01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ܤʸˤʤɤꥢԡ뤷ꤹݤˡȤƱѸѤ٤Ȥȯۤϡ̤ǤϤʤȤ̱²Υǥƥƥ˴ؤѸΤ褦 lingua_franca Ѥȯ뤳ȤϡܤǤΤȡ侩٤ȤȹͤƤ롥
¾ϰǤϤɤäˡեꥫ䥢¿֤Ƥƿ̱Ϥο͡ιȤ̱²Υǥƥƥ˸ڼ¤ɽȻפȤȤƵ콡ι줿ѸѤȤȤϡ̷ޤǤϤʤƱȤϡƿ̱Ϥʤ餺Ȥ⡤äαѸѼȤѤƤ륫ֳϰʤɤˤƤϤޤ롥ºݡΥޤϡܡʿ͡ˤˤȤäƤ̵ǺߤξʤϰǷ㤷ŪȤʤäƤǤʸɽԤǤʸŤˤơϤȤǮ
Crystal (279--80) ꡤΥޤȤιˡܼˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥս
The problem is greatest for poets, novelists, and dramatists in the newly independent nations, where there is often considerable antagonism towards English, seen as a symbol of colonial oppression. The dilemma is acute. Should they use the 'enemy's' language, with all the alien awkwardness that comes with the use of a second language for literary expression, in order to achieve an international audience? Or should they use their mother tongue, for which they have an immediate sensitivity, but which will place severe constraints on their potential readership? The solution, many writers maintain, is to concentrate on developing the English of their own region, making it into a language which belongs to them, and with which they can identify. 'Our method of expression', wrote the Indian author Raja Rao, 'has to be a dialect which will some day prove to be as distinctive and colorful as the Irish or the American . . . The tempo of Indian life must be infused into our English expression.' And the call for new Englishes, personal, evocative, and dynamic, has been echoed by second-language writers around the world, in South-east Asia, East and West Africa, and by first-language writers in Jamaica, South Africa, and New Zealand.
ΤäȤơɿͤλ Kamala Das μѼŪʱѸѤƤߤ褦 (Crystal 280)
. . . I am Indian, very brown, born in
Malabar, I speak three languages, write in
Two, dream in one. Don't write in English, they said,
English is not your mother-tongue. Why not leave
Me alone, critics, friends, visiting cousins,
Every one of you? Why not let me speak in
Any language I like? The language I speak
Becomes mine, its distortions, its queernesses
All mine, mine alone. It is half English, half
Indian, funny perhaps, but it is honest.
It is as human as I am human, don't
You see? It voices my joys, my longings, my
Hopes, and it is useful to me as cawing
Is to crows or roaring to the lions . . .
The Old Playhouse and Other Poems (1973)
ϡɸѸܻؤῴϤ¿ͲѸѼαϤ븽ˤơ٤ʴפǥåγʹȤʤ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
jade ʥҥˤϡ1617ˤơեѤ줿Ǥ롥եǤ l'ejade ȻȤƤ褦ˡ촴첻ǻϤޤäƤ괧Ȥδ֤ΰʬ (metanalysis) ̤ le jade Ȳ졤jade θθФǧ˻äΥեñ켫Ȥϡڥ (piedra de) ijada ʲʢСˤѤΤǡijada ϥƥ īlia ʲʢˤ̤롥ϡҥˤ˸ȿƤȤˤʤࡥ
Τ褦˥衼åѤǥҥɽ魯줿Τ϶äƤŪ٤ϥ衼åѤ̤ۤȤɻʤäǤ롥Ǥϥ٥ȥʥǥҥΤ줿ᡤʤɤǰѤ줿ΡǿפΡǡפֿֿפп2̤ǿ̤ȸƤΤϤޤǤꡤǤƱ2Ļ֥糧ߡפؤΤˤƱ줬Ѥ줿
ҥϥᥭˤ뤬˽Ҥ٤̤ꡤڥǥҥʢ¡ʿ¡¡ˤ˸Ȥ줿Τϡᥭβ餫ڥͤμäȤ⤵롥
ʤҥܤǤ롥㸩ɱήξij˻ϤꡤʸʹߡܳϡؤȱФ줿Ť줿餿ʶ̤Ǥ롥
ɸˤĤơCrystal (296--97) ν˶ᤤʬǡϤäƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
It is no more than common sense for those who have invested a childhood, or adult time and money, in successfully acquiring the English language to maintain an active interest in the language's progress. The more we learn about where the language has been, how it is structured, how it is used, and how it is changing, the more we will be able to judge its present course and help to plan its future. For many people, this will indeed mean a conscious altering of attitude. Language variation and language change --- the two aspects of English which are at the centre of its identity, and which are most in the public eye --- are too often blindly condemned. If just a fraction of the nervous energy which is currently devoted to the criticism of split infinitives and the intrusive r were devoted to the constructive promotion of forward-looking language activities, what might not be achieved?
Crystal ϡѸѲѰ (change and variation) ؤ֤Ȥˤꡤθߤ褯ȽǤ̤褯ײ褹뤳ȤǤ⤷Ƥ롥줬ѸˤϤᡤ¤ѰۡѤؤְյߡ̤˸ơѸȤޤդäƤμǤηäȤʤ롥ˡѸˤؤ֤Ȥϡޤ̤ФƤ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤ롥⡤ʬΤ礭ʲǽŦ⤤ƤȻפäƤ롥
Ϣơ#24. ʤѸˤؤ֤ ([2009-05-22-1])#1199. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (2) ([2012-08-08-1])#1200. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (3) ([2012-08-09-1])#1367. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (4) ([2013-01-23-1]) ⻲ȡ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
June ȤСꥹǤϺǤŬǡҸڤ䤰Ǥ롥ƻХȤϢۤ졤٤Ƥ뤤Ǥ롥츻Ūˤϥޤν Juno ͳ褷㫤Ԥ̣ Junonius ۷ȤȯŸ Junius (mensis) ʤ餯²̾ȤѤƤˤťե juin ѲΤ13˱Ѹ˼Ѥ줿Caesar Ż˲ää Marcus Junius Brutus ȤϢۤ줿Ȥ
űѸǤϡ67碌̾ līþa Ρᤤۤ (ǣrra "the earlier") ؤΤȤ līþa ǣrra ȸƤФ줿űѸǤ⡤ƥ Junius ľܼѤ줿 iunius θʸڤƤ뤳ȤդäƤ
̵ֿܸפϡǤ̵ֿפȽ֤ʡפϽ֤ΡפǤꡤ¤ϡֿηפǤ롥߱λǿ夬˭٤ʷǤꡤĤ˰Ǥ뤳Ȥ̾դ줿
̾Ȥơ#2910. ̾ͳ ([2017-04-15-1])#2890. 3March ([2017-03-26-1])#2896. 4April ([2017-04-01-1])#2939. 5May ([2017-05-14-1]) ɤ
ʹɤǤȡե٥åȤƬ (acronym) ȤƤΩġѻʹǤϤʤܸοʹäǤ롥Ƕ TPPʴʿηкϢȶˤ˴ؤ1ĤεΤʤǤ⡤EPAʷкϢȶˡNZʥ˥塼ɡˡCEOʺǹбǤԡˡIMFʹ̲ߴˡGDPʼ¼ˡGEʹݷкѡˡEUʲϢˤʤɤΤ褦˸ƤǺǽ˸Ȥˤϡ嵭Τ褦ˤäդ줢뤤Ȥ٤ܸɽźƤ뤬2ܰʹߤƬΤߤǤ롥¿ɤˤȤäơƬȤαѸɽŸ뤳ȤɬưפǤϤʤºݡŸɬפ⤵ۤɴƤʤȤǤϡ1Ĥο졤̵ŪʵȤäƤ褤ʡ#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1]) ȡˡ
иΡEPAʷкϢȶˡפΤ褦ɽϡŪˤС֥ե٥åȤˤ륷˥եܸ졦ˤ륷˥եˡפȤˤʤäƤꡤΤȤ1Ĥεʥ˥ˤŪƳˤۤʤʤϡε椬Ǻ巫֤Ȥ뤳Ȥä뵡ǽΤۤˡεŪ˲⤹뵡ǽͭƤ롥ʹҤˤȤäƤϡѽФ̾ɽ魯Τʸ餻åȤ뤷ޥǥȤƤѸ̤˹ôäƤΤȤͤ롥̾͡¿ȿ̾ˤޥԥå߽ФξˡȤ褦Ȥ1ĤθŪбʤΤ
ɽȴϢƻפФΤϡܸΤߤʤ餺ѸˤŪ˸줿Τ binomial Ǥ롥Ѹ my heart and my corage ꡤˡΧѸ acknowledge and confess ꡤʸɤͳ褹 (å) Τ꤮ꤹפʤɡ夢뤤°1ĤθʸŪȤäƤ褤ˤĤƤϡ#820. ʩƱ ([2011-07-26-1])#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱ ([2013-04-09-1])#2157. word pair μȸ̡ ([2015-03-24-1])#2506. Ѹ2।ǥܸʸɤߡ ([2016-03-07-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
ĤޤȤܸǤ⡤⤦1ĤθʸŪƳƤƤȤȤʤΤ
ŹʿѤߤˤʤäƤäɤǤߤɧʸȥȡ٤Ǥ롥ӹųؤζ̣ܤǤ롥üŪˤСξϰ衤ξ̱²ȤˡŪʸΦ̱²礭ʱƶߤˤȤ館ϡ˰ۤʤäƤȤȤƱưѹˤǤϥ衼åѻˤΰȤߤƤΤФܻˤǤϤɤޤǤܻˤȤƤˤǤ(223) ΤȤ
⤦ܤԤηҲ𤹤ˤϡľʸϤѤΤᤤ (236) ϡʸʸΤޤޤŪԤѤ߽Ťͤ椫߽ФƹޤäμηϡפŤˡΤ褦äƤ롥
ΦʿDzƺĥäʸμηϤ䤽˱äưͼϡĶΰȻˤ䤷ˤơμŪʷΨι⤵椨˼դϰˤ®ˤϤӤäƤäȤȤϡ桼饷ΦȤؿʤưĤοʹֽĤΰưȻȤɥޤˤʤ館ơοͤӤȤΥǥƥƥȽŤͤʤޥ˭˽ҤΤǤ롥
äݤ桼饷ΦˤƱͤưʤʰˤνҤդȤ郎˳ؤųؤǤϡˤäĤγθˤȤˡΤ褦ư˿İ⤿餷͡סʯŪʵѤμäƤäƤ͡סʸŤϡֵ͡סˤ˽ȤƤԤϰΥȤȤǤ⤤٤ֵ̱²פ˴ޤ褦ȤܤȸΩȽ褵ȡܹųذή̤ʼ¾ڼȤޤäȤ礭ȿȯλǤλߤ˽ä
Ȥ⤢졤ΥȤϡȤˤκǽãϤǤ֥ƥˤ줾ŪʱƶڤܤĹ꽸Τ褦襤ȼεǰʪ䡤ʿްƯä䲦²ιڤ˺Фǯ鵪夯餤ޤǤưǤ롥
ȤưκǽŪȤ⤤Φθȥޡȥ֥ƥȤ˴ؤä٤礭ۤʤꡤΤȤϡξϰ褬ɤäθˤߤΰ㤤ȡߤθФ˻롥ΦȤδ֤֤Ƥ볤ä椨˥ޤλۤˤܴۤݤ߹ޤ줿֥ƥǤϡʸʾ٤ʤɡŪʵȤκθƥࡽ軰μηϡ˺衼åѼҲΰȤƤθˤߤäƤä
ФäȹΦ֤ƤƤϡľܻ۲뤳Ȥʤ²ȼꡤʯȤͭεǰʪ߽ФȼΥǥƥƥǤ֤ꥹϤ뤫Ĺä䤿ܿͤϡΤ褦ʴѤѤǤ롥ʸססָʯפȡƱΥꥹˤǤϤۤȤѤʤŪʻʬꡤΥȻ˴Ѥ뵳̱²ȿȯܿͤ˳ؼԤųؼԤδǰޤͳ褹Τ⤷ʤ(237--39)
ܽˤϡŪʻŦ¿㤨СξϰΦȤδطϡ֤˶ޤ볤ˤ㤹Ȥɡ34Ǥꡤʹ֤ǤĥбˤڤΥϳ200⤢ꡤ˱ˤǤϤʤ (233) ޤΥȡפϡ桼饷˶ᤤȤ˥롼ĤꤵƤȤŦ⡤桼饷ΦϤˤͤȤʤꡤ̣ĹǤ (224)
ΰѤκǸˤ⤢褦ˡˡ֥ƥǤ˼ޤƸͭΥǥƥƥʤäΤȤŦ⤪⤷Υߥǰʤä椨ˡäȸζˡŪǥƥƥФʤȤƴؤ˹륱ȤѤ줿ΤǤϤʤȤͻ⼨٤(231--32) ѹˤӱѸˤФơ1ĤλͿƤܤȤɤơܡʸ˻ˤФƤ⡥
ȴϢơ#159. ǤäǤʤꥹ ([2009-10-03-1])#2968. Υ֥ƥ̱ ([2017-06-12-1]) ⻲ȡ
ɧʸȥȡ١˼Ҥӡ2017ǯ
ʳػ Nature κǿˡ30ǯΤΤȿꤵǸŤθʥۥ⥵ԥˤβФåȯ줿Ȥ𤬷Ǻܤ줿ޤǸ20ǯ쥢եꥫȹͤƤȯˤ긽10ǯ̤ۤ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ⤽κޤǤˤϥեꥫΦ˹ʬۤƤǽ夷ƤȤˤСǯ¬ˤϸΤǺθڤɬפȤƤ뤬ȯſؤνפ̤Ǥ餷Ȥǿܤˤʬ롥
糰ʤ⡤Nature εܤ̤Ƥߤ̤30ǯȤ10ǯȤθε˲餫μͿ뤫⤷ʤȻפä˸ε˴ؤľˤƤսϤʤäΤΡۥ⥵ԥηȤƸǽϤ̵ͭꤶͥǥ륿ͤȡ桹ۥ⥵ԥǧǽϤӤˤĤƸڤƤս꤬äΤǡʲ˰Ѥ롥
Given the likelihood that both brain size and shape evolved independently and in parallel along the Neanderthal and H. sapiens lineages over a period of at least 400,000 years, this might also imply that cognitive differences could have developed between the two species during that time. (213)
⤦1ġΥåǤȯΰյʬƤ
Fossil remains indicate that early modern H. sapiens were present in Africa from about 200,000 years ago, and these individuals had an anatomy similar to that of humans today. However, DNA analyses of living people and fossils suggest that our lineage diverged from that of our close relatives, the Eurasian Neanderthals and Denisovans, more than 500,000 years ago --- considerably earlier than the first recognizable early modern H. sapiens. (212)
糰ˤߤ¾ϡanthropology ɤ
Stringer, Chris and Julia Galway-Witham. "On the Origin of Our Species." Nature 546 (8 June 2017): 212--13.
67Ωؤʤɤθब77?126ǯλɽոԸԤؤŪʴϤˤ褦ȿ˿ǯˤơϵμȿžڵȤɤƱؤȤơꥢζϤʥ饤Хȶ礦ȤˤʤȤ줿̾ϡ֥Х˥ (Chibanian) Ǥꡤ⤷ǧСͳϼ̾ȤƤϽƤΤΤˤʤȤ
֥Х˥פ֥ƥǡդλספĤƤ뿷ʹä˾ʤ̰´Τǡΰ´νߤ˵Ƥ
֥С (Chiba) ʬȡ֥˥ (-nian) ʬʬ褦ޤǽ2ǡ֥˥ (-nian) 顥-nian ϡΤ˵ȤƤϥƥηƻ̤Ȥϸʸ̩ˤϡǽ n Ԥ촴°Τȹͤɬפ뤬ˡΥƥǤ -nian ǽ뤳ȤϤꤨʤ˱餫ζղäơ-nianus -niana ʤɤȤƸϤǤ롥Τ褦ʸʤȤȤϡ-nian ǽϡƥȤƤθǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ϸ衼åѸθǤꡤ𤫤ݸȤƤαѸθȹͤΤ-nian ϡŪˤϥƥͳ褹ȤȤǤƤ⡤줬줿ζŪϡƥ°ƤȤϸ餯Ѹ°ƤȤ٤֥ƥǡդλספȤϡˡʸ츻ͳˤȶ֤λ¡ʸߤν°ˤƱƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
֥Х˥פƥñȤߤʤȤΰ´ϡ֥פʤɤѸñȤߤʤ´ƱΤΤǤʡ#1624. Ѹΰ ([2013-10-07-1]) ȡˡ֥ (sea) ֥ (chicken) ⡤Ūˤ餫˱ѸͳñǤ롥Ȥ߹碌֥ (sea chicken) ϡ˱ñκۤƤˤ衤ʱѸص͢ʤ¤˱Ѹθäˤ¸ߤʤʾܸñȸ虜ʤϱѸǤäƤ⡤ߤζŪʽ°ܸʤΤǤ롥
ˡ1ǤΡ֥С (Chiba) ˤĤơϡ-nian ȰۤʤꡤŪˤ⸽ߤζ֤ȤƤäȤܸñǤȸڤäƤ褵ɬ⤽ǤϤʤȵ뤳ȤԲǽǤϤʤŪܸǤȤȤ˰Ϥʤ¤طʡʤŪϼؤ˶ȤŪäʸ̮θСΰѤ̾ȤƤΡ֥Сפؤ˰㤤ʤ̿̾ԤܿԤʻޤơ¿ܿͤϡܤ̾ȤƤΡաʸԸԡˡפռ˰㤤ʤ˼줿Ĥˤϡष줿Ȥͳˤꡤ֥Сפ̾Ȥʤ̾ϡ˳줿ΤȤƤȤ館ȤȤθ츻餫ˡΤΤäȤƤ⡤ŪˤϡΤΤǤϤʤ뤳ȤǤǤ롥ǤϡǤϤʤñʤΤȤС褯ʬʤΤñȽҤ٤ˤȤɤƤͭ̾θ°ʤΤǤϤʤȤˤĤƤϡ#2212. ͭ̾ϥ˥եʤ˥եǤ ([2015-05-18-1])#2397. ͭ̾ȿ̾̾ ([2015-11-19-1]) Ȥ줿
ʾꡤ֥Х˥ ȹͤ2ĤǤΤˤĤƤ⡤Ūʴϡ֥ƥǤפȤϷ褷ƸʤʤοʹԤܤΩƤƤȤϡ´褦ȤƹͤȤʸϤˤƤߤǤ롥ܶǸؤƤߤȤȤǡ餺
ɤΤȤ֥Х˥פϱѸʤΤǤʤвʤΤ
֥֥СɤμϡĤƤк۰顤ֵ to ʸŪȯãˤĤƼѤʤⶽ̣꤬ȤޤˡŪˤ what to do, how to do तηȤǡϴܵ to νвˤäʸȹͤΤǡͻ硤ˤäƤ contamination Ȥ⤤٤Τ⤷ʤʡ#737. ʸ contamination ([2011-05-04-1]) ȡˡ
Ūˤ⤪⤷Ĵ٤ȤʤäΤǡޤ MED tō (verbal particle) Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡ 5b (e) ˼Τ褦ˤäФϽѸǤꡤθ㤬Ĥ롥
(e) with inf. preceded by the interrogatives hou, what, whider, or whiderward, the entire construction functioning as the direct obj. of verbs of knowing, studying, teaching, etc.
c1300(?c1225) Horn (Cmb Gg.4.27) 17/276: For he nuste what to do.
OED to Ĵ٤Ƥߤ 16a ˡβˤʤäƤꡤΤ褦ˤ롥
a. With inf. after a dependent interrogative or relative; equivalent to a clause with may, should, etc. (Sometimes with ellipsis of whether before or in an indirect alternative question.)
c1386 Chaucer Man of Law's Tale 558 She hath no wight to whom to make hir mone.
OED Ǥν Chaucer ȤʤäƤ뤬MED νΤۤᤤȤʬ롥碌ơιʸϸűѸˤϸʤ餷
⤷ΤϡѸˤʸϽ°ΤƤ뤬ñȤǼ18Ƭ鸽Ƥ뤳ȤOED θ 16b ˡΤ褦˵Ƥ롥
b. In absolute or independent construction after an interrogative, forming an elliptical question.
This may be explained as an ellipsis of the principal clause . . . , or of 'is one', 'am I', etc. before the inf.
1713 J. Addison Cato iii. vii, But how to gain admission? for Access Is giv'n to none but Juba, and her Brothers.
ϤʸäȤä𤬤ꤽȤݤ⤷ɤޤǿǤ
դǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλͤ6ε֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥޤ
äϡѸäؤֺݤξɤȤʤäƤ¿쥻åȤ˹¤ʤƤꡤʤΤ褦ʹ¤¸ߤΤȤѤʵˡŪʴäΤǤطʤˤϡѸ줬λμҲŪʸ̮ΤʤθܿƤаޤޤޤѸûˤҤȤƤȡ̣ȤˡܸûˤȤʿ⸫ƤޤоȸŪѸӤˤƤϡξΰ㤤Ĵ뷹ޤо˸ؤδߤȡȸûˤ˴ؤ¤ꡤξϤȤƤ褯ƤޤϢܵθȾǤϡƤޤ
Ѹáʤܸáˤ3ع¤ˤĤƤϡرѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡΤ5.1֤ʤ Help me! Ȥ϶֤ Aid me! Ȥ϶ФʤΤפ5.2֤ʤ Assist me! ȤϤʤ鶫ФʤΤפǤⰷäƤޤܥ֥Ǥ͡˵ƤΤǡΥʲĥäƤޤ碌ƤޤƱͤˤĤơ#1999. Chuo Online ε֥ʸΩŪ˻ס ([2014-10-17-1]) ǾҲ𤷤餴
#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2072. Ѹäλع¤ ([2014-12-29-1])
#2279. Ѹäεžع¤ ([2015-07-24-1])
#2643. Ѹäλع¤οá ([2016-07-22-1])
#387. trisociation triset ([2010-05-19-1])
#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1])
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])
#1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ ([2014-08-24-1])
#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1])
#1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ ([2012-08-20-1])
#478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ ([2010-08-18-1])
#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1])
#1226. Ѹˤäǯʬۡ ([2012-09-04-1])
#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1])
#2385. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸä (2) ([2015-11-07-1])
#576. inkhorn term ȱѸ켭 ([2010-11-24-1])
#1408. ([2013-03-05-1])
#1409. Ĥä졤ä ([2013-03-06-1])
#1410. Ƚ ([2013-03-07-1])
#1615. 礹ߡ2 ([2013-09-28-1])
#609. 켭17 ([2010-12-27-1])
#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])
#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1])
#1629. ([2013-10-12-1])
#1067. Ѹȸܸθüѡ ([2012-03-29-1])
#296. 轡ѸܸͿŪƶ ([2010-02-17-1])
#1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ ([2013-07-01-1])
Bennett and Smithers Ǥ Ancrene Wisse ΰɤǤȤˡɽ˽вäA. 147--48 ˡΤ褦ˤ롥
Lokið nu ȝeorne, for his deorewurðe luue, hwuch a mearke he leide upon his icorene þa he steah to heouene
hwuch a mearke ʲʬϤܵƳ which ľ괧줬ȤȤϡòδްդ⤤餫ޤǤȤȤ⤷ȤȡѸǤϴò what a ? ȤʤΤ̤ʤΤǡĤƤ which a ? ʤ⤢äȤȤˤʤ롥
Ĵ٤ƤߤȡűѸѸˤ "exclamatory which" ʤˡäȤΤȤMustanoja (186) β
EXCLAMATORY 'WHICH.' --- The original meaning of the pronoun, 'of what kind,' is also reflected in its dependent exclamatory use found in OE and ME (it is often separated from the governing noun by a)] --- ah loke wulche wæstres . . . Whulche wurþliche wude, Whulche wilde deores (Lawman A 11770--73); --- whiche lordes beth þis shrewes! (PPl. B x 27); --- lo which a wyf was Alceste (Ch. CT F Fkl. 1442); --- and whiche eyen my lady hadde! (Ch. BD 859); --- he seide, 'O whiche sorwes glade, O which wofull prosperite Belongeth to the proprete Of love!' (Gower CA iv 1212--13). In late ME which is superseded in this function by what.
MED which (adj.) θ7ˤ⡤ˡˤĤƼΤ褦˵Ҥ롥
7. In exclamations, with emphatic force, indicating the striking or extraordinary character of the noun modified: what a remarkable, an excellent, or an impressive; what remarkable or fine:
OED which, pron. and adj. Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡˡ5ˡǤѤȤƵƤ롥ʸϡűѸ Ælfred Boethius De Consol. Philos. ˻ϤޤꡤѸ˽äƤ롥
c888 Ælfred tr. Boethius De Consol. Philos. xvi. 2 Gif ge nu gesawan hwelce mus þæt wære hlaford ofer oðre mys,..mid hwelce hleahtre ge woldon bion astered.
. . . .
c1450 Jacob's Well (1900) 102 Lo, whiche a worschip sche hadde, & whiche a ioye.
ò which a ? ϡŤѸ̤˸줿Ȥʬ롥
Bennett, J. A. W. and G. V. Smithers, eds. Early Middle English Verse and Prose. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ε#2974. 2Ū칽ʸ to ʸء ([2017-06-18-1]) κǸ˿줿褦ˡޤοȸθ경ϡʸˡˤɽ㡼Ǥ롥˶ޤοबˤäƼ줿ʸˡǽŶ뤿˸夫礬경뤳ȤˤʤäΤ뤤˸礬경η̡פȤʤäޤ夫षϤΤ⤷ϡ3θˤȡξݤΰ̴طϰŪʤΤǤϤʤ줾줬ƶ礤ʤ饹ѥ˿ʹԤƤäΤȤ⤤롥ޤ˥˥ȥǤ롥
ϲ3θ¤ȻפäƤ뤬ϢȤƤ Allen ⤳ιͤǤ롥Allen ϡ2Ū칽ʸˤ2ĤŪθǤʤ°̾Ȥ˽Ȥΰִط˴ؤѸѲˤĤƤĴƤꡤޤοबθ경ͣװǤϤʤȤƳǧƤ롥Allen (220) ۩
The two case studies [= the fixing of the order of two nominal NP/DP objects and the genitives] examined here do not support the view that the fixing of word order in English was driven solely by the loss of case inflections or the assumption that at every stage of English, there was a simple correlation between less inflection and more fixed word order. This is not to say that deflexion did not play an important role in the disappearance of some previously possible word orders. It is reasonable to suggest that although it may have been pragmatic considerations which gave the initial impetus to making certain word orders more dominant than others, deflexion played a role in making these orders increasingly dominant. It seems likely that the two developments worked hand in hand; more fixed word order allowed for less overt case marking, which in turn increased the reliance on word order.
ΰ̴طֶޤοࢪθ경פäȤǽꤳƤʤդΡָθ경ޤοפΰ̴ط椫ƤɤΤȤξݤ˼äƿʹԤȹͤΤǤȷƤ롥ޤξԤδطפƤۤñʴطǤϤʤȤϡѸˤƤʤ˶ޤλĤäƤʤɤǤ⡤űѸθ礬Τޤ¸Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤդ˶ޤषƤƤűѸŪʸ礬¸Ƥ㤬뤳Ȥ⸫Ƽ뤳ȤǤ
Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.
ε#2973. ʤ٤κ ([2017-06-17-1]) ˰³Allen ͤ
2Ū칽ʸֻ to Ѥ빽ʸ֤äƤΤϡѸǤ롥űѸԤ⸫줿ǽưμब¤ʤɤħäѸˤʤȡ٤ƤФ꤫ư¤ʧ褦ˤʤ롥ߥȤƤϳʶޤολȽŤʤꡤ̴طʤ뤬Allen ϡطȤϤʤ⿵ŤʵŸƤ롥ΥƥȤˤƤϡǤʬŪʹʸ夷Ƥեαƶ餢뤳Ȥ⼨ƤꡤñʡʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤФԤäƤ롥Allen (214) Ѥ롥
It can be noted . . . that we do not require deflexion as an explanation for the rapid increase in to-datives in ME. The influence of French, in which the marking of the IO by a preposition was already well advanced, appears to be the best way to explain such text-specific facts as the surprisingly high incidence of to-datives in the Aȝenbite of Inwit. . . . [T]he dative/accusative distinction was well preserved in the Aȝenbite, which might lead us to expect that the to-dative would be infrequent because it was not needed to mark Case, but in fact we find that this work has a significantly higher frequency of this construction than do many texts in which the dative/accusative distinction has disappeared in overt morphology. The puzzle is explained, however, when we realize that the Aȝenbite was a rather slavish translation from French and shows some unmistakable signs of the influence of its French exemplar in its syntax. It is, of course, uncertain how important French influence was in the spoken language, but contact with French would surely have encouraged the use of the to-dative. It should also be remembered that an innovation such as the to-dative typically follows an S-curve, starting slowly and then rapidly increasing, so that no sudden change in another part of the grammar is required to explain the sudden increase of the to-dative.
Allen ϶ޤοȤݤ deflexion ɽƤ뤬ϤդȤƤʤ⡤νѸȤäȤʤäѸ1ĵȤͯΤϡѤκǸΤȤǡto-dative ؤΰܹԤˤĤƸóȻSȤȤڤƤ뤬δŪ˵Ҥ줿ϤΤȤȤޤοȸθ경ȤѸʸˡ˾礭⡤ޤޤ겼褦ꤽ
Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.
Allen (205) ˡʼȤƽѸΥƥȤŪʳɸŪĤäƤ (case-rich texts) ȡŪ̸ (deflexion) ˤꡤۤɻĤäƤʤ (case-impoverished texts) ˤޤʬषƤ롥ƥƥȤˤߤʤΡ١פκϡˤȤ礭¾ƥȤܤ˵Τ⤢Ѹγʤ븦ΩʤΤǡΥƥȤʬƸƤŪʥꥹȤǤϤʤAllen ǥѤƥȤΤߤǺܤƤˤʤΤǡդƤ
| Case-rich texts | Date | Case-impoverished texts | Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| PC I (not very rich) | c.1131 | PC II | c.1155 |
| Kentish Homilies | a.1150, c.1125 | Ormulum (Vol. II) | c.1180 |
| Lambeth Homilies | c.1200, mostly OE | Ancrene Wisse (Parts 1--5) | c.1230, somewhat earlier |
| Poema Morale (Lambeth version) | c.1200, c.1170--90 | Katherine Group | c.1225, 1200--20 |
| Trinity Homilies | a.1225, ?OE | Wohunge | c.1220, post 1200 |
| Brut (C MS) (1st 3,000 lines) | s.xiii2, post 1189 | Cursor Mundi (Vesp. MS, Vol. I) | c.1350 |
| Vices and Virtues | c.1200, a.1225 | Havelok the Dane | c.1300, c.1295--1310 |
| Owl and Nightingale (C MS) | s.xiii2, 1189--1216 | Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle (A MS, Vol. I) | c.1325, c.1300 |
| Kentish Sermons | c.1275, pre-1250 | Genesis and Exodus | a.1325, c.1250 |
| Aȝenbite of Inwit | 1340 | Sir Orfeo and Amis and Amiloun (Auchinleck MS) | c.1330 |
| Early Prose Psalter | c.1350 |
ѸǤϡȾ̤Ѥ뷹ޤäƤƤ롥ŪѤδȤʤäƤƤ뤬٤ˡŪʴפ⤢롥ꥹǤ̤ˡȤˡΧ1975ǯꤵƤSex Discrimination Act 1975 ȡˡˡΧϡθѻߤ졤2010ǯ Equality Act 2010 ˼ѤƤ롥
Crystal (314--15) ˤС
Legal changes, such as the Sex discrimination Act in Britain (1975), have caused job titles and much of the associated language to be altered. The written language has been most affected, but there have been signs of change in speech behaviour too. Plainly, the last quarter of the 20th century saw a general raising of consciousness about the issue of linguistic sexism, and this is likely to have a permanent effect upon the language.
Τ褦ʸѻߤηϡΤ褦ˡΧưƤȤϡǤˤҲŪʥȥɤƱˡΧ岡ƤȤߤʤۤŬڤȤΤϡˡΧ䤹ΤϽդˤɽѤŰȻפ뤬ˡΧäդˤޤDZƶڤܤ뤫ϼǤϤʤˤ⤫餺ºݤˤäդˤƤ̤ǤΡִԤѲפǧ뤫ϡ٤κϤ졤ܸδĶˤƤ⸫Ĭή
ϢơѤˤ̤βäˤĤơʲε⻲ȡ
#2655. PCפμԤ ([2016-08-03-1])
#1709. ױǯɽ ([2013-12-31-1])ä The New Revised Standard Version (1990) ɽδŰŪ
#1048. եθʸ mademoiselle ԻѤء ([2012-03-10-1])
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
ε#2970. ʬȯ³ ([2017-06-14-1]) ˰³ơʬ (distinctiones) ꡥCrystal (17) ϡʬȯ¾ζˡηŪȯã¥ȹͤƤ롥
It's difficult to see how punctuation could have developed in a graphic world where scriptura continua was the norm. If there are no word-spaces, there's no room to insert marks. Writers or readers might be able to insert the occasional dot or simple stroke, to show where the sense change, but it would be impossible to develop a sophisticated system that would keep pace with the complex narratives and reflections being expressed in such domains as poetry, chronicles, and sermons. However, once word-spaces became the norm, new punctuational possibilities were available.
Τˡΰ̴طϤ٤ϤĤ褦ʹ뤫⤷ʤ餯ʬŪˤϤ̤ǤȻפΤΡۤɼʵǤϤʤȤΤϡܸͤƤߤʬȤꡤʬ夷ƤʤˤƤ⡤¾ζˡϽʬηŪȯãƤ뤫Ǥϡष¾ζˡʬβ̤ϤʬŪ˲̤Ƥ롥äơεǽȯμȤ顤ʬ¾ζˡȤʬˡߤ٤϶ʤ褦˻פ롥Сʬ¾ε椬ޤäƶˡȯã䤹Ȥ Crystal ϡ̵ȤϷĤʤΤΡɤޤͭʤΤѶŪ˼ȤΤǤϤʤ
Ǥ⡤ʬϡѼԤˤȤäƺǤľŪǴŪñ̤ǤڤΤǤȤǡ¾ζˡܼŪϰ̤ȼĥ뤳ȤޤǽΤ褦˻פ롥ܸΤ褦ʵθʤ顤ϤäƼĥǤʤȤϡʬȤˡˤ餺ȸζʬ餫μʤΩСˤ¾ζˡȯãƤ䤹ȤȤǤϤʤ
Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.
ˤʬ (distinctiones) ˤĤƤϡ#1112. ʬ (1) ([2012-05-13-1])#1113. ʬ (2) ([2012-05-14-1])#2695. Ѹˤʬζ̡ ([2016-09-12-1])#2696. ʬɽꥹȶΥƥȲؤΤ ([2016-09-13-1]) ʤɤȤƤ⡤ʬˤβ߽ФƤȯʤǤꡤᤫ鼫ǼδǤä櫓ǤϤʤȤٳǧƤ
ΤνˤǤϡʬˡĹ³ (scriptura continua) λ夬äCrystal (3)
Word-spaces are the norm today; but it wasn't always so. It's not difficult to see why. We don't actually need them to understand language. We don't use them when we speak, and fluent readers don't put pauses between words as they read aloud. Read this paragraph out loud, and you'll probably pause at the commas and full stops, but you won't pause between the words. They run together. So, if we think of writing purely as a way of putting speech down on paper, there's no reason to think of separating the words by spaces. And that seems to be how early writers thought, for unspaced text (often called, in Latin, scriptura continua) came to be a major feature of early Western writing, in both Greek and Latin. From the first century AD we find most texts throughout the Roman Empire without words being separated at all. It was thus only natural for missionaries to introduce unspaced writing when they arrived in England.
Ѹνˤ˴ؤ¤ꡤűѸޤǤˤϸȸʬ䤹벿餫λŪˡϺ褦ˤʤäƤCrystal (8--9) ˤС͡ˡ¸줿Ȥʰʲΰˤ "Undley bracteate" ˤĤƤϡ#572. ¸ǸŤαʸ ([2010-11-20-1]) ȡˡ
People experimented with word division. Some inscriptions have the words separated by a circle (as with the Undley bracteate) or a raised dot. Some use small crosses. Gradually we see spaces coming in but often in a very irregular way, with some words spaced and others not --- what is sometimes called an 'aerated' script. Even in the eleventh century, less than half the inscriptions in England had all the words separated.
ͤƤߤСΥǥǤ⡤ʬμʤʣ롥URLե̾ʸʤɡͳǶ뷹ˤϡ㤨 "this is an example of separation" ɽȤˡΤ褦ʥꥨͤ (Crystal 8--9 ε⻲ȡˡ
thisisanexampleofwordseparation
this.is.an.example.of.word.separation
this+is+an+example+of+word+separation
this_is_an_example_of_word_separation
this-is-an-example-of-word-separation
thiSiSaNexamplEoFworDseparatioN
ThisIsAnExampleOfWordSeparation
ϡ̣ scriptura continua ɤĤĤȤΤ⤷ʤ³뤹ܸν֤
Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.
#1097. quotation marks ([2012-04-28-1]) ǡѸΰ single double κˤĤϡγĤνˤĤˤҤȤƤߤ褦
ߤδǤϡȡdz顡ɡĤȤΤϼΤ褦˻פ롥εǤߤ褦ˡŪˤεϡ֤ѤϤޤޤפȤޤȤơ֤ޡȤƽȯΤä֤ϤޤפȸäƤơ֤ɤǽפȸʤΤϡѼԤȤ̵ǤΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤϸŪʻˡʤΤ⤷ʤŤϡĤΰ֤ʤäΤǤ롪ˤȤäơɤǰѤ뤫餫ɤ⤽DzȤʤȡȤ碌ƤΤ褦
üԤˤ˸ؤäκƸʻǤСºݡȤʤäΤ褦ʥ뤬ˤʤȡĤʤϿȤʤ롥ơ⤬͵18ˡĤĤΰ䤬ŪѤ褦ˤʤäꤷ18ˤϸͤˤȤäƤϸ줷ۤɶˡ¿Ѥ뤳ȤȤ줿ΤǡMurray εʸˡǤ⡤Τ褦2ŰλѤ侩줿ΤǤ롥ʸإȯãȤȼľˡѡνŤζˡδѤ¥ʤȤˤʤ (Crystal 308--09)
γĤˤĤơȤľ̤⤦1Ĥ꤬äϡѤʣˤޤȤκǸĤΰޤ뤫뤤ϸκǽ˳ΰ֤ȤäǤ롥ȤˤäƤϡλϤȽ줾쳫ĤΰɸȤˡѤǤϳΩưѤƳƤ뤫Τ褦˸ɤ붲줬롥ߺѤƤΤϡλϤϲƳΰդưѤη³ĤΰϰΤνˤդʤȤˡ (Crystal 310) 츫ŪǤϤʤΤ褦СμȹΥХμƤ뤳ȤǼǤ
ŪˤϡɬĤΤǤϤʤäȤ¤դ٤Ǥ롥ĤƤδˤˡϡĤγ̤бΤǤʤȤ˥顼Ȥʤ븽ΥץߥΤ褦ʥȤжˤˤ롤¤ˤ餫δäΤǤ롥
Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.
֥ƥ˻ˤ͡ΰưˤˤäĤɤΤ褦̱²äƤơˤ轻̱뤤϶¸ˤĤơܺ٤Ϥ狼äƤʤľΥ֥ƥ̱Ǥä֥ȿ͡פˤĤƤ⡤ĤɤΤ褦褷ΤˤĤƽ⤢ꡤŪȤʤäƤ롥ʲǤϡ (3--5) (17--22) (7--9) ˰͵ơʽŪʵҤܤƤ
बߤΥ֥ƥ桼饷Φü˵サƤǸŤκפϡ81ǯΤΤȤƤ롥1ǯεдˤϡˤͥǥ륿ͤʸäͤꡤͤĺνĤߤĤĽ夤Ƥ7000--6000ǯˤʤȡϤΦȴڤΥ줿֥ƥǤ롥ǵ4000ǯ̤ܤϤޤꡤд롥κˤϡ٥ꥢȾ礢뤤̥եꥫߤ͡褷Ƥ褦д22--20ˤΦӡ͡ʤȤѤ줿ڴˤʤˤȸƤФνĤäƤơƼʸ⤿餷ӡͤϡ餯äƤȹͤ롥ȡإɽʸϵ18˱ɤκޤǤˤ羮͡ʽĤޤƤ褦
礦ɤκ2ǯˤϡΦΥץ̮ˡ˥ȿͤȸƤФŪνĤޤƤǯۤɤ衼åѡä沤첤ˤƳĥ6ˤϥ֥ƥˤ褷ƼʸôɤФơŴʸ⤿餷Ĥġ˽夯褦ˤʤäʤȿͤȤäƤѰʸäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ줿¿ͤ轻̱Ԥʸȸͭˤ䤫ʸŪΤʤƤȤȤ館ΤŬڤȤϴˤ䤫Ʊäǽ⤢ˡơ֥ƥ˼褷ƤȿͤΤʤǤ濴Ṳ̄ȤǸʬɤ٥륬ͤǤꡤ2ޤǤ˹٤ŴʸȯãƤ²ʬΩƤΥȿͤ1ȾФĤ뤳Ȥˤʤ֥ƥ̱ä
ľδʪ졡ꥹˡʾˡ١ҡӡ2015ǯ
̭ԡˡإꥹˡ١Ǽҡ1998ǯ
ؿ⥤ꥹˡ١Ͻн˼ҡ2002ǯ
衼åѤǤ1300ǯޤǤˡ¿뤤ʣǧ夷ĤĤäˤ衼åѤ͡ʸդή̤ƤȤФϤäեƥ줬 "the language" ǤȤǧꡤʲμ¯ (vernaculars) ϡ⤽ָפ̾ͤʤȻפƤΤǤ롥¯ˤ¯ȤƾΤȸƤӤΤϥƥȤѤä
(Dante Alighieri; 1265--1321) ¯νŪ˲ϤȴƤƤ³ϡꤷⶵʬ (1378--1417) ꡤʩɴǯ (1337--1443) ǡ衼åѽȤ줾ȼĥϤƤäŪʶ˻ޤǤˡޤ֤äǤ˹ȤʣǧϲƤФ꤫夷ƤΤǤ롥λˤơŪʰá֥Х٥פϡ̣ϤƤ (45) Ѥ褦
ưƤΤϡʣιȤơμΧĥˤ˻ۤ¾Ȥΰ㤤˸Ǽ褦ˤʤä衼åѤξˤۤʤʤˤϳơιäƤΰ㤤ޤޤƤơʣθ줬¸ߤ롤Ȥǧ϶롥η̡Ƥãοΰ̣ϸ줿ޤޡ֥Х٥פΰäϡֽȯפΤȤή̤˸Ʊ褦ˡˤʤȡˤϤۤȤɸʤä֥Х٥פο졤Ƥ¯٤ʹߤϷŪäƤƸʣռ졤֥Х٥ŪפȸƤӤи̡ȴ֤ι¹Ԥơ֤ͥ褤㤷ʤ롥
Х٥ŪФǧϡäƥϥͥƥ٥륯ʰ͡--ϻȬǯˤǰȯޡǯϻǯޤǤˡ֥ƥ٥륯פȸƤФƥȽưʹߡȤӤˤʤʤۤ¿ο͡˶ͭƤäη̡Х٥θ졤ʤबäֵθפˤߤθ˾ޤ㲽Ϥ
¿ȡ¿Τʤͥ褤ȤΤϡˤŪʸݤǤ롥Ԥϥݥƥ֡Ԥϥͥƥ֤¦̤ȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ֥塼Ρ֥Х٥סʥܥޥѴǡˤƴΤϡǤ롥ΰƤ˴ʹ֤εѤοȤݥƥ֤¦̤ȡξ˷ʰűξͥƥ֤¦̡ξŪʷϵϡ֥塼2ΩĻΥ衼åѤˡǤ˲Ƥȹͤ٤⤷ʤ¿ȤϳơΩǤ⤢ꡤϸߤζ¥ȤˤĤʤ롥¿ͤʿȤΤϡ¤ȤǤ롥
#2962. ֥塼֥Х٥פϥθҤŤ⤯Ǥ ([2017-06-06-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ظ쵯η١̼ҡ2014ǯ
ѸäˤĤơ1ǯۤε ([2016-06-24-1]) ͡ʥĥäθ⤢ΤǡåץǡȤƤɤ߿ʤƤСѸûˤγפʬ롥
1ǤߤѸ
1.1äεϤ礭 (#898)
1.2äμ˭٤ (##756,309,202,429,845,1202,110,201,384)
1.3Ѹûˤγά (##37,1526,126,45)
2üѤȤϡ
2.1ʤäѤΤ (##46,1794)
2.2Ѥ5W1Hġɤǡï顤ɤΤ褦ˡʤڤꤿΤ (#37)
3ѸθüѤ (#1526)
3.1Φ (--449)
3.1.1ƥ (#1437)
3.2űѸ (449--1100)
3.2.1ȸ (##1216,2443)
3.2.2ƥ (#32)
3.2.3ťΥɸ (##2625,2693,340,818)
3.2.4űѸΤθ (##450,2556,648)
3.3Ѹ (1100--1500)
3.3.1ե (##117,1210)
3.3.2ƥ (##120,1211)
3.3.3Ѹθäεȳ (#985)
3.4Ѹ (1500--1700)
3.4.1ƥ (##478,114,1226)
3.4.2ꥷ (#516)
3.4.3ޥ (##2385,2162,1411,1638)
3.5Ѹ (1700--1900) ȸѸ (1900--)
3.5.1äȯ (##203,616)
3.5.2ν (##874,2165,2164)
4αѸäˤߤˤΰ仺
4.1եȥƥ줫μѸ (#2162)
4.2ưʪɽ魯ñ (##331,754)
4.3ä3ع¤ (##334,1296,335,1960)
4.4Ѹθäζ (##1645,296,1630,1067)
5ߤ̤αѸ
5.1Ѱʳοθ (##873,874,875)
5.2äϻǤФ (##625,631,876,889)
ѸûˤŤߤǺǽפȤʤ3ŦƤ
(1) ѸûˤϡѸ¾θήˤϢưƤ
(2) üѤưŤϡɬפΤߤǤϤʤ
(3) üѤˤ줬Ѥ߾夲Ƥ̤Ȥ3ع¤
#2759. Swift ˤ륢ǥߡΩƤ̤ʤäͳ ([2016-11-15-1]) ǡSwift ΥǥߡΩƤ˰յ John Oldmixon ˤĤƿ줿ǤϡOldmixon Swift ؤͣȿмԤǤȤ Baugh and Cable μĥѤºݤˤ Swift αѸλ˶ᤤѸѤԲƱͤ¾ˤΤˤSwift ϡѸñʤɤŦĤġѸ¯ȷڤƤ16ӤѤǤؤϡΤ褦 Swift αѸѤФȿȯ夬äƤɽԤ1ͤ John Oldmixon (1673--1742) ä⤦1ܤ٤ԡԡȤ Elizabeth Elstob (1683--1756) ̾ʤ櫓ˤϤʤ
Swift αѸλκϡˤҤ٤褦ˡñȤ褦ɽŪħˤäʡ#1947. Swift clipping Ƚ([2014-08-26-1]) ȡˡ餫иǤꡤSwift ΤʤǤϱѸΤߤʤ餺ޥ̤ؤλȥޥξȤ̩ܤ˷ӤĤ¸ߤƤפˡФи̵äΤǤ롥ؼԤФƤǽǶ١פȤŪɾͿƤꡤؼԤܤ㤦Ȥʤä
Elstob ϡܤ륢ؼԤ1ͤäͽۤ褦ˡΥԤȤΤϵǤ롥ƱαѸɤ߽ǤнʬȤˡűѸʸɤߤʤФ꤫ԽǤƤޤۤɤǤ뤫顤κ͵ȯ֤Ͽ䤷Τ٤Ǥ롥1715ǯˤϸűѸܳŪʸˡ The Rudiments of Grammar for the English Saxon Tongue Ǥνʸؤڻ뤹 Swift ؤȿȤκۤȤäƤΤǤ롥
Elstob ϡνʸǡSwift θĿ̾ƤʤֶܤͤפȤɽǰŤ Swift ؤ̵椵ȽñˤĤƤϡƥñ¿ñǤ֤ĤĤ⡤ñϤषǤȿElstob ϡSwift äƥسλפۤȤ⤤롥
Elstob ȽŪȤ櫓ǤϤʤSwift ΥǥߡΩƤϡElstob θűѸʸˡνǻޤǤˤϡ¾塤θߤäƤ1714ǯˡƤԤǤä Anne ˴ʤäƤǤ롥Elstob Oldmixon Τ褦ʡŨפʤСSwift ϽĴˤȤʤ뤳ȤǤȤǽϤ롥ޤ˱Ѹ˱Ѹ륢ǥߡɤⰭ¸ߤʤΤϡ18Ƭ Elstob Τ褦ʥؼԤ̣ʤƻʸ³ƤȤ餫ؤäƤΤ⤷ʤ
ʾ塤13ϡֹ衧ե vs. 륹ȥå֡פȤƼɮ
졡رѸʸˤΤ뤿15ϡ١ҡ2009ǯ
Ѹ calling ϡʼĥä쥸ǡŷȡפ̣롥ư call ̾ȤơָƤ֤ȡפθǤϽѸ줫ʸڤ뤬ŷפθ16ȾΤȤǤ롥OED ˤȡθ (8c) Ǥνϰʲ̤ꡥ
c. A profession devoted to the service of God; an office or position within the church. Hence in extended use: any profession or way of life which a person feels called or destined to pursue.
. . . .
1544 R. Tracy Supplycacion to Kynge Henry VIII sig. Bviiiv, As the byshop is ignorante in Godes worde, so he admytteth suche as be vnlerned in Gods worde, evyn suche as by noo possybylite can execute the office of their callinge.
ֿˤ뾤פǤ뤫顤ȷӤĤƤɽǤ뤳Ȥͽۤ롥ºݡ㤨 KJV 1 Cor. 7.20 ˡ"Let every man abide in the same calling wherein he was called." ȸ롥
ֿˤ뾤פŷפؤΰ̣ѲϡѸ calling Τߤʤ餺ɥĸ Beruf ˤ⸫롥䡤ΤˤСɥĸọ̇ѲбѸ˵ڤȤ٤Ǥ롥Ĥޤꡤΰ̣ (semantic_translation) beroepǥޡ kaldǥ kallelse ƱͤǤ롥
ɥĸϤȤ륲ޥǤΰ̣Ѳϡ16Υ륿ˤ뽡פȴˤƤϹͤʤץƥƥȤ礭ʼҲưȤȼΰ̣ѲζưԤǤ롥ޥåС̾إץƥƥȻܼ (96--97) ꡤBeruf θˤĤƲ⤷սѤ褦˵ǼƤˡ
ơֿ̡ȡפ̣ͥɥĸΡ֥٥롼աסBerufԤȤΤˡޤƱ̣礤ıѸΡ֥סcallingԤȤΤˤƤˡ뽡Ūʡ餢줿̿ (Aufgabe) ȤǰȤƤꡤġξˤθФۤɡ줬ˤʤäƤ뤳ȤϸȤ̻¤⡤θŪˤĤޤޤʸ̱θˤ錄äɵ椷ƤߤȡޤΤꤦΤϡȥå̤ͥʽ̱²ˤ⡤ޤŵξˤ⡤줬¯Ūʿȡʤϰ̡ϫƯΰȤ̣礤ƻȤäƤBerufԡŷפȤθĴĤ褦ɽФȤǤʤΤˡץƥȤͥʽ̱²ξˤʤ餺줬¸ߤ롤ȤȤΤꤦΤϡξ粿餫̱²ŪȤС֥ޥ̱²פθȤäΤͿƤΤǤϤʤơषθȤ줬ĸߤΰ̣礤ͳ褷Ƥꡤ⸶ʸǤϤʤԤͳ褷ƤȤȤåǤϡޤ֥٥ηáס̵ŵΰͤΰĽʰˤǸȤޤäƱ̣ѤƤ褦˻פ롥θޤʤθϡץƥȽ̱²¯ѸΤʤǸߤΰ̣Ĥ褦ˤʤäƤäˤϤ̱²¯Ūʸɤˤ⤳˨ϤޤäǧʤŪʸǤ⡤Τꤦ뤫ꡤɥĿȤΰͤΤۤˤϤǧ뤳ȤǤʤοȤåˤܤƶϼΤΤȤ
礭ʸŪ郎ʸΰ̣ѲǤ롥
ޥåСˡ ͺˡإץƥƥȻܼ١ȽŹ1989ǯ
˥塼ɤ3000km⤫֥å (Cook Islands) ϡ˥塼ɤȼͳϢȤ༫Ǥ롥̾ϡCaptain Cook 1773ǯˤν˾ΦȤˤʤࡥ1888ǯ˥ꥹ°ΤȤʤä塤1901ǯˤϥ˥塼ɤ°ΤذܹԤ1965ǯ17٤οꡤ8٤ݥͥϤΥåޥ²Ǥ롥åޥȱѸ줬Ȥ˸ѸȤʤäƤ롥ʲϿޤǺܡʹޤϡ#2215. NiueѸѸȤƤĺǾιʺǿǡˡ ([2015-05-21-1]) ȡˡ

Avarua Τ Rarotonga 400kmۤɤΤȤˡPalmerston Island Ȥ礬⤫Ǥ롥ǤϡΩΤ褯ΤƤ Palmerston English ȸƤФѸѼ郎äƤ롥Trudgill (100) εҤڤ褦
Palmerston English is spoken on Palmerston Island (Polynesian Avarau), a coral atoll in the Cook Islands about 250 miles northwest of Rarotonga, by descendants of Cook Island Maori and English speakers. William Marsters, a ship's carpenter and cooper from Gloucestershire, England, came to uninhabited Palmerston Atoll in 1962. He had three wives, all from Penrhyn/Tongareva in the Northern Cook Islands. He forced his wives, seventeen children and numerous children to use English all the time. Virtually the entire population of the island today descends from the patriarch. Palmerston English has some admixture from Polynesian but is probably best regarded as a dialectal variety of English rather than a contact language.
¾åδܾϡCIA: The World Factbook ˤ Cook Islands̳ʤΥååǡȡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
1ۤɤδ֤ˡ֥Х٥ߤεĤƤtower_of_babel) Ѵ֥塼֥Х٥ŸŤƤΤ˰äƽƤΤ褦䤯Ѵۤؤˬ̤
֥塼Ρ֥Х٥סʥܥޥѴǡˤμʪվޤäơˤĤɾȤ¤¿̣ͤ襤褦ʤ֥塼ϤΤ褦Τ褦طʤȤȤΤʤ1568ǯȤΤΰտޤϲʤΤ˽äŪʹۤʤΤ뤤Ϥռ˼äڴŪʻäΤ뤤ξɾɤǤʪƤ⡤ĤʤޤޤǤ롥
֥塼Ρ֥Х٥פ16衼åѽ¯Ȥȹ̱γΩȤ괬ҲŪĬδɤ߲ȤΤˡߤˤ롥Ҳ𤷤褦
Υ衼åѤζȤϡƥΤӤ졤ä¯ (vernacular) (national language) ȤƬƤȤĬήΤʤˤäȤȤΩƤ뤳Ȥ⳰Τ餷ʤȤơҤФʳΩ̳ȹͤƤǤСꤷǸҤṮ̌˹顦뤳Ȥǽ㤨СեϡեΤ褦ϰ̤֤Τˡۤɤλ֤ȥͥ륮פʤäȤ˼ϤСˤϤ롥
Ϥä˥ץƥȽȤϡγΩ˼ּäǡ餬ҤŤˡȤƺѤΤϡˤθҤտ路Ƥߤʤ졤θθȹͤƤإ֥饤礤˽ФȤθŪϢޤȤ䤫⤯Ȥάäơɥĸ䥪줬餳ǥإ֥饤ȷӤĤ褦ˤʤä
θҤŤλߤˤĤơ (83--85) εҤѤ롥
ϻȬǯʹߡڥλۤæ뤿ᡤȬǯ˵ڤΩ줿͡ǥȤǤϡǯˤϻǯȥڥĮԤȤƳưʤ줪Ӹθ˾Ǯϥͥԥ٥̥ʥեۥסˡʰް--ǯˤإȥڥε (Origines Antwerpianae)٤θϡֿפޤ줿ΤǤꡤǤϸդȻʪͭŪʴطäƤƤطŵϥ˸Ф롤⤤ͳϤȤСȥڥͤǤ륭֥ͤϥڥȤľϤλ¹ǤꡤڥȤλ¹ϡ֥Х٥פβˤʤä˸κȤ졤ƥȥڥͤθ¸ȤΤǤ롥ԥ٥̥ϡ츻ˤߤʤ顤줬ñ¿äƤ뤳ȡ˭¾ΤˤޤäƤ뤳ȡʣ߽ФϤäƤ뤳Ȥ˼褦ȤƱͤλߤϽäƤ⸫졤ϻǯ˴Ԥ줿ɥꥢեǥʰϻ--ϻǯˤΡŨмԤν (Adversariorum libri)٤Ǥϡ֤˥إ֥饤ϿŪǸΤΤǤ뤫ס֤ɤΤ褦ˤƤΤȤ˥塼ȥ̥ͤΤפξߤƤ롥
ΤȤޤǺǤ褯Τ֥Х٥פԡƥ롦֥塼ʰ--ϻǯˤԥ٥̥ƱƱȥڥdzưեɥβȤäȤ¤ΰ̣˵Ť֥塼뤬¸ΡԥХ٥դϰϻǯκ˸Ϥƽϻ齽ˤ¿Ρ֥Х٥פγĤԤõʤ顤إɥꥯե졼ʰ--ȬǯˤˤƤ⡤٥롦ޡʰ--ϻǯˤˤƤ⡤ȥڥdzưեɥβȤǤ롥϶ΰפǤϤʤκ˾ħ͡κʾλ¤ϼƤ롥ƥ衼åѤǤϡϤˡ֥Х٥פΩ
¯Ȥȹ̱γΩ̳ȹͤƤǤϡꥹ㳰ǤϤʤꥹ⡤͡ʺϮƹ줿ѸθҤŤ忴ζȤ⡤˹¿ƤȤäƤǤϤʤơθ塤ȴ֤ζФơǽṲ̄ͥΩäΤꥹǤꡤˤäƹŪʸҤιޤäΤѸǤäФγ٤ǤϤ뤬֥塼֥Х٥פϡѸŪˤվޤ롥
ظ쵯η١̼ҡ2014ǯ
ѸˤǤϡѸĤޤʸǤȤΥͥϡ̤ΥƥäѤ줿ȤħŤƤ롥Υ (inkhorn_term) ܥ֥Ǥ¿夲ޤˡ֥ƥ줫֤פλäȤ˲٤ڤƤ
ε#2960. ˸ˤʬΰյ ([2017-06-04-1]) ǻȤ˲ȤΥ롦դϡषΤۤƥ줫֤줷ƤȤݤεŸƤ롥ʲϢս (104--05) Ѥ롥
ϤޤαĹǡϸ˴ؤ뤢礭ʿȤ롥Ԥ¯ȤθǤäƥ줬ꥹȶ줿ϰ˹줿ΤǤ롥ŵƥ줫ߤѲƤΤΡΥƥϥ衼åѤθŪäŤϽꤢȤǤĤäΤǤ롥κҲκDzؤǡˤʤΥƥꡤȤХեΤ褦¯줬Ѥ褦ˤʤ롥ϡͥϤ뤫ˡ֥ƥʤΤ
ƥ줫֤λǤȤĥϡ츫̷⤹ʪˤʹ뤬Ǥϡ֥ƥס֤֤פΰ̣ۤʤäƤ롥ˤơ֥ƥפȤϸŵƥȤϡȤƥ졤뤤¯ƥǤ롥ޤǤϡμ餬ռŪ˥ƥˡ֤֤פƤȤϡषꥹȶϰ褬ʤΰȤƥƥǤȤ̣ˤơ֤֤äȤȤ
̤γ٤餳ͤС֥ƥס֤֤פβΰ㤤פդСߤ̷ϲä졤ͥȤˡ֥ƥ줫֤פλȸ롤ȤȤˤʤ롥ϡξδ֤ǤϤʤϢ³ߤˡ1Ĥ
Ҥ뤬äƱѸˤäƥñμѤϡΤ˽Ѹ˸ͭħʤɤǤϤʤѸˤ⡤űѸˤ⡤űѸλˤ⸫줿˸СѸǤ⸽ѸǤ⸫ΤǤʡ#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1]) ȡˡˤäơƥüѤμ̡ʸ̮Ϥ줾ۤʤ뤳ȤϳΤ碌ƱѸˤ줹ӤήȤߤʤϢ³ФȤϡޤäǽǤ뤷յ롥
ƻΥƥüѤˤĤƤϡʲεȡ
#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1])
#1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ ([2014-08-24-1])
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])
#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1])
#1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ ([2012-08-20-1])
#478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ ([2010-08-18-1])
#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1])
#2385. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸä (2) ([2015-11-07-1])
åᥴաˡ ˡػʬɬפ١ƣŹ2016ǯ
Ѹˡ뤤ϰ̤˸̸ˤλʬˤĤơperiodisation εǹͻƤˤϡ˰Ūʰ̣ˤˤλʬˤĤƹͤʤФʤʤλͤȤ٤ᥴաˡػʬɬפ٤ɤ
ԤϡλˤˤƥͥȤϡμ뿷٤ǤϤʤ18ȾФޤ³ĹκǽˤʤȤλʬθľäƤ롥ˤȡΤζ18ȾФϤޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ޤΥХ벽Ŭڤ˼ˤλʬɬפȤĥƤ롥ԤϡʬȤϡ϶ڤʤϢ³ΤȤƤλ֤ȤڤäƤȤ館뤿ѶŪѤ٤ƻǤꡤƻϽǤʤФʤʤȤΩäƤ롥ʲ롦դΰѽ
θաֻ̡ʬסͤΤϿʹ֤֤ФƯ٤Ǥꡤζڤ꤬ΩǤϤʤȤ¤ĴƤ롥ܽǤϡʹ֤֤˶ڤäݤΤޤޤͳ餫ˤƤͳɤ٤餵ޤǡϤä꼫ǧ줿ΤϾˤ뤬ФФˤϡ餬Ϳ̣Ȳͤ⤭Ħˤ褦źƤ롥
֤˶ڤ뤳ȤˤˤȤäɬפǤΤϡˤҲοʲθ桤ޤüʥפΤ䡤뤤Ϥޤñʤ֤οܤȤỤ̄ǤȤ館Ǥ롥ζڤϡñ˻Ū魯ΤǤϤʤˤƱˡܹԤžȤͤɤλμҲʹѤꤵ⤬ɽƤΤäƻˤ̤ʰ̣롥οܤΤΡ뤤ϤοܤŪϢ³䤽εդǤ⤿餹ˤơ˲Ȥνפ䤤ʤоݤȤʤäƤΤǤ롥 (12--13)
ʬϡ֤郎ΤȤ뤿Ρष֤Ѥ뤿νˤʤ뤬ȤˤϤɾˤޤĤ뤵ޤޤ꤬⤫Ӥ롥ˤ˶ʬȤȤϡʣʹ٤Ǥ롥ˤϼȡʤ٤¿οͤ˼̤߽ФȤϤȤƱ˹Ƥ롥ϤؤˤθоݤǤȻϻפ (15)
ʬϿͰ٤Ǥꡤ椨ǤʤСʵѤǤʤˤΤΤΰܤѤȤȤˡʬѤ롥̣ǡʬͭˤĤ¦̤롥ʬϲλ֤褯ۤΤΩĤޤʹ֤ΤˤȤƻΤ⤭Ħˤ⤷ƤΤǤ롥 (36)
ʸХ벽濴Ūϰ̤äޡˤλʬθ§Ϻ뤵褦ˤʤäƤ뤬ʬ˲ȤˤȤäɬפƻȤȤϼȻפäƤ롥ʬϤѤʤФʤʤͤˤλʬפϤư礱ƤΤϡν𤵤ʤΤ (100--01)
ˤλʬݤĤȤϲǽǤꡤݤʤФʤΤȻפߤ˻ۤӤƤĤ礭ĬήĹ³ˤȥХ벽ʸԤϤ˥ꥫΥɥҥȥޤƤˤϡɤʬλѤޤΤǤϤʤ꤫Ƹפʤ³ȷפ֤϶¸Ƥ롥ʬϡ¤줿ʸΰˤŬѤ뤳ȤǤʤХ벽ȤϡΤȤˤΤޤȤޤΤδطĤ뤳ȤʤΤ
ä˲Ȥϡ褯뤳ȤХ벽Ȳ첽ƱƤϤʤʤΤХ벽ˤĤʳ롥ޤϸߤΤʤϰʸΤ˥ߥ˥طΩ롥ĤŤơۼϲƤݤ롥ޤǿबθΤϡΤʳΤߤǤ롥
Τ褦˻ʬϡ˲ȤθȹͻҤʰʬˤʤäƤ롥ʬΤǡबɤʤդȿʲƤΤ餫ˤʤΤǤ롥³ΤʤǡΤʤǡ (187--88)
ѸˤλʬǰƬ֤ĤġʬȤϤޤƻǤꡤȾˤäƽѹ٤ΤȹͤƤ롥ȤäơʬβͤǧƤʤ櫓ǤϤޤäʤषˤİȵҤΤ˿ŤѤ٤֤եȤƥХ벽ѸȤˤ椹ˤäơλʬΰյϡ˹ͤƤɬפȻפ
ѸˤλʬŪˤĤƤϡȤ櫓#2640. Ѹˤλʬ ([2016-07-19-1])#2774. ʬˤĤƵƤߤ ([2016-11-30-1]) Ȥ줿
åᥴաˡ ˡػʬɬפ١ƣŹ2016ǯ
ʪ졡ؤˡ٤路ƣ (37) ϡŪưȤƤοؤüȤưʲƤ롥
ʹݤڤФƤŪоݤβưȡ
оݤǧ˴ؤʲ2ˤĤưŪʥ뤳ȡ
ߥŪ¦̡оݤ갷ݤζɽŪήδĴ
ޥŪ¦̡ηΤŪͤȽǤࡥ
ؤξ硤ǽϡֿפȤʪʪǤ뤫Τ褦˰Ȥ롥2ܤˤĤƤϡߥŪ¦̤ȤϷˡˡʤɤؤޥŪ¦̤ȤϿؤˤĤľѤ뿳¸ߴΤ褦ʤΤؤΤ褦ʥޥŪ¦̤ϡˤȤä̵ͣΤǤϤʤषźʸγơäƤȼΡֿؤ餷פб롥
ơŪưνüؿϡ줬ؤ伫ʳذʳˤŬѤ뤳ȤǤ롥ƣ (38--39) ϡ1ȤƴηϤƤ롥
桹Żο顤ȤΤͤμѼڤФ줿٤ŪʳǰŪħǤ뤳ȡƤ¸μɽηΤΤȤƤμĤȤؤ֤ȤǤ롥Τߤʤ餺դ䲾ڤȤäϻˤǼηϤäƤȡƤ줬ºߤγǰȵҴѲȤб§̤ơ¤Բʬδطˤ뤳Ȥ´뤳ȤǤ롥
Ϥˤ̤ơñʤʸȤƤΤߵǽȤΤǤϤʤäʸǤȤȤˡޤͼμ¸ξǤꡤ̤ƤλۤɽǤ뤳ȤǤ šشɴá١ (1978) 159--160ǡ
ϴηϤˤμʳؤǤäȤͺۤʪäƤ롥
ºݤΤȤŪưüϡؤΤߤʤ餺¿γ䵭ηϤ˸ΤǤϤʤʳءˤꡥǤϡȤŪ¸ߤŪǤνȤƼβ롥ޤ͡ʥ٥ǶɽŪ˺ѤʸˡפȸƤФ뵬§ꤵƤ롥ơΤȤ1ĤѤƤ롥
ˡηϼΤŪưʣΤǤȤߤʤȤǤ㤨Сʸˡʡˡ֤ʤɤʸˡ (category) γơ嵭üͭ1ĤŪưǤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ָ餷פθǤϲ䤤Фǽοءˤ¸ߤΤ⤷ʤ
ƣ ʸʪ졡ؤˡ١ҡӡ2009ǯ
#2954. 㥬θƤ̾ ([2017-05-29-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ㥬16˿ΦΦػޤ졤衼åѤǤ17--18δ֤˾←ʪȤ夷Ƥä17ˤϡ衼åѤ褬ʤäΤ4ǯȤۤɤǤꡤʤĵδ䲽ˤ⸫줿äᡤϤιѤʤߡȯڤ˴ƤʤäΥ衼åѿͤϡǽϥ㥬ⵤ̣äƼդʤäΤΤ˻ʤȡˤοʪƤƤä
衼åѽǺǤ㥬줿ΤϡɤäɿͤͦäȤϡƱϤǤϤäȤȤΰʥιϤϡ17ȾФΥ०ˤå衤ꥹͤäƤꡤɿͤ϶ǴΤĤĤɤƤ㥬ϤΤ褦ϤǤĹʪȤơʤǸߤιˤȤơ졤줿ΤǤ롥
ɤˤ른㥬Ƴθ̤Ͽä1780ǯ400ͤäϡ1841ǯˤƤľ1845--48ǯ˥㥬¤衼å˹ޤꡤɤϺǷ㥬ñʥΥ㡼ˤؤȤʤäΤǤ롥Υ㥬 (The Great Famine; An Gorta Mór) ϡɤ100ͤȤ⤤ԤФȤȤˡ¿οꥫذ̱Ȥʤä
ɤΥ㥬ϡ¤ȤŷҤȥΥ㡼װȤ뤬ƣ (64) ϡּҲ¤פǤֱѹˤäƤĤ줿פǤȤ֥ɤΥ㥬ñʥΥ㡼ˤΤ椨˵äΤȤ롥ѹˤϤȺʪθåΤȡĤ줿Фȴפ餱ζϤǥɹ̱Ĥˤϡ㥬ñȤʤäΤס
ǤϡʪƳ鵲˻ϢΥɡ㥬ˤϡѸˤȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤӤɿͤϡθ塤Ωƻ߽ФŪˤϥɱѸ (irish_english) ȤäʱѸѼΩƤäޤ˲Ф褦˥ꥫذܽӤɿͤϡ̱²ĤȤƥꥫҲ˺ĥꡤŪˤϥꥫѸηˤ⤪餯ιʤꥹͤˤ륢ɻۤϡˤ⡤ꥹѼ¤ŪΤ2ĤѸѼȯãŪ˿ʤȤˤʤ롥
ɡʱѸˤˤˤĤƤϡʲε⻲Ȥ줿
#328. ݤ⤿餷ʤ⤷ʤ will / shall θ ([2010-03-21-1])
#327. Irish English American English Ϳƶ ([2010-03-20-1])
#762. ꥶ٥Ūʥˬ ([2011-05-29-1])
#2361. ǯɽ ([2015-10-14-1])
ƣ ϼإ㥬ˡ١ҡӡ2008ǯ
䡦ꥹȶˤСͣΤΤǤäʹ֤θ졤ʤ "the language" ϡ֥Х٥פλ˥ХХΥʣθ졤ʤ "languages" ȤʤäȤ롥ŪѤϡΤθ쵯ȸȻˤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤˤʤȡФȽŪʸΩƤ
ˤơ18λ۲ȤǸεˤĤƤν路 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712--78) θϡػŪ˶̣륽ϡäƤθηϸĤäƤʤΤǤϤʤޤ֥Х٥װˤ줬ΥƤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥Mufwene (20) β
Rousseau questioned the Adamic hypothesis on the origins of modern language, arguing that the language that God had taught Adam and was learned by the children of Noah perished after the latter abandoned agriculture and scattered. Modern language is therefore a new invention . . . . Rousseau may have been concerned more about the diversification of the language that Noah's children had spoken before they dispersed than about the origins of language itself. He assumed the speciation to have happened before the Tower of Babel explanation in the Judeo-Christian tradition.
λߤС륽Τθϡ˾θƤȤϡػ˾ΰյĤ˲ʤϤ٤δ֤֤֡СΥ¿ͲƤΤǤȤξQŪʸꤷΤȤɾͤ롥
Mufwene (20) ϡʹ֤θǽϤȯˤĤƤε¿ͲˤĤƤϽʬ˵ƤʤȻŦƤ롥Τˡ¿ͲβˤĤƤϡޥˤߥˤ⡤ؤȤƤäܼŪʹͻʤƤ٤Ȥϴ롥ϢơηܿؤʤɤΥɤפ⤫֡
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013.
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow