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2010-08-31 Tue

#491. Stuart ī˿षʿʸˤ뱪Ū do [emode][syntax][synthesis_to_analysis][inflection][sociolinguistics][scottish_english][scots][do-periphrasis]

[2010-08-26-1]εǸ褦ˡŪ do ( do-periphrasis ) ϡѸ˵ʸʸ濴ȯãƤѸˤ礭ʻ鸫ȡȯŸŪ ( synthetic language ) ʬŪ ( analytic language ) ؤȿʤǤѸȯŸή˱äƤ롥
do, does, did ưȤѤ뤳Ȥˤäơ³ưϤʤǤ⸶ȤкѤळȤˤʤ롥ο;ΡȻ򼨤 do, does, did äƤΤǡư줬3ñ˶ޤɬפʤʤ뤫Ǥ롥ήǤСʸʸ˸¤餺ʿʸǤ do-periphrasis ȯã뤳Ȥ⽽ʬˤºݤˡ16ˤϡ˶ĴްդˡȤϹͤʤ˱Ū do λѤʿʸڤƤꡤdo ϤϩǤΤ褦ˤߤ롥
Ȥ[2010-08-26-1]Υդ˼Ƥ̤ꡤʿʸǤ do λѤ17ʹߡΰӤ򤿤ɤ롥Ѹˤή˵դ餦Τ褦ʤθݤϤɤΤ褦ΤNurmi ( p. 179 ) ϼҲŪʻ餳ܶᤷNevalainen ( pp. 109--10, 145 ) ˿Ƥ Nurmi Ҳ𤷤褦
ɥϰˤʿʸǤ do λѤϡ17κǽ10ǯǸƤȤ Nevalainen ˤ Corpus of Early English Correspondence Υǡ鼨ˡ17ƬȤС1603ǯ˥åȥɲ James VI 󥰥ɲ James I Ȥ¨̤ȤŪʽ Stuart īγϡˤäΥåȥɱѸ ( Scots-English ) ǤϹʸǤαŪ do λѤϵäȤ졤Ѽƥɥꤷ James I μդμԤθҤΩ줫ɥäѼ˱ƶͿΤǤϤʤȤ
βϿŤ˸ڤɬפ뤬ѲҲŪʴ褦ȤǶĬή˱ạ̈Ǥ롥

Nurmi, Arja. A Social History of Periphrastic DO. Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki 56. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1999.
Nevalainen, Terttu. An Introduction to Early Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.

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2010-08-30 Mon

#490. ե٥åȤε North Semitic ̤롩 [grammatology][alphabet]

[2010-06-24-1]ǥե٥åȤˤγά򵭤ϡǶḫĤե٥åȤˤ˴ؤɼʥ֥Ҳ𤷤The origins of abc ϵ4ǯ˥᡼ͤѤܸʸ ( cuneiform ) ä⤭줫5ǯαѸ26ʸΥե٥åȤλѤޤǤˤ򡤼̿ޤޤƶ̣ޤȤƤ롥ΥȤαļԤ graphic designer ǡtypography ̴߽ܺΥꥹ͡ <A, a> 1ʸǤޤǤĹƻΤǤȤΤ褯⤵Ƥ롥
ˤȡե٥åȤεˤεϡ[2010-06-24-1]ǽҤ٤2ǯȾ˥ѥ쥹ʤ䥷ꥢǹԤƤ North Semitic ǤϤʤ⤦ᤤΥץȤʸ̤ΤǤϤʤȤ1999ǯ˥ץȤ Wadi el-Hol 2Ҥʸȯ졤˸ <A> ʸεȤʤƬ򤫤ɤä 'aleph ֵפʸޤƤȤʥ 'aleph ϡֵפֲ̣ȡפɽ魯 beta ȹ碌Ƥ줾1ʸ2ʸȤ졤ʸηϤ alphabet ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤä˵19˥ץȤϤȯãʸηϤѥ쥹ʤ䥷ꥢꡤ襢ե٥åȤεȤƤ North Semitic ϢʤäΤǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥
Υ޻ abc Ȥ¤ӽϸ奻ν֤ƧΤΰ̣Ϥʤ褦Ǥʶܡp. 52ˡդѸˤȤưäƤϰϤϤäǤ롥ե٥åȤˡʸˤ­ƧȡǯȤܤŤͶ뤳ȤˤʤꡤɤƬɤĤƤʤƱν˥᡼θԤ뤬űѸѸä򤷤Ƥȼʬ֤˷Τ褦ʵʬˤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ롥ʸˤĹ

رѸ١ؽDz2005ǯ.

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2010-08-29 Sun

#489. ϥ󥬥꡼줫ѸؤμѸ [loan_word][etymology][icehl]

ICEHL-16 γزǥϥ󥬥꡼˹ԤäƤϥ󥬥꡼θѸΥϥ󥬥꡼ ( Hungarian, Magyar ) ϥ衼åѤˤʤ²Ǥʤ² ( Uralic ) °Ƥ֥θפ²ΤʤǤե=ɡ췲°ǡEthnologue ξˤ1000ͤüԤꡤ²ȤƤϺθǤ롥ޤ²ΤʤǺǤŤ12ʸĤäƤ롥
ΤȤʤ²ΰۤʤѸȤϸ෿Ū˱󤯡ʸŪʤĤʤ⤽ۤ¿ϤʤΤǡѸʻˡˤȷӤĤΤǤ롥θäۼƤѸΤȤʤΤǡϥ󥬥꡼ñ⤤ĤѸǤ롥OED ˤȤä30ʾϤ褦
ߤΤʤñ줬¿ϥ󥬥꡼ɽȤ goulash ֥åפΤƤ롥ޥͥѥץꥫ饦Ѥӡե塼ǡܤϥ󥬥꡼ gulyās (hūs) "herdsman's (meat)" ͳ褷Ѹˤ19νäƤε9̤롥ޥ㡼͡ Magyar; ϥ󥬥꡼μ̱²ˤӻӤҤ˽ФȤˡ塼礵ΤӤΰޤǺäޤ˵ͤƽФȤǥ塼ᤷƿ٤褦Υȥ
goulash ˤ̤äƤ paprika ϥ󥬥꡼줫ä̤Хӥ pàper ˻ؾղä pàprìka ˹Ԥ夭θϥꥷ páperi "pepper" Ǥ롥礷ϥޥȥ饷ǿ̣ʤɤǤ⿿֤ˤƤޤĤϥڥ󡤥ɡꥫʤɽ⤢ϥ󥬥꡼ǤϤʤιϥϥ󥬥꡼ξħȤʤäƤꡤϥ󥬥꡼ "rose paprika" ʼΥѥץꥫȤ롥paprika ϱѸؤϤϤ19νäƤ

Paprika Paprika in Jar

¾ˤϡϥ󥬥꡼̲ forint 󤲤Ƥϥ󥬥꡼̲ߤȤƤ1946ǯꤵ줿Τϸťꥢ fiorino ̤ꡤ1252ǯ Florence ǺǽȯԤ줿 florin ֥եߡפƱǤ롥Ųߤ˥β ( ťꥢ fiore ֲ֡ ) 뤳Ȥ餳̾Ĥ̳ˤϥ󥬥꡼Υ桼ϤޤΤ褦

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2010-08-28 Sat

#488. ȯɤ򼨤ΰ [pronunciation][language_change][h]

ѸˤߤȯɤˤĤơܥ֥ǤϤޤ controversy, harass, Caribbean ȶ夲Ƥɤ ( fluctuation ) ȤȤϸѲμǤѰ ( variation ) ȤȤǤꡤѲޤ˵äƤ뤳Ȥ򼨺Τȹͤ롥
[2010-05-31-1]εǸѸ˵äƤѲɽŪʤΤ礴Ȥ󤷤äȯˤĤơɤ򼨤Ƥ㡤βѲ򼨺ˤƤȡѲå㡼ȤƤȹͤǡLongman Pronunciation Dictionary ȯĴ ( Pronunciation Preference Polls ) Ǽ夲Ƥ롤ɤ򼨤򥢥ե٥åȽ˼ФƤߤȯĴη̤ȤȤ˾ܤ⤵ƤФʤΤǡѲδϡܸפȤߤʤƤ褤ɤδϱƺ庹˴ؤΤ¿줴Ȥ˰ۤʤäƤΤǤΰϤޤܰ¤ªƤޤsay ϸФȤƤ say ȤʤäƤ뤬ºݤɤ3ñ says ȯ [sez] [seɪz] ȤʤΤǡġˤĤƤϼ򻲾Ȥ줿

absorb, absurd, accomplish, address, adult, again, ally, almond, alto, amphitheater, applicable, Asia, associate, association, assume, asterisk, ate, attitude, auction, aunt, baptize, bath, because, bedroom, been, bequeath, booth, bouquet, brochure, broom, capsize, caramel, Caribbean, casual, caviar, chance, chromosome, chrysanthemum, cigaret, circumstance, citizen, clandestine, coffee, communal, complex, congratulate, contribute, controversy, costume, coupon, covert, cream, create, creek, crescent, cyclical, data, debris, debut, decade, defect, deity, delirious, demonstrable, depot, deprivation, detail, diagnose, diphthong, direct, direction, discount, dispute, dissect, distribute, donate, drama, drastic, due, during, economic, ecosystem, egotistic, electoral, electronic, envelope, ephemeral, equation, equinox, evolution, exasperate, exit, exquisite, extraordinarily, falcon, false, February, fiance, finance, financial, forehead, formidable, garage, gibberish, giga-, Glasgow, gone, gradual, graph, greasy, H, halt, handkerchief, harass, herb, hero, historic, homogeneous, homosexual, hurricane, ice, idea, ideology, illustrate, impious, incomparable, increase, inherent, innovative, inquiry, insurance, involve, irrefutable, issue, jump, jury, justifiable, juvenile, kilometer, lamentable, lather, lawyer, length, -less, licorice, longitude, lure, luxurious, luxury, maintain, mall, malpractice, marry, masquerade, Massachusetts, mayonnaise, measure, migraine, mischievous, Muslim, necessarily, necessary, nephew, new, newspaper, niche, nuclear, often, ogle, omega, ominous, one, onerous, opposite, oral, orange, ordinary, pajama, palm, patriotic, patronise, perpetual, plaque, plastic, poem, Polynesia, poor, predecessor, premature, Presley, prestigious, presume, primarily, princess, privacy, process, project, protester, puncture, quagmire, quarter, questionnaire, real, really, regulatory, research, resource, respiratory, restaurant, room, route, salt, sandwich, say, scallop, schedule, schism, scone, semi-, shortcut, simultaneous, situation, soot, sorry, soviet, spectator, stereo, strength, student, submarine, subsidence, substantial, suggest, suit, sure, syrup, thanksgiving, thespian, tinnitus, tomorrow, transferable, transistor, transition, translate, tube, tune, umbrella, usage, vacation, vehicle, via, visa, voluntarily, were, white, with, year, yours, youth, zebra


ƤǶäΤϡե٥åȤ8ʸܤ H ꥹѸμǯؤ [heɪtʃ] ȯ褦ˤʤäƤƤȤȤLPD ΰʲĴ̤򻲾ȡ

Pronunciation of <em>H</em>

Irish English Ǥ [heɪtʃ] ɸȤȤΤʤä[h] æ spelling-pronunciation ˤˤĤƤϡޤǤĤεǰäƤʸ̾ȤƤ H ȤؤäƤȤϡ

Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.

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2010-08-27 Fri

#487. ʰʸˡ [gender][indo-european]

ѸѸʸˡ ( grammatical gender ) ⤿ʤǡΤʤͣȤϸʤޤǤ⵩ʸǤ롥űѸˤ3̤ƤѸ衤޸οȼäʸˡۣȤʤꡤʪŪ˴Ť ( natural gender ) ؼä줿ѸؽԤΩ줫餹ȡʸˡȤ츫ԿԤʸˡƥ꡼줿ȤˤäƳؽڤˤʤäȤϴְ㤤ʤʸˡηǡѸμפħ1ĤȤʤǤ ( see [2009-09-25-1] )
⤽ĸ ( Proto-Indo-European ) 3̤ƤȤ졤ζ̤ϸűѸޤ᤿¿θ˰Ѥ줿̤¿θ3ζ̤2˺ꡤѸΤ褦˶̤ΤΤ򼺤ä⾯롥ϡʸˡζʬƤߤ褦
ʲϡWikipedia Grammatical gender Noun class: Languages without noun classes or grammatical genders 򻲹ͤ˸ɤȤˤޤȤ᤿ɽǤ롥[2010-07-26-1], [2009-06-17-1]դΰޤįʤǧ줿Gender άϰʲ̤ꡥ

MFN = 3
MF = Ƚ2
CN = Ƚͻ礷 "common gender" ˤ2
0 = ʸˡζ̤ʤ

LanguageSubfamilyGender
AlbanianAlbanianMF
HittiteAnatolianCN
ArmenianArmenian0
LatvianItalicMF
LithuanianBalto-SlavicMF
BelarusianBalto-SlavicMFN
BosnianBalto-SlavicMFN
BulgarianBalto-SlavicMFN
CroatianBalto-SlavicMFN
CzechBalto-SlavicMFN
MacedonianBalto-SlavicMFN
Old PrussianBalto-SlavicMFN
PolishBalto-SlavicMFN
RussianBalto-SlavicMFN
SerbianBalto-SlavicMFN
Serbo-CroatianBalto-SlavicMFN
SlovakBalto-SlavicMFN
SloveneBalto-SlavicMFN
SorbianBalto-SlavicMFN
UkrainianBalto-SlavicMFN
BretonCelticMF
CornishCelticMF
IrishCelticMF
Scottish GaelicCelticMF
WelshCelticMF
GaulishCelticMFN
Old IrishCelticMFN
AfrikaansGermanic0
EnglishGermanic0
DanishGermanicCN
DutchGermanicCN
Low GermanGermanicCN
SwedishGermanicCN
FaroeseGermanicMFN
GermanGermanicMFN
IcelandicGermanicMFN
NorwegianGermanicMFN
Old EnglishGermanicMFN
YiddishGermanicMFN
GreekHellenicMFN
BengaliIndo-Iranian0
PersianIndo-Iranian0
HindiIndo-IranianMF
PunjabiIndo-IranianMF
RomaniIndo-IranianMF
UrduIndo-IranianMF
GujaratiIndo-IranianMFN
MarathiIndo-IranianMFN
SanskritIndo-IranianMFN
CatalanItalicMF
CorsicanItalicMF
FrenchItalicMF
GalicianItalicMF
ItalianItalicMF
OccitanItalicMF
PortugueseItalicMF
SardinianItalicMF
SicilianItalicMF
SpanishItalicMF
VenetianItalicMF
LatinItalicMFN
RomanianItalicMFN


ʸ졦̤ˤäƸǤζ̤λۤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢ΤǾ嵭ϤޤǻͤˡѸΤ褦üΤϡAfrikaans, Armenian, Bengali, Persian 餤ǵǤ롥

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2010-08-26 Thu

#486. Ū do ȯã [emode][syntax][statistics][do-periphrasis]

Ѹˤ礭ϤĤ뤬Τ1Ĥ˱Ū do ( do-periphrasis ) ȯã롥ѸǤϽư do ϵʸʸĴʸǽиѸѸϤ do ˡϤޤΩƤʤϡʸ Do you go? Go you? Ǥäʸ I don't go. I go not. ʤɤȤкѤdo-periphrasis Ѹ˳ΩͳˤĤƤϽ⤬ƤƤ뤬ϤʤߤǤ̤͡鸦椬³Ƥ롥
do-periphrasis ΩˤĤƤϡʤȤ٤ѲȤǸ椬ʤƤʸʸΤ do Ѥʤ跿ñ ( simplex ) do Ѥ׿򱪸 ( periphrastic ) Ȥȡ礬Ѹ ( 1500--1700ǯ ) ˰쵤äȤΤƤ롥
ʲϡѸ˳̤ƹΤƤ Ellegård ˤ do-periphrasis ȯã򼨤դǤ롥, p. 74 ˺ƷǤƤͤ˴ŤƺľΡͤHTML򻲾ȡ˹ʿʸ ( aff[irmative] declarative ) ʿʸ ( neg[ative] declarative ) 굿ʸ ( aff[irmative] interrogative ) 굿ʸ ( neg[ative] interrogative ) ̿ʸ ( neg[ative] imperative ) ȾʬƤ롥

Development of Do-Periphrasis

ʸǤ do-periphrasis λѤŪȯŸƳƤäȤ狼롥ºݤˤϸġưˤä do-periphrasis 뷹ϰۤʤꡤʸǤ care, know, mistake ʤɤʸǤ come, do, hear, say ʤɤμݼŪǤäOgura ˤȡŪװҲʸŪװư٤ʤɤʣߺѤ do-periphrasis λ˳礷Ƥä褦



Ellegård, A. The Auxiliary Do. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1953.
ס ԡŪˤ븽αʸˡ3ǡ罤ۡ1997ǯ
Ogura, Mieko. "The Development of Periphrastic Do in English: A Case of Lexical Diffusion in Syntax. Diachronica'' 10 (1993): 51--85.

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2010-08-25 Wed

#485. 츻Τ뤿Υ饤󼭽 [web_service][link][dictionary][etymology]

ϸ츻ͿƤ륪饤󼭽Ҳ𤷤Ūʥ饤αѸ츻 Online Etymology Dictionary ̤Υ饤󼭽θ츻ˤʤΤ롥Ѹ츻̤CGIʰǡɤ

(1) ͣܳɥ饤츻

Online Etymology Dictionary: Douglas Harper ˤܳŪʸ츻񡥽ǯꡥѸ츻̤CGIʰǡǤ⤪äˤʤäƤޤᡥ

(2) 츻ٶˤʤ뤪μ

Dictionary.com: ǯꡥThe Random House dictionary Collins English Dictionary ʤɤʣμεҤ٤Τᡥ
The Free Dictionary: American Heritage Dictionary of the English Dictionary Collins English Dictionary ˴Ťʷʸ츻٤ޤthesaurus ξäƤͭѡñʤǤʤϢ줬ΤǡˤΩġᡥ
Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: Ϸ޼θ츻Ȥͭѡǯꡥ
ڡ륯θ츻ŵ: ܸʬ䤹ϢΰФΤǡѤǤ롥

(3) ̣ʤɤΤĤǤ˸츻ڤΤꤿȤ

Oxford Dictionaries Online - English Dictionary and Thesaurus: Ϸޤμ˴ʷʸ츻ꡥOrigin ɤߤ䤹
Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913 + 1828): ܳɼʵǡˤθ츻
HyperDictionary.com: Ʊ Webster (1913) θ츻󡥤thesaurus ξäƤΤʤȤ⡥
Wiktionary: ʷʸ츻Ƭ˸츻롥
MSN Encarta Dictionary: ʷʸ츻

(4) 츻˴ؤɤʪ

Etymologically Speaking: 츻Ʀŵ228줷ʤơǫꡤȤƤɤʪȤ򤤡
hellog θ츻: ܥ֥Ǥⲿȸ츻Ū˰äƤΤǡܥå "etymology " ʡϱñˤʤɤȤȰäΤ뤫⤷ʤ

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2010-08-24 Tue

#484. ǿΥꥫѸ첻ͻȿǤ MWALED ȯɽ [pronunciation][phonetics][vowel][merger][ame][dictionary][lexicography]

2008ǯ˥ꥫϷ޼Ǽ Merriam-Webster ܳŪ EFL ѤαѱѼ Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary ( MWALED ) Ǥ줿ε[2010-08-23-1]ǤҲ𤷤ʲ˸ܥåŽդ



EFL ѱѼϤޤǥꥹϽǼҤۤȤɻԾꤷƤꡤꥫѸǤä EFL Ǥ饤ꥹϤνǤäMWALED νǤäơ褤襢ꥫνǼҤȼ EFL Ծ˾ǤȤˤʤ롥ꥫμˤΥꥫѸ EFL ȤȤǵƤ American Ǥ뤫ˤʤ뤬ȯɽˤĤƸȡΥꥹϽǼҤˤ륢ꥫѸ EFL ٤ American Τ褦Kokawa et al. ( pp. 38--41; Sugimoto Ἱɮô ) ˵äơGeneral American ( GA ) ˤ첻ͻͻҤ⤷褦
ˤʤϡlot, palm, thought, cloth Ǥ롥 EFL Ǥ GA RP Ǥ줾켡Τ褦ȯɽƤ

KeywordGARPExamples
lot/lɑt//lɒt/bomb, cot
palm/pɑːm//pɑːm/balm, father
thought/θɔːt//θɔːt/caught, taught
cloth/clɔːθ//clɒθ/loss, soft


GA Ǥ RP Ǥʬۤϰۤʤ뤬3θ첻̤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ȥǯ GA Ǥϡlot--palm merger /ɑː/ ͻ礷ƤƤ롥ˡlot--thought merger Ƥꡤ cloth ⴬Ǥ٤ /ɑː/ ؤ1ƤƤȤŪˡ¿ GA üԤϤ4ɽ췲򤹤٤ /ɑː/ Ȥƶ̤ʤȯ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥
ǯ˽Ǥ줿ꥹϤΥꥫѸ켭Ǥϡ첻ͻοʤǤ뤳κǿξˤȯɽȿǤƤ餺ŪݼŪǤäȤMWALED ϤƤ /ɑː/ ˤޤȤƤ롥˥ꥫμˤ륢ꥫμǤ롥ȿǤ˥ץǤ뤬ꥹѸȯӤɬפˤϵĤʤФʤʤ
̤ˡԻ ( lexicography ) ϵŪ ( descriptive ) ٤Ȥ뤫Ū ( prescriptive ) ٤Ȥ뤫2ԤΤǥХ󥹤ɬפ뤬EFL ȤʤХХ󥹤μϤ񤷤MWALED Ͼ嵭θ첻ˤĤƤϵҼǤäƽФɼԤϥꥫѸؤܤȤƵϤ EFL ؽԤǤ롥鵬ϤȤϤäƤ⡤ҡʸ¡ˤѲаѲƤ椯Τ̿ʤΤ

Kokawa, Takahiro, Rika Aoki, Junko Sugimoto, Satoru Uchida, and Miyako Ryu. "An Analysis of the Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary." Lexicon 40 (2010): 27--84.

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2010-08-23 Mon

#483. Merriam-Webster Online ¤Ƥ [dictionary][web_service][link]

ޤɽŪѤ뤳ȤäȥäȤϤʤäꥫϷ޼Ǽ Merriam-Webster Merriam-Webster Online ν¿˶äUnabridged Dictionary ͭӥʲΤΤϥե꡼ѤǤ롥

Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary
Thesaurus
Medical Dictionary
Learner's Dictionary: 2008ǯǤΥꥫȯΥꥫѸ EFL Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary ( MWALED ) б륪饤ǡʲθܥå鸡ǽǶᡤϷޤΥꥹ EFL LDOCE5 OALD7 ) ϸ츻ϤƤ뤬MWALED ϸ츻ϽŻ뤷Ƥʤ褦



Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
Visual Dictionary Online: ǸɴʼŵȤä֥ŽդǤΤǡܥ֥Ǥѵ뤫⤷ʤ㤨Сε[2010-08-22-1]ǰä ox Ȱäƥ֤Ҳ

examples of ungulate mammals - Visual Dictionary Online

Referrer (Inside): [2011-07-29-1] [2010-08-24-1]

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2010-08-22 Sun

#482. oxes νи [plural][coca][bnc][ame]

Ѹ˻ĤοʤԵ§ʣ1Ĥ ox ͺפʣ oxen 롥ɸѼǤϡűѸμѲ̾ľܤͳ褹ͣʣǤ롥ȤǶᥢꥫѸ oxes ϤƤ롥ѤȤƤǤϤʤإ˥缭ŵ٤ˤ ox θ2ȤƼΤ褦ˤꡤθǤʣˤ oxes ⤢ꤦȤ

2 Τ褦(϶), 󤰤ꤷ, Τޤο // a dumb ox ((ά))(ΤǤ)Τ.


OED ˤȤŪʰ̣16餢롥ߤǤϥꥫѸǤ ox ϤθʳˤϤޤѤʤ褦ǤϤȤȤǡBritish National Corpus (BYU-BNC) Corpus of Contemporary American English (BYU-COCA) Ĵ٤Ƥߤ
BNC Ǥ oxes 2ҥåȤ뤬 ox Ե§ʣ̾ȶǶƤȤʸ̮ oxes ѤȤƾҲ𤷤ƤʤΤǡ¾奼ȹͤƤ褤
COCA ǤϴͿ㤬6㤢ääդ˥塼ѸǡŪʸ̮ˤƻȤƤꡤgore ֡ʳѤǡͤɤĤפȤưоݤȤѤƤ롥㤨СʲΤȤǤ롥

Now our oxes are being gored more directly, not with malice, but out of some perverse ego game.


The establishment, we are sometimes -- you knows, in some cases, convenient oxes to gore. But I think there's no question they represent an important political constituency in the country.


gore (one's) ox Ȥǥϡ¯ "to goad or intentionally try to piss someone off" ͤäĤƤ롤餻򤹤פȤ̣ɽꥫѸͭΤ褦Ǥ롥 ox ϥǥΰȤѤƤꡤäˡ֤ΤפȤ̣ǤϤʤʥǥΰ̣ˤĤƤ 򻲾ȡΥǥʣ oxes Ǥʤ oxen ѤƤ㤬4㤢뤳Ȥ顤ɽŪʣ oxes νи˲̤Ƥ򵿤ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
ϡưʪȤƤǤʤԥ塼ޥʣȤƤ mouses 䡤ФȤƤǤʤƥʤʣ antennas ʤɡŪȯỴ̈˵§Ūʣ -s ղäΤ븽ݤgore (one's) ox ox ϸΡͺפΥ᡼󤶤äƤꡤ줬 oxes Ȥ֤뤳ȤǽˤƤΤǤϤʤΤȤͺפΰ̣ʣȤ oxes ƤȤڵϡʸѰʳˤϡˤʤ褦

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2010-08-21 Sat

#481. father ˵ä໤ [fricativisation][phonetics]

ε[2010-08-20-1]ǡĸ pater in PIE 鸽Ѹ father ˤĹѲƻΤ򼨤ϢλҲѲκǸ˵ä໤ˤĤɵd > ð Ѳ1400ǯʹߤˡֶΤ첻 + d + 粻Ū r פȤĶǵϤ᤿Ѹˤϡ˴ؤ¿θǤޤ d ð Τɤ줬ߤ졤ä fader ? father, moder ? mother Ǥɤ줬㤷äǽŪˤϡʲΤ褦¿θ ð ذܹԤƸߤ˻äƤ롥

furder > further, gader > gather, hider > hither, togeder > together, weder > weather, wheder > whether, whider > whither


d Ĥä burden, murder, rudder ʤɤθ⾯롥Shakespeare դǤϡޤ burthen murther ̤˸줿 ( Scragg 32fn )

סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ384, 386--87ǡ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.

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2010-08-20 Fri

#480. father ͥˡ§ [grimms_law][verners_law]

ͥˡ§ ( Verner's Law ) ˤĤƤϡ[2009-08-09-1]ε hundred ȤѤ¿λͽǤ Verner's Law father ѤƤΤǡ father ѤʽŪʵҤߤ롥
Verner's Law ϡˤäˡ§ ( Grimm's Law ; see [2009-08-08-1], [2009-08-07-1]) ͽۤȿ֤ϤƤޤФơĸʳǤΥȤΰ֤θ뤳ȤDzޤȤƸĤ줿ˡ§Ǥ롥פɽ魯ĸκƷ pater in PIE Ǥ롥Ƭ *p Grimm's Law ˽äƥޥؤ f ȤäűѸη֤ fæder Ǥ뤫顤ˤĤƤˡ§̤Ǥ롥2Ҳͤȶ礬ĸ *t Grimm's Law ˽ХޥǤ th бϤºݤˤϸűѸξ fæder ˤ褦 d бƤ롥ʤǸѸη father פ⤫٤ƤϤʤαѸη֤˸ th ϸҤ褦ѸȯãǡGrimm's Law νϤľܤ˴ϢŤΤϥʥǤ롥
츫 Grimm's Law Ϥþ뤬1875ǯ Karl Verner (1846--96) 㳰̤ˡ§ȯ֥ȤԤʤͭˤϤޤ줿Ķˤ *t ϡˡ§ͽۤ *θ ˤϤʤ餺줬ͭǤ ð ˤʤפȤΤǤ롥ĸκƷˤХȤ2ˤꡤ*t ˤȤäƤϥȤԤʤȤˤʤ롥ͭ첻ˤϤޤƤΤǡ嵭δĶ˹פ롥äơͽۤ *θ ˤϤʤ餺ˡ *ð ѲȤ롥ǤϤޤűѸ fæder ˤɤ夫ʤVerner's Law ФˡθΥȤ1˰ưʡᥲޥɤħ1ġˡ˸űѸޤޥ췲ǤҲ *ð æ໤ d ȤʤäƤ褦䤯첻̤ȤơˤǤűѸ fæder Ϥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
äϤޤʤűѸ d Ȥʤä2ҲϡѸ1400ǯʹߤ˺Ƥ໤ð ؤȲ󵢤Ƥ椯ϤΰĸȽϤθѸ¤٤ƤߤȡGrimm's Law Verner's Law ŬѤΤߤͤФ褤褦˻פ뤬ºݤˤ Verner's Law θ˥Ȱưæ໤໤ȤƼβѲФƷŪ˲󵢤ˤʤơ褦䤯Ѹ father ˤɤ夯ΤǤ롥
Τ褦˸Ƥʬ褦ˡfather (1) űѸʹߤˤβѲФƤ뤿˰ĸ鸽Ѹ˻ޤǤƻΤ꤬˱󤯡(2) ֤ <th> 뤳Ȥ Grimm's Law ͽۤϤ *θ Verner's Law ͽۤϤ *ð ȸѸʥ˷ӤĤ䤹Ȥ𤬤ꡤVerner's Law ⤹ȤƤ father ϤޤŬڤǤϤʤθβѲʣʤΤǤ롥[2009-08-09-1]εǤϥ󥹥ƥåפξʤ hundred ФΤѸβѲ Grimm's Law Verner's Law Τ褦̾ʤΤФǤϤʤ٤ȤǤȵäƤΤȤȤפФˤ father 褤㤫⤷ʤޤȤȤưʲοޤ򻲾ȡ

pater to father

߷ ⡡رѸˡ١ҡӡ2008ǯ. 31--33ǡ


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2010-08-19 Thu

#479. bushel [etymology][chaucer][palatalisation]

ΰ۾ﵤݤȴФĤˤ뾮ԺǡʪʤƭƤ롥ϥꥫʥ˼3̤ξ͢йǡݲʤⲼǽ롥ʤιƭ˴ؤ뿷ʹɤǤȡ1֥å7ɥĶʤɤȤɸ˽Ф魯
bushel ֥֥åפϹʪ̼¤ʤɤ̤¬ΤѤ䡼ɡݥˡñ̤Ǥ롥Ͻ̤ǤʤѤñ̤Ǥꡤ35.24åȥ Winchester bushel; ƹ񤪤151824ǯޤǤΥ󥰥ɤǡˤ뤤36.37åȥ Imperial bushel; ѹǡˤ롥ñ̤ȤƤ1֥å뾣Ѥб̤ɽ魯ʪˤäб̤ϰۤʤ뤿ˡꥹǤ13衤ʣν̤б뤳ȤˤʤäƤ롥ξˤ27kgǤ롥
14Ѹ busshel, bussel ϸťե󥹸 boissiel ʸե󥹸 boisseau ˤμѸǡԤ boisse + -el ȤǤ롥캬 boisse 6ʬ1֥åΰդǡ¯ƥ ( Vulgar Latin ) *bostia ּդʬ̡סˤϥ ( Gaulish ) *bosta ̤Ȥ롥ե󥹸줫Ѹä -ss ĸǤϡ1400ǯޤǤ /s/ /ʃ/ Ѳȼֻ <ss> <sh> ؤѲ ( see [2010-04-08-1] )
ơbushel ʹƻפФΤϡChaucer The Canterbury Tales Τʤ1 "The Reeve's Tale" Ǥ롥ʴԥϤͤȤԤФơåեؤο2ͤʴα̼򿲼뤳Ȥǻ֤򤹤ȤäʪǤ롥ե֥ꥪ ( fabliau ) ȸƤФ뤳μαʸϡɼԤɤǤǤ롥ʴ2ͤϤμˤۤɤƨȤƯˡޤޤȾ֥å򤻤Ƥޤ󤬰ݿ ( ll. 4093--94; see the text here. )

He half a busshel of hir flour hath take,
And bad his wyf go knede it in a cake.


ϸǺǤ̤¿ʪǤ롥Ⱦ֥åۤɤ򤻤᤿ʤۤɤ˥֥åβʤ˰ͫΤϡ600ǯ⺣ѤäƤʤȤȤ

Referrer (Inside): [2014-12-06-1]

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2010-08-18 Wed

#478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ [emode][loan_word][latin][inkhorn_term][ranaissance][lexicology]

[2009-08-19-1],[2009-11-05-1]ʤɤǿ줿褦ˡѸˤϤΤǥƥñ줬Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ѸΥե󥹸ѤۤɤǤ롥[2009-06-12-1]Ǽ褦ˡ16Ǥ7000ۤɤѤ줿ȤޤطʤˤϰʲΤ褦ʻ𤬤ä
16ȾѸΥե󥹸ΤӤ졤ĤĤäѸˤȤäƤ礭ǺߤϡܳŪˤäƼνʬʸä礤ƤȤäǹͤ줿ǤΨΤ褤ˡϡľܥƥ줫äѤ뤳Ȥäˡͥ󥹤Τ⤿餷ۤʳءŵˤꡤꥷƥȤäŵͳ褹̵Ѹ줬ɬפȤ졤ѸήȤ⤢ä16Ⱦοǯۤɤû֤ˡ̤Υƥñ줬Ѹ˼ޤ줿֥ס inkhorn term ˤ餵ۤɤʳŪʼѸ¿λäƥñȾʬϸˤޤäƤʤȸ롥
ˤޤǻĤäΤϡܸäȤޤǤϸʤʸϤǤŪ褯ߤ뼡Τ褦ñ줬󤲤ʰʲBrinton and Arnovick, pp. 357--58 ˡ

confidence, dedicate, describe, discretion, education, encyclopedia, exaggerate, expect, industrial, maturity


ޤǤ˻ĤʤäΤϡʲΤ褦ñǤ롥ʤ桹ˤߤΤʤñФʤΤǡƥٶƤʤ¤̣¬ΤϺ

adjuvate "aid", deruncinate "weed", devulgate "set forth", eximious "excellent", fatigate "make tired", flantado "flaunting", homogalact "foster-brother", illecebrous "delicate", pistated "baked", suppeditate "supply"


ɤθ줬Ĥɤθ줬ΤƤ줿ΤˤĤƤϡͳ餷ͳϤʤȤäƤ褤˼Ƥ졤Ѵ줿ȹͤΤѸ˴Ƥ봶ФǤϡeducation expect ʤɤθ줬ʤäؤʤȻפǡflantado illecebrous ʤɤɬפΤʤ˻פ롥ˤäƤϤޤäդξƤǽԻ׵ĤǤ롥ѸθäˤζˤäƤ⤿餵줿ΤȤȤ褯ʬ

Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

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2010-08-17 Tue

#477. That's gorgeous! (2) [coca][corpus][ame][semantic_change][americanisation]

ε[2010-08-16-1]ǿ줿 gorgeous ³ԡϡŨʡפθγ򥤥ꥹѸɽ BNC ǸꥫѸǤϤɤȻפCorpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) ˤĴ٤Ƥߤ뤳ȤˤȤΤϡإӥͥѼѱѸ缭ŵ4ǡ٤ "My son is an extremely gorgeous baby." ˤ gorgeous λȤϥꥫѸȤ񤭤äǤ롥ꥹѸǤˡϥꥫˡ ( Americanism ) ȵڤȤǽȤȤ
ޤϡCOCA äե֥ѥ˸ꤷĴ٤Ƥߤȡ̣Ȥˤ20ǯ֤dzμ¤ gorgeous λѤƤ롥

<em>gorgeous</em> in COCA Spoken

ˡäդ˸¤餺񤭸դޤĴ٤ȡϤꤳ20ǯ֤ǷŪƤ롥fiction, magazine, newspaper Ȥ񤭸դΥǤ⤫ʤ٤򼨤Ƥ뤳Ȥgorgeous ŪʪäƤ롥

<em>gorgeous</em> in COCA Spoken and Written

äդ˸¤äƤ¤ʤƤ⡤15ǯ gorgeous ٤Ȥˤʤ롥θ̤ϡθֲʡڤʡפȿŨʡפȤ̤ƤʤKWIC ( Keyword in Context ) 򤶤äįƤߤ¤ꡤԤθΤۤ¿褦Ǥ롥ˡγȤΤϲФĤȤˤϰ쵤˲ФĤΤʤȤȤ´Ǥ
ñĴǤϡꥹѸǤλä Americanisation ˤΤɤȽǤǤʤäʤȤѼǺȤ᤯ŪƻȤäƤ褵

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2010-08-16 Mon

#476. That's gorgeous! [bnc][corpus][bre][semantic_change][etymology][gender_difference]

ե奢Ȥμ¶ʤɤǽơ Gorgeous! ȴòΤʹȤ롥ޤꥹαˤޤ֤˷ä̼ȱؤơäˤʤäƤꥹͽ Gorgeous! ȸˤƤΤФƤ롥֥㥹פܸˤѤƤֲʡڤʡפȤ̣夷Ƥ뤬ܸǤϾ޻ɽ魯ӤȤƤѤʤȻפΤǡ嵭αѸɽʹˡ㤦ΤʤȵŤOALD7 ˤȡƻ gorgeous 1ϰʲ̤Ǥ롥ߤǤϡŨʡפθפʻȤˤʤäƤ褦

1. (informal) very beautiful and attractive; giving pleasure and enjoyment

  
ƻ gorgeous ϥե󥹸 gorgias "fine, elegant" μѤǡˤȸ촴 gorge "bosom, throat" Ǥ뤳Ȥ "ruff for the neck" ּΤˤդ路ҤߡפȴϢŤΤǤϤʤȤƤ롥̤ǤϥꥷνȤʤ򹥤Ȥ Gorgias (c483--376BC) ͳ褹Ȥ⤵졤θ츻Ͼܤ餫ǤʤOED ˤȤθ15꤫ѤƤֲʡڤʡפȤܤä޻ɽ魯ɽȤƤˡ19Ⱦ鸽ФɽȤƤˡ̲Τ20äƤǤꡤȤ櫓ݥԥ顼ˤʤäΤ20Ⱦ21ˤƤΤȤǤϤʤȵ롥
ͤ뺬1Ĥϡ20Ⱦμ򤤤Ĵ٤櫓ǤϤʤ㤨 Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913 + 1828) Ĵ٤¤ꡤgorgeous Υȥ꡼˸ŪɽбͿƤʤ
⤦1ĤκϡBNCWeb gorgeous ٤פäƤߤ̤Ǥ롥Ḥ̤̂Фޤ餫ʤΤϡ"informal" Ȥ졼٥뤫ͽۤȤꡤθϽ񤭸դäդ٤˹⤤ȤǤ롥100νи٤ϡ񤭸դ4.8Фäդ17.39Ǥ롥äդ˸ꤷʬۤĴ٤Ȥä˲ʸ٤ι⤤Ȥʬä
ơ⤪⤷ΤϻѼԤ̤ǯʬۤǤ롥gorgeous 100桤ˤ8.89󤷤ѤƤʤˤ34.64ȤƤ롥ʣα¼񡤱ѱѼ٤ơּ˽졦άפȤƥ졼٥뤬ŽƤΤϡإ˥缭ŵ٤äۤ˽餫Ǥ¾μǤֽפΥ졼٥뤬ߤȤޤѼԤǯȤƤ24аʲŪǤ롥BNC ɽ20ȾΥꥹѸäդ˴ؤ¤ꡤgorgeous ϼǯؤνˤȤ櫓ݥԥ顼ɽȤȤʬ롥̤ˤϤޤꤳθѤʤ⡤ǯؤ˸¤äƤϻ٤Ū⤤Ȥ̤ФΤȤơgorgeous λѤϤ1?2δ֤˻Ѥ礷Ƥȹͤ줽Ǥ롥
٤ĴɬפϤ뤬ʾξ󤫤ȽǤ¤ gorgeous ˡޤܤѲƤȤȤˤʤ롥Ūʾ޻ɽ19ȯãƤǯǼǯؽҤλѤˤäƥ֥쥤줬ǯˤȤĤĤ롥¾ǯؤˤڤǤƤޤޤݥԥ顼ˤʤ뤫⤷ʤήɽȤƤܤǤ⤷ʤ
塤ˡι򸫼äƤⵡ񤬤ä̡ǯ̣ˡ That's gorgeous! ȶǤߤ뤳Ȥˤ褦

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2010-08-15 Sun

#475. That's a whole nother story. [metanalysis][corpus][ame]

ѸθǡɸΤ褦ɽ롥֤ޤä̤äפȤ̣ǡLDOCE5 ˤ nother, 'nother θФΤȤ˼Τ褦ʵҤ롥

a whole nother ... used humorously when emphasizing that something is completely different from what you have been talking about. It is a changed form of 'another whole':
- Texas is a whole nother country.
- That a whole 'nother ball game.


another ( a(n) + other ) ʬ򤷤ƶĴ whole 򶴤߹ݤˡa whole other ǤϤʤ a whole nother ʬ ( metanalysis ) ƶ߹ɽǤʰʬϤ[2009-05-03-1]򻲾ȡˡCorpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) ǤϷ빽ʿ㤬󤬤äBritish National Corpus (BNC) Ǥ㤬ʤäMerriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary Ǥ "US informal" Υ졼٥뤬դƤꥫѸ¿ɽȤäƤ褵
ơŤѸߤƤߤȡa whole nother Τ褦˴֤˷ƻ줬ޤäƤ륿פ nother 㤳ޤĤƤʤa + nother ȰʬϤƤ᤯1300ǯ鸽Ƥ롥ane nothir sentence an nother maner ʤɤ򸫤ȡnother ǤΩȤǧƤȤʬ롥ѸƸ졩ˤ a whole nother Ȥ礬ŪʰʬϤȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤʳĴǤǤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2014-11-11-1]

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2010-08-14 Sat

#474. ֱѸ줬Ѳפ2̤ΰ̣Ȥߴط [sociolinguistics][language_change][wsse]

ѸʸˤѲȤȤ̤ꤵƤΤϡȯʸˡäʤɤθηϤιǤѲȤȤŪѲ ( linguistic change ) ȸƤܤ
⤦1Ĥΰ̣ǤѲꤦ롥ϼҲŪʴˤѲǡ㤨мҲˤѸΰ֤ŤǤȤѸ줬Ѥʬ䵡γǤȤѸȤμҲŪǽѲؤҲŪѲ ( sociolinguistic change ) ȸƤܤ
Ѹˤ̤ˤϤ2Ѳ̤ɬפ뤬2ԤϸߤˤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤҲŪѲŪѲͶƤϡְ㤤ʤѸˤˤ롥Ĺ餯ƥե󥹸ΤӤΤȤϲäƤѸ줬Ѹꥤꥹ뤲ƤѸ줬ꥹΤʬΰ ( domain ) Ѥ褦ˤʤꡤ˱ֻɸಽʤǤ³Ѹˤϡʸˡ񤬿¿졤ѸεϤΩ줿
ҲŪѲŪѲ򸣰ǯǤϡѸ줬 ELF ( English as a Lingua Franca ) ȤƹȤ褦ˤʤȼWSSE ( World Standard Spoken English ) ȸƤФ뿷פαѸѼ郎ĤĤ롥WSSE Ǥϡϰ迧ζȯ򤱤뷹ȤʾϡѸ줬ƻ׵ᤵҲŪǽбƸŪѲȤ
ǤϡդαƶĤޤŪѲҲŪѲͶϤΤϡŤ˵٤ϡ㤨СֱѸʸˡñ㲽餳ϰ̤ǤΤפȤ褦Ƥݤ˴طƤ롥ʲ2Ĥ̿ˤơ (1) 椨 (2) פȤǤ롥

(1) Ѹʸˡñ㲽ʸŪѲ
(2) Ѹ줬ϰ̤ʼҲŪѲ

Ѹ̤ˤĤƤҤ1ͤǤ Crystal Ϥ¯ȤऱƤ (7--10) Crystal ΰոˤϻǡ(1) (2) ⤿餷Ȥ̴طϤʤȤͤǤ롥äѸ줬ϰ̤ΩʬĬή˾ȤޤäǤϡ(1) (2) 岡뤯餤θ̤ϤΤǤϤʤȤͤ롥ΰոϡ (1) 椨 (2) פȤľܤΰ̴طտޤΤǤϤʤ
ŪѲη̤ȤƼҲŪѲȤ餫ʻϰΤΤ

Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

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2010-08-13 Fri

#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ [semantic_change][sign][arbitrariness]

ΤʤǺǤѲ䤹ϲѸ˸褦˸θùܤû֤ؤΤǤꡤäϤ餯ǤѲη㤷ƱͤѲ䤹ȤѸˤ򸫤ʬ롥ä䲻餱餺Ѳη㤷Ȥơΰ̣롥
ΰ̣Ѥ䤹Τϡη֤Ƥδ֤ŪʴطʤȤˤ롥ɽ ( signifiant ) ȵ ( signifié ) δطܼŪŪ ( arbitrary ) Ǥꡤ桹ȻפäƤ뤢Ȥΰ̣ȤηӤĤϴŪʤΤˤʤŪȤŪȤȤϰŪǤ뤳Ȥˤ̤Ȥΰ̣δطϷʷѲȤȤˤʤ롥ΰ̣ŪѲ뤳ȤȤƤ褦ˤפ롥
̣ѲˤŵŪʥѥ󤬤Ĥ롥ΤʤǤäˤ褯夲Τϡߤ˴Ϣ4ĤΥѥǤ롥Brinton and Arnovick (77--80) 򻲹ͤȤȤ󤷤Ƥߤ褦

(1) ̲ ( generalization ): ü򼨤ŪǤȴѲ

box: from "a small container made of boxwood" to "a small container"
butcher: from "one who slaughters goats" to "one who cuts and sells meat in a shop"
carry: from "to transport something in a vehicle" to "to move something while holding and supporting it"
crisis: from "a turning point of a disease" to "a difficult or dangerous situation that needs serious attention"
holiday: from "a holy day" to "a non-work day"
sanctuary: from "a holy place" to "a safe place"
scent: from "animal odour used for tracking" to "a pleasant smell"

(2) ü첽 ( specialization ): üʰ򼨤ѲŪʰ̣òѲ

acorn: from "wild fruit" to "the nut of the oak tree"
adder: from "a snake" to "a type of poisonous snake"
hound: from "a dog" to "a type of hunting dog"
lust: from "desire" to "sexual desire"
meat: from "food" to "meat"
sermon: from "a speech, discourse" to "a talk given as part of a Christian church service"
stool: from "a seat for one person" to "a backless seat"

(3) ( pejoration ): ޥʥɾӤӤ褦ˤʤѲü첽ͤ뤳Ȥ¿

admonish: from "to advise" to "To warn or notify of a fault"
corpse: from "a body" to "a dead body"
cunning: from "knowledgeable" to "clever and good at deceiving people"
hussy: from "a housewife" to "a woman who is sexually immoral"
judgmental: from "inclined to make judgments" to "inclined to make uncharitable or negative judgments, overly critical"
poison: from "potion, drink" to "a substance that can cause death or serious illness"
villain: from "a low-born or common person" to "a vile, wicked person"

(4) ɲ ( amelioration ): ץ饹ɾӤӤ褦ˤʤѲü첽ͤ뤳Ȥ¿

boy: from "a rascal, servant" to "a male child"
knight: from "a boy, a servant" to "a man who is given a special honor and the title of Sir by the king or queen of England"
nice: from "silly, simple" to "kind, polite, and friendly"
queen: from "a woman of good birth" to "the female ruler of a country"
shrewd: from "wicked" to "mentally sharp or clever"
steward: from "an overseer of the pig sty" to "someone who protects or is responsible for money, property, etc."
success: from "an outcome, a result" to "a correct or desired result"

Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

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2010-08-12 Thu

#472. kenning [kenning][oe][compound][compounding][old_norse]

űѸλˤ kenning ֥˥󥰡פȸƤФ뱣Ūնɽ롥¿2ĤǤʤʣ ( compound ) ǡȴ˭ȯۤ˴ŤǤȤ߹碌ˤŪɽФhwælweg "whale's way" ַߤƻפɽŪˡֳפؤ夲褦ξ硤ʣμƻפȻؼоݡֳפȤϴŪϢۤƯʤַߡפȡֳפȤϴŪ˷ӤĤƤ롥θַߡפ𤷤ƼƻפȻؼоݡֳפȤƴŪ˷ӤĤȤ̣ǡŪ뤤նŪɽȸΤǤ롥Τ褦˰̣Ū˸̩ kenning ȡkenning ȸƤ٤ɽϸűѻǤ⤫ʤ¤Ƥ롥̣DZŪնɽȤȤ館ΤǤСʤμबǧƤ롥
Ȥơ kenning λؼоݤƤߤƤ餤ʬ򥯥å롥

kenningliteral sensemeaning
beaduleoma"battle-light"sword
famigheals flota"foamy-necked floater"ship
feorhhus"soul-house"body
goldgiefa"gold-giver"prince, lord
hēafodgimm"head-gem"eye
merehengest"sea-horse"ship
sǣwudu"sea-wood"ship
swanrād"swan-road"sea
sweordplega"swordplay"fighting
wælstōwe"place of slaughter"battlefield
woruldcandel"world-candle"sun


űѸʳǤϸťΥɸο Edda ʤɤѤƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥ťΥɸǤ kenning μϸűѸӤƤϤ뤫˭٤Ǥꡤºݤ "kenning" ȤѸϸťΥɸΡΤ餻뤳ȡܥפ̣ͳ褹롥θťΥɸˤ kenning 㤬ʤȤ顤ޥ kenning ϸűѸäƤȤΤŬڤ
̤ˡkenning ϸ奲ޥħǤȿƤ롥Τ˥ޥʣ ( composition ) ˤä¤줹ΤդǤꡤkenning Τ褦ɽȯפϤäȹͤ뤫⤷ʤkenning ϼºݤˤϸ奲ޥͭΤΤǤϤʤŪˤϥӥƥ̤ꤦĤ餷ޤkenning оݤȤʤ복ǰϸ¤ƤꡤűѻˤƤϤ٤㤤Ȥ顤Ϥ̾٤Τۤ⤤űѻɽˡȤäƤ褤

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2010-08-11 Wed

#471. toilet ˭٤նɽ WordNet Visuwords Ǥߤ [web_service][thesaurus][synonym][link]

ε[2010-08-10-1]ǡtoilet նɽ˭٤Ǥ뤳Ȥ򸫤ʣμ٤ƤƴǶΡä˳ؽѡ˱ѱѼ֤λȤʬˡβ⤬ܤ켭ŵ ( thesaurus ) ʤ餺Ȥ⤽˽ऺŪꥹȤͭѤǤ롥Ǥ⡤ꥹȤ󼨤ò thesaurus ˤϤʤʤ
ǶWebˤ thesaurus ˭٤žäƤꡤ㤨 the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia Thesaurus.com ʤɤڤѤǤ롥WebĴ٤Ƥʤäɲä٤֥ȥɽĤ褦Ǥ롥
WebܳŪ thesaurus Ȥͭ̾ʤΤϡPrinceton University George A. Miller λشˤäԻƤ WordNet Ǥ롥Ǥ WordNet Ϣʤ͡ʱѤޤƤ褦Ǥ Version 3.0 Υǡ١鸡ǽȤʤäƤꡤ㤨 toilet θ̤Ϥ̤ Ǥ롥̸ ( hypernym ) 䲼̸ ( hyponym ) ؤ֤Τ˥ǤѸΰ̣ڤ˰褦ˤʤäȤ´Ǥ롥ޤWordNet 3.0 database statistics ˤϱѸ̾ʿѸ1.24ʤΤФưʿѸ2.17ǤʤɡͭѤʾ󤬤롥
ΰ̣вͥåȥޤڤ褦WebΥӥФƤVisual Thesaurus 1Ĥͭե꡼ǤʲΤ褦ʴؤʥͥåȥޤ롥

toilet on Visual Thesaurus

Visual Thesaurus ͭʤΤǡ˻䤬ޤ˻ȤäƤե꡼ΤΤ Visuwords嵭 WordNet Υǡ١ϢƤ롥Ϥͥåȥޤϰʲ̤ꡥʲΥ᡼򥯥åƸ뤤 Visuwords ľ toilet 򸡺ǡܺ٤ΤƤߤƤۤ

toilet on Visuwords

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2010-08-10 Tue

#470. toilet ˭٤նɽ [euphemism][thesaurus][japanese][synonym]

ε[2010-08-09-1] euphemism Ҳ𤷤euphemism ŵ1Ĥˡ֥ȥפɽ1θ礬롥Ѹ˸¤餺餯¿θǡ֥ȥפľŪ˻ؤΤϤФǤꡤŪ˻ؤɽ˭٤ȯãƤȻפ롥֥ȥפʤɤնɽ˭٤ȯãΤϡľ¤餲뤿͡ˡǺФ줿ŪɽФ餯ѤƤȺƤľӤӤ褦ˤʤäƤޤʤŪɽɬפȤ뤫Ǥ롥ơĤƤϴŪäɽȾȾΤޤޤߡȸäΤʤѤ߻Ĥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥̤ˡ֡бնɽ˭٤ʤΤϤΤ褦ͳˤ롥
ǤϡŪ˱Ѹ toilet ɽ򸫤Ƥߤ褦ʣμ켭ŵ ( thesaurus ) Ĵ٤½äȤ¤86θ뤳ȤǤԴѡ

backhouse, basement, bathroom, bedpan, biffy, bog, can, carzey, chamber, chamber pot, chemical closet, chemical toilet, cloakroom, cloaks, closet, cludgie, comfort station, commode, convenience, conveniences, crapper, donagher, don(n)icker, dunny, earth closet, facilities, facility, gents, gutbucket, head, hopper, jakes, jerry, john, johnny, johnny house, jordan, kahsi, karzy, khaziv, ladies , ladies' room, latrine, lav, lavatory, lavvy, little boy's room, little girl's room, loo, lounge, men's room, middy, Mrs. Chan, necessary, outhouse, piss pot, piss-house, pisser, pot, potty, potty-chair, powder room, privy, public conveniences, relief station, restroom, shitter, shouse, stool, the smallest room, throne, throne room, throttle pit, thunder mug, thunder-bowl, thunderbox, toilet, toilet room, toilette, toot, urinal, washroom, Washroom, water closet, WC, women's room


ǤϰѼѰ ( register )Ụ̄ ( denotation )ȥμ̤ʤɤϹθ줺եåȤ¤٤ʤΤǻѾաʢ 嵭denotation ǤϤʤ connotation θǤ
ܸƱͤĴ٤ƤߤѸμѸޤƼ¤48ɽꡤƱԴѡ

𡤱(󤸤)åȡå롼ࡤ()ߡ(礦)ȥ졤Ρʤˡ;ʤ󤳤Сˡý(󤸤)Ѽ()()ԾǢ(ɤ)硼()㱣̽ꡤףá(礦ɤ)졤ꡤ(Ƥ餤)ȥ졤ȥåȡȥåȥ롼ࡤ(Ȥ)(Ȥ礦Ȥ)ȥåȡѥ롼ࡤ(ϤФ)ꡤҤ졤(Ӥ)ԾԾ()(ؤ)ؼ(٤󤷤) ؽꡤ󥺥롼ࡤѾ(褦) Хȥ꡼롼쥹ȥ롼ࡤǥ롼

θɽ⡤ε[2010-08-09-1]Ǽ͡ euphemism κŬѤƤ褦

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2010-08-09 Mon

#469. euphemism κ [euphemism]

ѤˤľˤˤƤ롥㤨СοȡΤ̡ǥлεǽµϷ𡤻ϡľܸˤΤϤФ¿͡ƤľŪ˻ؤɽˤΤ򤱤븽ݤϡŪʶش ( linguistic taboo ) ȸƤФ졤¸ߤ롥ˤ뤳ȼΤɬ⥿֡ǤϤʤľŪǤʤŪ˻ؤɽǤСѤ뤳ȤҲŪ˵ƤȤ¿Τ褦˴ŪˤоݤؼɽΤȤնʸˡ ( euphemism ) Ȥ
Ǥϡeuphemism äƤȤִפϤɤΤ褦˺ФΤ餯¾ȤӤѸξ euphemism κ󤷤Ƥߤ褦ʲϡBrinton and Arnovick, pp. 80--81 ˴Ťʬࡥ

(1) ̲ ( generalization )
Ūʰ̣ɽѤ롥ΤΤľܻؤΤǤϤʤΤΤޤΤؤȤˤʤΤǡĤä롥ex. growth for cancer, voiding for defecation or urination.

(2) ʬ ( splitting features )
1˵ͤƤ2İʾΰ̣ʬ򤷡Ȥ߹碌ƿʸˡ̣ΰʬ򡥥ץ벽줿̣ʬ򤷤ƼΤǡΤ֤ľ롥ex. ethnic cleansing for pogrom, genocide; pre-owned for used.

(3) 借 ( borrowing words )
ä˥ƥ䥮ꥷηǤѤʸѤ롥¦ϡפβФΤǡŪˤʤ롥ex. expire for die, perspire for sweat.

(4) Ūɽ ( figure of speech )
( metaphor) 䴹 ( metonymy ) ǰŤ˼ex. belly button for navel, in his cups for drunk.

(5) ̣ž ( semantic shift )
ؤƴϢ̤βؤex. sleep with for have sex with, go to the bathroom for defecate or urinate.

(6) Τ椬 ( phonetic distortion )
֤Ѥơľ롥ex. gosh for god, darn for damn.

(7) ؾɽ ( diminutives )
ؾ -y ʣ ( reduplication; see [2009-07-02-1] and [2010-01-21-1] ) Ѥơ֤襤פ롥ex. tummy for stomach, wee-wee for urination.

(8) ƬƬʸά ( acronyms or initialisms )
Ȥɽä˺⤢뤯餤Ūˤʤ롥ex. TB for tuberculosis, SOB for son of a bitch.

¾˲ʤʤȹͤƤߤ"meta-euphemism" ȤǤƤ٤פĤeuphemism ȤϤ켫Τꥹ¯ǡ֥ȥפؤնɽȤƻȤ롥ξ硤"euphemism" Ȥ츽ݤΰŪ̾ΤǤä euphemism ɽǤ֥ȥפȤ夨ȤȤʤΤǡeuphemism euphemism Ǥ롥"double euphemism" Ȥ "super-euphemism" ȸƤǤ褵

Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

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2010-08-08 Sun

#468. ꥫȤ Webster [popular_passage][ame][ame_bre][webster][spelling_reform][johnson]

ѸαƺˤĤƤϡޤǤ͡ˤƤ ( see ame_bre ) äֻκˤĤƤȯκƱͤܤˤĤ䤹ΤȤƼ夲뤳Ȥ¿ܥ֥Ǥ[2009-12-23-1]ˤ
ameba, center, color, defense, program, traveler ʤɡꥹ֤ȤϰۤʤȼΥꥫֻƤΤ Noah Webster (1758--1843) Ǥ롥Webster ȤС1828ǯ˽Ǥ줿 The American Dictionary of the English Language ޤˤͭ̾Ǥ롥μȤλ¹ϸߤ˻ޤǼ̤Ȥ˥ꥫѸ켭κǹȤƤꡤǤ Webster ΰŪʱƶϤΤ褦Webster βפֻμˤȿǤƤꡤȤȤ˥ꥫ˹ΤϤ뤳ȤȤʤä
ǤϡWebster ϤʤֻפϤ褦ȻפΩäΤͤˡꥹǤֻξ򳵴ѤƤѸ Caxton ˤǰѤƳѸ ( Great Vowel Shift ) ʤɡ⳰ѲФơѸֻȯЪΥȤƬˤ뤳ȤȤʤäꥹǤ16ؼ ( orthoepist ) ϤᡤֻװƤƤ礭ˤϤʤä Mulcaster βפˤĤƤ[2010-07-12-1]򻲾ȡˡɡꥹǤ1755ǯ Samuel Johnson A Dictionary of the English Language äƸֻܸۤꤷȤäƤ褤
Τۤο̱ϡꥫǤֻˤĤƤϥꥹĴ碌ƤȤ18ȾΩ夫饢ꥫ٤ѤäƤ롥ˤ¿㤬Ƥ̤ꡤŪΩλָȸŪΩλָɽ΢ΤǤ롥ꥫŪΩλˤϡʰ񿴤΢Ǥ줿ꥫѸ쿮Ԥ줿Webster ⤽1ͤǤꡤꥹѸΥꥫǤǤϤʤΩ֥ꥫ( the American language ) ǤƤ褦ȹͤƤΤǤ롥ʲ Webster θդǤ롥

The question now occurs; ought the Americans to retain these faults which produce innumerable inconveniences in the acquisition and use of the language, or ought they at once to reform these abuses, and introduce order and regularity into the orthography of the American tongue? . . . . a capital advantage of this reform . . . would be, that it would make a difference between the English orthography and the American. . . . a national language is a band of national union. . . . Let us seize the present moment, and establish a national language as well as a national government. (Webster, 1789 quoted in Graddol, p. 6)


ɽŪˤϡѸֻȯЪΥ˹ŪʲͿ褦ȤǤʤ顤¤ΤȤϡꥫιȤȤƤΩꥹФȼΥǥƥƥȤäŪʰտޤǻǤäȤη̤Ȥ˶ջ֤ Webster Τߤʤ餺¿Υꥫ̱˲Ƥ餳̾븫ߤΤʤֻפդΤ
դˤС˥ݥƥ֤ʾ郎·ʤֻפˤȤ褯Ƥ롥ȤΤϡWebster Ǥ顤Ƥ޿ŪֻװƤùʤФʤʤäǤ롥ΰƤʤǤ뤳Ȥ򸫤Ƽꡤ嵭 center color ʤɤηֻѹΤߤʤ벺ϩڤؤΤä
ֻˤƺΩаޤˤϡWebster ȤƱΥꥫͤ夲֥ꥫפؤۤäΤǤ롥

Webster, Noah. "An Essay on the Necessity, Advantages and Practicability of Reforming the Mode of Spelling, and of Rendering the Orthography of Words Correspondent to the Pronunciation." Appendix to Dissertations on the English Language. 1789. Extracts reprinted in Proper English?: Readings in Language, History and Cultural Identity. Ed. Tony Crowley. London: Routledge, 1991.
Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm

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2010-08-07 Sat

#467. ;̾ it θƬ /h/ äݤ [personal_pronoun][h][analogy][germanic]

Ѹ3;̾ it ϡűѸǤϸƬ <h> դ줿 <hit> ȤֻѤƤ[2009-09-29-1]˷ǤűѸο;̾ηϤ򸫤ʬȤꡤ٤Ƥζ޷ <h> ǻϤޤäƤꡤˤ줤ηϤʤƤ롥Τʤäñʤ <hit> ϡַڤ׻ȵǽ̤Ȥ˸Ƭޤꡤit Ѳ夷ȹͤƤ롥űѸǤǤ it η֤ǧƤꡤ1200ǯ϶֤ĶǤ it Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤ롥 hit Ѹ˿ष1500ǯޤǺ١³ƤߤǤǶĴɽȤƻȤ het, hit ʤɤƤѤȤʤäƤ롥줬űѸ hit it ִ줿ˤȤưŪ˸뵭ҤǤ롥
ˤȤƶ̣⤬ ( Scragg, p. 42fn ) űѸ hit ϤŤʳǤϤϤ <h> Τʤ <it> Ǥꡤ¾ο;̾ζޤ˹碌褦Ȥ ( analogy ) ˤä <h> ä줿ΤǤϤʤȤĤޤꡤ[2009-09-29-1]˷Ǥ֤٤Ƥ <h> ǻϤޤ뤭줤ηϡפϡ֤줤ˤ줿פΤǤϤʤȤˤȡit ˤϡ<h> Τʤ֤鳫ϤơűѸˤä <h> Ȥ褦ˤʤä˺ƤӸƬμ岽 <h> Τʤ֤˲󵢤ȤȤˤʤ롥
¾ΥޥƱ ( cognate ) ˤϡOld Saxon Middle Low German itLow German etGothic itaOld High German ëz, Old Icelandic es ꡤ <h> äƤʤOld Frisian Middle Dutch ˤ hit Τǡ嵭ʤС2ǤűѸƱͤ䤬äȹͤʤФʤʤΤ
ˤȤơit hit it Ȳ󵢤ѸǾŪ˺Ƥ hit ˤʤǽϤ餯ʤѸο;̾Ǥϡ<h> ƬˤĤΤñ he ζޤˤʤäƤޤäΤǡűѸΤȤƯʤȤˡηϤƬ·ΰϡפϤǤ˼夤Τ顥

Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.

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2010-08-06 Fri

#466. 츻ؤϵݤʳؤ [etymology]

ܥ֥Ǥϱñθ츻¿ˤƤ롥ºݤ˥οǸȡޤǺǤ¿ˤƤ륫ƥ꡼ȤȤ狼 ( see etymology ) ѸˤƤܸˤƤ⡤츻ȤΤܼŪ˿ͤĤ̥ϤΤǡؤоݤˤʤ䤹
츻ŵ٤Ƥȡñθ츻ˤĤƵҤ˿㤤äꡤҤˡ֡פդƤȡ츻ԳΤΩäƤ褦ˤʤ롥ʳޤǤʸŪʾڵ˴ŤƲΰ̣֤Ǥ뤬ŤʳˤʤȾ󤬤ȤƤƲΤʵʤΤʬʤʤäƤ롥ǡ츻ؼԤϼʸŪμʸŪμƶܤ΢դ줿Ԥľˤäơ츻Ū˷ꤹ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʳǤϳƸ츻ؼԤθФ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤΰ̣ǤΡֵݡפª뤫⤷ʤ֥󥷥 (5) ۩

1ʾ顤γʬ⤷θؼԤˤϡ䵿路䡤츦ΰθ̩෿Ȥߤ뤳Ȥ񤷤ȹͤƤԤ⤤롥Ť餢ʸؤ餫˿²طˤ뤿ˡषܿͤεݤǧƤޤΤǤ롥


츻ؤȡֳءפĤƸƤФ줦뤿ˤϡݤȸڤäƤޤ櫓ˤϤʤ츻ؤϼβʳȼΩ򳰤˸ƼʤФʤʤΩΩƤ롥ǥ֥󥷥ϡŪ츻ȳŪ츻2ĤǧᡤξԤδȤ߹碌ؤ¾ʬˤϤʤ츻ؤȼħǤ⤤Ƥ롥
Ū츻ؤȤϡˤĤʸŪڤ롤뤤ӸŪ˺Ʒ롤̣֤κǸŷ֤ȤǤ롥ο٤ϸˤäƤޤޤǡαޤ⤢롥Ūʿ̤ζ츻ؤȤ
dzŪ츻ؤȤϡŪ츻ǵ줿Ǹŷ֤䤽֤򡤼Ҳʸʤɤθγ¦μºߤ˾Ȥ餷ɾȤǤ롥Сꤵ줿Ǹŷ֤֤θѤ줿ҲŪʸ̮ˤƤɤΤ褦˵ǽΤǤ롥ϡ˳Ūʿ̤ζ츻ؤȤ
֥󥷥ϡ2ԤͻʲΤ褦⤤ (21--22)

μ³ϳΤ˰ۤʤäƤϤ뤬ɬŪŪǤꡤϸ츻ؼԤ¿ͤǽϤ򶯤ΤǤ롥ʤҤ̻Ū̻ŪǤꡤҤʸŪŪʸ̮˿̤Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥줬츻ؤüǤꡤμΩŪϰ̤뤳ȤʤΤǤ롥



츻ؤϼʳؤȤΩ뤿˴ĥäƤ롥֥󥷥μݤ˻Ʊ뤬ܵ񤯤ΤָʳءפȸѴΤˤʤä

=å֥󥷥 ס رѸ츻ء١ʸ˥ӡҡ1999ǯ ( Blanchot, Jean-Jacques. L'Étymologie Anglaise. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1995. )

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2010-08-05 Thu

#465. Estuary English ǿʹ첻 [estuary_english][bre][gvs][phonetics][cockney]

ε[2010-08-04-1]Ǽ夲 Estuary English ǿʹȤƤ첻 ( vowel shift ) 롥1400--1700ǯ˵äȤ ( Great Vowel Shift; see [2009-11-18-1]) ƱͤˡĹ첻첻˵äƤ뤬ܤϲǤϤʤष夫鲼Ǥ롥̤Ȥ Cockney ȷӤĤ뤳Ȥ¿Ĺ첻첻βȽŤʤäƤꡤǤ Estuary English Cockney ȤζܤۣǤ롥ʲ Aitchison, p. 193 οޤȤ˺

Vowel Shift in Estuary English

̤ȤơŪȯ˴ƤŤ EFL ؽԤİˤȤäƤϡʲΤ褦ʸ̣ɽƤޤΤդɬפǤ롥

Don't be meanDon't be main [mein]
The main roadThe mine [main] road
It's mineIt's moyne [moin]
See the moonSee the moun [maun]
Don't moanDon't moun [maun]
A little moundA little meund [meund]


Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-04-24-1]

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2010-08-04 Wed

#464. Estuary English [estuary_english][bre][rp][cockney][variety]

ǯꥹ˽иƱƶϤ򹭤ĤĤѸѼ郎롥1983ǯ Rosewarne ˤä Estuary English ֲϸѸפ̾դ줿ѼǡŪ RP (Received Pronunciation) Ǥʤ Cockney ǤʤäŪȯƥॺϸɥؤϤ򹭤Ƥ롥1994ǯ˥ꥹζĹƸ Estuary English ȯᤵ륭ڡĥä餤顤γϤζΤ롥̾դƤ Rosewarne ˤСEstuary English ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥

Estuary English, a new accent variety I first described in 1984, is neither Cockney nor RP, but in the middle between these two. 'Estuary English . . . is to be found in its purest form along the seaward banks of the Thames, whither it has drifted from the eastern end of the capital' (leader article in the Independent on Sunday of 18 June 1995). The heartland still lies by the banks of the Thames and its estuary, but it has spread to other areas, as the Sunday Times announced on 14 March 1993 in a front-page headline 'Estuary English sweeps Britain'. Experts on British English agree that it is currently the strongest influence on the standard spoken form and that it could replace RP as the most influential accent in the British Isles. (Rosewarne 1996: 15 quoted in Jenkins 130--31)



ѸΤɨΥꥹƤѼʤˡȯRosewarne Ϥ RP Estuary English ߹फ뤤ϵդΤȤΤǤϤʤͽۤƤ뤬ԤΤʤˤ Estuary English üԸĿʸΤˤҲŪѼȤƤ¸ߤʤȤԤ⾯ʤʤUniversity College London Estuary English Ǥ¿ξ롥Varieties of English "British English" Υڡˤ Estuary English θŪħʤɤͭѤʾ󤬤롥

Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2009.
Rosewarne, D. "Changes in English Pronunciation and Some Implications for Teachers and Non-Native Learners." Speak Out! Newsletter of the IATEFL Pronunciation Special Interest Group. No. 18 (1996): 15--21.

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2010-08-03 Tue

#463. Ѹ١Υԥȥ쥪ΰ [pidgin][creole][link][tok_pisin][post-creole_continuum]

ˤϱѸ١Υԥ䥯쥪줬30ʾ¸ߤȤƤ롥[2010-07-15-1], [2010-07-16-1]Ǹ褦ˡԥ䥯쥪䵯ۣΤΤ˿뤳Ȥ񤷤̾ĤƤΤ󤲤30ʾˤʤȤMcArthur (177) ꤽΰƸ褦

(1) Africa

Gambian Creole or Aku; Krio and pidginized Krio in Sierra Leone; Liberian Creole; Ghanaian Pidgin; Togolese Pidgin; Nigerian Pidgin (creolized in urban areas); Kamtok in Cameroon (creolized in urban areas; see [2010-06-13-1], [2010-06-14-1]); Bioku Pidgin on Fernando Po.


(2) North America (All in the United States)

Afro-Seminole Creole; Amerindian Pidgin (most varieties now extinct); Black English Vernacular (status controversial); Sea Island Creole, or Gullah; Hawaii Pidgin and Creole.


(3) Central America, the Caribbean, and the neighbouring South America

Bahamian Creole; Barbadian Creole; Belizean Creole; Costa Rican Creole; Guyanese Creolese (sic) (see [2010-05-17-1]); Jamaican Creole or Nation Language or Patwa; Leeward Island Creole(s); Nicaraguan Creole; Surinamese Djuka or Aukan, Saramaccan, and Sranan (see [2010-06-05-1]); Trinidad and Tobago Creole(s) or Trinibagianese or Trinbagonian; Virgin Islands Creole; Windward Island Creole(s).


(4) Australasia-Pacific Ocean

Bislama (Vanuatu), Hawaii Pidgin and Creole, Pijin (the Solomon Islands), Kriol or Roper River Pidgin/Creole (northern Australia), Pitcairnese and Norfolkese (Pitcairn Island and Norfolk Island), Tok Pisin/Neo-Melanesian (Papua-New Guinea), Torres Straits Broken/Creole.


ˤʤʬۤƤȤϡƤο̱ϻˤȿǤƶŪʬۤƤ뤳Ȥ褯狼롥αġֱѸפῴɸѸ (World Standard EnglishˤɸѼʤɤμפɸѼФƺɤΤ褦˰֤ŤƤ椯ܤ롥ȤΤϡΡֱѸüԡפϺ³ȶڤʤɤˤä post-creole continuum γʤꡤɸѼäդǤʤѸüԤȤʤ뤳Ȥޤ뤫⡤«ˤʤʿ͸Ǥ롥
Υԥ䥯쥪줬äϰΤߤι顤ѸѤѤäƤ뤫⤷ʤʡ
ԥ䥯쥪˴ؤ󥯤򤤤ĤĥäƤ

Society for Pidgin and Creole Linguistics: زΥ
Pidgin and Creole Languages: ԥ졦쥪
Tok Pisin Translation, Resources, and Discussion: Tok Pisin/English 񤢤
Jamaican Creole Texts: 쥪ȥԥط

McArthur, Tom. The English Languages. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.

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2010-08-02 Mon

#462. BNC ФȯʤƬ <h> [corpus][bnc][oanc][ame][bre][h][spelling_pronunciation]

ε[2010-08-01-1] OANC η̤˰­ꤺˡƬ <h> ֤뤬 /h/ ȯʤñ¿õ٤BNC ǤƱȤäƤߤΤۤ⤷̤ФΤǡ𤹤 OANC ܴݤĤ֤졩ˡ
216θ줬줿ͭ̾Ƭ줬¿Ƥ⤢ޤꤪ⤷ʤʸHTML򻲾ȡˡޤʻΥդ˸꤬⤢äΤǡϤޤdzפΤ뤿νĴȤ򤵤줿̾ƻ˹ʤä117򥢥ե٥åȽ˼

habitual, habituated, habitué, haemoglobin, half, half-hour, hallucination, hallucinatory, hallucinogenic, handful, haphazardly, happy, haute-couture, hazard, heap, heartening, hedonistic, heir, heir-apparent, heiress, heirloom, hell, heparin, hepatic, heraldic, herbaceous, herbalist, hereditary, heretical, hermaphrodite, heroic, heterogenous, heterologous, heuristic, hexadecimal, hexagonal, hi, hiatus, hibiscus, hide, hierarchical, hierarchically, hierarchy, high, higher, hilarious, historian, historic, historically, historically-created, historically-evolved, historicist, historiographical, history, histrionic, hitherto, hockey, hole, holiday, holistic, holoenzyme, holy, home-grown, homogeneous, homologous, hon., honest, honest-to-god, honest-to-goodness, honestly, honesty, honorable, honorarium, honorary, honour, honour-able, honourable, honourably, honoured, honouring, hopeful, horchata, horizon, horizontal, horrendous, horrific, horror, hors-d'oeuvre, horse, hospital, host/target, hotel, hotel-keeper, hour's-worth, hour-an-a-half, hour-and-a-half, hour-glass, hour-long, hourglass, hourglass-shaped, hourly, hours, howitzer, human, humanities, humble, hundred, hydraulic, hydraulically, hydroxyapatite, hydroxyl, hypnotic, hypostasised, hypothesis, hypothetical, hysterical, hysterically


history, honest, honour, hour δϢϤϤ¿⤷Ȥꤢȡhabitual, hallucination, hepatic, hereditary, heretical, heroic, hierarchical, hilarious, homogeneous, horizon, horrendous, horrific, hypothetical, hysterical 1˼綯ʤΤǸƬ /h/ ä˼ޤ䤹1˼綯⾯ʤʤȤϳΤǤ롥
OANC Ǥη̤ȤƽФ herb homage BNC ǤϽФʤäθ /h/ ΤʤȯϥꥫѸȯΤߤǤȤεҤȰפƤ褦
ˤƤ⡤BNC OANC μϿ˺ȤϤꥹѸ줫μ˭٤ϺΩäƤ롥Τ˥ꥹѸˤ h-dropping ̾⤤ Cockney ʤɤ⤢뤷/h/ ԰ꤵΤǤϤʤͽۤϤƤޤꥫѸǤ֤ȯ ( spelling-pronunciation ) ηȤȤƤʬäƤ BNC OANC ǤνĴη̤ͽۤȰפΤäܤĴ٤Ƥȷ빽⤷ơޤȯŸƤ椯⤷ʤ

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2010-08-01 Sun

#461. OANC ФȯʤƬ <h> [corpus][oanc][ame][h][article]

ε[2010-07-31-1] OANC (Open American National Corpus) ƳȤ𤷤ΤǡϤºݤˤäƤߤ򤷤褦
ϰε[2010-07-30-1]ǸƬ h ˤΤǡ˰äơƬ <h> ֻĤľ괧 an ФƤߤ[2009-11-27-1]Ǥ⿨줿褦ˡheir, honest, honour, hour Τ褦ʸ줬 /h/ ⤿ʤȤǤ褯ΤƤ뤬¾ˤɤΤ褦ʸ줬ϥեåȤñ㸡ǡäդȽ񤭸դ̤Ȥ¾κ٤ϹԤʤäƤʤʲ˷̤٤ȤȤ˰

wordfreq.
heir1
Henri1
herb2
hereditary3
Hermes1
historian1
historic6
historical1
HMO10
homage4
hommage5
honest24
honor5
honorable14
honorarium1
honorary13
honored1
honorific3
hour135
hourglass1
hourlong3
hourly1
hours-long1


history, honor, hour ʣǤ롥ޤHenri, Hermes, hommage ϥե󥹸ȤơHMO (Health Maintenance Organization) ϥե٥åɤߤȤǼherb homage ȯäñ⡤/h/ ΤʤȯϥꥫѸͭȤ
OANC ǤʤȤ褤ȤФ褤ä̤餷ȤϰФ

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