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ܸˤֳפϡĹ餯ǥ碌Ƥ롥ǶܤˤĤȤǤϡ94ʿˤīʹī13̤ˡֹʸפȤ3̾μԤˤǺܤƤ֥ե̤ĹΥ١롦ˤֲʱѸ첽̵̣סѸȽҡĹ˻ˤָ֡ˡפܸסꥨƥ֥ǥ쥯ƻˤּǡפ3Ǥ롥ϱѸۤδ顤ĻϱѸۤܤݻȤΩ줫餽줾쥫ʸȽƤ뤬ܸƱϤ¤ϤɾƳήޤƤ롥 *
ΤˡФ21Ƭθߤ˻ޤǡȤƱѸ쵯ΥʸήϤӤΡפФơ嵭εΤ褦͡Ω줫ȿäƤդʸŸ줿⤷ƤȤ櫓ܤˤĤΤȿΤۤǤ롥Τ褦ˤٻϡ褽ȿФȿȤƾΤǤ褦
ؿܸ춵ŵ (261) ˤȡȤϼ̤Ǥ롥
֥ʸפȤˤ졤Ƥ볰ؤбޤޤʳ٤롥طʤˤϡѸȥꥫʸΰṲ̄ͥȤäƤ褤ϡ礭2ĤΩʬ롥Ĥϡܸ줽ΤΤɤʸŪȤȤΤǤϤʤȷǰŻΩ줫ΤΡ⤦Ĥϡ̤ˤʤߤΤ줬Фޤ뤳ȤˤäơŪʾΤȤջ̤˻پ㤬뤳Ȥ뤹뵡ǽŻΩ줫ΤΤǤ롥Ԥ˴ؤƤϡȤ˸ι⤤̤ˤ볰ѤˤĤơġθ٤θŬڤбưΥ٥Ǥ⸫롥
Τ褦ռơε#1616. ʸ礹ߡ2 ([2013-09-29-1]) Ǥ줿Ȥꡤ2002ǯΩ츦ΡֳװѰֳˤĤƵ뤳ȤˤʤäǤ롥ѰΩսǤϡǽΩ줫鳰ŦƤ롥
졦
ǯҲ̾ǽ줿ܿ졦줬Ūôģ乭桤ޤڤΥȤΤǤʤʹƥӤʤɤǿ¿ȤƤȻŦƤޤ㤨СԤβʡ˴ؤ빭εϡɤǤ뤪ǯθɽѤ뤳Ȥ貿ڤˤʤФʤʤϤǤ¿οͤоݤȤ뿷ʹˤƤ⡤̤ˤʤߤѸѰդ˻Ȥʤ褦ʬդɬפޤȤ졦λѾȡɤʬ䤹Фθ⡤λȤ䤹ͥ褷Ƥ褦˸뤳ȤФФޤ
ܸ춵Ω줫⡤ŦƤ롥ʲƣԡ (205--06) Ѥ뤬̣ǤϵǽŪʵΰ
ܸ˳줬¿ȤϡܿͤˤȤäƤǤʤܸؽԤˤȤäƤ⡤Ǥ롥
ܿͤˤȤäƤϡޤ륫ʤγΰ̣Ȥ狼ʤơǤͤ¿ʤäƤ롥ܴط˻Ȥ볰¿ĤƤӡѤͤ褦ãФ줿Ȥ⤢롥뵤ۤϤä˸ʤơջ̤˻پ褹ȤƹΩ츦꤬ƤФȤˤʤäθ̤ˤĤƤϤޤ𤵤Ƥʤ
硼ȥƥޥ͡㡼ץࡦХꥢեʤɡʡطѸ줬Ƥ뤬ǤϤμоݼԤǤԤˤϤ狼ˤΡޥ饤ӥƥʤɤΤ褦˿ǰȤΤޤޥʤˤ뤿ˡ줬ΤǤ뤬Υʤɽȸȯκ礭ơΤ狼ͤˤ⤽ΥʸϤ狼ʤޤơܤŬ˸Ȥ߹碌ƺʡˤϡΤäƤͤǤޤä䤬ʤ
ΤˡѸüԤܤζϫ롥ܿͤϥʤθȡѸȻפͤˤϱѸǸ̤ȻפϱѸǤⲿǤʤܤǤ¤Ǥ롥ѸüԤ̤ϤʤΤˡ̤Ȼפ¿ȤäƤȤ顤ޤޤô礭ʤΤǤ롥
ȯΤ狼ˤѸɤΤȤФꡤäܸǸäƤ줿ۤϤ뤫ˤ狼䤹ȡܸΤѸüԤòƤΤǤ롥
ܸݤˡʳϡȤϴϢʤޤäܸǤȤȤǧƤɬפ롥
Τ褦˳͡ȽоݤȤϤʤäƤ뤬ºݤΤȤ¿ܸüԤϳμƤȻѤˤĤƵ졤ܳŪŨ뤷ӽ褦Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤˡˤäƵ褦ȤưˤޤȯŸȤϤʤ⤽ޤǹԤɤϵΤȤƸꡤ뤤ϾöŪʻٻȤŪΤ褦˻פ
ؿܸ춵ŵ١ܸ춵ز ԡ罤۽Ź2005ǯ
ƣ ޡԡˡܸ춵ؤ֡ǡ١ҡ2011ǯ
ε#1615. 礹ߡ2 ([2013-09-28-1]) ǡ16̤˥ƥ줫ή¥μ礿ˡȤơνǤȸɽäȤҤ٤⤷Ȥˡܸˤ륫ʸˤ⡤ۤȤƱȤ롥ʹߡȤ櫓θʤۤȤɤѸˤθüѤϤӤܸä礷褦Ȥߤ1ĤȤơʸ켭νǤܤˤĤȤʤɤǡ֥ʸפֳפ̾˴ޤܤȡ¿λͿҥåȤ롥ϸθΩۤΤɤѽêäȤΤǤ⡤㤨Сإʸ줪⤷ŵ١¼ ס˼1990ǯˤإʸ졦ŵ١ʶ ꤫ʸҡ2006ǯˤñ˸Ĥ롥ܤԤΰտޤϡĤƤΥɤ Mulcaster, Cawdrey, Bullokar, Cockeram ΰտޤȽŤ碌뤳ȤǤ
ΤѤ줿⤦1ĤˡʤɽޤʸΤѤƤ롥ʸξˤϡǯŪʸͿƤ뤳Ȥդ2002--06ǯΩ츦ΡֳװѰֳγưԤ̤ϽҤȤƤǤ줿饤ǤƤ롥ѰΩսƤΰۤ͡ʻͻ並ʸ饤DZǤ롥սˡִˤ䤫ܰ¡ɤŪƤ뤳ȤܻؤƤޤפȤȤꡤϤΤʤƤǤϤ뤬ŪʵؤꤷƤȤǡˤΰġʤȤ櫓 corpus planni ng ȸƤФΡˤȹͤƤ褤֥֡¸Ͽ͡ס֥եɥȡǼš͡ס֥롼ס̺͡פʤɤɽϡĤƤΥɤˤ "education or bringing up of children", "agility and nimbleness" ۵롥äդŪɽȤϰܸ 2।ǥ (binomial idiom) ǤȤ롥
ۤʤ뤬⥫ʸ⡤ΤϤȼʤˤĤƤ礭ѤȤʤġθ줬夹뤫ѤȤʤ뤫֤Ǥ뤳Ȥ⡤Ѥʤ
ХرѸθá (87--88) ˤС16濴̤˥ƥ줫Ѥ줿 inkhorn_term ʤɤγؼԸϡڤ˺ݤƼȤ2Ĥμʤä1ĤϡMulcaster Ƥüȯ Cawdrey, Bullokar, Cockeram ʤɤν켭νǤǤ롥#576. inkhorn term ȱѸ켭 ([2010-11-24-1]) ӡ#609. 켭17 ([2010-12-27-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡ17켭ȤäƤ褤Ȥ뼱Ԥϡμˤäơ͡ؤ褦ȤΤǤ롥
⤦1ĤϡʸϤΤʤǴʰäʤºݤ˻ȤäƤ椯ȤˡǤ롥ϤǤ Chaucer Caxton ʤɤˤŪѤƤˡ ([2011-07-26-1]ε#820. ʩƱפȡˡǤѤ뤳ȤȤʤä㤨СSir Thomas Elyot (1490?--1546) ϡ(1) "circumspectinwhich signifieth as moche as beholding on every parte" Τ褦˴ñܤ, (2) "difficile or harde", "education or bringing up of children", "animate or give courage" Τ褦or ˤ֤Ѥ, (3) "gross and ponderous", "agility and nimbleness" Τ褦 and ˤ֤Ѥ롤ʤɤˡʤθ塤16ν Francis Bacon (1561--1626) Essays ΤʤǡŪˤꤷФФѤͤʤɤʸؼԤޤΧưŤޤ϶ĴҸʤɤʸŪŪˤꡤˡ¿ѤShakespeare "by leave and by permission", "dispersed and scattered", "the head and source"뤤 The Book of Common Prayer ˤ "I pray and beseech you, that we have erred and strayed" ΤȤǤ롥ϤȤ˵˴٤ꡤȤФäȤФЪΥ¥ȤˤʤäˡΧ줫ˤĤƤϡ[2013-04-09-1]ε#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱפȡˡ嵭ϡѸΤӤѸήФϤǤ⤢äΤ
ʤ(2), (3) ³ˤ֤Ȥˡϡ(1) 켭Ǥ¿Ѥ줿#1609. Cawdrey μǡ١ ([2013-09-22-1]) θʸȤơ " or " ޤΡפȡ " and " ޤΡפƤΤϡΤǤ롥
Ϣơand ֤2।ǥ (binomial idiom) ¾⻲ȡ
ݡ롦Х ס رѸθá١ҡʸ˥ӡ1976ǯ
912ˡѤʵץʡǼΤ褦ʼ#1597. star stella ([2013-09-10-1]) ơƱ [r] [l] θؤ˴ؤǤ롥
uca 2013-09-12 02:50:55
ΥȥԥåstellaȱstarδطˤĤƿƤޤ˵˴ȤޤϡʩtitreȱtitleδطǤˤϤɤаޤäΤǤ礦ƥǤtitulusʤΤǡѲϤޤǥեǤѲʤΤǤ礦йǤ
Ѹ title ФƥեϳΤ titre Ǥ롥츻ҤȤȡĸ *tel- (ground, floor, board) ̤롥θ캬βýŷ (reduplication) Ȥ˰ĸ *titel- ƷƤꡤ줬ʸڤƥ titulus (inscription, label) ȯŸȤ롥ʿ̤Ĥ˹ΡפۤɤθáʸˡʸɽפʤɤθǤ˥ƥȯãƤΥƥϡťե title ȤȯŸ줬ѸؼѤ줿Ф14νẢǤ롥űѸƱƥѤ titul ѤƤȤ顤Ѹ tītle ϡθűѸȯãΤȲ᤹ OED Τ褦Ω⤢롥ˤ衤ѸǤϰӤƸ츻Ū [l] ѤƤȤϳΤǤ롥
ȡե titre [r] ϡեˤʤФʤʤȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹեθ츻ŵʤɤˤĤäƤߤ¿ñ [l] > [r] ȵҤΤߤǡʾϤʤäͣ Klein ϡ"OF. title (in French dissimilated into titre)" ۲ (dissimilation) κѤη̤Ǥ뤳ȤŪ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ
Klein ʤ餺Ȥ⡤[r] [l] θؤȤСפĤϰ۲Ǥ롥#1597. star stella ([2013-09-10-1]) ǤȤꡤ۲ϡ̾ƱǶܤƤΤǤꡤΥ۲Ȥˤ롥㤨СեǤŵŪʰ۲ϡcouroir > couloir ϭ murtrir > multrir ʽĤˤΤ褦ʤΤǤ롥ƱζܤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤ĴŪưŤϡˤϤ롥[t] [l] ǤĴ֤ʷԡˤǤۤܰפƤΤǡĴ֤η֤äȤͤ뤫⤷ʤ[r] ȤơեȰۤʤĴ֤ [t] [l] ȤۤɰۤʤʤäϤǤꡤϤĴŪʰŪϤĤˤ۲ΤΤԵ§ñȯβtitle > titre ϡΤʤǤȤ櫓Ե§ñȯΥäȹͤʤ롥
㤬롥ƥ -tulus/-tulum θĸǡ[l] [r] ظؤ⤦1Ĥˡcapitulum > chapitle > chapitre 롥ŪˤϡեˤϱѸ -tle ϻ¾ʤΤǡƯƤΤŪ -tle ͽۤȤˡ-tre бƤȤȤ⤷ʤդ̻ŪʲӶŪʬۤϥեʻˡˤǤꡤǰʤ餳ʾˤɵǤʤ
ȤդäСѸ title 뤤ϥե titre ˤ [l] [r] ʬۤߤƤߤȤ⤷եǤϡ titulaire, titulariser Ǥϡƥ줫Ū [l] ݤäƤ롥Ѹ titular [l] Ǥ롥ѸαѸ titrate ũ, titration, titrable, titrant ϡե̾ titre äư titrer μѤǤꡤ[r] ɽ路Ƥ롥ޤѸ title Ʊ tittle ʾˤˤĤƤƤ22ŸǤꡤ־첻Ĺûκۤˤʤڥʸ ñ ȷε tilde ȸƤФ뤬ϥƥ titulus 2Ҳ3Ҳž (metathesis) ڥȤˤʤäƤ롥äơtitle, tittle, tilde ϡŪˤ̣Ūˤˤ䤫˷ӤĤ3ŸȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ
Klein, Ernest. A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, Dealing with the Origin of Words and Their Sense Development, Thus Illustrating the History of Civilization and Culture. 2 vols. Amsterdam/London/New York: Elsevier, 1966--67. Unabridged, one-volume ed. 1971.
ε#1612. ƻϩɸѸɽء ([2013-09-25-1]) ˤƻϩɸαѸɽλܺˤĤơײ (language_planning) Ȥ³ˤȡΤ褦ϡָĶפ뤤ϡϰθ쵭沽פȤɤΤȤǵ롥Ĺ (62--65) ָĶפꤵ줿1ΤۤȤɤѤ롥
Į̤⤷ꡤ夤ꡤۥƥǥƥӤΥͥĤꤹȡ乭𡤥ƥȡʤɤѤƤ̤ơ˴ؤľǤ롥ƱˡҲŪտĴơ¸ߤѼ褯ΤˤĤơ¿ǥо줷ƤʤȤ˵Ť
Τʤǡ줬ʸη¸ߤꡤ¸ߤƤʤȤָĶפȸƤ֡ʤ顤˥塼衼ǤŹδĤ˱Ѹ졤ꥢ졤ӥȤä줬뤳Ȥ顤ϻ뤳ȤǤ뤷δĶˤѼ̤ơߤѲ뤳ȤǤ롥뤤ϤޤꥹˤؤιִԤδʰ強ǯˤŤˤĤơ塻ǯιθĶˤοĥȱѸθबǧ줿
˥塼衼ޤ¾μԤθ¿ξդ졤ΤΤʤˤȸ뤬¸Τʤθײ⤽Τ褦ʾ˲ΤüԤ˥ե٥åȤʤΤˡθ˥ե٥åȤͿƤⲿˤΩʤ̤̾Τץ졼ȤƻϩɸξΥʥСץ졼ȡݥ饸ƥȤϡ쿶ŪDzΤˤϳʹξǤ롥ȤСǯδֳ֤Фơ塻ǯ˥ӥХ̥ڥХιĮͤХ륻ʤζ˹ߤΩäιԼԤϡӥХˤϥХɽꡤХ륻ʤˤϥ롼˥ɽ뤳Ȥ˶äɽϸĶ˷ײŪʲԤʤ졤ޤӽƤ줬δĶ뤤ԲȤȤƤ롥ƱͤˡɽĶȤ餹ȡ強ǯȬǯδ֤ˡ른γ̤ϡѤäƤޤä˽Ҥ٤٤Ƥεǽˤơӥ줬ե˼ääΤ褦ʡϰθ쵭沽פϡ줬ޤ줿η̤Ǥ졤ײŪʼη̤Ǥ졤ҲŪɤߤȤƻƤ롥˸ˤϡǼƤΤ⤢Сʤʤܤˤ뤳ȤΤʤΤ⤢ꡤθμҲŪʽ٤䤽ξȤ̵طǤϤʤΤ
äơײϴĶƯơθν䤽ξħŪʰҿ˱ƶڤܤΤƤˡߤ¿ۤʤäƤȤϤ¸ΤʤγưΤΤʤγưˡѤۤ롥ȤСѥΥޥֿͤӥDzǼȤäʸȡϥӥ¾˥եǤʤĤޤˤͤФʤʤȤϤˤȤδ֤ˤϡʤǤʸɽˤ̤ǥƥƥɽˤĤƱͤΰջ֤ǧ롥Υǥƥƥ륢ץϤ줾ۤʤäƤ롤ϼʹư顤¾ˡβˤäơǥƥƥƤΤǤ롥
ĤξǤ⡤ϰθ쵭沽ȤǽƱǤ롥˥塼衼ѥ̤˸륢ӥ졤졤إ֥饤ηǼϡʳΥåäƤ롥ޤŪ٥ǤϡθɤळȤΤǤԤåɤǤȤǡŪ˼Ԥʤꤹ롥ƱˡŪ٥ǤϡηǼ̤μΥåȤʤäƤ롥ӥɤʤƤ⡤ʸηϤ̤뤳ȤǤ뤷¸ߤϾħŪڸ̤Ƥ롥ȤС쥹ȥΥɥξˤֹŹפȤˤǼĤΤȤƤ롥ޤɤͤˡ֤ϹŹפƤƱˡɤʤͤˤϡ֤פƤ롥˶Źߤ˲ǷǤƤСΤ褦ʷǼ¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ顤֤̤ͤפȤȤ䡤֤ڳפȤȤ狼롥Τ褦ʳɲ⡤ʸĶν狼롥ȤʬؤβꤹС¿οͤӤȤϤФ餯Τ˷Ǽ줬ɤʤ⤷ʤϽ̱μΨˤ롥Ǥ⡤ʸɽȤγФ졤ʸ¸ߤˤħ롥
μݤƻϩɸαѸɽȤʸ̮ƤϤȡΤ褦˵ǤŪγʹŪǤƻϩɸѸ첽Ȥ̤ܺơܤϷײŪܤθĶѲ褦ȤƤꡤѸοĥ岡ƤȤȤˤʤ롥λ̱ܺ˼ȲꤹȡƻϩɸαѸɽϡŪ٥ȶŪ٥2ĤΥå뤳Ȥˤʤ㤨С"Kanda Sta. West" ϡŪ٥ǤϡѸɽԤˤ줬ֿıפǤ뤳Ȥ롥Ū٥ǤϡѸɽԤˤ⤷ʤԤˤ⡤ܤƻϩɸ˱ѸɽѤ뤳ȤǤȤåܤϱѸν䤽ξħŪʰҿŪǧƤȤå롥
ƻϩɸαѸɽεϡΡϰθ쵭沽פȤʤ٤ǤϤʤ
ָĶפȤɤȴϢơ#278. ˥塼ɤˤޥγ ([2010-01-30-1]) #601. ¿ʪ¿ ([2010-12-19-1]) ǿ줿 "ecology of language" "ecolinguistics" Ȥʬؤ꤬ϰθ쵭沽פϡ#1543. ء ([2013-07-18-1]) ǰ٤1Ĥ
륤ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ
820īʹī34̤ˡֹդɸͤΤѸɽءפꤹ뵭ä衤ܤƻϩɸǤϡܸإܥɽΤѤƤ㤨СֹפɸǤϤ˥ "Kokkai" ȵƤʬ "The National Diet" ȱѸˤʤߤǯ˼»ܤȤԤϡˬҤʤɤɸɤʤȤơֳͤؤʬ䤹˹ͤǤбȤƤ롥
ˡ912īʹī5̤ˡɸޤѸɽפꤹϢǺܤ줿ڸ̾ʤϡѸɽưդϤơع褦ȤƤȤΤȤˤꡤ㤨 "Eki" "Sta.", "Shogakko" "Elem. School", "Yubinkyoku" "Post Office", "Dori" "Ave.", "Kencho" "Pref. Office" ѹ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ưϡ2020ǯԥåŤˤǤάŪʻܺȤͤ롥̳ʤϡܿͤʬ뤫ž꤬𤹤פȤ⤢ä褦ŪʱѸ첽礭Ĭήˤϵդ館ʤȤȤΤ褦ˤ⡤ȤƤαѸפΰϡ뤤ԤˤäƤϡֱѸζҡפζŪʸָ뤳ȤǤ롥
ܤǸ˺Ѥ줿ƻϩɸɽϡǽǤιԥɥ֥åϿޡϿʤɤˤȿǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ߤɽפƤʤȡܸʤˬԤˤؤαžʤɤϡѸɽѤѸ礫ʤʤꡤΤȾбѸؽ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
դƻϩɸѸɽѹȤܺϡʪŪ٤ȤƤϾʤΤ鹭Ϸ褷ƾʤϡդѸȤкѤȤǤϤʤѸ춵顤Ѹۡ¿ʤɤδռŪ˵꤬ʤ٤ʤΤ * *
ε#1610. Viking θ츻 ([2013-09-23-1]) ǡ''Viking' = 깾˽ԡפҲ𤷤깾ȤϡΦϤŤѤΤȤǤ롥깾ŪħܤơܿͤΤ褦ʳ̱²ȯˤĤợҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
ɤ褿ȤȡϤϤ̤꤬ʤ顤ٿȳ˾ФʤäȻפǤ͡⤷ޤ̱²Ȥ˾Ф̱²ȤΤϡɬζˤŤʾʳȤǤʤեɤ٤ĹŤǤ顤ФơĤδ֤ˤ˿ƤߤĤǤ͡ơ˥ѡäȳؾФ礦ܤǤƱ褦ⳤäǤ顤˾äƷơȤΤˤʤäƹӤ餷äꤹ롥ĤޤŤʳʤȤǤϳ̱²ϤǤʤȤǤ͡եꥫȤɤȤΤϡʤΤ̤㤦Ǥ顤Ū˶Ǥʤɡ̱²ˤʤʤ̱²ɬŤʳȤǽΤޤʤäƤФƤȤ⤬ޤ(59--60)
ⳤȤϵϤϰ㤦̳ (the North Sea) ⤢̣ǤⳤǤ롥ˤȤäơǥʥߤΥեɤ깾ηϤäǴŪʵѤˡ٥̳Ǽ˾٥ΤؤФƤä
ǡͤΥ륦̳ͤʽФȡ³ꥹ礪ӥΥޥǥؤοηϩϡǥʥͤθζįȡ褯Ǥ롥Фдߤ˸ȤιǤ롥̳դϿޤײ90ٲžС̳μʹϩƱꤹ뤳ȤǤ

֥ƥʸŪˤŪˤŪǤͳȤƤ褯狼롥Ʊͤˡ֥ƥΦŪʥեŪˤǤͳȤ櫓ŪʥŪˤǤͳǼǤ
졤ԡߥɡʪʸػ --- ٥դС˥դޤǡ١罤ۡ1981ǯ
ɤθˤ츻Ծܡ̤ܤθ¿뤬Ȥ櫓ʸŪ˽פʸξˤϡȯʵоݤȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿Ѹʻˡˤˤ Viking ʥˤϡ츻̤Ǥǽ1ĤǤ롥
ѸǤνФ1807ǯȰճ٤ˤȡθ Old Norse, Old Icelandic vīking-r μѤǤꡤθθ vīk (creek, inlet, bay) + -ingr (one belonging to) ʬϤǤ롥ʤ깾˽ԡ깾˽ꤹԡפۤɤΰ̣Ȥʤ롥1ĤϡViking ̲쵯ȤȤˤʤȡ̲ͤʬΤȤ깾ο͡פȼΤƤȤˤʤꤽϤʤ餬깾˽ꤷƤȤϻ¤줬ΤȤʤۤɤζǥƥƥȷӤĤƤΤ±٤Ư͡ؤ¾ΤȤƤǤǤˤפξˤ̲쵯ǤΤʤʬʤʤ롥
OED κѤƤ Anglo-Frisian ˸츻Ƥ롥ϤݤˡŪ˥פĥ뽬äűѸˤϡפΰ̣Ǥ wīc ʸڤ뤷wīcingsceaða ʳ±١ˤ sǣ-wīcingas ʳ±ˤ⤹Ǥ˸Ƥ롥Old Norse, Old Icelandic Ǥ10Ⱦˤʤʤθ줬ʤΤǡʸŪˤиűѸʤ̤ä Anglo-Frisianˤ˵롥츻˺ݤʸˤϵĤʤФʤʤAnglo-Frisian ǤϡΥ륦ϤȤ̲깾 vīk ΤĤ̾۾¿¤⤦ޤǤʤξ硤Anglo-Frisian ȯθ줬̲˼Ѥ줿ȤڽꤷʤФʤʤμѲϤɤΤ褦ΤȤ̤꤬롥
ʾ塤Ȥƹ (100--03) ˵ä Viking θ츻ʤܸǿο֥ХפȸƤǤ뤬Ǥ롥ѸǤϡsmorgasbord (Ω̲) Ȥäꡤñ buffet Ȥ⤤
͡إˤѤΡ١ҡӡ1968ǯ.
Ѹ˾αѱѼ Robert Cawdrey A Table Alphabeticall (1604) ˤĤơcawdrey γƵˤƤ饤ȤˡùܵҤǽȤ뤿ˡʰץǡ١館ȾмưǥƥȤäƤΤʤΤǺ˥顼뤫⤷ʤȤꤢȤ褦ˤ
ǡ١Ƥ֥饦ǥƥȷˤƱϡɤʤ뤤ϥƥȥե뤽ΤΤˡ
# ǡ١Τɽ
select * from cawdrey
# Ͽ˥ˤäƥ
select INITIAL, count(*) from cawdrey group by INITIAL
# Ͽʸˤäƥ
select LENGTH, count(*) from cawdrey group by LENGTH
# Ͽ츻ˤäƥ
select LANGUAGE, count(*) from cawdrey group by LANGUAGE
# 츻ȸĹδط
select LANGUAGE, avg(LENGTH) from cawdrey group by LANGUAGE
# Ͽˤäƥ
select DEF_WC, count(*) from cawdrey group by DEF_WC
# 츻δط
select LANGUAGE, avg(DEF_WC) from cawdrey group by LANGUAGE
# "(k)" (kind of) ޤ
select LEMMA, DEFINITION from cawdrey where DEFINITION like '%(k)%'
# " or " ޤ
select LEMMA, DEFINITION from cawdrey where DEFINITION like '% or %'
# " and " ޤ
select LEMMA, DEFINITION from cawdrey where DEFINITION like '% and %'
# ɤʶǽäƤ뤫
select substr(DEFINITION, -1, 1), count(*) from cawdrey group by substr(DEFINITION, -1, 1)
ݡ롦Х ס رѸθá١ҡʸ˥ӡ1976ǯ
[2013-05-30-1]ε³ԡ¿Ѥξ֤ǤȤ¤ˤĤơCrystal (409--10) ˸ڤĤΤǡɲä
[M]ultilingualism is the normal human condition. It is a principle which often takes people by surprise. If you have lived your whole life in a monolingual environment, you could easily come to believe that this is the regular way of life around the world, and that people who speak more than one language are the exceptions. Exactly the reverse is the case.
Speaking two or more languages is the natural way of life for three-quarters of the human race. There are no official statistics, but with over 6,000 languages co-existing in fewer than 200 countries . . . it is obvious that an enormous amount of language contact must be taking place; and the inevitable result of languages in contact is multilingualism, which is most commonly found in an individual speaker as bilingualism.
There is no such thing as a totally monolingual country. Even in countries that have a single language used by the majority of the population, such as Britain, the USA, France, and Japan, there exist sizeable groups that use other languages. In the USA, around 10% of the population regularly speak a language other than English. In Britain, over 350 minority languages are in routine use. In Japan, one of the most monolingual of countries, there are substantial groups of Chinese and Korean speakers. In Ghana, Nigeria, and many other African countries that have a single official language, as many as 90% of the population may be regularly using more than one language. (409--10)
Ѥˤ⤢ȤꡤܤǤǤŵŪñȤȤߤʤ뤬Ȥƥ̸䡤īڹ줽¾ΰ̱졤ܼäʤɤμøԤƤ롥ޤΰʤΤΰʤΤȤ䤤ˤäƤϡüԤΤ٤ƤɸܸȤ̣ˤơ2ѼԤȸƤӤ롥ޤӥͥʤɤDZѸʤɤѤ¿ܸüԤܿͤ⡤ܹ⳰¿Ѥ˹Ƥ͡ǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥٤κ졤ܤ¾ϰƱͤ¿ϰǤȤǧϽפ
ܤ¿ѾˤĤƤϡEthnologue Japan Ȥ줿
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
ɸϡε#1606. Ѹ캹̡ѸƸ ([2013-09-19-1])ڤӤĤƤεȤƤϡ#1073. Ѹ줬¾άƤѥ ([2012-04-04-1]) #1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ ([2012-04-03-1]) ǿƤǤ롥Phillipson ϡοǡ̤ ELT طԤѸ춵ΤŪʴޤߤФƤޤ˥ʥ֤Ǥ뤳ȤĥƤ롥ơ̵ΤѸγĥ¥ƤΤȤȽƤ롥μݤΰѤ5ۤɼ
. . . the majority of those working in the ELT field tend to confine themselves, by choice and training, to linguistic, literary, or pedagogical matters. ELT is however an international activity with political, economic, military, and cultural implications and ramifications. (8)
I would argue that ELT professionalism excludes broader societal issues, the prerequisites and consequences of ELT activity, from its professional purview. (48)
The belief that ELT is non-political serves to disconnect culture from structure. It assumes that educational concerns can be divorced from social, political, and economic realities. It exonerates the experts who hold the belief from concerning themselves with these dimensions. It encourages a technical approach to ELT, divorced even from wider educational issues. It permits the English language to be exported as a standard product without the requirements of the local market being considered except in a superficial way. (67)
There is explicit recognition of the commercial relevance of English, though their view of the spread of English is remarkably ahistorical. 'The interest of the British and American peoples in spreading their language abroad has never been narrowly political or chauvinistic. A great deal of the expansion that has already occurred has been almost accidental; but many natural forces and inducements have been at work' ([The Drogheda Report: 4). One hopes that this is self-deception rather than more sinister imperialist rhetoric. (148)
These declarations [from Center for Applied Linguistics 1959] are clear examples of the myth of non-political ELT. They show little awareness of the contribution of professionalism to the constitution and affirmation of hegemonic ideas. The experts are probably intuitively aware that central professional practices, procedures, and norms represent a paradigm that is being exported, directly or indirectly, to periphery-English countries, yet this is not regarded as educational or cultural imperialism, let alone political in any sense. Their narrow interpretation of this implicitly identifies the 'political' as the discourse of professional politicians or diplomats. They are also inconsistent, since they can immediately identify the political motivations of communist textbooks, yet want their own to project Western values. Their protestations ring somewhat hollow, when their work is explicitly intended to benefit the State they represent. (165)
ѸȽʸǤϡ첽פȤ "servitude of the mind" ʤɤζɽФи뤬ɽϾΤ褦٤ؤƤΤ
Phillipson εˡŪƱդ롥Ѹ춵˷ȤäƤФǤʤѸ˶顦˷ȤäƤԤȤƤ⡤εˤϿƶᴶФ롥ȤΤϡʤȤ櫓ҲŪ¦̤ܤơ˱ѸȯãƤŪطʤ˸ƤΤѸˤΤʤ٤ŪʻŻä˶ʹߤαѸĹäѤθ쳰ŪװʤŪʤΤޤҲŪװˤΤǤ뤳ȤϡѸˤȽŪ˳ؤּԤˤȤäƤ餫ʤΤ줬̤˹ΤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷嵭Υʥ֤ΤȤ顤Ƥ椯ˤϡѸ˶餬ͭȹͤ롥#24. ʤѸˤؤ֤ ([2009-05-22-1]) εǡѸˤؤ٤Сˤ˴ŤѸѤ뤳ȤǤä˱ѸΩˤԤˤɬסˡפȵȤǤ롥
Phillipson, Robert. Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Phillipson θɤоݤθϤäѤѸǤ롥Ѹ˴ؤƤϡlinguistic_imperialism γƵDz٤ˤȤäɤ껲ȤꤷʸϤۤ¿櫓ǤϤʤäܳŪʵɤǤߤ褦ȻפβƤΤ˲٤äĹ֤Υե饤ȤѤɤ
ޤϡ"English linguistic imperialism" ȤɤPhillipson 긫Ƥߤ褦
A working definition of English linguistic imperialism is that the dominance of English is asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages. Here structural refers broadly to material properties (for example, institutions, financial allocations) and cultural to immaterial or ideological properties (for example, attitudes, pedagogic principles). (47)
³ơ⤦1ĤθȤʤ복ǰ "linguicism" ˤĤƤͿƤ롥
English linguistic imperialism is one example of linguicism, which is defined as 'ideologies, structures, and practices which are used to legitimate, effectuate, and reproduce an unequal division of power and resources (both material and immaterial) between groups which are defined on the basis of language' . . . . (47)
Ϣɽ "English linguistic hegemony" ȤΤ⤢롥
English linguistic hegemony can be understood as referring to the explicit and implicit values, beliefs, purposes, and activities which characterize the ELT profession and which contribute to the maintenance of English as a dominant language. . . . The hegemonic ideas associated with ELT are not simply a crude 'deliberate manipulation' but a much more complex and diverse set of personal and institutional norms and experienced 'meanings and values' . . . . (73)
ʾδطޤȤȡֱѸפϡָ캹̡פ1ǤꡤŪˤˤֱѸƸפȤǸƤ롤ɽǤ롥
Phillipson ε줹ĥϡʲ2ɤ(1) κǸΰѤˤ⼨褦ˡѸѸƸϡƤ濴ȤѸüϤˤŪΤߤʤ餺üȯơǤۤ夲졤ƤǤ߹礦ηϤˤäƻ٤Ƥ뤳ȡ(2) αѸ춵դʤ ELT ˤ뿦ȿͤϡѸ춵Ū¦̤ˤޤ̵ΤǤ뤳ȡ
(1) μǤˤĤƤϡ#1073. Ѹ줬¾άƤѥ ([2012-04-04-1]) ¼Ѥװͤˤʤ(2) ˤĤƤϡ#1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ ([2012-04-03-1]) εˤ3ΰѡ#1194. ¼ɤαѸѤȱѸˡ ([2012-08-03-1]) εˤ5ΰѤƱݤǤ롥
Phillipson ¼ޤѸŸԤϡѸ˸줹͡λͼ̤ϤͤȽ롥ϱѸطԤˤȤäƷİ٤ոȡϹͤƤ롥
Phillipson, Robert. Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
¼ ɡرѸϤɤʸ줫ѸμҲŪ١Ʋ1989ǯ
ε#1603. ưʪȤɽñפǽ˻Ŧ͡ ([2013-09-16-1]) ǡWallis 踫ˤĤƳǧWallis θϤƸŪǤꡤ䤿ˤ´ʤ긫¿㤨С줿褦ˡWallis ϱʸˡƥʸˡˤϤ뤳Ȥ⤤ιͤϼνʸˤ褯ɽƤʰʲƥ츶ʸƲǤꡤѸʸ Crystal ˡ
. . . omnes enim ad Latinae linguae normam hanc nostram Anglicanam nimium exigentes (quo etiam error laborant fere omnes in aliis modernis linguis tradendis) multa inutilia [xxxvi] praecepta de Nominum Casibus, Generibus, et declinationibus, de Nominum item et Verborum Regimine, aliisque similibus tradiderunt, quae a lingua nostra sunt prorsus aliena, adeoque confusionem potius et obscuritatem pariunt, quam explicationi inserviunt. (168)
They all forced English too rigidly into the mould of Latin (a mistake which nearly everyone makes in descriptions of other modern languages too), giving many useless rules about the cases, genders and declensions of nouns, the tenses, moods and conjugations of verbs, the government of nouns and verbs, and other things of that kind, which have no bearing on our language, and which confuse and obscure matters instead of elucidating them. (78)
⤦1ĶäΤϡʸˡؤְյˤĤƤν긫Ǥ롥Ʊʸˤ뤬21κȤʤäƤѤʡֱѸؽδפͥ300ǯʾ˼ĥƤ
Hujusce autem linguae Grammaticam institutionem ideo aggressus sum, quod ipsius cognitionem videam ab exteris non paucis maxime desideratam . . . . omnigenae literaturae scripta, passim exstant Anglicano idiomate edita: adeo ut sine fastu discere liceat, vix quicquam solidioris eruditionis esse, quod non sit nunc dierum etiam in ipsa lingua Anglicana saltem mediocriter traditum; et multa quidem quotidie scripta prodeunt desideratissima. (166--67)
I have undertaken to write a grammar of this language [English] because there is clearly a great demand for it from foreigners, who want to be able to understand the various important works which are written in our tongue. . . . [A]ll kinds of literature are widely available in English editions, and, without boasting, it can be said that there is scarcely any worthwhile body of knowledge which has not been recorded today, adequately at least, in the English language. (106)
⡤Wallis θ춵ԤȤƤ״Ⱥǽΰ̤ΤʸϤǤ롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
The English Grammar / Ben Jonson; with explanatory remarks by Kotaro Ishibashi, Of the Orthographie and Congruitie of the Britan Tongue / Alexander Hume; with explanatory remarks by Tokuji Kusakabe, and Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae / John Wallis; with explanatory remarks by Shoichi Watanabe. A Reprint Series of Books Relating to the English Language. Vol. 3. Tokyo: Nan'un Do, 1968.
ε#1603. ưʪȤɽñפǽ˻Ŧ͡ ([2013-09-16-1]) ǡ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) ԥɤϻϼԤ17οؼԡʸˡ John Wallis äȤˤĤˤк۰ƤäҥȤ Wallis Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae ƲǤäƤߤȤ Wallis -> Scott -> Bradley ȹޤäƤä餷
βͿƤˤȡBradley Scott ɾˤϰդä٤ȤȤp. 362, note 20ˡ
δѻ Bradley 'acute remark' ȤۤƤ뤬ѸŪˤʤWamba θ Scott 碌ƤΤǤ뤬ϻŪˤ1᤹ۤˤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥cf. A. C. Baugh, A History of the English Language, p. 223 (note 1).
ΤȤäƤ뤫뤿ˤϡȤƤ Baugh ȡBradley ɬפ롥줾μǤǤбսäƤߤ
Readers of Ivanhoe will remember the acute remark which Scott puts into the mouth of Wamba the jester, that while the living animals---ox, sheep, calf, swine, deer---continued to bear their native names, the flesh of those animals as used for food was denoted by French words, beef, mutton, veal, pork, bacon, venison. The point of the thing is, of course, that 'Saxon' serf had the care of the animals when alive, but when killed they were eaten by his 'French' superiors. (Baugh and Cable 62--63)
The well-known passage in Scott's Ivanhoe in which this distinction is entertainingly introduced into a conversation between Wamba and Gurth (chap. 1) is open to criticism only because the episode occurs about a century too early. Beef is first found in English at about 1300. (Bradley 181, fn. 25)
Ivanhoe 12ΥɤȤ뵳ʪǤ롥̩˸ŪˤС12ˤϤޤ beef ϱñȤƵϿƤ餺ΥԥɤϻǤ롤ȤŦΤ OED MED ˤȡ beef νФ1300ǯΤȤǤꡤλȥ줬Ƥ롥
The English Grammar / Ben Jonson; with explanatory remarks by Kotaro Ishibashi, Of the Orthographie and Congruitie of the Britan Tongue / Alexander Hume; with explanatory remarks by Tokuji Kusakabe, and Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae / John Wallis; with explanatory remarks by Shoichi Watanabe. A Reprint Series of Books Relating to the English Language. Vol. 3. Tokyo: Nan'un Do, 1968.
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Ѹ˾ͭ̾ʡ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) νŵˤĤˤ#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1]) εФơк۰鵮ŤʥȤʤ꤬ȤޤˡƤưʪϸαѸԤǤΥޥͤΤȤФˤʤäȤ W. Scott Ivanhoe ˰Ѥ졤ޤ H. Bradley The Making of Englishp.88ˤˤڤͭ̾ˤʤޤФ϶餯 J. Wallis Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae 裴ǡ1674ǯˤνʸȤƤ褦Ǥ͡
ȤȤǡWallis 1674ǯǤȤƤߤPrefatio ʽʸˤˡθڲսĤ뤳ȤǤ
Nec quidem temerè contigisse puto, quod Animalia viva, nominibus Germanicæ originis vocemus, quorum tamen Carnem in cibum paratam, originis Gallicæ nominibus appellamus, putà, Bovem, Vaccam, Vitulum, Ovem, Porcum, Aprum, Feram, &c, an Ox, a Cow, a Calf, a Sheep, a Hog, a Boar, a Deer, &c; sed Carnem Bubulam, Vitulinam, Ovinam, Porcinam, Aprugnam, Ferinam; Beef, Veal, Mutton, Pork, Brawn, Venison, &c . . . . (Wallis, Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae)
켣 (17) ƱβˤֱѸ˾ҾƤλŦǡʸ帽ޤǹ졤ꥹ˾ΰˤĤƤΡʷˤƼ˭ʥԥɤȤͭ̾ǤפȤäޤǤפ1699ǯ5Ǥ¾ץȤ1765ǯ6Ǥ˴ŤƲǤDzܤƤβɬɤǤ (p. 352)
ơWallis ˤĤƤϡ#451. shall will λȤʬ˴ؤ The Wallis Rules ([2010-07-22-1]) Ƿڤ줿ˤʤΤǡ17˳Ūͤȡ路ʸˡħñ˾Ҳ𤷤褦John Wallis (1616--1703) ϡ16Ф Cambridge ؤˤǤ˥ƥ졤ꥷ졤إ֥饤줬褯Ǥ1649ǯˤ Oxford ؤδؤζȤʤꡤʬ߽ФꡤʣǿδŪʤɡ¿ʱƶͿذʳνˤ褯̤ƤꡤˤĴؤʬΤǤ롥ޤ1662ǯ Charles II ˤǧĤ줿 The Royal Society ߥСǤ⤢ä
Wallis ͡ʬˤǽϡ˴ؤƤϡGrammatica Linguae Anglicanae (Oxford: Leon. Lichfield, 1653) ҤȤƸ줿ʸˡ˾塤𤲤Ǥꡤ1653ǯνǰʸ塤βǤ˽Ф뤳ȤȤʤä16ʸ塤Wallis ޤǤαʸˡϡͤ˱ѸȤŪ뤤ϥƥʸˡγؽδäȤƤ䤬ǻǤꡤȯۤκˤϾ˥ƥʸˡäWallis 踫äơʸˡҤΤ˥ƥʸˡϤդ路ʤȤǧäƤѸʬŪʤȥƥŪʤȤΤ˶̤ƤΤǤ롥
αʸˡ˱ƶͿܤ⾯ʤʤ1ϤĴεҤϡ岻ؤλȤäƤ褤ʸΤ˶̤ΤΤδѻҤŰ٤ϡ H. C. Wyld ι⤤ɾޤʸˡ̤Ǥ⡤Ҥ shall will λȤʬΤۤˤ⡤ưʬࡤ䡤ط̾ˡʤʻ˰Ĺ롥ߤ˻ޤǸԤĤƤޤʤħ (sound symbolism) ˺ǽ˼ȤΤ⡤Wallis ä
餷ƥǽ줿ʸˡʤΤǸŵɤˤϼ궯ĩ路Ƥߤ
ʸ嵭2013/10/26(Sat)Wallis ˤĤơJean-Pierre Niceron (Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des hommes illustres dans la république des lettres. Vol. 43. Genève: Slatkine Reprints, 1971. 247--51.) ȡ
켣 ԡˡʸˡI١ұѸʸꡡ4ҡ2010ǯ
The English Grammar / Ben Jonson; with explanatory remarks by Kotaro Ishibashi, Of the Orthographie and Congruitie of the Britan Tongue / Alexander Hume; with explanatory remarks by Tokuji Kusakabe, and Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae / John Wallis; with explanatory remarks by Shoichi Watanabe. A Reprint Series of Books Relating to the English Language. Vol. 3. Tokyo: Nan'un Do, 1968.
#1597. star stella ([2013-09-10-1]) star νˤƱ star Ȱ캬Ʊñ췲
ޥϤϡ star ĤäƤˤʤĸĤ *stēr-lā- ͳ褹ƥ stella ϡstellar, stellate, constellation ʤɤäȤϴҤΤȤǤ롥¾ˤ⡤stellion ˤĥȥˡstellify ʡοäʤɤǿͤѤˤʤɤ롥ĸδ *əster- ͳ褹륮ꥷ astēr 䤽 astron ϡaster, asteriated, asterisk, asterism, asteroid, astral, astro- (ex. astrology, astronomer, astronomy); astraphobia, disaster ʤɤѸäڥ륷 sitareh (star) ϡͭ̾ Esther Ѥ줿
disaster طƤΤ˶̣Ф뤫⤷ʤѤǤϡαԤͤα̿˷ŪʱƶڤܤΤȹͤƤ⤿餹ˤʤȤĤޤ dis- (away from) + aster (star) ΤȤͤϺΤȿ줿ΤǤ롥
ܥ֥Ǥ¾Ρָ캬ͥåȥץȤƤϡ#695. 캬 fer ([2011-03-23-1]), #1043. mind θ캬ͥåȥ ([2012-03-05-1]), #1124. Ϥ礦ͤ⸬ʿʹ֡ ([2012-05-25-1])#1557. mickle, much θ캬ͥåȥ ([2013-08-01-1]) ȡ
Watkins, Calvert, ed. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. 2nd Rev. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
ʡ ԡرѸ츻ŵ١ܿ饤֡1992ǯ
硼 T. åץ ƻ ϻ إåץѸ츻ŵ١罤ۡ2009ǯ
ѸܸĴΰƱˤĤƤϡɤβؤζʽǤܽҤƤ뤬첻Ĵݤΰ֤ˤĤƤ첻շŪ˼ΤǤ狼䤹 (2) ꡤû첻Ĺ첻οޤǺܤ롥

嵭첻Ĵ֤Ϥ줾θɸѼ˴ŤƤ뤬ˤơ۲⤢СĿͺ⤢롥οޤߤСܸȤѸؽԤȯ塤Ū˵Ĥ٤¿ȤǤܸ [] Ϥ⤤ΤǡȤ˱Ѹ [e] ǤϤʤ [ɪ] ˶Ťȡȯ [ʌ] ϡƳܸ [] ˶ᤤȡܸ [] [] κŪʤѸбȤߤʤƤ [uː] [ʊ] [ɔː] κŪ礭ȡ֥ʡˡפȲ [ɑː], [ɑ], [ɒ] ϡѸǤ˱ޤäƤ뤳ȡ
ơѸˤϼüĴ첻¿⤬ȤȤݤܸ첻ĴϡФˤޤʬۤƤ褦ܤܤȤΤ˸ޤưˡ֥פȯǤƤޤ
οޤĴ֤ѤŪʤΤȤȤ館ΤϸǤ롥100ǯۤɤδ֤αѸˤĴ֤ѲߤƤߤȡճѲ礭Bauer (121) ˤȡRP ȤäƤߤƤ⡤[uː] ĴϾοޤɽ蘆⸲ˤʤäƤƤȤ[ʌ] ˤĤƤ⡤餫岽ʤǤƤ뤷[æ] ޤ㴳ǤĴηڵ롥ѲϾ˿ʹԤƤ뤿ʤȤǤϤ뤬ʤɤĴޤϡ§Ȥ¿ʤȤ٤Ĵɽ魯ΤȹͤƤƤ褤
ˮɧإե벻ء١ҤĤ˼2007ǯ
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
Ѳˤװǥ벽ߤ͡ˤʤƤŤߤθޤƤ줿ΤȤơSamuels Υǥ (141) Ҳ𤷤ɮԤϡΥǥΤäȤ̤Τ褵ˡäΤǤ롥

η (system) ϡʸˡ (grammar) (phonology) (lexis) 3礫ΩäƤꡤ줾ϸߤ˶ӤĤƤ롥 ¤ؤǤȤΡ"système où tout se tient" Ǥ롥ηϤϡ3ηˤ꤬äȤޤƤΤΡ̤̩Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤηϤϡפȤƸ¤߽Фȯ (spoken chain) Ȥ¤θѤˤꡤ켫ȤƤˤ餵Ƥ롥ȯäϤޤ̤θη (extrasystemic) ΰϤΰϤŪʸˡäؤηϤƤ롥ˡʸˤΤ褦ʼθ쳰Ū (extralinguistic) װˤꡤäŪˤǤϤ뤬θηϤ˱ƶڤܤ
Samuels ξοޤϡˤ餢οޤǤϤ뤬Ѳˤ1ĤλȤ٤ǥƤ롥ˤϡʸˡꤵƤ component faculty ȤǰޤޤƤ뤷塼 langue parole system spoken chain ȤɽƤ롥ƱߤǺѤƤ intrasystemic װȳǺѤƤ extrasystemic װȤޤȿǤƤ뤷ʾΤ٤Ƥޤ intralinguistic ʼȡʳ extralinguistic ʼȤ̤Ƥ롥
οޤϡdynamic ǤϤ뤬 synchronic Ǥ롥diachronic ʼä褦ȤСοޤ̤ľ˿Ӥ塼֤Τ褦ʥˤʤSamuels ̤ޤƧ߹ळȤϤƤʤ
ѲθװˤĤƤܥ֥ǤƤȤ櫓ŪȤƼ夲ؤΥĥäƤ
#442. Ѳθ ([2010-07-13-1])
#1476. Fennell ˤѲθ ([2013-05-12-1])
#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1])
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1])
#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
8Ⱦ˥ȥꥢ˽ФƤα˽ Qantas Ѥġɥˡϩε˹ȤƤꡤ¤˲Ŭʥե饤ȤäܸǤϡ֥פȸƤӽ路Ƥ뤬 [ˈkwɑntəs] ȯʹQ ʸбˡҲ [k] ǤϤʤ [kw] ʤΤ
Qantas "Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services" Ƭ (acronym) Ǥ롥1920ǯ̤̾ꥪȥꥢΥʹҶҤȤߤ줿47ǯ˹IJ졤ߤǤͭιŪʹҶҤǤ롥϶ȤƤ̵ΤȤʻΤˤ뤬ˡ̤Ǥɾ⤤
Ѹ줢뤤ϱѸäˤĹΤʤǤϡ̾ <q> ñȤѤ뤳ȤϤʤ<qu> ɬľ <u> ȼŪˤϡűѸ <cw> ֤ƤΤѸǥեμ̻˽ä <qu> ֤褦ˤʤäΤ<q> θ˸§Ȥ <u> ³ȤȤϡͤȤС<u> ξ̤ϥǤפȤȤˤʤ롥<u> ³Ȥ100%ͽۤǤΤǡ<u> ϤʤƤƱȤȤˤʤ뤫ǽ塤<q> θ <u> פȤȤˤʤΤ<qu> Ϣ³˴Ƥޤäܤˤ <q> ñȤ̯˸롥ֻ٥Ǥ⡤; (redundancy) ѤƤڤ
äȤ⡤Ƭ졤ӥ줫μѸʤɡ˱ѸƱȤϤߤʤʤ췲Ǥϡ<q> θ <u> ³ʤȤ¿ɽ Qantas ֻȤƤ <q> ñȤѤƤ뤬ȯȤƤñȤ [k] ǤϤʤ [kw] Ƥ롥Qatar [ˈkæːtɑː], qibla(h) [ˈkɪblə], Qing [ʧɪŋ], ޤ <u> ³Τ [kw] ʤ Quran [kɔːˈrɑːn] ⻲ȡ
ʤ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1]) Ǹ褦ˡ<q> ϱѸ <z> ˼ǺǤ٤㤤ե٥åȤʸǤ<z> ˤĤƤ z γƵȡˡܡɤQWERTYǤ⡤̾Ȥꡤ<Q> ϺξؤΤФǤʤФʤʤԤǤ롥QWERTY ΤƬǤꡤ<q> θ <w> ³ [w] ȯޤǤ롥
Ѹˤϡ[2010-08-28-1][2011-06-05-1]ǰ褦ˡȯɤ줬¿Ʊͤ˶֤ɤˤǡ#321. controversy over controversy ([2010-03-14-1]) #366. Caribbean ֻȯ ([2010-04-28-1]) ʤɤ˸褦ˡɤ餬ȯäƵȯŸ뤳Ȥ餢롥ϡĤƥȥꥢˤޤȯŸIJ˻ޤ줿 kilometer ζ֤Ҳ𤹤롥
1972ǯȥꥢǤ23ǯ֤ϫƯޤͳݼäμƳäĤ˴ƤʤϫƯޤϡǤλƳ褤Ȥ櫓ۥåȥäȥʳصäȤδ֤μθȤ⤪⤷ʳصѡѸˤμԤǤ륫ä kilómetre ȤȯְäƤȤơųݤΤǤ롥۩֥ȥꥢϥȥˡȺѤʹǤꡤää kilómetre ʤɤȤȯ³ƤȤΤѤȤǤ롥ϡäФƤ kílometre Ű줹褦ĤäФƤ饸ƥӤ̤ƹ̱ȯ뤳ȤĤ
ޤƤϡۥåȥäۤäƤϤʤϤĤƥꥷءůؤƤؼԤǤ롥ŰŪʸĴȿѸ metre ϥꥷ metron ̤Ȥ츻α̤줬˥եαƶ뤳ȤˤʤäȤŪطʡΰ֤ penult ˴ޤޤ첻Ĺ첻û첻ˤäƷޤȤ§θǺǽ˥ȥˡѤڥ륷Υʼ metre ΤĤˤϤޤä antepenult ˶֤ĥȯüۥåȥαƤ⡤¿ʬŪʿ̤ޤΤǤꡤŪʴϤ̣ۤͭȤϻפʤ꤬Ѥ줿Ȳ᤹٤ۥåȥϡ츫ȸŪʤμĥΤ顤ʸ¿ѶŪ˿䤷ʤȤäơŪʼĥ˺Ƥʤ֥ȥꥢξôҶȤäƤпϤޤޤǤ롥ȤХꥢ͡ꥷ͡⡼ͤʤɤϤǥȤĤȤФˤϡ黰ܤ첻˥Ȥ֤Ƥ (١p. 89ˡ
ơϡAustralian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) ȡˤϥꥹ BBC ȯŸɤϡäΤ褦 kilómetre ˽ФƤƤ뤬ˤϲʳصä kílometre ȤȽǤ˻äʤ϶֤ˤϾä櫓˥˴ޤˤ餱뤳Ȥˤʤä͡ϡ첻Ĺû˰ä "Short or long---it is still a kilometre." ޤäȤΤȤǤ롥
ǤϡºݤΤȤkilometre ζθϤɤʤΤLPD ˤȡΤ褦ʵҤ Preference polls η̤Ƥ롥
On the analogy of ˈcentiˌmetre, ˈmilliˌmetre, it is clear that the stressing ˈkiloˌmetre is logical and might be expected to predominate. Nevertheless, it does not. Preference polls, British English: -ˈlɒm- 63%, ˈkɪl- 37%; American English: -ˈlɑːm- 84%, ˈkɪl- 16% -ˈlɒm- 57%.

ޤ kílometre ȤݼŪԤ⤤뤬ƤȤ˥ۥåȥ÷ kilómetre ΤۤͥȤȤˤʤ롥ȯ barómetre, speedóometre, thermómetre ʤɤȹͤ롥νФ1810ǯAmE ǤϤΤ夫 kilómetre ϿƤꡤޤˤĹȯȤäƤ褤
إȥꥢ A to Z١Ҵ饤֥ӡ1993ǯ
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
820դǡѤʵץʡˤƼΤ褦ʼΤǡͤƤߤ
piano 2013-08-20 09:25:05
Online Etymology DictionarystarĴ٤ޤȡƥ"stella" ȺǸλҲ"l"ˤʤäƤޤ"r""l"ȤҲѲϤФе뤳ȤʤΤǤ礦Ȥ줷Ǥ
[r] [l] ñǤθؤˤĤƤϡ#72. /r/ /l/ ϴְ㤨!? ([2009-07-09-1]) ǸȤꡤĤλ㤬ǧ롥۲ (dissimilation) ȸƤФ벻ŵǤ롥αѸ star ȥƥ stella Ȥбϡ[r] [l] ΰ۲Ȥ̵ط#90. taper paper ([2009-07-26-1]) #259. phonaesthesia ۲ ([2010-01-11-1]) Ǥ줿۲ [r] [l] ñǷ֤˵䤹Ĥޤꡤ۲ϸġñˤñȯΤǤȤϤưǤʤ櫓ǤϤʤstar 䤽ΰƱθߤƤߤȡäήη֤ϳǧʤΤǡޤޤθ˺Ѥ۲ȤߤʤΤˤ̵롥Ǥϡstar stella λҲбϡۤˤɤΤ褦Τ
ޤ츻Ʊη֤äȤߤƤߤ褦ĸǤ *ster- (star) ƷƤ롥Ťʳ *əster- ȯŸȤ졤ˤ Akkadian Ištal Venus ˤμѸȤޥĸȤƤ *sternōn Ʒ졤ޥǤ OE steorra, Du. ster, OHG sterno/sterro, G Stern, ON stjarna, Goth. staírnō ʤɤʸڤ롥λҲ r Ǥ롥ʤn Ĥ֤ϡѸǤ ON stjarna ˱ƶ stern Ȥ֤ȤǤޤʤǧ롥ޥϤǤ⡤Gk astḗr, Welsh seren, Skt stár, Hitt. haster-, Toch. A śreǹ (nom.pl.) ȸ¤ r 롥
ȤޥϤǤ Latin stella ޤᡤλҲ l бƤ뤫뤤æǤ롥Υƥϡ¯ƥ *stēla ͳơF étoile, It. stella, Rum. stea ʤɤؤȯã̯ͣϡr l ξޤ Sp. estrella ǡ Gk āstron Ѥ L astrum ȤκƤ롥
ɤΤȤѸ star 䤽¾ۤȤɤƱˤߤ r ŪʻҲʤΤǤäơƥ stella ˴ޤޤ l 㳰ŪȤȤˤʤ롥Ǥϡƥ㳰ŪʻҲ l ϤˤΤOED star, n.1 θ츻ˤСL stella ʸڤʤ *ster-la ȯŸΤǤϤʤȤβꤵ -la ˤĤ OED ͿƤʤSkeat θ츻ŵŦ̤ꡤؾ (diminutive) ȹͤƤ褤cf. ե soleil ۡˤ캬ܻؾθǤ뤳Ȥӡˡ la ľΰ֤ˤơ캬 r l Ʊʰ۲ǤϤʤˤ졤ll 褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤPartridge θ츻ŵǤϡIE *ster- ΰ۷Ȥ *stel- ƷƤ뤳ȤȤդäƤ
ƥ stella ˴ŤѸؤμѸˤϡͭ̾ Stella Τۤconstellation, stellar, stellate ʤɤ롥ѹαˤäˤʤäӡ Stella Artois ȤƳʤ
Skeat, Walter William, ed. An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. 4th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. 1st ed. 1879--82. 2nd ed. 1883.
Skeat, Walter William, ed. A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. New ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. 1st ed. 1882.
Partridge, Eric Honeywood. Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. 4th ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966. 1st ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; New York: Macmillan, 1958.
ɸϱѸ "polarization hypothesis" ȸƤФ롥ǽΤäΤǤ롥ε#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ ([2013-08-16-1]) ӡ#1569. óȻSؤȽ (2) ([2013-08-13-1]) ʤɤǸѲοʹԥѥˤĤƵƤSʬˤβϿ⤤
ʬˤβϡʸˡ䤽˴Ť콬ȤߤߤѲοʹԤ˴ؤ벾Ǥ롥ˤȡʸˡ§ˤ絬§ (major rule) Ⱦ§ (minor rule) ̤Ȥ絬§ϡƤʬιܤˤĤŬѤ뵬§Ǥꡤ㳰ŪʹܡŵŪˤϸùܡˤˤ㳰ǤȤĤƤꡤ̤˽롥§ϡΰĤ줿ܤˤΤŬѤ뵬§Ǥꡤʳ¿ιܤˤŬѤʤξԤκۤΩƸС絬§ˤϸ§ȤŬѤ뤬ŬѤʤ㳰ꡤ§ˤϸ§ȤŬѤʤŬѤ㳰롤ȤȤˤʤ롥ϡ㳰ܤοʤȤǤ롥ʬˤβ⤬ͽۤΤϡε§㳰ܤξʤ絬§§Τ줫Ǥꡤ㳰ܤ¿浬§פϤꤨʤȤȤδ⡤㳰Τޤ¿浬§ʤϤ䵬§ȸƤ٤ʤ⤷ʤˤΨŪǤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥꡤʬˤβ˹Ϥ롥
ʬˤβȸѲȤδطΤˡŪ do ( do-periphrasis ) ˤ깽¤ȯã褦#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1]) ۤεǿ줿űѸѸǤ깽ʸˤưθ not ʤɤ꼭֤ǺѤ꼭֡neg-placementˤѸ do ˤ깽¤ȯãƤdo ؤΰܹԤβˤĤƤ褯ΤƤΤϡknow, doubt, care ʤɾưϤΰܹԤФƺǸޤI know not ʤɤ餳ƤȤǤ롥
ơűѸѸǤ꼭֤絬§äѸǤ do ֤졤ư㳰ȤƤľ§ؤѤädo δߤСȯãϤ16ˤϡư줬Ϳˤʤ§ä17ȾˤϾ㳰絬§ؤѤä꼭֤ο do ȯãդȡʳ®ѲʵաSȤʤ롥

óȻʬˤβϡνн꤬ޤǰۤʤˤ⤫餺SȤǰפȤΤ⤷
碌ơʬˤβδϢʸȤƱĤΡʬˤβȽưdoȯãΰ¦̡פɤĤϡʬˤβαѤȤ̻ŪݤȰ֤ŤƤ롥
إեѸˡ١ҤĤ˼1996ǯ111--12ǡ
ѡʬˤβȽưdoȯãΰ¦̡סThe Northern Review ̳ƻءˡ١121984ǯ47--57ǡ
96ʶˤīʹī15̤ˡ־ä椯פꤹ뵭ä (Manchu) ϡ˽ޤ²īˤϽ²ȸƤФ줿ˤθǤꡤ173ˤ錄äΦۤīθѸȤƱɤǤʰʲīϿޤȡˡߡ²1Ͱʾ夤Ⱦʬǫʤ˽椷Ƥ뤬ؤθ (language_shift) 2009ǯUNESCO ˤǴ˻ꤵ줿Ethnologue Manchu Ȥȡ "Nearly extinct" ȸѤƤ롥 *

ˤĤƤϡ#1548. 륿² ([2013-07-23-1]) εǾ줿ˤʤӸŪˤϥ륿²ĥɤ1ʬव롥ʸɤʸηϤ륿²ħŪ첻Ĵ¤ۤ첻ؤˤäȽ̤췲θäĤΤðۤǤ롥ʤߤ̤ۤɶᤤܸ (Xibe or Sibo) ϡŪ˸ΩƤꡤť뼫ˤƤޤ3ͤۤɤüԤʤƤ롥
ơ־ä椯פεǤϡ²ʸθԤ̱²ʸξüɤѾ뤿ˡ춵٤¤ɬפ뤳ȤʤƤ롥Ȥ櫓ɤǤ븦Ԥΰ̳Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤫Ƥ롥īθʸֻ̱ǽƤ뤬ɤߤʤ븦ԤϹ10ͤۤɤʤޤīȯϤȤǫԤƶ¿θʸݴɤƤ뤬ŪͳǥΤưפǤʤȤƬˤȤ
οˤϡŪװؤäƤ롥²ϡ1911ǯοɰ̿ˤīͤ1949ǯοΩ¾ξ̱²ȤϰۤʤꡤǧƤʤä1980ǯ˼ǧϤκˤϤǤüԤιȴ²ؤƱʤǤޤäƤ
Τ褦ʾˤˤޤȤ롥UNESCO ǴηپĤ餷ȤƤ⡤͡ΰջפȤƤ⡤Ūˤϼοˤϸ¤꤬롥Τʤۻؤ˨ⶵ⤷ƤȤꡤˤΡַѾ⸦⡤֤ȤξפǤ롥
ѸˤǤϡΥޥ (the Norman Conquest) ȤʤꡤʹߡѸ줬ʤȤä̤礭ޥ (romancisation) ȤȤȤʤäƤ롥(Norman) French Ѹ˵ڤܤŪӼҲŪʱƶϿǤꡤ⼫Τ˰۵ĤϤۤȤɤʤ褦˻פ롥ˤ륤ꥹΥޥθ̤ϡΤߤʤ餺ʸؤˤˤȿǤƤꡤޤޤƱ϶ǤʴפĤ˻äƤ롥
ǤƥΥޥȤˤ륲ޥ (germanicisation) θ̤βǽͻ뤳ȤϡʤȤ¸Ūˤ̵̤ǤϤʤȤΤϡ#1568. Norman, Normandy, Norse ([2013-08-12-1]) Ǥǧ褦ˡīǤΩƤ William ΨΥޥͤϡ롼Ĥ̥ޥ췲 Old Norse äƤ̲ͤǤ롥Normandy ̲ͤEngland Υ͡ʤ꽻Ƥ̲͡ˤȤƤ⡤ŪޥޤϤϤʤषǻʤͽۤΤǤϤʤ
ˤСͽۤϳȤȤˤʤ롥Τ˥Υޥͤϥ롼ĤȤƤ̲Ǥ롥911ǯ˥եäǡͤμ Rollo (860?--932?) ϡڹԤ뤳ȤȰؤˡե Charles III ΥޥǥäʹߡRollo ϡɤˤ Cnut Ʊͤˡ˲Ԥʤ̺ƷԤȤʤꡤ͡ɤǰäƷޤ줿Rollo λ¹ϡȤû֤ˡ®˥եեꥹȶ˲եˡѤ¤ۤ졤εѤǸѤϥΥޥȤ礭ʾȤʤäΤ顤ϥΥޥͤե餳ǽˤʤäΤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ʾηаޤƧޤȡΥޥȤ˻150ǯۤɤδ֤ˡΥޥͤʸŪˤΥޥ뤤ϥä꼺ܴۤ˥եΤ褦ˤߤ롥ΥޥȤαѸؤαƶϡϤޥɾ٤Ǥꡤޥ뤤ϥޥŪǤζȤɾǤʤȤˤʤꤽ
(95--96) ϡ˼㴳ΰƤ롥
ġĥե̤ơ泤ϤŪ¯Ĥʤɤήη̡̱²ˤϡŪǤŪǤĤή줳ߡ礷ͻ¤Ĵ¤Ȥ롥ʾϡؼԡʸظȡ˲ȤΤۤܰפոǤ롥
ɤ⡤겼ƹͤʤСΩκɤ餤Ǥ롥
(1) ΥޥͤϡǡͤηҤƤ롥塤ĤƤ֤ˡ˺졤եȤǤ̡ϡʥեͤߤСüԤǤꡤλ¹Ǥ롥餳ʿơηĬdzΩĤΤʤ顤̱²ȤơꥹϤäΤǤ롥
(2) ͤϡޥ̱²ưκݡ̳Ϥꡤ轻̱²षơڤΤǤ롥⡤ĤͤǤ롥θ塤ǡͤϡԤȤơ٤ˤ錄꿯ά֤ͤηʤǻǤ롥
(3) ΥޥǥΥե٤ꥹ٤εȯã¥ʤΤϻ¤ξԤϡȤơǥޡ٤ƧޤƤ褦˻פ
̱²ŪʤȤˤʤȡϡŪǤ뤷ǻǤ롥̤dzȤäĴҤǤϡޤäĤ̡
θ˥ФޥåɾޤޤƤ뤳ȡޤ̱²ŪʤȸŪʤ̤ΤǤ뤳ȤˤդʤФʤʤξ̤ˡΥޥͤˤϱѸʥޥŪǤƳΤߤǤȷŤƽäƤ褤ΤȤϻĤ롥ŪˤСեΥޥͤ롼ĤȤݤäƤ̥ޥŪʸܤľܱѸȤϤʤ褦˻פ롥⤽ Norman French Old Norse ¤ΥեǤ뤷δظ줿 Old Norse θŪħNorman French Ѹʤɤ̤ƴŪ˱Ѹؤ߽ФƤ㤬äȤƤ⡤ۤɶä٤ȤǤϤʤ
͡إˤѤΡ١ҡӡ1968ǯ.
[2013-09-02-1]ε˰³Philippine English ˤȸˤĤơ (162--63) ˤȡŪʸ줬ڥ줫ѸؤȥեȤΤϡ1910--20ǯΤȤȤ
ƹϡȬȬǯΥեԥΰ衤٤ƤζѸǹԤʤäƤ줬ǯۤɤδ֤ˡ˸ƤΤǤ롥ξǤαϡޤǥڥǹԤʤƤĤ˰ǯѸˤǽα⤬ǹԤʤ줿եԥˡпȤͤεİѸǤäƤΤΤǯˤʤȡޥ˥ԵIJ֤٤ƤεİѸɤ߽פȤͳǡIJѸ˱ѸѤȽǤѸ줬Ȥ褦ˤʤꡤ٤ƤδģǯޤǤˤϱѸκѻڤؤȤ
ڥۤȥꥫۤñ㲽ħŤȤСԤϥꥹȶڡԤ϶ڤȤäƤ褤ơꥫʸϸ˸դΤǤ롥ߤǤ⡤եԥζǤϡֱѸפƤ롥Ρ1986--92߿ˤϡϤθ줬ʤˤƤȤ礭ʴؿʧäƤ˸礭ʿŸä櫓ǤϤʤڤˤȡեԥι̱ε°ռҲ̷κϡֱѸפˤ롥
ߥեԥǤϡեԥȱѸΡ춵פعԤʤƤ롥եԥѸȤơ졤ҲΰʤɤƤ롥ѸǶƤΤϡѸ졤ʤʤɤǤ롥ΤΩعǤϱѸˤ붵ˤĤƤʤ̤³Ф鸽ϹܤɽƤ纮𤷤Ƥ롥ֱѸ줬פȤֱѸǶ뤫黻ʬʤפȤäͳǡйݤΩäƤȤҶĶϡײƤϤʤäơѸϥϰǤŤôˤʤꡤ¾ϰǤϻŤôˤʤäƤΤ¾ȤեԥϡֱѸפΩäƤ롥IJǤϱѸƤԤʤ졤ΤαѸǤ롥ģʸ⤹٤ƱѸǤ졤ΤȤˤϤȤǽ줿ʪۤΤǤ롥ģǤѸ줬Ȥ졤ҾҲȯɽ⤹٤ƱѸǤ롥ڤǤäƤϤζ顦ʸݡľʤǤ顤ȤƤ֥եԥѡפܵǼȤǤȤϤʤάեԥŪҲŪθϡեԥͤŻ뤷Ū˹⤤ϰ̤ȻפޤꡤѸѤθϩΤƤʤȤȤ꤬롥Ȥˡˤ뾮عκϡʤȮȤƤ٤ȤγϤåäƤ롥եԥͤ褯Ȥ "tao" ʽ̱ʿ͡ˤȤϤ٤θǤ뤳Ȥ˺٤ǤϤʤ(286--88)
ˡ (294) ϡŪ˸ȡѸ춵ϥեԥͤռĤꥫʸƴ줵֤פȤƤեԥܤȤƤαѸμϡեԥ̱θؤǤפȸФۤɡ̱ռޤˤƤפȼ긷
ꥫѸϤä20ΥեԥƤȤϴְ㤤ʤꥫζˤꡤ1930ǯˤϼΨƤ뤷η̤ȤƸߤǤ⥢Ǥⶵ餬褯ʤǤ롥ѸѸȤΤʤ4ܤ¿οʤƤ뤳Ȥ顤αѸ礭Ƥ⤤롥ڤ䤫˸Ѹ¦̤¦ˤϡ¦̤Τ뤳Ȥ˺ƤϤʤʤ
7ܤˡ12ǯ˥եԥ˽Ф뵡äǥեԥͤȡ뵡äѸݤζϾع٥ǸľϤƤ뤳ȡȤϤѸμҲŪʸҤϤޤäꤨƤ餺̱줿륿ơޤѸҶ˶褦ȤƤ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥʤɤʹں桤ȱѸ줬ߤ˼ͳ˾ "Taglish" code-mixing ⡤̤˼ˤ
եԥ ESL 1ĤˤʤѸ줬ˤ¾ˤ͡ʥѥꤦ̤αѸˤϡΥѥ11ĤҤƤ椯ɬפΤ
סʪեԥˡ١ҡӡ1997ǯ.
ε#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1]) ǡCrystal ˤ2001ǯդǤαѸüԿοפCrystal (69) εˡǶ¾θԤˤפƤ롥
It is interesting to compare estimates for first (L1), second (L2) and foreign (F) language use over the past 40 years.
-- in Quirk (1962: 6) the totals for first (L1), second (L2) and foreign (F) were 250 (L1) and 100 (L2/F);
-- during the 1970s these totals rose to 300 (L1), 300 (L2) and 100 (F) (cf. McArthur (1922: 355));
-- Kachru (1985: 212) has 300 (L1), 300--400 (L2) and 600--700 (F);
-- Ethnologue (1988) and Bright (1992: II.74), using a Time estimate in 1986, have 403 (L1), 397 (L2) and 800 (F);
-- during the 1990s the L1 and L2 estimates rise again, though with some variation. The Columbia Encyclopedia (1993) has 450 (L1), 400 and 850 (F). Ethnologue (1992), using a World Almanac estimate in 1991, has 450 (L1) and 350 (L2).
줾οפưϷ褷ƾϤʤɤѤ٤¤Ȥ͡ʿפʿͤȤȤˡ⡤1ĤصŪˡ⤷ʤ
μοפϤ٤ԳΤȼΤȤ櫓ѸüԿȤ褦פˤ¿κĤƤޤ롥ͳƤߤ褦
(1) ŪΤŪʵϤѤǤפʤ (Crystal 61)
(2) Crystal οפ˴Ϣƿ줿褦ˡȤ Expanding Circle ° EFL üԤοΤİ뤳ȤϤȤ櫓㤨С21ƬˤơŪ˱ѸؽԤΨޤäƤƤ뤳ȤϳΤŪˤɤ٤ΨΤ˸ƤľŪˡϤʤ
(3) פˤƤѸüԤ ENL, ESL, EFL ȶʬǥ뤬Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿ζܤϤäꤷʤޤ줾ιϰ褬嵭Τ줫ζʬƤϤޤȤΩƤƤ뤬ºݤˤξԤϸ̩бʤȤ¿ENL ESL ιϰǤϡѸ줬 "special place" Ƥ뤳ȤȤƤ뤬"special place" ȤϼºݤαѸ٤٤ˤäƤǤϤʤŪŪװˤäͿΤˤʤ
(4) ֱѸäץ٥ɤꤹ뤫ҴŪʴबʤ٥ ESL EFL üԤñ̤뤷٥夲üԿϸ롥
(5) ɤѼѸΰȤߤʤˤĤƹդʤԥѸ䥯쥪ѸϱѸΰȤƤߤʤ٤ǽˤΤǤС¿ΥԥѸ䥯쥪ѸϱѸǤʤȤˤʤꤽ#1499. ʥӥ "semicommunication" ([2013-06-04-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡ٤ϸŪʵΥΤۤäʹ٤礭ƶ롥ޤ#385. Guyanese Creole Ϣ³Ρ ([2010-05-17-1]) ǿ줿 post-creole continuum Τ褦ˡɤ餬ɸѼǤɤ餬ԥ쥪ѼʤΤȽȤʤ⤢롥
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
εǰä#1590. ѸνѼ ([2013-09-03-1]) αѸѼܤȡ줳Ӥ English varieties ߡȯŸƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ѸѼοФǤʤѸѼüԤο⤪Ӥ#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1]) ενǿ줿褦ˡüԿüԤ碌ȡѸ1Ȥʤ롥ѸüԿβߡ̤ˤĤƤϡʲεǰäƤ
#319. ѸüԿζɤեǥ ([2010-03-12-1])
#427. ѸüԤˢ֤ǥ ([2010-06-28-1])
#933. ѸαѸüԿá ([2011-11-16-1])
#173. ENL, ESL, EFL üԿ ([2009-10-17-1])
#375. ENLESL οΨ ([2010-05-07-1])
#759. 21ιϢͽ¬ ([2011-05-26-1])
#414. language shift θ줿Ѹüԥǥ ([2010-06-15-1])
ߤˤѸüԿΤİ뤳ȤCrystal (61, 65--67) ǽҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡμοפˤ͡ʸŪŪݤ뤫Crystal (62--65) ϡΤʤ2001ǯߤαѸפǯǤ褯礤˽ФѸüԤοפǤ롥
| Territory | L1 | L2 | Population (2001) |
|---|---|---|---|
| American Samoa | 2,000 | 65,000 | 67,000 |
| Antigua & Barbuda* | 66,000 | 2,000 | 68,000 |
| Aruba | 9,000 | 35,000 | 70,000 |
| Australia | 14,987,000 | 3,500,000 | 18,972,000 |
| Bahamas* | 260,000 | 28,000 | 298,000 |
| Bangladesh | 3,500,000 | 131,270,000 | |
| Barbados* | 262,000 | 13,000 | 275,000 |
| Belize* | 190,000 | 56,000 | 256,000 |
| Bermuda | 63,000 | 63,000 | |
| Botswana | 630,000 | 1,586,000 | |
| British Virgin Islands* | 20,000 | 20,800 | |
| Brunei | 10,000 | 134,000 | 344,000 |
| Cameroon* | 7,700,000 | 15,900,000 | |
| Canada | 20,000,000 | 7,000,000 | 31,600,000 |
| Cayman Islands* | 36,000 | 36,000 | |
| Cook Islands | 1,000 | 3,000 | 21,000 |
| Dominica* | 3,000 | 60,000 | 70,000 |
| Fiji | 6,000 | 170,000 | 850,000 |
| Gambia* | 40,000 | 1,411,000 | |
| Ghana* | 1,400,000 | 19,894,000 | |
| Gibraltar | 28,000 | 2,000 | 31,000 |
| Grenada* | 100,000 | 100,000 | |
| Guam | 58,000 | 100,000 | 160,000 |
| Guyana* | 650,000 | 30,000 | 700,000 |
| Hong Kong | 150,000 | 2,200,000 | 7,210,000 |
| India | 350,000 | 200,000,000 | 1,029,991,000 |
| Ireland | 3,750,000 | 100,000 | 3,850,000 |
| Jamaica* | 2,600,000 | 50,000 | 2,665,000 |
| Kenya | 2,700,000 | 30,766,000 | |
| Kiribati | 23,000 | 94,000 | |
| Lesotho | 500,000 | 2,177,000 | |
| Liberia* | 600,000 | 2,500,000 | 3,226,000 |
| Malawi | 540,000 | 10,548,000 | |
| Malaysia | 380,000 | 7,000,000 | 22,230,000 |
| Malta | 13,000 | 95,000 | 395,000 |
| Marshall Islands | 60,000 | 70,000 | |
| Mauritius | 2,000 | 200,000 | 1,190,000 |
| Micronesia | 4,000 | 60,000 | 135,000 |
| Montserrat* | 4,000 | 4,000 | |
| Namibia | 14,000 | 300,000 | 1,800,000 |
| Nauru | 900 | 10,700 | 12,000 |
| Nepal | 7,000,000 | 25,300,000 | |
| New Zealand | 3,700,000 | 150,000 | 3,864,000 |
| Nigeria* | 60,000,000 | 126,636,000 | |
| Northern Marianas* | 5,000 | 65,000 | 75,000 |
| Pakistan | 17,000,000 | 145,000,000 | |
| Palau | 500 | 18,000 | 19,000 |
| Papua New Guinea* | 150,000 | 3,000,000 | 5,000,000 |
| Philippine$ | 20,000 | 40,000,000 | 83,000,000 |
| Puerto Rico | 100,000 | 1,840,000 | 3,937,000 |
| Rwanda | 20,000 | 7,313,000 | |
| St Kitts & Nevis* | 43,000 | 43,000 | |
| St Lucia* | 31,000 | 40,000 | 158,000 |
| St Vincent & Grenadines* | 114,000 | 116,000 | |
| Samoa | 1,000 | 93,000 | 180,000 |
| Seychelles | 3,000 | 30,000 | 80,000 |
| Sierra Leone* | 500,000 | 4,400,000 | 5,427,000 |
| Singapore | 350,000 | 2,000,000 | 4,300,000 |
| Solomon Islands* | 10,000 | 165,000 | 480,000 |
| South Africa | 3,700,000 | 11,000,000 | 43,586,000 |
| Sri Lanka | 10,000 | 1,900,000 | 19,400,000 |
| Suriname* | 260,000 | 150,000 | 434,000 |
| Swaziland | 50,000 | 1,104,000 | |
| Tanzania | 4,000,000 | 36,232,000 | |
| Tonga | 30,000 | 104,000 | |
| Trinidad & Tobago* | 1,145,000 | 1,170,000 | |
| Tuvalu | 800 | 11,000 | |
| Uganda | 2,500,000 | 23,986,000 | |
| United Kingdom | 58,190,000 | 1,500,000 | 59,648,000 |
| UK Islands (Channel, Man) | 227,000 | 228,000 | |
| United States | 215,424,000 | 25,600,000 | 278,059,000 |
| US Virgin Islands* | 98,000 | 15,000 | 122,000 |
| Vanuatu* | 60,000 | 120,000 | 193,000 |
| Zambia | 110,000 | 1,800,000 | 9,770,000 |
| Zimbabwe | 250,000 | 5,300,000 | 11,365,000 |
| Other dependencies | 20,000 | 15,000 | 35,000 |
| Total | 329,140,800 | 430,614,500 | 2,236,730,800 |
ε#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1]) ȴϢơˤѸѼˤĤưŪ夲롥νϰϡפ俢̱ϻޤ4ˤ錄ѸȤܿˤ̤ơȼαѸѼȯãƤ Asian English(es) ȸƤФ ESL 뤤 EFL ȤƤαѸѼϡϰ褪ӻѡٲƤ뤫ݤˤδʬव (Jenkins 45)
| South Asian varieties | South-East Asian and Pacific varieties | East Asian varieties |
|---|---|---|
| Bangladesh | Brunei | China |
| Bhutan | Cambodia | Hong Kong |
| India | Fiji | Japan |
| Maldives | Indonesia | Korea |
| Nepal | Laos | Taiwan |
| Pakistan | Malaysia | |
| Sri Lanka | Myanmar | |
| Philippines | ||
| Singapore | ||
| Thailand | ||
| Vietnam |
| Institutionalised varieties (Outer Circle) | Non-institutionalised varieties (Expanding Circle) |
|---|---|
| Bangladesh | Cambodia |
| Bhutan | China |
| Brunei | Indonesia |
| Fiji | Japan |
| Hong Kong | Korea |
| India | Laos |
| Malaysia | Maldives |
| Nepal | Myanmar |
| Pakistan | Taiwan |
| Philippines | Thailand |
| Singapore | Vietnam |
| Sri Lanka |
եԥ (The Philippines) ϡ¿ι⤤Ǥ롥ܤ4/5ۤɤѤ8,800ͤǤꡤEthnologue Philippines ιˤС181θ줬ԤʤƤȤʥեԥθ𤹤̤γˤ80٤Ȥ⤵졤ˤ礭ۤʤˡ#401. ¿κǤ⤤ϰ ([2010-06-02-1]) Ǽ夲¿ؿ (diversity index) ΥǤС0.855ͤ25̤Ǥ롥ΤۤȤɤȥͥ²°ǤꡤVSOθʤɡŪˤŪƤ롥üԿκǤ¿Τ Cebuano 1,200͡ˤѸȤƤϥ륽濴1,000ͤؤ Tagalog Ȥˤ Filipino ȤƤۤѸ줬⤦1ĤθѸȤƹؤФ졤ԤƤܤ1972ǯ Filipino ȱѸ2춵ˤǤФƤˡCrystal (64) פˤС̱ȾѸäȤ졤ˤƺǤѸüԤ¿ȤʥեԥθϿޤȡˡ *
եԥϡ16Ⱦ³300ǯΥڥˤۤθ塤1898ǯ (the Spanish-American War) Фơꥫλ۲äʡ#255. ȱѸˡ[2010-01-07-1]ȡˡ1942--45ǯܤˤλФ1946ǯΩΩ⥢ꥫȤδط̩ǤꡤꥫѸαƶǻŪ˥ꥹѸο̤ŪǤˤäơۿǤʡ#376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ[2010-05-08-1]ȡˡ
嵭Τ褦ʷаޤ Philippine English ("Taglish" ȤƤФˤϡSingapore English ¤οѸѼΤʤǤΩä¸ߤȤʤäƤ롥Jenkins (47) ˤȡѸѼΤʤǤȤ櫓椬ʤǤꡤ㤨 Tay, M. ("Southeast Asia and Hongkong." English around the World. Ed. J. Cheshire. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.) World Englishes 2004ǯ Bautista et al. ˤեԥѸýʤɤƤ롥եԥѸ1960ǯȾ鵭ϿƤꡤäȯʸˡȯãƤƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥ޤ庹 formality ˤ뺹ʤɡեԥѸǤѼ¿ͲƤƤ褦
Ѹ줬ȤѤƤ¾ϰαѸˤĤƤϡ#273. αѸ ([2010-01-25-1])#404. Suriname ˤȸ ([2010-06-05-1])#412. 롼αѸ ([2010-06-13-1])#514. Nigeria ˤѸΰ֤Ť ([2010-09-23-1])#1536. ǤʤعǤλѤػߤƤ Bislama ([2013-07-11-1]) ʤɤεȡ
Сʡɡƥޥ塼ޥꥢݥ ԡ ˼ ؿʸա١νӡ2005ǯ
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2009.
ε#1587. ˤϸΥȥԡ緹դƤ뤫 ([2013-08-31-1]) ǡComrie ˤŪȥԡ÷βҲ𤷤Comrie ιͤطʤˤϡưθ§ (The Uniformitarian Principle) 1ĤβλͿƤưˤĤƤϡ#556. The Uniformitarian Principle ([2010-11-04-1]) ȡ#1186. The Uniformitarian Principle (2) ([2012-07-26-1]) ȡˡ
ˤưθ§ˤĤơĤƤߤȡξ (state) ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤΤȡβ (process) ϳ (force) ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤΤ롥㤨С[2010-11-04-1]εǵѤ˽СRomaine force ưLass state ưǰƬˤƤʤäȤ⡤Lass "linguistic state of affairs (structure, inventory, process, etc.)" ŪˤȤ館ƤϤˡ
2Ĥư礭ۤʤäƤ롥state ư֤ˤĤƤΰ⤤Ǥꡤprocess/force ưư֤ˤĤƤΰ⤤ԤϡߤȲθѲθưϤϰۤʤȤʤȼĥƤ뤬η̤ȤƤθ֤ˤĤƤϲҤ٤ƤʤüˤСߤθȲθ줬ۤʤ륿ݥȤ餢ꤦȤΤprocess/force ưǤ롥process/force ưμĥԤǤ Comrie (255--56) ϡstate ưμĥԤǤ Lass Ƚʸ̮ΤʤǡҤ٤Ƥ롥
In geology, certain processes can be observed as ongoing during recorded history, such as the formation of mountains and their subsequent erosion by wind and rain. The uniformitarian hypothesis, which did so much to raise geology to its present scientific level, assumes that these same processes also characterised the Earth's prehistory. In other words, in order to explain earlier geological formations, we are not permitted to appeal to processes other than those that have characterised the more recent period. But it is important to realise that what is constrained by the uniformitarian hypothesis is the set of processes that have formed the earth, not the set of states that are separated by these processes. Thus, one could imagine starting from a state that is radically different from the present state of the Earth, say a perfectly smooth spherical or near-spherical object, and then initiate operation of the processes of mountain formation and erosion to produce something like the present-day Earth. In other words, the typological consistency implied by the uniformitarian hypothesis in geology is a typological consistency of processes, not a typological consistency of states. . . . / We may now apply this historically more appropriate concept of uniformitarianism, from the viewpoint of the philosophy of science, to the kind of linguistic reconstruction that we proposed . . . . It now becomes clear that our reconstruction is indeed compatible with this conception of the uniformitarian hypothesis. We propose no processes that are not attested in the historical period. . . . No new types of processes are proposed. However, the operation of these processes can take us from an earlier stage that is typologically different from attested languages to a later stage that is compatible with our knowledge of attested language states.
ǤϡϳؼȤǤ⤤٤ѲѤŸƤ롥state ưʤΤprocess/force ưʤΤ뤤ξԤ碌ưʤΤޤcontroversial ʵǤ롥
Comrie, Barnard. "Reconstruction, Typology and Reality." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 243--57.
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