨̤ꡤºݤˤϤ˴طƤΤǤꡤϢŤƤȤפǤ롥ơλǡ֥Υɡפȡ֥ΥޥפȤ̾ФƤ뤬⺮Ʊ䤹ǡ츻Ϥ "north" ˴طΤ (cf. #1568. Norman, Normandy, Norse ([2013-08-12-1])ˡϤ2ĤλϢŤƤʤȺ
ޤפʥݥȤϡ2ĤλξˤơɤΤ̲пȤΥäȤȤĤޤꡤɤ˾2ٽ줿ƤƤ褤1ܤ2ܤΥΥפϡʤۤʤäƤ롥1ܤΥϡ̲ľܤäƤĤޤäΥǤ롥ϡѸƱޥɤ°ťΥɸѸޥ췲ťΥɸ̥ޥ췲°ȶۤʤ뤬ˤзΤ褦ʴطǤ롥
Ȥ2ܤΥͻҤۤʤäƤϡǤϤäĹ餯ե˽夭1066ǯκޤǤˤϤäťΥɸ˺ƤޤäƤΤϤǤ˥եȤʤäƤꡤ转եƤʥեϥåɤθʤΤǡѸȤ礭ۤʤˡŪطʤάҤȰʲ̤Ǥ롥
̤äϳΤäΥä褿äΥȤơɤäΤƱߥǥե⽱äƤΤǤ롥եάϡϤ˥ե˿ýäϤ̲̾ͳǤ뤳Ȥ֥Υץޥǥ (Normandy) Ȥʤꡤ˽夯Ȥˤʤä̲͡ͳʤΤǡ֥Υץޥ (Normans) ȸƤФ褦ˤʤäθǥΥޥͤϤä⽬եƤޤäꥢϷȤƤϥǤ뤬¾եͤȲƤΤǤ롥
ʾޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
| ե | ̾ | Ԥεサ | Ԥ | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | ֥ο꽻 | 8Ⱦ11ˤ | äΥ | ̲ʼ˥ǥޡ | ťΥɸ |
| (2) | ֥Υޥ | 1066ǯ | ΥޥͤȤեʥϥꥢ | եʥΥޥǥ | եʥΥޥ |
ѸäƤեѸˤĤơƥѸȸʬĤʤȤ츻ؾƬˤ꤬롥ˤĤƤϰʲεǼ夲Ƥ
#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1])
#848. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ (2) ([2011-08-23-1])
#3581. ѸΥեѸ졤ƥѸ졤"mots savants" (1) ([2019-02-15-1])
#3582. ѸΥեѸ졤ƥѸ졤"mots savants" (2) ([2019-02-16-1])
Ǥϡե줫Ѹ줫θʬĤʤȤΤϤեȱѸ°ƤɤۤʤꡤΤ˶̤ϤʤΤǡΤ褦ϹͤʤȻפ뤫⤷ʤ
ΥեѸȥƥѸξȤϰۤʤ̣礤ǤϤ뤬ȽǤǤʤȤʤʤƤ뱾ȤǤϤʤ餹餫˥եñʤΤθ줬ƤƥȤѸƥȤʤΤեƥȤʤΤʬĤʤˡۤʤ꤬Ƥ롥⤷ʤѸƥȤǤФθϥե줫äƤѸǧꤵʤեƥȤǤФθϽեñǤꡤѸȤ̵طȽǤȤǤϤʤ
Ȥ¤ˤϱʩǤ礤θ줬١ȤʤäƤΤȽȤʤ "macaronic" 2ƥȤʤΤ롥С줿 code-switching Τʤ˽ФƤ롤ȤƤ餫˥ե°ñϡǤ˱Ѹ˼ѤƱѸäΰƤΤʤΤ뤤ϽեñȤѤƤˤʤΤΤʴबʤ¤ꡤȽǤŪˤʤʩΤۤƥؤäƤơ𤬤ˤ䤳ʤ⤢롥ˤĤơTrotter (1790) βʹ
Quantities of medieval documents survive in (often heavily abbreviated) medieval British Latin, into which have been inserted substantial numbers of Anglo-French or Middle English terms, usually of course substantives; analysis of this material is complicated by the abbreviation system, which may even have been designed to ensure that the language of the documents was flexible, and that words could have been read in more than one language . . ., but also by the fact that in the later period (that is, after around 1350) the distinction between Middle English and Anglo-French is increasingly hard to draw. As is apparent from even a cursory perusal of the Middle English Dictionary (MED, Kurath et al. 1952--2001) it is by no means always clear whether a given word, listed as Middle English but first attested in an Anglo-French context, actually is Middle English, or is perceived as an Anglo-French borrowing.
2ƥȤ˸ñ줬θ°Τꤹ뤳ȤϡɬñǤϤʤθäȤϲʤΤƹͤ롥Ϣưʲ⻲Ȥ줿
#2426. York Memorandum Book ˤߤʩ¿¿ͤʺ ([2015-12-18-1])
#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])
#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])
#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])
#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1])
#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching ([2015-10-01-1])
Trotter, David. "English in Contact: Middle English Creolization." Chapter 114 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1781--93.
Top 1,000 Baby Girl Names in the U.S. 2021 ˤȡޤ줿ˤĤ̾Ȥƿ͵Υ٥3ϡɸ̤ Olivia, Emma, Ava äȤ-a Ū˽̾ȴϢŤƤǼǤΤ̾ȤƤ4ȤʤʤĹ Olivia 1̤Ȥ϶ä
٥3̾ˤĤơThe Wordsworth Dictionary of First Names 국ҤѤ롥
Olivia (f)
Originally the Italian form of Olive but long considered as a name in its own right with romantic and aristocratic associations. Olivia is one of the heroines in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night and in Goldsmith's The Vicar of Wakefield (1766). Olivia Newton-John is an Australian actress-singer.
Familiar form: Livy.
Emma (f)
From Germanic meaning 'whole' or 'universal'. Popular throughout the ages from the 11th century, when Ethelred's Queen bore it, to today when it is often twinned with other names, as in: Emma Jane. Famous bearers include Nelson's mistress, Lady Emma Hamilton and the heroine of Jane Austen's novel Emma (1815).
Familiar forms: Em, Emmie.
Ava (f) [ay-va, ah-va]
In addition to being a familiar form of Gustava, this can be another form of Eva, reflecting the way Eva is pronounced in many European countries. Ava Gardner, film star in the 1940s, popularized the name, though her name tended to be pronounced to rhyme with Java.
츻ȤƤϡޤޤơƥꥢ졤ޥ졤إ֥饤ȥХХʤΤѸʿ̾ˤΰŪʻʪäƤ褦Ǥ⤷ߤΤΤ⡤ǤʤΤ⤢ꡤǤ¿ͤǤ롥
Ĥλˤ⡤Ҥ̾ŤˤϿƤδ˾Ƥ롥餳ɤθˤƤ̾ (personal_name)Ȥ櫓 first name Ū˴ؿ⤿ΤͤޤǤˡѸο̾ˤĤƤϰʲεʤɤƳȤʤϤǤ롥
#813. Ѹο̾ˡ ([2011-07-19-1])
#2557. ѸΥ饭͡ࡤ뤤ϥ饭饹ڥ ([2016-04-27-1])
#4367. ֱѸο̾פεåȡ ([2021-04-11-1])
The Wordsworth Dictionary of First Names. Ware: Wordsworth Editions, 1995.
Ѹ˥ե줫μѸ줬̤ήȤϡѸˤǤϤ褯ΤƤ롥Ȥ櫓ˤơ褽1250--1400ǯλˡȤƥԡãȤ⡤Ѹ˳ǤϹҤƤܥ֥Ǥʲεʤɤǡ٤Ȥʤ夲ƤǤ롥
#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])
#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1])
#1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])
#1638. եȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥζ ([2013-10-21-1])
#2349. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1])
#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1])
#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1])
#2385. OED ˤŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸä (2) ([2015-11-07-1])
#4138. եѸΤѸ˼ڤ줿Τ4䶯ǤĽ ([2020-08-25-1]),
եѸοˤĤƤСOED ʤɤѤҴŪĴŤ줿¤Ǥꡤ嵭Ρפ˰Ϥʤʤ餹٤ƽդ˴ŤĴ̤Ǥ뤳ȤդɬפǤ롥⤷äդˤեѸΥԡ䤷̤ȤʤСԡϤäᤫäǽ⤤Trotter (1789) Τ褦Ƥ롥
In charting the chronology of the process, we are again at the mercy of the documentary evidence. The key period of lexical transfer appears to be the 14th century; but that may be, as much as anything else, because of the explosion of available documentation in both Anglo-French and, more particularly, Middle English at that time. In other words, the real dates of the transfers may not be the dates at which they are documented. Some evidence that this is not so is available in the form of English surnames, of Anglo-French origin . . . , and indeed in the capacity of some early Middle English texts to generate hybrids from Anglo-French and Middle English (forpreiseð; propreliche; priveiliche from Ancrene Wisse . . .).
1ĤϡŪ˥ԡȤƤ14ϡޤդεϿ¿Ĥ줿ǤꡤΤ˥եѸεϤ礭ˤʤȤȤ
⤦1Ĥϡդ˽ФǯäơΤޤޱѸ˽Фǯ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤȤcf. #2375. Anglo-French Ȥ (2) ([2015-10-28-1])ˡ̤θǤϤʤʿ̾ˤȤƼѤ줿եǤͤ碌ʤСᤤäƤڵ롥ޤѸʸڤ뺮¸ߤϡ̾ΥեѸ줬ޤǤˤ¿ή̤ƤȤcf. #96. ѸȥեǺ褫 ( hybrid ) ([2009-08-01-1])ˡ
ѸˤˤեѸΥԡϡդξڵŪĴ¤ˤƤϡ̤14ȤäƤ褤äդޤ֤ȤƤϡᤤˤäΤȿ¬ΤǤ롥
Trotter, David. "English in Contact: Middle English Creolization." Chapter 114 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1781--93.
ŪʱѸ˵ҤǤϡѸϱѸ줬ʥ˥եΤӤβˤäȤ롥1066ǯΥΥޥη̡ѸϥɼҲˤƼΧäƥե줬ָѸפȤʤä12ʹߡѸϤäǤϤ뤬¤˿ʤߡ14ȾˤϼΧ˻äΤ褦ˡѸ˴ؤƤϡ⤫ǤѸ줬äߡƤ⤫Ӿ夬ʪȤƽҤΤǤ롥
Trotter (1782) ϡΤ褦ѸϿä˶ᤤΤȹͤƤ롥αѸȡʥ˥եδطϡ⤭ߤδط뤤ϻּ˱äƸؤطǤϤʤष¸ܿδطȤߤ٤ȼĥ롥λ˥ե줬ѸͿŪƶͻǤ⡤¸ܿطȤ뤳Ȥפ⤯
In much which is still being written on the history of medieval English, the specialist scholarship from the Anglo-French perspective has not been taken into account. Even in quite recent publications, Middle English scholarship continues to recycle a history of Anglo-French to which Anglo-French specialists would no longer subscribe. A particular example in the persistence of the traditional "serial monolingualism" model . . ., according to which Anglo-Saxon gives way to Anglo-French, pending the revival of Middle English, with each language succeeding the other. Born out of the 19th-century nationalist ideology which accompanied and prompted the emergence of philology in England and elsewhere . . ., this model ignores the reality of the long-term coexistence of languages, and of language contact . . . . Prominent amongst the areas in which language contact, going far beyond the limited "cultural borrowing" model, is evident, are (a) wholesale lexical transfer, (b) language mixing, (c) morphosyntactic hybridization, and (d) syntactic/idiomatic influences.
ΤѸ˥ե줬ѸͿŪƶƳ硤ޤäʸμѤäϤΤ֤ŵŪˤϡ#1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1]) #331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) ʤɤȤȤǻߤޤäƤޤȡξܿ˴ؤɽŪ줺˽뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʤǡѤ (a), (b), (c), (d) Τ褦ʡ꿼ŪƶäȤޤƧ߹ߤ˰ʤξδطĹˤ錄붦¸ܿδطäȤ˸ڤ
Trotter, David. "English in Contact: Middle English Creolization." Chapter 114 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1781--93.
Ѹûˤˤ륮ꥷ (greek) ϡƥ졤ե졤ťΥɸΤ٤ȰŪˤΩʤȤ櫓ؤ䲽ؤʤɤγؽѥ쥸˸ꤹС礭ܥ֥Ǥ͡˼夲Ƥʲ˵뵭ʤɤȤ줿
#516. ľܤΥꥷѤ15 ([2010-09-25-1])
#552. combining form ([2010-10-31-1])
#616. Ѹβʳظäȯ ([2011-01-03-1])
#617. Ѹ5ʬθä̻ʬۡ ([2011-01-04-1])
#1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1])
#3014. Ѹˤˤ륮ꥷο¸ߴ19 ([2017-07-28-1])
#3013. 19줿ŵŪʣ ([2017-07-27-1])
#3166. ȤƤβʳѸ ([2017-12-27-1])
#4191. ʳѸΰ̣νؤŤˤĤơ ([2020-10-17-1])
Joseph (1720) ѸȥꥷŪʴطˤĤƼΤ褦ŪˤޤȤƤ롥
English and Greek share some affinity in that both are members of the Indo-European language family, but within Indo-European, they are not particularly closely related. Nor is it the case that at any point in their respective prehistories were speakers of Greek and speakers of English in close contact with one another, and such is the case throughout most of historical times as well. Thus the story of language contact involving English and Greek is actually a relatively brief one.
However, the languages have not been inert over the centuries with respect to one another and some contact effects can be discerned. For the most part, these involve loanwords, as there are essentially no structural effects . . . and in many, if not most, instances, as the following discussion shows, the loans are either learned borrowings that do not even necessarily involve overt speaker-to-speaker contact, or ones that only indirectly involve Greek, being ultimately of Greek origin but entering English through a different source.
ѸʹߤˡꥷȤ˭ʸܳŪ˱ѸäƤȤΤˤŪʥ쥸ˤŪʸݤäȤФǤϤ뤬ϤѸθ礭ʥѥȤͿȤäƤ褤üȤ encephalograph Ǿ¤ƿޡˤ夲ȡϥꥷͳ褹 encephalon Ǿ + graph ʿޡˤȤ2ĤϢ (combining_form) 鹽롥 encephalography, electroencephalography, electroencephalographologist ʤɤδϢֱѸ¦ǡ״ñ߽ФȤǤΤǤ롥
ѸˤƤǡ1,3-dimethylamino-3,5-propylhexedrine ȤäʻĶ뤬ˤΤޤصʣפ߽ФȤǤ롥ʤߤˡ˥ꥷǤΤߤʤ벽ʪ̾ΤȤ bromochloroiodomethane ʤ줬 (Joseph (1722))
ˡ⤦ŪʷΩ줫餤СꥷǤˤϡαѸθȤƤŪޤäʣ (dvandva/copulative/appositional compound) ηȤǤѸŪ˰յ롥㤨 otorhinolaryngologist ʼɡʰˤϡʸ̤ɡʡʼԡˡפΰդǤ롥
dvandva compound ˤĤƤϡ#2652. ʣ̾ΰ̣Ūʬ ([2016-07-31-1])#2653. ([2016-08-01-1]) ȡ
Joseph, Brian D. "English in Contact: Greek." Chapter 109 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1719--24.
ɸϡ#3701. Ѹ3;ʣг̾ es ϥ줫μѤ (1) ([2019-06-15-1]) ӡ#3702. Ѹ3;ʣг̾ es ϥ줫μѤ (2) ([2019-06-16-1]) Ǽ夲ƤǤ롥
̤˥줬Ѹ˵ڤܤʸˡŪƶϤۤȤɤʤȤ뤬βǽ뵩ʸܤȤơѸΥɳ߽ǹԤʤƤ;̾ es ŦƤʤۤˡ#140. եޥ줫Ѥؾ -kin ([2009-09-14-1])⻲ȡˡ
ΥƶˤĤơThomason and Kaufman (323) ʳ̣θĴǾҲ𤷲⤷ƤΤǡѤ褦
[T]here was a striking grammatical influence of Low Dutch on ME that is little known, because though introduced sometime before 1150, it is found in certain dialects only and disappeared by the end of the fourteenth century . . . .
In the Lindsey (Grimsby?), Norfolk, Essex, Kent (Canterbury and Shoreham), East Wessex (Southampton?), and West Wessex (Bristol?) dialects of ME, attested from just before 1200 down to at least 1375, there occurs a pronoun form that serves as the enclitic/unstressed object form of SHE and THEY. Its normal written shape is <(h)is> or <(h)es>, presumably /əs/; one text occasionally spells <hise>. This pronoun has no origin in OE. It does have one in Low Dutch, where the unstressed object form for SHE and THEY is /sə/, spelled <se> (this is cognate with High German sie). If the ME <h> was ever pronounced it was no doubt on the analogy of all the other third person pronoun forms of English. We do not know whether Low Dutch speakers settled in sizable numbers in all of the dialect areas where this pronoun occurs, but there is one striking correlation: all these dialect areas abut on the sea . . ., and after 1070 the seas near Britain, along with their ports, were the stomping grounds of the Flemings, Hollanders, and Low German traders. These facts should remove all doubt as to whether this pronoun is foreign or indigenous (and just happened not to show up in any OE texts!).
ѤκǸǽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤֵʤפȤʤ궯Ω줬ɽƤ롥p. 325 Ǥ "this clear instance of structural borrowing from Low Dutch into Middle English" ȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤƤϤȤƤ⤪⤷λεǤ줿褦ˡ⤦ŤɬפȻפ롥West Midland ΦǤ㤬ĤäƤꡤƱñ˻ٻ뤳ȤϤǤʤϢѤƤ Hendriks (1668) ⡤Thomason and Kaufman ΤˤϲŪΩäƤꡤȤƼ夲ƤʤȤոƤ
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Hendriks, Jennifer. "English in Contact: German and Dutch." Chapter 105 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1659--70.
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