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[2010-08-26-1]εǸ褦ˡŪ do ( do-periphrasis ) ϡѸ˵ʸʸ濴ȯãƤѸˤ礭ʻ鸫ȡȯŸŪ ( synthetic language ) ʬŪ ( analytic language ) ؤȿʤǤѸȯŸή˱äƤ롥
do, does, did ưȤѤ뤳Ȥˤäơ³ưϤʤǤ⸶ȤкѤळȤˤʤ롥ο;ΡȻ do, does, did äƤΤǡư줬3ñ˶ޤɬפʤʤ뤫Ǥ롥ήǤСʸʸ˸¤餺ʿʸǤ do-periphrasis ȯã뤳Ȥ⽽ʬˤºݤˡ16ˤϡ˶ĴްդˡȤϹͤʤ˱Ū do λѤʿʸڤƤꡤdo ϤϩǤΤ褦ˤߤ롥
Ȥ[2010-08-26-1]Υդ˼Ƥ̤ꡤʿʸǤ do λѤ17ʹߡΰӤɤ롥Ѹˤή˵դ餦Τ褦ʤθݤϤɤΤ褦ΤNurmi ( p. 179 ) ϼҲŪʻ餳ܶᤷNevalainen ( pp. 109--10, 145 ) ˿Ƥ Nurmi Ҳ𤷤褦
ɥϰˤʿʸǤ do λѤϡ17κǽ10ǯǸƤȤ Nevalainen ˤ Corpus of Early English Correspondence Υǡ鼨ˡ17ƬȤС1603ǯ˥åȥɲ James VI ɲ James I Ȥ¨̤ȤŪʽ Stuart īγϡˤäΥåȥɱѸ ( Scots-English ) ǤϹʸǤαŪ do λѤϵäȤ졤Ѽƥɥꤷ James I μդμԤθҤΩ줫ɥäѼ˱ƶͿΤǤϤʤȤ
βϿŤ˸ڤɬפ뤬ѲҲŪʴ褦ȤǶĬή˱ạ̈Ǥ롥
Nurmi, Arja. A Social History of Periphrastic DO. Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki 56. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1999.
Nevalainen, Terttu. An Introduction to Early Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
[2010-06-24-1]ǥե٥åȤˤγάϡǶḫĤե٥åȤˤ˴ؤɼʥ֥Ҳ𤷤The origins of abc ϵ4ǯ˥ͤѤܸʸ ( cuneiform ) ä⤭줫5ǯαѸ26ʸΥե٥åȤλѤޤǤˤ̿ޤޤƶ̣ޤȤƤ롥ΥȤαļԤ graphic designer ǡtypography ̴߽ܺΥꥹ͡ <A, a> 1ʸǤޤǤĹƻΤǤȤΤ褯⤵Ƥ롥
ˤȡե٥åȤεˤεϡ[2010-06-24-1]ǽҤ٤2ǯȾ˥ѥ쥹ʤ䥷ꥢǹԤƤ North Semitic ǤϤʤ⤦ᤤΥץȤʸ̤ΤǤϤʤȤ1999ǯ˥ץȤ Wadi el-Hol 2Ҥʸȯ졤˸ <A> ʸεȤʤƬɤä 'aleph ֵפʸޤƤȤʥ 'aleph ϡֵפֲ̣ȡפɽ魯 beta ȹ碌Ƥ줾1ʸ2ʸȤ졤ʸηϤ alphabet ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤä˵19˥ץȤϤȯãʸηϤѥ쥹ʤ䥷ꥢꡤ襢ե٥åȤεȤƤ North Semitic ϢʤäΤǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥
Υ abc Ȥ¤ӽϸ奻ν֤ƧΤΰ̣Ϥʤ褦Ǥʶܡp. 52ˡդѸˤȤưäƤϰϤϤäǤ롥ե٥åȤˡʸˤƧȡǯȤܤŤͶ뤳ȤˤʤꡤɤƬɤĤƤʤƱν˥θԤ뤬űѸѸäƤȼʬ֤˷Τ褦ʵʬˤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ롥ʸˤĹ
رѸ١ؽDz2005ǯ.
ICEHL-16 γزǥϥ˹ԤäƤϥθѸΥϥ ( Hungarian, Magyar ) ϥ衼åѤˤʤ²Ǥʤ² ( Uralic ) °Ƥ֥θפ²ΤʤǤե=ɡ췲°ǡEthnologue ξˤ1000ͤüԤꡤ²ȤƤϺθǤ롥ޤ²ΤʤǺǤŤ12ʸĤäƤ롥
ΤȤʤ²ΰۤʤѸȤϸŪ˱ʸŪʤĤʤ⤽ۤ¿ϤʤΤǡѸʻˡˤȷӤĤΤǤ롥θäۼƤѸΤȤʤΤǡϥñ⤤ĤѸǤ롥OED ˤȤä30ʾϤ褦
ߤΤʤñ줬¿ϥɽȤ goulash ֥åפΤƤ롥ޥͥѥץꥫ饦Ѥӡե塼ǡܤϥ gulyās (hūs) "herdsman's (meat)" ͳ褷Ѹˤ19νäƤε9̤롥ޥ㡼͡ Magyar; ϥμ̱²ˤӻӤҤ˽ФȤˡ塼礵ΤӤΰޤǺäޤ˵ͤƽФȤǥ塼ᤷƿ٤褦Υȥ
goulash ˤ̤äƤ paprika ϥ줫ä̤Хӥ pàper ˻ؾղä pàprìka ˹Ԥ夭θϥꥷ páperi "pepper" Ǥ롥礷ϥޥȥ饷ǿ̣ʤɤǤ֤ˤƤޤĤϥڥɡꥫʤɽ⤢ϥǤϤʤιϥϥξħȤʤäƤꡤϥ "rose paprika" ʼΥѥץꥫȤ롥paprika ϱѸؤϤϤ19νäƤ
¾ˤϡϥ̲ forint Ƥϥ̲ߤȤƤ1946ǯꤵ줿Τϸťꥢ fiorino ̤ꡤ1252ǯ Florence ǺǽȯԤ줿 florin ֥եߡפƱǤ롥Ųߤ˥β ( ťꥢ fiore ֲ֡ ) 뤳Ȥ餳̾Ĥ̳ˤϥΥ桼ϤޤΤ褦
ѸˤߤȯɤˤĤơܥ֥ǤϤޤ controversy, harass, Caribbean ȶ夲Ƥɤ ( fluctuation ) ȤȤϸѲμǤѰ ( variation ) ȤȤǤꡤѲޤ˵äƤ뤳ȤΤȹͤ롥
[2010-05-31-1]εǸѸ˵äƤѲɽŪʤΤ礴ȤäȯˤĤơɤƤ㡤βѲˤƤȡѲå㡼ȤƤȹͤǡLongman Pronunciation Dictionary ȯĴ ( Pronunciation Preference Polls ) Ǽ夲Ƥ롤ɤե٥åȽ˼ФƤߤȯĴη̤ȤȤ˾ܤ⤵ƤФʤΤǡѲδϡܸפȤߤʤƤ褤ɤδϱƺ庹˴ؤΤ¿줴Ȥ˰ۤʤäƤΤǤΰϤޤܰ¤ªƤޤsay ϸФȤƤ say ȤʤäƤ뤬ºݤɤ3ñ says ȯ [sez] [seɪz] ȤʤΤǡġˤĤƤϼȤ줿
absorb, absurd, accomplish, address, adult, again, ally, almond, alto, amphitheater, applicable, Asia, associate, association, assume, asterisk, ate, attitude, auction, aunt, baptize, bath, because, bedroom, been, bequeath, booth, bouquet, brochure, broom, capsize, caramel, Caribbean, casual, caviar, chance, chromosome, chrysanthemum, cigaret, circumstance, citizen, clandestine, coffee, communal, complex, congratulate, contribute, controversy, costume, coupon, covert, cream, create, creek, crescent, cyclical, data, debris, debut, decade, defect, deity, delirious, demonstrable, depot, deprivation, detail, diagnose, diphthong, direct, direction, discount, dispute, dissect, distribute, donate, drama, drastic, due, during, economic, ecosystem, egotistic, electoral, electronic, envelope, ephemeral, equation, equinox, evolution, exasperate, exit, exquisite, extraordinarily, falcon, false, February, fiance, finance, financial, forehead, formidable, garage, gibberish, giga-, Glasgow, gone, gradual, graph, greasy, H, halt, handkerchief, harass, herb, hero, historic, homogeneous, homosexual, hurricane, ice, idea, ideology, illustrate, impious, incomparable, increase, inherent, innovative, inquiry, insurance, involve, irrefutable, issue, jump, jury, justifiable, juvenile, kilometer, lamentable, lather, lawyer, length, -less, licorice, longitude, lure, luxurious, luxury, maintain, mall, malpractice, marry, masquerade, Massachusetts, mayonnaise, measure, migraine, mischievous, Muslim, necessarily, necessary, nephew, new, newspaper, niche, nuclear, often, ogle, omega, ominous, one, onerous, opposite, oral, orange, ordinary, pajama, palm, patriotic, patronise, perpetual, plaque, plastic, poem, Polynesia, poor, predecessor, premature, Presley, prestigious, presume, primarily, princess, privacy, process, project, protester, puncture, quagmire, quarter, questionnaire, real, really, regulatory, research, resource, respiratory, restaurant, room, route, salt, sandwich, say, scallop, schedule, schism, scone, semi-, shortcut, simultaneous, situation, soot, sorry, soviet, spectator, stereo, strength, student, submarine, subsidence, substantial, suggest, suit, sure, syrup, thanksgiving, thespian, tinnitus, tomorrow, transferable, transistor, transition, translate, tube, tune, umbrella, usage, vacation, vehicle, via, visa, voluntarily, were, white, with, year, yours, youth, zebra
ƤǶäΤϡե٥åȤ8ʸܤ H ꥹѸμǯؤ [heɪtʃ] ȯ褦ˤʤäƤƤȤȤLPD ΰʲĴ̤ȡ

Irish English Ǥ [heɪtʃ] ɸȤȤΤʤä[h] æ spelling-pronunciation ˤˤĤƤϡޤǤĤεǰäƤʸ̾ȤƤ H ȤؤäƤȤϡ
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
ѸѸʸˡ ( grammatical gender ) ⤿ʤǡΤʤͣȤϸʤޤǤʸǤ롥űѸˤ3̤ƤѸ衤οȼäʸˡۣȤʤꡤʪŪ˴Ť ( natural gender ) ؼä줿ѸؽԤΩ줫餹ȡʸˡȤ츫ԿԤʸˡƥ줿ȤˤäƳؽڤˤʤäȤϴְ㤤ʤʸˡηǡѸμפħ1ĤȤʤǤ ( see [2009-09-25-1] )
⤽ĸ ( Proto-Indo-European ) 3̤ƤȤ졤ζ̤ϸűѸޤ¿θ˰Ѥ줿̤¿θ3ζ̤2˺ꡤѸΤ褦˶̤ΤΤä⾯롥ϡʸˡζʬƤߤ褦
ʲϡWikipedia Grammatical gender Noun class: Languages without noun classes or grammatical genders ͤ˸ɤȤˤޤȤɽǤ롥[2010-07-26-1], [2009-06-17-1]դΰޤįʤǧ줿Gender άϰʲ̤ꡥ
MFN = 3
MF = Ƚ2
CN = Ƚͻ礷 "common gender" ˤ2
0 = ʸˡζ̤ʤ
| Language | Subfamily | Gender |
|---|---|---|
| Albanian | Albanian | MF |
| Hittite | Anatolian | CN |
| Armenian | Armenian | 0 |
| Latvian | Italic | MF |
| Lithuanian | Balto-Slavic | MF |
| Belarusian | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Bosnian | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Bulgarian | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Croatian | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Czech | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Macedonian | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Old Prussian | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Polish | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Russian | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Serbian | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Serbo-Croatian | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Slovak | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Slovene | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Sorbian | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Ukrainian | Balto-Slavic | MFN |
| Breton | Celtic | MF |
| Cornish | Celtic | MF |
| Irish | Celtic | MF |
| Scottish Gaelic | Celtic | MF |
| Welsh | Celtic | MF |
| Gaulish | Celtic | MFN |
| Old Irish | Celtic | MFN |
| Afrikaans | Germanic | 0 |
| English | Germanic | 0 |
| Danish | Germanic | CN |
| Dutch | Germanic | CN |
| Low German | Germanic | CN |
| Swedish | Germanic | CN |
| Faroese | Germanic | MFN |
| German | Germanic | MFN |
| Icelandic | Germanic | MFN |
| Norwegian | Germanic | MFN |
| Old English | Germanic | MFN |
| Yiddish | Germanic | MFN |
| Greek | Hellenic | MFN |
| Bengali | Indo-Iranian | 0 |
| Persian | Indo-Iranian | 0 |
| Hindi | Indo-Iranian | MF |
| Punjabi | Indo-Iranian | MF |
| Romani | Indo-Iranian | MF |
| Urdu | Indo-Iranian | MF |
| Gujarati | Indo-Iranian | MFN |
| Marathi | Indo-Iranian | MFN |
| Sanskrit | Indo-Iranian | MFN |
| Catalan | Italic | MF |
| Corsican | Italic | MF |
| French | Italic | MF |
| Galician | Italic | MF |
| Italian | Italic | MF |
| Occitan | Italic | MF |
| Portuguese | Italic | MF |
| Sardinian | Italic | MF |
| Sicilian | Italic | MF |
| Spanish | Italic | MF |
| Venetian | Italic | MF |
| Latin | Italic | MFN |
| Romanian | Italic | MFN |
Ѹˤ礭ϤĤ뤬Τ1Ĥ˱Ū do ( do-periphrasis ) ȯã롥ѸǤϽư do ϵʸʸĴʸǽиѸѸϤ do ˡϤޤΩƤʤϡʸ Do you go? Go you? Ǥäʸ I don't go. I go not. ʤɤȤкѤdo-periphrasis Ѹ˳ΩͳˤĤƤϽ⤬ƤƤ뤬ϤʤߤǤ̤͡鸦椬³Ƥ롥
do-periphrasis ΩˤĤƤϡʤȤ٤ѲȤǸ椬ʤƤʸʸΤ do Ѥʤ跿ñ ( simplex ) do Ѥ ( periphrastic ) Ȥȡ礬Ѹ ( 1500--1700ǯ ) ˰쵤äȤΤƤ롥
ʲϡѸ˳̤ƹΤƤ Ellegård ˤ do-periphrasis ȯãդǤ롥, p. 74 ˺ƷǤƤͤ˴ŤƺľΡͤHTMLȡ˹ʿʸ ( aff[irmative] declarative ) ʿʸ ( neg[ative] declarative ) 굿ʸ ( aff[irmative] interrogative ) 굿ʸ ( neg[ative] interrogative ) ̿ʸ ( neg[ative] imperative ) ȾʬƤ롥

ʸǤ do-periphrasis λѤŪȯŸƳƤäȤ狼롥ºݤˤϸġưˤä do-periphrasis 뷹ϰۤʤꡤʸǤ care, know, mistake ʤɤʸǤ come, do, hear, say ʤɤμݼŪǤäOgura ˤȡŪװҲʸŪװư٤ʤɤʣߺѤ do-periphrasis λ˳礷Ƥä褦
Ellegård, A. The Auxiliary Do. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1953.
ס ԡŪˤ븽αʸˡ3ǡ罤ۡ1997ǯ
Ogura, Mieko. "The Development of Periphrastic Do in English: A Case of Lexical Diffusion in Syntax. Diachronica'' 10 (1993): 51--85.
ϸ츻ͿƤ륪饤Ҳ𤷤Ūʥ饤αѸ츻 Online Etymology Dictionary ̤Υ饤θ츻ˤʤΤ롥Ѹ츻̤CGIʰǡɤ
(1) ͣܳɥ饤츻
Online Etymology Dictionary: Douglas Harper ˤܳŪʸ츻ǯꡥѸ츻̤CGIʰǡǤ⤪äˤʤäƤޤᡥ
(2) 츻ٶˤʤ뤪μ
Dictionary.com: ǯꡥThe Random House dictionary Collins English Dictionary ʤɤʣμεҤ٤Τᡥ
The Free Dictionary: American Heritage Dictionary of the English Dictionary Collins English Dictionary ˴Ťʷʸ츻٤ޤthesaurus ξäƤͭѡñʤǤʤϢ줬ΤǡˤΩġᡥ
Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: Ϸθ츻Ȥͭѡǯꡥ
ڡ륯θ츻ŵ: ܸʬ䤹ϢΰФΤǡѤǤ롥
(3) ̣ʤɤΤĤǤ˸츻ڤΤꤿȤ
Oxford Dictionaries Online - English Dictionary and Thesaurus: Ϸޤμ˴ʷʸ츻ꡥOrigin ɤߤ䤹
Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913 + 1828): ܳɼʵǡˤθ츻
HyperDictionary.com: Ʊ Webster (1913) θ츻thesaurus ξäƤΤʤȤ⡥
Wiktionary: ʷʸ츻Ƭ˸츻롥
MSN Encarta Dictionary: ʷʸ츻
(4) 츻˴ؤɤʪ
Etymologically Speaking: 츻Ʀŵ228줷ʤơǫꡤȤƤɤʪȤ
hellog θ츻: ܥ֥Ǥⲿȸ츻Ū˰äƤΤǡܥå "etymology " ʡϱñˤʤɤȤȰäΤ뤫⤷ʤ
2008ǯ˥ꥫϷǼ Merriam-Webster ܳŪ EFL ѤαѱѼ Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary ( MWALED ) Ǥ줿ε[2010-08-23-1]Ǥ饤Ҳ𤷤ʲ˸ܥåŽդ
| Keyword | GA | RP | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| lot | /lɑt/ | /lɒt/ | bomb, cot |
| palm | /pɑːm/ | /pɑːm/ | balm, father |
| thought | /θɔːt/ | /θɔːt/ | caught, taught |
| cloth | /clɔːθ/ | /clɒθ/ | loss, soft |
ޤɽŪѤ뤳ȤäȥäȤϤʤäꥫϷǼ Merriam-Webster Merriam-Webster Online ν¿˶äUnabridged Dictionary ͭӥʲΤΤϥեѤǤ롥
Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary
Thesaurus
Medical Dictionary
Learner's Dictionary: 2008ǯǤΥꥫȯΥꥫѸ EFL Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary ( MWALED ) б륪饤ǡʲθܥå鸡ǽǶᡤϷޤΥꥹ EFL LDOCE5 OALD7 ) ϸ츻ϤƤ뤬MWALED ϸ츻ϽŻ뤷Ƥʤ褦
Ѹ˻ĤοʤԵ§ʣ1Ĥ ox ͺפʣ oxen 롥ɸѼǤϡűѸμѲ̾ľܤͳ褹ͣʣǤ롥ȤǶᥢꥫѸ oxes ϤƤ롥ѤȤƤǤϤʤإ˥缭ŵ٤ˤ ox θ2ȤƼΤ褦ˤꡤθǤʣˤ oxes ⤢ꤦȤ
2 Τ褦(϶), ꤷ, Τޤο // a dumb ox ((ά))(ΤǤ)Τ.
OED ˤȤŪʰ̣16餢롥ߤǤϥꥫѸǤ ox ϤθʳˤϤޤѤʤ褦ǤϤȤȤǡBritish National Corpus (BYU-BNC) Corpus of Contemporary American English (BYU-COCA) Ĵ٤Ƥߤ
BNC Ǥ oxes 2ҥåȤ뤬 ox Ե§ʣ̾ȶǶƤȤʸ̮ oxes ѤȤƾҲ𤷤ƤʤΤǡ¾奼ȹͤƤ褤
COCA ǤϴͿ㤬6㤢ääդ˥塼ѸǡŪʸ̮ˤƻȤƤꡤgore ֡ʳѤǡͤɤĤפȤưоݤȤѤƤ롥㤨СʲΤȤǤ롥
Now our oxes are being gored more directly, not with malice, but out of some perverse ego game.
The establishment, we are sometimes -- you knows, in some cases, convenient oxes to gore. But I think there's no question they represent an important political constituency in the country.
gore (one's) ox Ȥǥϡ¯ "to goad or intentionally try to piss someone off" ͤäĤƤ롤餻פȤ̣ɽꥫѸͭΤ褦Ǥ롥 ox ϥǥΰȤѤƤꡤäˡ֤ΤפȤ̣ǤϤʤʥǥΰ̣ˤĤƤ ȡΥǥʣ oxes Ǥʤ oxen ѤƤ㤬4㤢뤳Ȥ顤ɽŪʣ oxes νи˲̤ƤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
ϡưʪȤƤǤʤԥ塼ޥʣȤƤ mouses 䡤ФȤƤǤʤƥʤʣ antennas ʤɡŪȯỴ̈˵§Ūʣ -s ղäΤ븽ݤgore (one's) ox ox ϸΡͺפΥäƤꡤ줬 oxes Ȥ֤뤳ȤǽˤƤΤǤϤʤΤȤͺפΰ̣ʣȤ oxes ƤȤڵϡʸѰʳˤϡˤʤ褦
ε[2010-08-20-1]ǡĸ
鸽Ѹ father ˤĹѲƻΤϢλҲѲκǸ˵äˤĤɵd > ð Ѳ1400ǯʹߤˡֶΤ첻 + d + 粻Ū r פȤĶǵϤѸˤϡ˴ؤ¿θǤޤ d ð Τɤ줬ߤ졤ä fader ? father, moder ? mother Ǥɤ줬㤷äǽŪˤϡʲΤ褦¿θ ð ذܹԤƸߤ˻äƤ롥
furder > further, gader > gather, hider > hither, togeder > together, weder > weather, wheder > whether, whider > whither
d Ĥä burden, murder, rudder ʤɤθ⾯롥Shakespeare դǤϡޤ burthen murther ̤˸줿 ( Scragg 32fn )
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ384, 386--87ǡ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
ͥˡ§ ( Verner's Law ) ˤĤƤϡ[2009-08-09-1]ε hundred ȤѤ¿λͽǤ Verner's Law father ѤƤΤǡ father ѤʽŪʵҤߤ롥
Verner's Law ϡˤäˡ§ ( Grimm's Law ; see [2009-08-08-1], [2009-08-07-1]) ͽۤȿ֤ϤƤޤФơĸʳǤΥȤΰ֤θ뤳ȤDzޤȤƸĤ줿ˡ§Ǥ롥פɽ魯ĸκƷ
Ǥ롥Ƭ *p Grimm's Law ˽äƥޥؤ f ȤäűѸη֤ fæder Ǥ뤫顤ˤĤƤˡ§̤Ǥ롥2Ҳͤȶ礬ĸ *t Grimm's Law ˽ХޥǤ th бϤºݤˤϸűѸξ fæder ˤ褦 d бƤ롥ʤǸѸη father פ⤫٤ƤϤʤαѸη֤˸ th ϸҤ褦ѸȯãǡGrimm's Law νϤľܤ˴ϢŤΤϥʥǤ롥
츫 Grimm's Law Ϥþ뤬1875ǯ Karl Verner (1846--96) 㳰̤ˡ§ȯ֥ȤԤʤͭˤϤޤ줿Ķˤ *t ϡˡ§ͽۤ *θ ˤϤʤ餺줬ͭǤ ð ˤʤפȤΤǤ롥ĸκƷˤХȤ2ˤꡤ*t ˤȤäƤϥȤԤʤȤˤʤ롥ͭ첻ˤϤޤƤΤǡ嵭δĶ˹פ롥äơͽۤ *θ ˤϤʤ餺ˡ *ð ѲȤ롥ǤϤޤűѸ fæder ˤɤ夫ʤVerner's Law ФˡθΥȤ1˰ưʡᥲޥɤħ1ġˡ˸űѸޤޥ췲ǤҲ *ð æ d ȤʤäƤ褦䤯첻̤ȤơˤǤűѸ fæder Ϥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
äϤޤʤűѸ d Ȥʤä2ҲϡѸ1400ǯʹߤ˺Ƥð ؤȲƤ椯ϤΰĸȽϤθѸ¤٤ƤߤȡGrimm's Law Verner's Law ŬѤΤߤͤФ褤褦˻פ뤬ºݤˤ Verner's Law θ˥ȰưæȤƼβѲФƷŪ˲ˤʤơ褦䤯Ѹ father ˤɤ夯ΤǤ롥
Τ褦˸Ƥʬ褦ˡfather (1) űѸʹߤˤβѲФƤ뤿˰ĸ鸽Ѹ˻ޤǤƻΤ꤬˱(2) ֤ <th> 뤳Ȥ Grimm's Law ͽۤϤ *θ Verner's Law ͽۤϤ *ð ȸѸʥ˷ӤĤ䤹Ȥ𤬤ꡤVerner's Law ⤹ȤƤ father ϤޤŬڤǤϤʤθβѲʣʤΤǤ롥[2009-08-09-1]εǤϥƥåפξʤ hundred ФΤѸβѲ Grimm's Law Verner's Law Τ褦̾ʤΤФǤϤʤ٤ȤǤȵäƤΤȤȤפФˤ father 褤㤫⤷ʤޤȤȤưʲοޤȡ

߷ ⡡رѸˡ١ҡӡ2008ǯ. 31--33ǡ
ΰ۾ﵤݤȴФĤˤ뾮ԺǡʪʤƭƤ롥ϥꥫʥ˼3̤ξ͢йǡݲʤⲼǽ롥ʤιƭ˴ؤ뿷ʹɤǤȡ1֥å7ɥĶʤɤȤɸ˽Ф魯
bushel ֥֥åפϹʪ̼¤ʤɤ̤¬ΤѤ䡼ɡݥˡñ̤Ǥ롥Ͻ̤ǤʤѤñ̤Ǥꡤ35.24åȥ Winchester bushel; ƹ151824ǯޤǤΥɤǡˤ뤤36.37åȥ Imperial bushel; ѹǡˤ롥ñ̤ȤƤ1֥å뾣Ѥб̤ɽ魯ʪˤäб̤ϰۤʤ뤿ˡꥹǤ13衤ʣν̤б뤳ȤˤʤäƤ롥ξˤ27kgǤ롥
14Ѹ busshel, bussel ϸťե boissiel ʸե boisseau ˤμѸǡԤ boisse + -el ȤǤ롥캬 boisse 6ʬ1֥åΰդǡ¯ƥ ( Vulgar Latin ) *bostia ּդʬ̡סˤϥ ( Gaulish ) *bosta ̤Ȥ롥ե줫Ѹä -ss ĸǤϡ1400ǯޤǤ /s/ /ʃ/ Ѳȼֻ <ss> <sh> ؤѲ ( see [2010-04-08-1] )
ơbushel ʹƻפФΤϡChaucer The Canterbury Tales Τʤ1 "The Reeve's Tale" Ǥ롥ʴԥϤͤȤԤФơåեؤο2ͤʴα̼뤳Ȥǻ֤ȤäʪǤ롥ե֥ꥪ ( fabliau ) ȸƤФ뤳μαʸϡɼԤɤǤǤ롥ʴ2ͤϤμˤۤɤƨȤƯˡޤޤȾ֥åƤޤݿ ( ll. 4093--94; see the text here. )
He half a busshel of hir flour hath take,
And bad his wyf go knede it in a cake.
ϸǺǤ̤¿ʪǤ롥Ⱦ֥åۤɤʤۤɤ˥֥åβʤ˰ͫΤϡ600ǯ⺣ѤäƤʤȤȤ
[2009-08-19-1],[2009-11-05-1]ʤɤǿ줿褦ˡѸˤϤΤǥƥñ줬Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ѸΥեѤۤɤǤ롥[2009-06-12-1]Ǽ褦ˡ16Ǥ7000ۤɤѤ줿ȤޤطʤˤϰʲΤ褦ʻ𤬤ä
16ȾѸΥեΤӤ졤ĤĤäѸˤȤäƤ礭ǺߤϡܳŪˤäƼνʬʸä礤ƤȤäǹͤ줿ǤΨΤ褤ˡϡľܥƥ줫äѤ뤳ȤäˡͥΤ⤿餷ۤʳءŵˤꡤꥷƥȤäŵͳ褹̵Ѹ줬ɬפȤ졤ѸήȤ⤢ä16Ⱦοǯۤɤû֤ˡ̤Υƥñ줬Ѹ˼ޤ줿֥ס inkhorn term ˤ餵ۤɤʳŪʼѸ¿λäƥñȾʬϸˤޤäƤʤȸ롥
ˤޤǻĤäΤϡܸäȤޤǤϸʤʸϤǤŪ褯ߤ뼡Τ褦ñ줬ʰʲBrinton and Arnovick, pp. 357--58 ˡ
confidence, dedicate, describe, discretion, education, encyclopedia, exaggerate, expect, industrial, maturity
ޤǤ˻ĤʤäΤϡʲΤ褦ñǤ롥ʤ桹ˤߤΤʤñФʤΤǡƥٶƤʤ¤̣¬ΤϺ
adjuvate "aid", deruncinate "weed", devulgate "set forth", eximious "excellent", fatigate "make tired", flantado "flaunting", homogalact "foster-brother", illecebrous "delicate", pistated "baked", suppeditate "supply"
ɤθ줬Ĥɤθ줬ΤƤ줿ΤˤĤƤϡͳ餷ͳϤʤȤäƤ褤˼Ƥ졤Ѵ줿ȹͤΤѸ˴Ƥ봶ФǤϡeducation expect ʤɤθ줬ʤäؤʤȻפǡflantado illecebrous ʤɤɬפΤʤ˻פ롥ˤäƤϤޤäդξƤǽԻĤǤ롥ѸθäˤζˤäƤ⤿餵줿ΤȤȤ褯ʬ
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ε[2010-08-16-1]ǿ줿 gorgeous ³ԡϡŨʡפθγꥹѸɽ BNC ǸꥫѸǤϤɤȻפCorpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) ˤĴ٤Ƥߤ뤳ȤˤȤΤϡإӥͥѼѱѸ缭ŵ4ǡ٤ "My son is an extremely gorgeous baby." ˤ gorgeous λȤϥꥫѸȤäǤ롥ꥹѸǤˡϥꥫˡ ( Americanism ) ȵڤȤǽȤȤ
ޤϡCOCA äե֥ѥ˸ꤷĴ٤Ƥߤȡ̣Ȥˤ20ǯ֤dzμ¤ gorgeous λѤƤ롥

ˡäդ˸¤餺դޤĴ٤ȡϤꤳ20ǯ֤ǷŪƤ롥fiction, magazine, newspaper ȤդΥǤ⤫ʤ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥgorgeous ŪʪäƤ롥

äդ˸¤äƤ¤ʤƤ⡤15ǯ gorgeous ٤Ȥˤʤ롥θ̤ϡθֲʡڤʡפȿŨʡפȤ̤ƤʤKWIC ( Keyword in Context ) äįƤߤ¤ꡤԤθΤۤ¿褦Ǥ롥ˡγȤΤϲФĤȤˤϰ쵤˲ФĤΤʤȤȤ´Ǥ
ñĴǤϡꥹѸǤλä Americanisation ˤΤɤȽǤǤʤäʤȤѼǺȤŪƻȤäƤ褵
ե奢Ȥμ¶ʤɤǽơ Gorgeous! ȴòΤʹȤ롥ޤꥹαˤޤ֤˷ä̼ȱؤơäˤʤäƤꥹͽ Gorgeous! ȸˤƤΤФƤ롥֥㥹פܸˤѤƤֲʡڤʡפȤ̣夷Ƥ뤬ܸǤϾɽ魯ӤȤƤѤʤȻפΤǡ嵭αѸɽʹˡ㤦ΤʤȵŤOALD7 ˤȡƻ gorgeous 1ϰʲ̤Ǥ롥ߤǤϡŨʡפθפʻȤˤʤäƤ褦
1. (informal) very beautiful and attractive; giving pleasure and enjoyment
ƻ gorgeous ϥե gorgias "fine, elegant" μѤǡˤȸ촴 gorge "bosom, throat" Ǥ뤳Ȥ "ruff for the neck" ּΤˤդ路ҤߡפȴϢŤΤǤϤʤȤƤ롥̤ǤϥꥷνȤʤȤ Gorgias (c483--376BC) ͳ褹Ȥ⤵졤θ츻Ͼܤ餫ǤʤOED ˤȤθ15꤫ѤƤֲʡڤʡפȤܤäɽ魯ɽȤƤˡ19Ⱦ鸽ФɽȤƤˡ̲Τ20äƤǤꡤȤ櫓ݥԥ顼ˤʤäΤ20Ⱦ21ˤƤΤȤǤϤʤȵ롥
ͤ뺬1Ĥϡ20ȾμĴ٤櫓ǤϤʤ㤨 Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913 + 1828) Ĵ٤¤ꡤgorgeous Υȥ˸ŪɽбͿƤʤ
⤦1ĤκϡBNCWeb gorgeous ٤פäƤߤ̤Ǥ롥Ḥ̤̂Фޤ餫ʤΤϡ"informal" Ȥ졼٥뤫ͽۤȤꡤθϽդäդ٤˹⤤ȤǤ롥100νи٤ϡդ4.8Фäդ17.39Ǥ롥äդ˸ꤷʬۤĴ٤Ȥä˲ʸ٤ι⤤Ȥʬä
ơ⤪⤷ΤϻѼԤ̤ǯʬۤǤ롥gorgeous 100桤ˤ8.89ѤƤʤˤ34.64ȤƤ롥ʣα¼ѱѼ٤ơּ˽졦άפȤƥ졼٥뤬ŽƤΤϡإ˥缭ŵ٤äۤ˽餫Ǥ¾μǤֽפΥ졼٥뤬ߤȤޤѼԤǯȤƤ24аʲŪǤ롥BNC ɽ20ȾΥꥹѸäդ˴ؤ¤ꡤgorgeous ϼǯؤνˤȤ櫓ݥԥ顼ɽȤȤʬ롥̤ˤϤޤꤳθѤʤ⡤ǯؤ˸¤äƤϻ٤Ū⤤Ȥ̤ФΤȤơgorgeous λѤϤ1?2δ֤˻Ѥ礷Ƥȹͤ줽Ǥ롥
٤ĴɬפϤ뤬ʾξȽǤ¤ gorgeous ˡޤܤѲƤȤȤˤʤ롥Ūʾɽ19ȯãƤǯǼǯؽҤλѤˤäƥ֥쥤줬ǯˤȤĤĤ롥¾ǯؤˤڤǤƤޤޤݥԥ顼ˤʤ뤫⤷ʤήɽȤƤܤǤ⤷ʤ
塤ˡιäƤⵡä̡ǯ̣ˡ That's gorgeous! ȶǤߤ뤳Ȥˤ褦
ѸθǡɸΤ褦ɽ롥֤ޤä̤äפȤ̣ǡLDOCE5 ˤ nother, 'nother θФΤȤ˼Τ褦ʵҤ롥
a whole nother ... used humorously when emphasizing that something is completely different from what you have been talking about. It is a changed form of 'another whole':
- Texas is a whole nother country.
- That a whole 'nother ball game.
another ( a(n) + other ) ʬƶĴ whole ߹ݤˡa whole other ǤϤʤ a whole nother ʬ ( metanalysis ) ƶ߹ɽǤʰʬϤ[2009-05-03-1]ȡˡCorpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) ǤϷ빽ʿ㤬äBritish National Corpus (BNC) Ǥ㤬ʤäMerriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary Ǥ "US informal" Υ졼٥뤬դƤꥫѸ¿ɽȤäƤ褵
ơŤѸߤƤߤȡa whole nother Τ褦˴֤˷ƻ줬ޤäƤ륿פ nother 㤳ޤĤƤʤa + nother ȰʬϤƤ1300ǯ鸽Ƥ롥ane nothir sentence an nother maner ʤɤȡnother ǤΩȤǧƤȤʬ롥ѸƸ졩ˤ a whole nother Ȥ礬ŪʰʬϤȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤʳĴǤǤ롥
ѸʸˤѲȤȤ̤ꤵƤΤϡȯʸˡäʤɤθηϤιǤѲȤȤŪѲ ( linguistic change ) ȸƤܤ
⤦1Ĥΰ̣ǤѲꤦ롥ϼҲŪʴˤѲǡ㤨мҲˤѸΰ֤ŤǤȤѸ줬Ѥʬ䵡γǤȤѸȤμҲŪǽѲؤҲŪѲ ( sociolinguistic change ) ȸƤܤ
Ѹˤ̤ˤϤ2Ѳ̤ɬפ뤬2ԤϸߤˤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤҲŪѲŪѲͶƤϡְ㤤ʤѸˤˤ롥Ĺ餯ƥեΤӤΤȤϲäƤѸ줬Ѹꥤꥹ뤲ƤѸ줬ꥹΤʬΰ ( domain ) Ѥ褦ˤʤꡤ˱ֻɸಽʤǤ³Ѹˤϡʸˡ¿졤ѸεϤΩ줿
ҲŪѲŪѲǯǤϡѸ줬 ELF ( English as a Lingua Franca ) ȤƹȤ褦ˤʤȼWSSE ( World Standard Spoken English ) ȸƤФ뿷פαѸѼ郎ĤĤ롥WSSE Ǥϡϰ迧ζȯ뷹ȤʾϡѸ줬ƻᤵҲŪǽбƸŪѲȤ
ǤϡդαƶĤޤŪѲҲŪѲͶϤΤϡŤ˵٤ϡ㤨СֱѸʸˡñ㲽餳ϰ̤ǤΤפȤ褦Ƥݤ˴طƤ롥ʲ2Ĥ̿ˤơ (1) 椨 (2) פȤǤ롥
(1) Ѹʸˡñ㲽ʸŪѲ
(2) Ѹ줬ϰ̤ʼҲŪѲ
Ѹ̤ˤĤƤҤ1ͤǤ Crystal Ϥ¯ȤऱƤ (7--10) Crystal ΰոˤϻǡ(1) (2) ⤿餷Ȥ̴طϤʤȤͤǤ롥äѸ줬ϰ̤ΩʬĬή˾ȤޤäǤϡ(1) (2) 岡뤯餤θ̤ϤΤǤϤʤȤͤ롥ΰոϡ (1) 椨 (2) פȤľܤΰ̴طտޤΤǤϤʤ
ŪѲη̤ȤƼҲŪѲȤ餫ʻϰΤΤ
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ΤʤǺǤѲ䤹ϲѸ˸褦˸θùܤû֤ؤΤǤꡤäϤ餯ǤѲη㤷ƱͤѲ䤹ȤѸˤʬ롥ä䲻餱餺Ѳη㤷Ȥơΰ̣롥
ΰ̣Ѥ䤹Τϡη֤Ƥδ֤ŪʴطʤȤˤ롥ɽ ( signifiant ) ȵ ( signifié ) δطܼŪŪ ( arbitrary ) Ǥꡤ桹ȻפäƤ뤢Ȥΰ̣ȤηӤĤϴŪʤΤˤʤŪȤŪȤȤϰŪǤ뤳Ȥˤ̤Ȥΰ̣δطϷʷѲȤȤˤʤ롥ΰ̣ŪѲ뤳ȤȤƤ褦ˤפ롥
̣ѲˤŵŪʥѥĤ롥ΤʤǤäˤ褯夲Τϡߤ˴Ϣ4ĤΥѥǤ롥Brinton and Arnovick (77--80) ͤȤȤƤߤ褦
(1) ̲ ( generalization ): üŪǤȴѲ
box: from "a small container made of boxwood" to "a small container"
butcher: from "one who slaughters goats" to "one who cuts and sells meat in a shop"
carry: from "to transport something in a vehicle" to "to move something while holding and supporting it"
crisis: from "a turning point of a disease" to "a difficult or dangerous situation that needs serious attention"
holiday: from "a holy day" to "a non-work day"
sanctuary: from "a holy place" to "a safe place"
scent: from "animal odour used for tracking" to "a pleasant smell"
(2) ü첽 ( specialization ): üʰѲŪʰ̣òѲ
acorn: from "wild fruit" to "the nut of the oak tree"
adder: from "a snake" to "a type of poisonous snake"
hound: from "a dog" to "a type of hunting dog"
lust: from "desire" to "sexual desire"
meat: from "food" to "meat"
sermon: from "a speech, discourse" to "a talk given as part of a Christian church service"
stool: from "a seat for one person" to "a backless seat"
(3) ( pejoration ): ޥʥɾӤӤ褦ˤʤѲü첽ͤ뤳Ȥ¿
admonish: from "to advise" to "To warn or notify of a fault"
corpse: from "a body" to "a dead body"
cunning: from "knowledgeable" to "clever and good at deceiving people"
hussy: from "a housewife" to "a woman who is sexually immoral"
judgmental: from "inclined to make judgments" to "inclined to make uncharitable or negative judgments, overly critical"
poison: from "potion, drink" to "a substance that can cause death or serious illness"
villain: from "a low-born or common person" to "a vile, wicked person"
(4) ɲ ( amelioration ): ץ饹ɾӤӤ褦ˤʤѲü첽ͤ뤳Ȥ¿
boy: from "a rascal, servant" to "a male child"
knight: from "a boy, a servant" to "a man who is given a special honor and the title of Sir by the king or queen of England"
nice: from "silly, simple" to "kind, polite, and friendly"
queen: from "a woman of good birth" to "the female ruler of a country"
shrewd: from "wicked" to "mentally sharp or clever"
steward: from "an overseer of the pig sty" to "someone who protects or is responsible for money, property, etc."
success: from "an outcome, a result" to "a correct or desired result"
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
űѸλˤ kenning ֥˥פȸƤФ뱣Ūնɽ롥¿2ĤǤʤʣ ( compound ) ǡȴ˭ȯۤ˴ŤǤȤ߹碌ˤŪɽФhwælweg "whale's way" ַߤƻפɽŪˡֳפؤ夲褦ξ硤ʣμƻפȻؼоݡֳפȤϴŪϢۤƯʤַߡפȡֳפȤϴŪ˷ӤĤƤ롥θַߡפ𤷤ƼƻפȻؼоݡֳפȤƴŪ˷ӤĤȤ̣ǡŪ뤤նŪɽȸΤǤ롥Τ褦˰̣Ū˸̩ kenning ȡkenning ȸƤ٤ɽϸűѻǤ⤫ʤ¤Ƥ롥̣DZŪնɽȤȤ館ΤǤСʤμबǧƤ롥
Ȥơ kenning λؼоݤƤߤƤ餤ʬå롥
| kenning | literal sense | meaning |
|---|---|---|
| beaduleoma | "battle-light" | sword |
| famigheals flota | "foamy-necked floater" | ship |
| feorhhus | "soul-house" | body |
| goldgiefa | "gold-giver" | prince, lord |
| hēafodgimm | "head-gem" | eye |
| merehengest | "sea-horse" | ship |
| sǣwudu | "sea-wood" | ship |
| swanrād | "swan-road" | sea |
| sweordplega | "swordplay" | fighting |
| wælstōwe | "place of slaughter" | battlefield |
| woruldcandel | "world-candle" | sun |
ε[2010-08-10-1]ǡtoilet նɽ˭٤Ǥ뤳Ȥʣμ٤ƤƴǶΡä˳ؽѡ˱ѱѼ֤λȤʬˡβ⤬ܤ켭ŵ ( thesaurus ) ʤ餺Ȥ⤽˽ऺŪꥹȤͭѤǤ롥Ǥ⡤ꥹȤò thesaurus ˤϤʤʤ
ǶWebˤ thesaurus ˭٤žäƤꡤ㤨 the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia Thesaurus.com ʤɤڤѤǤ롥WebĴ٤Ƥʤäɲä٤֥ȥɽĤ褦Ǥ롥
WebܳŪ thesaurus Ȥͭ̾ʤΤϡPrinceton University George A. Miller λشˤäԻƤ WordNet Ǥ롥Ǥ WordNet Ϣʤ͡ʱѤޤƤ褦Ǥ Version 3.0 Υǡ١鸡ǽȤʤäƤꡤ㤨 toilet θ̤Ϥ̤ Ǥ롥̸ ( hypernym ) 䲼̸ ( hyponym ) ؤ֤Τ˥ǤѸΰ̣ڤ˰褦ˤʤäȤ´Ǥ롥ޤWordNet 3.0 database statistics ˤϱѸ̾ʿѸ1.24ʤΤФưʿѸ2.17ǤʤɡͭѤʾ롥
ΰ̣вͥåȥޤڤ褦WebΥӥФƤVisual Thesaurus 1ĤͭեǤʲΤ褦ʴؤʥͥåȥޤ롥

Visual Thesaurus ͭʤΤǡ˻䤬ޤ˻ȤäƤեΤΤ Visuwords嵭 WordNet Υǡ١ϢƤ롥Ϥͥåȥޤϰʲ̤ꡥʲΥåƸ뤤 Visuwords ľ toilet ǡܺ٤ΤƤߤƤۤ
ε[2010-08-09-1] euphemism Ҳ𤷤euphemism ŵ1Ĥˡ֥ȥפɽ1θ礬롥Ѹ˸¤餺餯¿θǡ֥ȥפľŪ˻ؤΤϤФǤꡤŪ˻ؤɽ˭٤ȯãƤȻפ롥֥ȥפʤɤնɽ˭٤ȯãΤϡľ¤餲뤿͡ˡǺФ줿ŪɽФ餯ѤƤȺƤľӤӤ褦ˤʤäƤޤʤŪɽɬפȤ뤫Ǥ롥ơĤƤϴŪäɽȾȾΤޤޤߡȸäΤʤѤĤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥̤ˡ֡бնɽ˭٤ʤΤϤΤ褦ͳˤ롥
ǤϡŪ˱Ѹ toilet ɽƤߤ褦ʣμ켭ŵ ( thesaurus ) Ĵ٤½äȤ¤86θ뤳ȤǤԴѡ
backhouse, basement, bathroom, bedpan, biffy, bog, can, carzey, chamber, chamber pot, chemical closet, chemical toilet, cloakroom, cloaks, closet, cludgie, comfort station, commode, convenience, conveniences, crapper, donagher, don(n)icker, dunny, earth closet, facilities, facility, gents, gutbucket, head, hopper, jakes, jerry, john, johnny, johnny house, jordan, kahsi, karzy, khaziv, ladies , ladies' room, latrine, lav, lavatory, lavvy, little boy's room, little girl's room, loo, lounge, men's room, middy, Mrs. Chan, necessary, outhouse, piss pot, piss-house, pisser, pot, potty, potty-chair, powder room, privy, public conveniences, relief station, restroom, shitter, shouse, stool, the smallest room, throne, throne room, throttle pit, thunder mug, thunder-bowl, thunderbox, toilet, toilet room, toilette, toot, urinal, washroom, Washroom, water closet, WC, women's room
ǤϰѼѰ ( register )Ụ̄ ( denotation )ȥμ̤ʤɤϹθ줺եåȤ¤٤ʤΤǻѾաʢ 嵭denotation ǤϤʤ connotation θǤ
ܸƱͤĴ٤ƤߤѸμѸޤƼ¤48ɽꡤƱԴѡ
𡤱()åȡå롼ࡤ()ߡ(礦)ȥ졤Ρʤˡ;ʤСˡý()Ѽ()()ԾǢ(ɤ)硼()㱣̽ꡤףá(礦ɤ)졤ꡤ(Ƥ餤)ȥ졤ȥåȡȥåȥ롼ࡤ(Ȥ)(Ȥ礦Ȥ)ȥåȡѥ롼ࡤ(ϤФ)ꡤҤ졤(Ӥ)ԾԾ()(ؤ)ؼ(٤) ؽꡤ롼ࡤѾ(褦) Хȥ롼쥹ȥ롼ࡤǥ롼
θɽ⡤ε[2010-08-09-1]Ǽ͡ euphemism κŬѤƤ褦
ѤˤľˤˤƤ롥㤨СοȡΤ̡ǥлεǽµϷ𡤻ϡľܸˤΤϤФ¿͡ƤľŪ˻ؤɽˤΤ븽ݤϡŪʶش ( linguistic taboo ) ȸƤФ졤¸ߤ롥ˤ뤳ȼΤɬ⥿֡ǤϤʤľŪǤʤŪ˻ؤɽǤСѤ뤳ȤҲŪ˵ƤȤ¿Τ褦˴ŪˤоݤؼɽΤȤնʸˡ ( euphemism ) Ȥ
Ǥϡeuphemism äƤȤִפϤɤΤ褦˺ФΤ餯¾ȤӤѸξ euphemism κƤߤ褦ʲϡBrinton and Arnovick, pp. 80--81 ˴Ťʬࡥ
(1) ̲ ( generalization )
Ūʰ̣ɽѤ롥ΤΤľܻؤΤǤϤʤΤΤޤΤؤȤˤʤΤǡĤä롥ex. growth for cancer, voiding for defecation or urination.
(2) ʬ ( splitting features )
1˵ͤƤ2İʾΰ̣ʬȤ߹碌ƿʸˡ̣ΰʬץ벽줿̣ʬƼΤǡΤ֤ľ롥ex. ethnic cleansing for pogrom, genocide; pre-owned for used.
(3) 借 ( borrowing words )
ä˥ƥ䥮ꥷηǤѤʸѤ롥¦ϡפβФΤǡŪˤʤ롥ex. expire for die, perspire for sweat.
(4) Ūɽ ( figure of speech )
( metaphor) 䴹 ( metonymy ) ǰŤ˼ex. belly button for navel, in his cups for drunk.
(5) ̣ž ( semantic shift )
ؤƴϢ̤βؤex. sleep with for have sex with, go to the bathroom for defecate or urinate.
(6) Τ椬 ( phonetic distortion )
֤Ѥơľ롥ex. gosh for god, darn for damn.
(7) ؾɽ ( diminutives )
ؾ -y ʣ ( reduplication; see [2009-07-02-1] and [2010-01-21-1] ) Ѥơ֤襤פ롥ex. tummy for stomach, wee-wee for urination.
(8) ƬƬʸά ( acronyms or initialisms )
Ȥɽä˺⤢뤯餤Ūˤʤ롥ex. TB for tuberculosis, SOB for son of a bitch.
¾˲ʤʤȹͤƤߤ"meta-euphemism" ȤǤƤ٤פĤeuphemism ȤϤ켫Τꥹ¯ǡ֥ȥפؤնɽȤƻȤ롥ξ硤"euphemism" Ȥ츽ݤΰŪ̾ΤǤä euphemism ɽǤ֥ȥפȤ夨ȤȤʤΤǡeuphemism euphemism Ǥ롥"double euphemism" Ȥ "super-euphemism" ȸƤǤ褵
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ѸαƺˤĤƤϡޤǤ͡ˤƤ ( see ame_bre ) äֻκˤĤƤȯκƱͤܤˤĤ䤹ΤȤƼ夲뤳Ȥ¿ܥ֥Ǥ[2009-12-23-1]ˤ
ameba, center, color, defense, program, traveler ʤɡꥹ֤ȤϰۤʤȼΥꥫֻƤΤ Noah Webster (1758--1843) Ǥ롥Webster ȤС1828ǯ˽Ǥ줿 The American Dictionary of the English Language ޤˤͭ̾Ǥ롥μȤλ¹ϸߤ˻ޤǼ̤Ȥ˥ꥫѸ켭κǹȤƤꡤǤ Webster ΰŪʱƶϤΤ褦Webster βפֻμˤȿǤƤꡤȤȤ˥ꥫ˹ΤϤ뤳ȤȤʤä
ǤϡWebster ϤʤֻפϤ褦ȻפΩäΤͤˡꥹǤֻξѤƤѸ Caxton ˤǰѤƳѸ첻 ( Great Vowel Shift ) ʤɡ⳰ѲФơѸֻȯЪΥȤƬˤ뤳ȤȤʤäꥹǤ16ؼ ( orthoepist ) ϤᡤֻװƤƤ礭ˤϤʤä Mulcaster βפˤĤƤ[2010-07-12-1]ȡˡɡꥹǤ1755ǯ Samuel Johnson A Dictionary of the English Language äƸֻܸۤꤷȤäƤ褤
Τۤο̱ϡꥫǤֻˤĤƤϥꥹĴ碌ƤȤ18ȾΩ夫饢ꥫ٤ѤäƤ롥ˤ¿㤬Ƥ̤ꡤŪΩλָȸŪΩλָɽΤǤ롥ꥫŪΩλˤϡʰǤ줿ꥫѸ쿮Ԥ줿Webster ⤽1ͤǤꡤꥹѸΥꥫǤǤϤʤΩ֥ꥫ( the American language ) ǤƤ褦ȹͤƤΤǤ롥ʲ Webster θդǤ롥
The question now occurs; ought the Americans to retain these faults which produce innumerable inconveniences in the acquisition and use of the language, or ought they at once to reform these abuses, and introduce order and regularity into the orthography of the American tongue? . . . . a capital advantage of this reform . . . would be, that it would make a difference between the English orthography and the American. . . . a national language is a band of national union. . . . Let us seize the present moment, and establish a national language as well as a national government. (Webster, 1789 quoted in Graddol, p. 6)
ɽŪˤϡѸֻȯЪΥ˹ŪʲͿ褦ȤǤʤ顤¤ΤȤϡꥫιȤȤƤΩꥹФȼΥǥƥƥȤäŪʰտޤǻǤäȤη̤Ȥ˶ջ֤ Webster Τߤʤ餺¿Υꥫ̱˲Ƥ餳̾븫ߤΤʤֻפդΤ
դˤС˥ݥƥ֤ʾ郎·ʤֻפˤȤ褯Ƥ롥ȤΤϡWebster Ǥ顤ƤŪֻװƤùʤФʤʤäǤ롥ΰƤʤǤ뤳ȤƼꡤ嵭 center color ʤɤηֻѹΤߤʤ벺ϩڤؤΤä
ֻˤƺΩаޤˤϡWebster ȤƱΥꥫͤ夲֥ꥫפؤۤäΤǤ롥
Webster, Noah. "An Essay on the Necessity, Advantages and Practicability of Reforming the Mode of Spelling, and of Rendering the Orthography of Words Correspondent to the Pronunciation." Appendix to Dissertations on the English Language. 1789. Extracts reprinted in Proper English?: Readings in Language, History and Cultural Identity. Ed. Tony Crowley. London: Routledge, 1991.
Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm
Ѹ3;̾ it ϡűѸǤϸƬ <h> դ줿 <hit> ȤֻѤƤ[2009-09-29-1]˷ǤűѸο;̾ηϤʬȤꡤ٤Ƥζ <h> ǻϤޤäƤꡤˤ줤ηϤʤƤ롥Τʤäñʤ <hit> ϡַڤȵǽ̤Ȥ˸Ƭޤꡤit Ѳ夷ȹͤƤ롥űѸǤǤ it η֤ǧƤꡤ1200ǯ϶֤ĶǤ it Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤ롥 hit Ѹ˿ष1500ǯޤǺ١³ƤߤǤǶĴɽȤƻȤ het, hit ʤɤƤѤȤʤäƤ롥줬űѸ hit it ִ줿ˤȤưŪ˸뵭ҤǤ롥
ˤȤƶ̣⤬ ( Scragg, p. 42fn ) űѸ hit ϤŤʳǤϤϤ <h> Τʤ <it> Ǥꡤ¾ο;̾ζޤ˹碌褦Ȥ ( analogy ) ˤä <h> ä줿ΤǤϤʤȤĤޤꡤ[2009-09-29-1]˷Ǥ֤٤Ƥ <h> ǻϤޤ뤭줤ηϡפϡ֤줤ˤ줿פΤǤϤʤȤˤȡit ˤϡ<h> Τʤ֤鳫ϤơűѸˤä <h> Ȥ褦ˤʤä˺ƤӸƬμ岽 <h> Τʤ֤˲ȤȤˤʤ롥
¾ΥޥƱ ( cognate ) ˤϡOld Saxon Middle Low German itLow German etGothic itaOld High German ëz, Old Icelandic es ꡤ <h> äƤʤOld Frisian Middle Dutch ˤ hit Τǡ嵭ʤС2ǤűѸƱͤ䤬äȹͤʤФʤʤΤ
ˤȤơit hit it ȲѸǾŪ˺Ƥ hit ˤʤǽϤ餯ʤѸο;̾Ǥϡ<h> ƬˤĤΤñ he ζޤˤʤäƤޤäΤǡűѸΤȤƯʤȤˡηϤƬ·ΰϡפϤǤ˼夤Τ顥
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
ܥ֥Ǥϱñθ츻¿ˤƤ롥ºݤ˥οǸȡޤǺǤ¿ˤƤ륫ƥȤȤ狼 ( see etymology ) ѸˤƤܸˤƤ⡤츻ȤΤܼŪ˿ͤĤ̥ϤΤǡؤоݤˤʤ䤹
츻ŵ٤Ƥȡñθ츻ˤĤƵҤ˿㤤äꡤҤˡ֡פդƤȡ츻ԳΤΩäƤ褦ˤʤ롥ʳޤǤʸŪʾڵ˴ŤƲΰ̣֤Ǥ뤬ŤʳˤʤȾȤƤƲΤʵʤΤʬʤʤäƤ롥ǡ츻ؼԤϼʸŪμʸŪμƶܤդ줿Ԥľˤäơ츻Ū˷ꤹ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʳǤϳƸ츻ؼԤθФ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤΰ̣ǤΡֵݡפª뤫⤷ʤ֥ (5) ۩
1ʾ顤γʬ⤷θؼԤˤϡ䵿路䡤츦ΰθ̩Ȥߤ뤳ȤȹͤƤԤ⤤롥Ť餢ʸؤ餫˿²طˤ뤿ˡषܿͤεݤǧƤޤΤǤ롥
츻ؤȡֳءפĤƸƤФ줦뤿ˤϡݤȸڤäƤޤ櫓ˤϤʤ츻ؤϼβʳȼΩ˸ƼʤФʤʤΩΩƤ롥ǥ֥ϡŪ츻ȳŪ츻2ĤǧᡤξԤδȤ߹碌ؤ¾ʬˤϤʤ츻ؤȼħǤ⤤Ƥ롥
Ū츻ؤȤϡˤĤʸŪڤ롤뤤ӸŪ˺Ʒ롤̣֤κǸŷ֤ȤǤ롥ο٤ϸˤäƤޤޤǡαޤ⤢롥Ūʿ̤ζ츻ؤȤ
dzŪ츻ؤȤϡŪ츻ǵ줿Ǹŷ֤䤽֤Ҳʸʤɤθγ¦μºߤ˾Ȥ餷ɾȤǤ롥Сꤵ줿Ǹŷ֤֤θѤ줿ҲŪʸ̮ˤƤɤΤ褦˵ǽΤǤ롥ϡ˳Ūʿ̤ζ츻ؤȤ
֥ϡ2ԤͻʲΤ褦⤤ (21--22)
μ³ϳΤ˰ۤʤäƤϤ뤬ɬŪŪǤꡤϸ츻ؼԤ¿ͤǽϤΤǤ롥ʤҤ̻Ū̻ŪǤꡤҤʸŪŪʸ̮˿̤Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥줬츻ؤüǤꡤμΩŪϰ̤뤳ȤʤΤǤ롥
츻ؤϼʳؤȤΩ뤿˴ĥäƤ롥֥μݤ˻Ʊ뤬ܵΤָʳءפȸѴΤˤʤä
=å֥ ס رѸ츻ء١ʸ˥ӡҡ1999ǯ ( Blanchot, Jean-Jacques. L'Étymologie Anglaise. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1995. )
ε[2010-08-04-1]Ǽ夲 Estuary English ǿʹȤƤ첻 ( vowel shift ) 롥1400--1700ǯ˵äȤ첻 ( Great Vowel Shift; see [2009-11-18-1]) ƱͤˡĹ첻첻˵äƤ뤬ܤϲǤϤʤष夫鲼Ǥ롥̤Ȥ Cockney ȷӤĤ뤳Ȥ¿Ĺ첻첻βȽŤʤäƤꡤǤ Estuary English Cockney ȤζܤۣǤ롥ʲ Aitchison, p. 193 οޤȤ˺

̤ȤơŪȯ˴ƤŤ EFL ؽԤİˤȤäƤϡʲΤ褦ʸ̣ɽƤޤΤդɬפǤ롥
| Don't be mean | Don't be main [mein] | |
| The main road | The mine [main] road | |
| It's mine | It's moyne [moin] | |
| See the moon | See the moun [maun] | |
| Don't moan | Don't moun [maun] | |
| A little mound | A little meund [meund] |
ǯꥹ˽иƱƶϤĤĤѸѼ郎롥1983ǯ Rosewarne ˤä Estuary English ֲϸѸפ̾դ줿ѼǡŪ RP (Received Pronunciation) Ǥʤ Cockney ǤʤäŪȯƥॺϸɥؤϤƤ롥1994ǯ˥ꥹζĹƸ Estuary English ȯᤵ륭ڡĥä餤顤γϤζΤ롥̾դƤ Rosewarne ˤСEstuary English ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
Estuary English, a new accent variety I first described in 1984, is neither Cockney nor RP, but in the middle between these two. 'Estuary English . . . is to be found in its purest form along the seaward banks of the Thames, whither it has drifted from the eastern end of the capital' (leader article in the Independent on Sunday of 18 June 1995). The heartland still lies by the banks of the Thames and its estuary, but it has spread to other areas, as the Sunday Times announced on 14 March 1993 in a front-page headline 'Estuary English sweeps Britain'. Experts on British English agree that it is currently the strongest influence on the standard spoken form and that it could replace RP as the most influential accent in the British Isles. (Rosewarne 1996: 15 quoted in Jenkins 130--31)
ѸΤɨΥꥹƤѼʤˡȯRosewarne Ϥ RP Estuary English ߹फ뤤ϵդΤȤΤǤϤʤͽۤƤ뤬ԤΤʤˤ Estuary English üԸĿʸΤˤҲŪѼȤƤ¸ߤʤȤԤ⾯ʤʤUniversity College London Estuary English Ǥ¿ξ롥Varieties of English "British English" Υڡˤ Estuary English θŪħʤɤͭѤʾ롥
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2009.
Rosewarne, D. "Changes in English Pronunciation and Some Implications for Teachers and Non-Native Learners." Speak Out! Newsletter of the IATEFL Pronunciation Special Interest Group. No. 18 (1996): 15--21.
ˤϱѸ١Υԥ䥯쥪줬30ʾ¸ߤȤƤ롥[2010-07-15-1], [2010-07-16-1]Ǹ褦ˡԥ䥯쥪䵯ۣΤΤ˿뤳Ȥ̾ĤƤΤ30ʾˤʤȤMcArthur (177) ꤽΰƸ褦
(1) Africa
Gambian Creole or Aku; Krio and pidginized Krio in Sierra Leone; Liberian Creole; Ghanaian Pidgin; Togolese Pidgin; Nigerian Pidgin (creolized in urban areas); Kamtok in Cameroon (creolized in urban areas; see [2010-06-13-1], [2010-06-14-1]); Bioku Pidgin on Fernando Po.
(2) North America (All in the United States)
Afro-Seminole Creole; Amerindian Pidgin (most varieties now extinct); Black English Vernacular (status controversial); Sea Island Creole, or Gullah; Hawaii Pidgin and Creole.
(3) Central America, the Caribbean, and the neighbouring South America
Bahamian Creole; Barbadian Creole; Belizean Creole; Costa Rican Creole; Guyanese Creolese (sic) (see [2010-05-17-1]); Jamaican Creole or Nation Language or Patwa; Leeward Island Creole(s); Nicaraguan Creole; Surinamese Djuka or Aukan, Saramaccan, and Sranan (see [2010-06-05-1]); Trinidad and Tobago Creole(s) or Trinibagianese or Trinbagonian; Virgin Islands Creole; Windward Island Creole(s).
(4) Australasia-Pacific Ocean
Bislama (Vanuatu), Hawaii Pidgin and Creole, Pijin (the Solomon Islands), Kriol or Roper River Pidgin/Creole (northern Australia), Pitcairnese and Norfolkese (Pitcairn Island and Norfolk Island), Tok Pisin/Neo-Melanesian (Papua-New Guinea), Torres Straits Broken/Creole.
ˤʤʬۤƤȤϡƤο̱ϻˤȿǤƶŪʬۤƤ뤳Ȥ褯狼롥αġֱѸפῴɸѸ (World Standard EnglishˤɸѼʤɤμפɸѼФƺɤΤ褦˰֤ŤƤ椯ܤ롥ȤΤϡΡֱѸüԡפϺ³ȶڤʤɤˤä post-creole continuum γʤꡤɸѼäդǤʤѸüԤȤʤ뤳Ȥޤ뤫⡤«ˤʤʿǤ롥
Υԥ䥯쥪줬äϰΤߤι顤ѸѤѤäƤ뤫⤷ʤʡ
ԥ䥯쥪˴ؤĤĥäƤ
Society for Pidgin and Creole Linguistics: زΥ
Pidgin and Creole Languages: ԥ졦쥪
Tok Pisin Translation, Resources, and Discussion: Tok Pisin/English
Jamaican Creole Texts: 쥪ȥԥط⤢
McArthur, Tom. The English Languages. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
ε[2010-08-01-1] OANC η̤˰ꤺˡƬ <h> ֤뤬 /h/ ȯʤñ¿õ٤BNC ǤƱȤäƤߤΤۤ⤷̤ФΤǡ𤹤 OANC ܴݤĤ֤졩ˡ
216θ줬줿ͭ̾Ƭ줬¿Ƥ⤢ޤꤪ⤷ʤʸHTMLȡˡޤʻΥդ˸꤬⤢äΤǡϤޤdzפΤ뤿νĴȤ줿̾ƻ˹ʤä117ե٥åȽ˼
habitual, habituated, habitué, haemoglobin, half, half-hour, hallucination, hallucinatory, hallucinogenic, handful, haphazardly, happy, haute-couture, hazard, heap, heartening, hedonistic, heir, heir-apparent, heiress, heirloom, hell, heparin, hepatic, heraldic, herbaceous, herbalist, hereditary, heretical, hermaphrodite, heroic, heterogenous, heterologous, heuristic, hexadecimal, hexagonal, hi, hiatus, hibiscus, hide, hierarchical, hierarchically, hierarchy, high, higher, hilarious, historian, historic, historically, historically-created, historically-evolved, historicist, historiographical, history, histrionic, hitherto, hockey, hole, holiday, holistic, holoenzyme, holy, home-grown, homogeneous, homologous, hon., honest, honest-to-god, honest-to-goodness, honestly, honesty, honorable, honorarium, honorary, honour, honour-able, honourable, honourably, honoured, honouring, hopeful, horchata, horizon, horizontal, horrendous, horrific, horror, hors-d'oeuvre, horse, hospital, host/target, hotel, hotel-keeper, hour's-worth, hour-an-a-half, hour-and-a-half, hour-glass, hour-long, hourglass, hourglass-shaped, hourly, hours, howitzer, human, humanities, humble, hundred, hydraulic, hydraulically, hydroxyapatite, hydroxyl, hypnotic, hypostasised, hypothesis, hypothetical, hysterical, hysterically
history, honest, honour, hour δϢϤϤ¿⤷Ȥꤢȡhabitual, hallucination, hepatic, hereditary, heretical, heroic, hierarchical, hilarious, homogeneous, horizon, horrendous, horrific, hypothetical, hysterical 1˼綯ʤΤǸƬ /h/ ä˼ޤ䤹1˼綯⾯ʤʤȤϳΤǤ롥
OANC Ǥη̤ȤƽФ herb homage BNC ǤϽФʤäθ /h/ ΤʤȯϥꥫѸȯΤߤǤȤεҤȰפƤ褦
ˤƤ⡤BNC OANC μϿ˺ȤϤꥹѸ줫μ˭٤ϺΩäƤ롥Τ˥ꥹѸˤ h-dropping ̾⤤ Cockney ʤɤ⤢뤷/h/ ꤵΤǤϤʤͽۤϤƤޤꥫѸǤ֤ȯ ( spelling-pronunciation ) ηȤȤƤʬäƤ BNC OANC ǤνĴη̤ͽۤȰפΤäܤĴ٤Ƥȷ빽⤷ơޤȯŸƤ椯⤷ʤ
ε[2010-07-31-1] OANC (Open American National Corpus) ƳȤ𤷤ΤǡϤºݤˤäƤߤ褦
ϰε[2010-07-30-1]ǸƬ h ˤΤǡ˰äơƬ <h> ֻĤľ괧 an ФƤߤ[2009-11-27-1]Ǥ줿褦ˡheir, honest, honour, hour Τ褦ʸ줬 /h/ ⤿ʤȤǤ褯ΤƤ뤬¾ˤɤΤ褦ʸ줬ϥեåȤñ㸡ǡäդȽդ̤Ȥ¾κ٤ϹԤʤäƤʤʲ˷̤٤ȤȤ˰
| word | freq. |
|---|---|
| heir | 1 |
| Henri | 1 |
| herb | 2 |
| hereditary | 3 |
| Hermes | 1 |
| historian | 1 |
| historic | 6 |
| historical | 1 |
| HMO | 10 |
| homage | 4 |
| hommage | 5 |
| honest | 24 |
| honor | 5 |
| honorable | 14 |
| honorarium | 1 |
| honorary | 13 |
| honored | 1 |
| honorific | 3 |
| hour | 135 |
| hourglass | 1 |
| hourlong | 3 |
| hourly | 1 |
| hours-long | 1 |
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46
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