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Ѹʣηݤ˼갷פη ( morpheme ) 롥 combining form ϢפȸƤФƤΤǡCarstairs-McCarthy ˤȼΤ褦Ť롥
bound morpheme, more root-like than affix-like, usually of Greek or Latin origin, that occurs only in compounds, usually with other combining forms. Examples are poly- and -gamy in polygamy. (142)
ʣ combining form ʤʣϲʳѸʤɤѸ줬ŪǤ롥Ф꤬ʤex. anthropology, sociology, cardiogram, electrocardiogram, retrograde, retrospect, plantigrade
combining form äʤΤϡĤװˤ롥
(1) ̾« ( bound morpheme ) ܼȤƵǽͳ ( free morpheme ) ϸ캬ȤƵǽ롥combining form Ϲ«ǤǤʤ캬Ū˵ǽΤʬ尷ˤ
(2) ŪʻܻؤˤȤäơŵͳ褹ȤäŪ˿줶ʤǡcombining form ΰ֤Ť
(3) 㤨 anthropology anthrop- -logy combining form ʤ뤬֤ˤϤޤäƤϢ첻 -o- Τˤɤ°ȤϤ
(4) ̾ʣ̾Ǥ1Ǥ˶֤뤬combining form ޤʣ̾Ǥɬ⤽Ȥϸ¤ʤanthropology ǤϡϢ첻 -o ˶롥¾ monogamy, philosophy, aristocracy Ʊ͡
嵭 combining form νħָѸηˤͤޤ줿 Greco-Latin ѤפȸƤӤѸ줬ƥ졤ꥷ졤ƥե줫̤μѸƤƤˤˤĤƤϤΥ֥Ǥ⤤ʷǿƤϢΩäȤƤ [2010-08-18-1], [2010-05-24-1], [2009-11-14-1], [2009-08-25-1], [2009-08-19-1] դȤ줿
Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew. An Introduction to English Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2002.
ε[2010-10-29-1]ͭɸˤϡ鼡Τ褦ʼ䤬äȤͭɸˤĤƲĴ٤ɬפäǤ롥μȤϡͭɸ̵ɸȤΩԵ§§ȤΩƱΤȹͤƤ褤Τ⤷ƱΤǤΤʤСͭɸ̵ɸȤѸФ̣ʤΤǤϤʤפȤΤǤ롥μطʤˤϸѸԵ§ưȵ§ưΩ꤬ꡤͭɸλȤȤʤΤݤȤ䤬ä
Τͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§Ȥǰϸߤ˴ط褦˻פ롥餤 (1) ͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§Ωϸߤܤۤʤ롤(2) ͭɸ̵ɸΩ̸ŪռΩǡŪѤ뷹롤ȤȤǤϤʤ
(1) ѸԵ§ư ( ex. sing ) ȵ§ư ( ex. walk ) ˤĤ markedness ˽äƥե饰ΩƤȤСԵ§ư줬ͭɸǡ§ư줬̵ɸȤʤꤽʤȤưפľŪˤäơ§ưΤ̡ۤפǡּפǤ롥Ե§ưȵ§ưΩϡ̾ markedness δ褦ΩȤϰۤʤäƤ롥εǤߤ褦ˡͭɸ̵ɸϤܤΩڥꤢơΰͭɸ¾̵ɸȤ뤳ȤǤ롥sing walk ǤԤԵ§ư졤Ԥ§ưξͭɸδǡΩڥפȤȤ館뤳ȤϤǤʤˤͭɸȤΡΩڥפȤϡdog dogsprince princess, sing sang, walk walked Τ褦ʥڥΤȤǤꡤsing walk 뤤 sang walked Τ褦ʥڥΤȤǤϤʤ褦˻פ롥
Ե§§ȤΩܤƤΤϡʬȤ˷Ūͽ¬ǽ ( predictability ) 뤫ݤǤ롥ǡͭɸ̵ɸȤΩܤƤΤϡΥåȤȲʬΥåȤ٤Ȥˤɤ餬̤ǼȤȤǤ롥ǽϰ´ʤʹƤԵ§ư줬ͭɸǡ§ư줬̵ɸפȤΤĤΰۤʤʪѤ̯ɽʤΤǤϤʤ
(2) Ե§§ȤΩϸ̸ηֵ§˴ؤƤΩͭɸ̵ɸȤΩϡɤ餫Ȥ naturalness universality ʤɤȤ̸ŪʳǰȷӤĤ䤹褦˻פ롥ϺεǸ褦ͭɸγǰȯŸƤаޤȤϢƤ褦Ǥ롥ѸȤ̸ưγѤε§ˤˤϡͭɸ̵ɸȤѸȤϤʤޤʤΤǤϤʤ
ͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§Ȥ2ĤΩϤȤˡ̤פּפܤȤǶ̤Ƥ뤬Ƥ뤳ȤƤѸˤȤ̤˴ѤȤΤ⤢ΤǡΤ˻ȤʤȤΤϤʤʤΤǤ롥
ؤǤϤФͭɸ ( markedness ) ȤǰѤ롥ܤˤĤơǧˤͭɸ ( marked ) ǧʤˤ̵ɸ ( unmarked ) Ȥ롥̵ͭ˱ƥե饰Ωä겼ꤿꤹ륤
衤markedness γǰϡץϳɤβ ( Prague School phonology ) ( distinctive feature ) ̵ͭ뤿ƻΩƤȤ㤨 /t/ /d/ ȤǤ ( voicing ) ȤߤȡԤ̵ɸԤͭɸȤʤ롥Ǥ markedness γǰϤ˽פʰյĤ˻롥Ǥϡ١ŪѲˤʤɤȤ졤unmarked "natural" "universal" ȤۤƱȤʤ롥ΩΤ̸Ūˤ䤹Τ̵ɸˤΤͭɸȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ȯͭɸγǰϡ˷̣ʤ¾ǤѤ뤳ȤˤʤäǤСΩڥ dog dogs ǤԤ̵ɸǸԤͭɸǤ롥ľŪˤ뤷ζ̤θʤȤ dog ɽȤѤ뤳Ȥν餷Ƥ⡤dog ŪǤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥
̣ǤϡŪΩڥˤ "usual, common, typical" ̵ɸȤʤꡤ"unusual, uncommon, atypical" ʤۤͭɸȤʤ롥㤨 goose gander ΥڥˤԤ̵ɸԤͭɸǤ롥goose ϥ祦λĻgander ϥ祦ͺĻɽ魯ä̤ռʤʸ̮ǰ̤˥祦ɽ路Ȥˤ goose ѤʲȡˡԤΤ褦ͺˤ餺Ū˥祦ؤ硤goose ˴ؤ̵ɸǤȤ롥Ȥgander Ϥɤʸ̮ǤͺĻǤ뤳ȤɬΤǡ˴ؤƥե饰ΩäƤȹͤ ( Hofmann, pp. 21, 29--30 ) [2009-05-27-1]ȡ

Τۤold young Τ褦٤ɽ魯ƻΩڥˤơԤ̵ɸԤͭɸȤ롥ȤΤϡǯҤͤΤ̾ How old are you? ȸHow young are you? ȤϸʤǤ롥ԤεʸϡǤˡ֤ʤ㤤פȤǤꡤξǤɤΤ餤㤤ΤȤäüʸ̮ǤεʸȤʤ뤫Ǥ롥
ޤȤСǤŪʻȤ뤬̣ǤľŪʡ֤䤹ס̤סּפǤΩɸ뤿ƻȤƻȤ롥ͭɸ̵ɸΩϤΤ褦˸ؤǤѤƤ롥
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
Hofmann, Th. R. Realms of Meaning. Harlow: Longman, 1993.
[2009-08-29-1], [2010-02-22-1]ǿ줿褦ˡѸǤϡŪˤ18εʸˡΩꤢ뤤¿ϡʸˡ̾β˺Ǥ⸷ָѡפ1ĤǤ롥ΤϡդˤмºݤˤϤ褯Ѥ뤫ǤꡤɸѼǤǤ̤ʹ롥
¿ФϤ켫ΤĹˤꡤȽǤʸǤ졤⤽ΤΤ⤷ŵŪȽȤƤϡޥʥ˥ޥʥݤץ饹ˤʤäƤޤζĴȤƤŪ˸ɵȤΤ롥Cheshire (114--15) ؤʤ뤳Τ褦Ƚռ˼ꡤ̲γǰޤؤϤä̤ǤꡤˤХޥʥߥޥʥץ饹ȤñʵˤϤʤʤȿ롥
Ǥϡ¿θѤ2ŦäơǶ Chaucer ɤߤʤвä "The Physician's Tale" (ll. 133--34) ¿ʸʰѤ The Riverside Chaucer ˡ¿ӻǤꡤߤΤ褦ˡָѡפȤ뤳ȤϤʤä
For certes, by no force ne by no meede,
Hym thoughte, he was nat able for to speede;
Ƚ Apius Ƥ̼ Virginia ᡤȤ̼ʤȻװƤ̤Ǥ롥ǤϡApius ϤǤϨˤäƤʤȹͤƤ롥no, ne, no, nat 4Ĥ꼭Ω³˸ƤꡤŵŪ¿ιʸǤ롥
ơξ̤Ǥ¿2ĤθѤȤϲ1ܤϡ꼭ʣѤ뤳Ȥˤä꤬ĴƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ιʸɽ魯̣Ū꤫꤫ȤȤȤ̼ǡ֤꼭ȤƤΤ餽꤬ĴƤΤȤʸŪʸѤɾ뤳ȤǤ롥
2ĤθѤϡ꼭βսˤФ뤳ȤǡκѰ ( scope ) Τˤʤ뤳ȤǤ롥ʸǤСno force meede ξ֤ƤΤǡ礦ɸѸ neither ... nor ... ιʸƱǡϤפǤϨפǤȤȤϤäꤹ롥⤷꼭Ѥ by force or by meede ʤɤȤʤäƤ顤Ѹ either ... or ... ιʸƱǡϤפϨפΤɤ餫Ǥʤɤ餫ޤŤФʤФʤʤȤɤߤʸˡŪ˲ǽˤʤꡤۣ椵Ϳͤʤ̾ʸ̮ˤäۣ椵ϲʸȤξǤѤʤФ˱ۤȤϤʤʤŵŪ¿ؤʤȤ¿Ѥ뤳ȤǤषŪʴط뤳ȤȤǤ롥
ǤϤʤζĴȷ«̤ǤФƤΤѸ丽ɸѼ¿ħȸ褦Burnley Τ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
If we consider this duplication of negators from the point of view of the addressee of an utterance, this apparently redundant repetition can be seen as 'negative support', since each negating item is mutually supportive of the others in clarifying the total negative character of the clause. ( 60 )
嵭2ĤθѤˤ⤦1դäΤǤСl. 133 꼭ۤ뤳ȤˤäƼ嶯 ( iambic pentameter ) αΧƤȤŦǤ褦
¿꤬³ƿˤ⤫餺ɸѼǤޤ˰ŪǤȤȤϡϤĤ뤳Ȥθ³Τߤʤ餺¿θѤҤʪäƤΤ⤷ʤ
Cheshire, Jenny. "Double Negatives are Illogical." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 113--22.
Burnley, David. The Language of Chaucer. Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1983. 13--15.
Ѹ˻Ĥɸ3ϡ츻ˤ3Ÿ ( triplet ) Ǥ롥ƥ emere "take" Ƭ ex- "out" ղä줿 eximere ȤȤʤꡤexemplum "something taken out" ̣ϡ¿椫Ф줿ΡפּܡϡܡɸܡפؤѲ
ƥ exemplum ϸ˻ҲѲ essample ȤƥեäΥե essample뤤Ϥ˻ҲѲե ensample ʤɤη֤1290ǯ˱ѸؼѤ졤ԤѸä˹Ȥ줿ensample ϸʶϤ뤬ߤǤѤƤ롥
1384ǯܤΥƥȤ example ӱѸäƤ ( cf. etymological_respelling ) ensample example ä˰̣ʤѤƤԤ٤ȤƤͥˤʤä褦Ǥ롥
ˤΰǡ1325ǯȤᤤʳƬü ( aphaeresis ) ˤ sample ѸǸФơѸ3Ÿ줬ʻ¸Ȥʤä
ϢȤƤϡexempt Ƚפ롥ϥƥ eximere βʬ exemptus ѸäΤǡּФעֳӽעȽפȤ̣ΤĤʤ
Ѹ <oo> ֻɽ蘆ȯˤϡ3ब뤳ȤΤƤ롥
/uː/: doom, food, pool, tooth, soot
/ʊ/: book, good, hood, look, stood
/ʌ/: blood, flood
ֻȯ¿ǤŵŪ3̤ȯΤϡѸۤʤʣβѲ缡 <oo> ɽ魯ФƺѤǤ롥ޤϡ15ʹߤ첻 ( Great Vowel Shift ) Ǥ ( see [2009-11-18-1] ) Ѹˤ <oo> /oː/ Ȥȯб첻ܤˤΧ˾夲 ( raising ) Ф /uː/ Ѳ
ˡ/uː/ Ȥʤä <oo> ΰ /k, t, d/ ³Τΰˡʢ 嵭/k/ ϻǤϤޤǤ2010/10/26(Tue)ˤ16?17û ( shortening ) /ʊ/ Ȥʤä /ʊ/ ؤѲ췲Τ˾ʬ礬٤16Ⱦаʹߤ岽 ( centralisation ) /ʌ/ ȤʤäʰʾޤȤޤȡˡ

Τ褦ˡۤʤ벻Ѳ <oo> ĸʬ硤ˤʬФƯˡѸζŪʻߤ <oo> Ф3ȯб뤳Ȥˤʤä
<oo> <oa> δطˤĤƤ[2010-07-06-1]εȡ
ס ׯҡؿѸ١罤۽Ź1988ǯ174ǡ
[2010-10-18-1]εǡֹŷפȡֹŷפƱ۵ ( homonymic clash ) 夲Ȥˡɤ餫ѤƤ椭ͤ褦ˤʤ뤫⤷ʤȤͽ¬Ҥ٤ͽ¬ϲƱ۵ͤλȤƤȤͽ¬ˤºݤˤΥڥɤΤ褦˿äƤ椯ˤĤƤγμ¤ͽ¬ɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤդˡä˽դǤϴζ̤Τ顤Ʊ۵ΤޤĤäƤ椯ȤƤޤäԻĤϤʤޤֹŷפѤƤ椱Фʬܸ줬ϤʤäƤ椯ȤŪʹͤ⤢ꡤƱ۵ȤĤäƤۤȻפԤ⤤뤫⤷ʤ⡤ĿŪˤϤɤ餫ȤФΤ褦Ω
ѲολȡѲϷ褷ƸĿͤδ˾̤˿ʤΤǤϤʤϼĴǽ ( systemic regulation ) ͭ뼫ΩŪη ( self-regulating system ) Ǥ롥ѲϡĿͤδ˾ǤϤʤĿͤνΤǤʤĿͤϤεڤФʤƱΤμΩŪѤؤؤѲƤ椯ΤǤ롥ΰϡΰ̣Ѳʿ餹Ѳȿɤμĥȿ Trudgill ȯǤ롥
Words do not mean what we as individuals might wish them to mean, but what speakers of the language in general want them to mean. These meanings can and do change as they are modified and negotiated in millions of everyday exchanges over the years between one speaker and another. Language change cannot be halted. . . Languages are self-regulating systems which can be left to take care of themselves. They are self-regulating because their speakers want to understand each other and be understood. If there is any danger of misunderstanding, speakers and writers will appreciate this possibility and guard against it by avoiding synonyms, or by giving extra context . . . . (8)
1ĤդƤΤϡָϼĴǽͭ뼫ΩŪηϤǤפȤȤˡüԤĶۤΩʪΤ褦ͭΤǤȹͤƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤޤǸüԤȷӤĤƤꡤüԺߤǤ¸ߤʤˤ⤫餺üԸĿͤ椬ľܤˤϵڤФʤηϤȤȤǤ롥Ǥϲ椷Ƥ뤫ȤСüԸĿͤĶۤüԽĤΰջפǤ롥ֹŷפȡֹŷפʻ¸⡤ǽŪˤܸüԽĤΰջפ˽äƲäʤ¸³ʤ꤬ޤäƤ椯Τ
üԸĿͤüԽĤκۤȤԻĤʴطˤĤƤϡ[2009-05-07-1]ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. "The Meaning of Words Should Not be Allowed to Vary or Change." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 1--8.
˸ ( historical pragmatics ) 1990ǯȾФ˶äȤؤγغŪΰǤ롥˸ءϤΤȡѥءʬϡʸؤȤڤΥʤ2000ǯˤ Journal of Historical Pragmatics δԤϤ졤Ĵ˸椬Ѥ߽ŤͤƤƤ롥
˸ϡTaavitsainen and Fitzmaurice ˤСʲ̤Ǥ롥
A provisional and fairly neutral definition of historical pragmatics could be that historical pragmatics focuses on language use in past contexts and examines how meaning is made. It is an empirical branch of linguistic study, with focus on authentic language use in the past. (13)
˸ ( historical linguistics ) ȸνвϡξԤȯŸɬŪʵǤ롥˸ؤϡѲͳ䤦ʤǸ variation ν˵դƤvariation ϼºݤθѤλΤʤ˴ѻΤǤ뤫顤иŪʸ桤ǯǤϥѥŪ椬ήȤʤäƤƤ롥ǡ ( pragmatics ) ϡäդȤ괬ƥ ( context ) ηиŪʴѻŻ뤷ƤʬȯŸȤȤ˥ƥȤϰϤäդΤ줫餫դΤؤȹƤϰϤϤĤŪʽդؤꡤ˷иŪˡǰפ˸ؤȸνв̤뤳ȤȤʤä
Taavitsainen, Irma and Susan Fitzmaurice. "Historical Pragmatics: What It Is and How to Do It." Methods in Historical Pragmatics. Ed. Susan Fitzmaurice and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2007. 11--36.
褯ΤƤ褦ˡҥȤθȯﴱ ( speech organ ) ϸΤ˿ʲƤ櫓ǤϤʤ礿뵡ǽ¸ΤŪǽǤ롥ĴǽϤޤŪʤΤǤꡤ餳ҥȤθγ;פԻĤ˻פΤǤ롥
ʲ O'Grady (2) ꡤȯﴱ2ŵǽǽȯǽˤɽǤ롥
| Organ | Survival function | Speech function |
|---|---|---|
| Lungs | to exchange CO2 and oxygen | to supply air for speech |
| Vocal cords | to create seal over passage to lungs | to produce vibrations for speech sounds |
| Tongue | to move food to teeth and back into throat | to articulate vowels and consonants |
| Teeth | to break up food | to provide place of articulation for consonants |
| Lips | to seal oral cavity | to articulate vowels and consonants |
| Nose | to assist in breathing | to provide nasal resonance during speech |
[2010-10-20-1]η³says, said ȯˤĤ Jespersen äƤߤȡΤ褦ʵҤä
The shortening of /ɛi/ to [e] in said, says, saith [sed, sez, seþ] is probably due to the frequent unstressed use in "said ˈhe," etc. It is mentioned by D1640 [Daines, Orthoepia Anglicana] and C1685 [Cooper, Grammatica Linguæ Anglicanæ] (facilitatis causa dicitur sez sed). In the North [ei] is still heard, and in the attributive use of the ptc. (the said witness, etc.) [seid] is sometimes heard instead of [sed] even in the South. (11.35: 324--25)
٤ι⤤ư줬֤̾Ķǡξ줬ͻ礷夤ûȯˤʤ뤳ȤϰŪʤΤǡsaid ˈhe ˤϤ롥ȤơʤǤϤʤŪʤ̾ư줬ͻ礷Τ prithee ִ勞Сפ롥 pray thee ṳ̂Ǥ롥
says, said ξˤϼ̾Ȥͻˤ岽ûȤǽ[2010-10-20-1]Ǥ줿 against ( /əgeɪnst/ or /əgɛnst/ ), again ( /əgeɪn/ or /əgɛn/ ) ξˤϤƤϤޤʤǺƤ Jespersen Ȥȡagainst μ岽ûϸ /-nst/ ȤҲäƤ˵ΤȤҲԤ첻ûϳΤˤ˵äƤꡤŵϼѲưβʬ˸ ( ex. dream -- dreamt, keep -- kept, mean -- meant ) (4.312: 120--21) ޤagain ȯ against ȯ䡥
μ岽ûȯϡ"ease of articulation" ޤ "facilitatis causa" λʪȤ롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007. 324--25.
ʸ ( literature ) ȸ ( linguistics ) ΤεΥƤȤȤϡǤ˸褦ˤʤäƵפޤʸ ( philology ) 20ȾषƤƤ뤳Ȥ⡤ʹ롥2ϡŪˤѸΰ˸¤äƤǧΤǤϤʤξԤϸߤ˿طƤ롥
Fitzmaurice (267--70) ξʷ˵ƤΤǡޤȤƤ
(1) 20ȾꡤؤʸإƥȤԼʸդȤ褦ˤʤä
(2) ʸؤŪˡɵ椷դΤΤؤδؿΥ뷹ˤä㤨иߤαʸؤμή˿˼ ( new historicism ) 뤬δäϱѸˤθˤȤϿؤȯŸˤ롥
(3) ؤϡäͤŻ뤹ǿʤǤ
(4) ʸؤϡͤäŻ뤹ǿʤǤ
Τ褦ʸؤȸؤξ˲ƻǤȤϡδ֤˰֤ŤʸؤοˤĤʤäƤ롥ʸؤȸؤˡХ褯줿ʸŪʸȤΤĤܻؤ٤ۤʤΤ줬ʤäƤƤ롥äȤ⡤10ǯ餤Ͼ嵭ǧƽǴäɽ褦ˤʤꡤʸؤȸؤŤʸؤ˿©褦ʿʻߤлϤƤƤ롥ǯ˸ ( historical pragmatics ) 夬⡤οʻߤΰĤθȹͤ
Fitzmaurice, James. "Historical Linguistics, Literary Interpretation, and the Romances of Margaret Cavendish." Methods in Historical Pragmatics. Ed. Susan Fitzmaurice and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2007. 267--84.
ƴŪʸȯԵ§ʤΤ says 롥ͽۤ /seɪz/ ǤϤʤ /sɛz/ ȯ뤳ȤΤƤ뤬¤Ԥȯ⳧̵ǤϤʤLongman Pronunciation Dictionary ȯĴ ( Pronunciation Preference Polls ) ˤȡꥹѸ16%γ /seɪz/ ʹȤRPȯȤƤǤ롥 said ˤĤƤ⤪褽Ʊͤξȹͤ롥

ǤϡRP ޤưŪ /sɛz/ ȯΤϤʤѸ say бѸ seye, seyn, sayn ʤɤ˴ޤޤ /aɪ/ ˶ᤤ첻ϡ17ޤǤ /ɛː/ ؤȳ경Ƥ줬 /eː/ /eɪ/ ؤȯŸߤ˻äƤ롥θǤϳ경 /ɛː/ û/ɛ/ Ȥʤ礬äΤ褦ѲѰۤη̤ȤơѸˤϤθʣȯΤɤȤȤʤäɸѼȤ say 1ƻsays said 2ƻɤäȤˤʤ롥ɸȯ /seɪz/ /seɪd/ 1ƻɤäƸˤɤĤԤʤΤ뤤Ūǯ֤ȯ ( spelling pronunciation ) ʤΤ褯ʬʤ
ϢȤƤϡagain against 롥ߤǤξȤ /ɛ/ 뤤 /eɪ/ ȯʹ뤬Ѹη agayn, ageyn ʤɤ餽줾嵭1ƻڤ2ƻڤȯŸƤΤǤ롥ʤߤˡagain ˤĤƤϱѼȤ /əˈgɛn/ ΤۤͥǤ롥
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ290ǡ
Ȥdz顤̾ Ralph ʤ /reɪf/ ȯΤȤ䤬äʤۤɡRalph ˤֻͽۤ /rælf/ ȯ⤢뤬/reɪf/ Ȥȯ⤢롥ԤŪȯǡä˥ꥹ¿ʹ̾Ǥ롥㤨Сꥫͺ Ralph Waldo Emerson 䥢ꥫͥեåǥʡ Ralph Lauren ǤԤȯꥹͺʲ Ralph Vaughan Williams ǤϸԤȯʹ롥
̾ϡOld Norse Raðulfr Radulf Ȥ Old Norman French ꡤû̷ Raulf ѸäƤΤǤ롥Old Norse η֤ϸűѸ Rǣdwulf ( rǣd "counsel" + wulf "wolf" ) бֽϵפۤɤΰդǤ롥ߤֻ18˰̲<ph> ֻϥƥ줢뤤ϥꥷֻΤγʹĤwulf ϤȤȤŵͳ褹櫓ǤϤʤΤ etymological respelling ( see [2009-08-21-1], [2009-11-05-1] ) ȤϸƤ٤ʤ̤ȤƤƱȹͤ롥
<ph> ֻĤ褦ˤʤä̤ȤƤϡűѸ rand "shield" + wulf "wolf" ͳ褹 Randolph 롥Bēowulf ( bēo "bee" + wulf "wolf" ) ⸽äƤ顤*Beewolph Ȥ *Beelph Τ褦̾ˤʤäƤ⤷ʤ
ơ/reɪf/ ȤȯˤĤƤϤɤ/rælf/ /reɪf/ ؤȯѲƻڤˤĤƤϡĴ٤Ƥߤܺ٤ʬʤäΤ褦ƻڤꤵ/reɪf/ 첻ܤνϷ̤ȤȡϤ /raːf/ Ǥ롥ԤȯϡRaulf ʤɤν֤Ҳ l æ뤤첻Ȥͻˤäưפã롥ºݤˡRauf, Rafe ʤɤַ֤ɽ魯ֻŪڤ롥ȯֻ줾ĤΥ줺ȯŸǽŪˤϤϤбط <Ralph> = /reɪf/ ˻äȤΤǤϤʤ̾̾ʤɤθͭ̾졤ä˥ꥹΤΤˤϡΤ褦ʡ֤Ϥפ¿ ( see [2010-07-18-1] )
10ϱư䥤٥ȤηǤ롥Ūʥ٥Ȥή줿ꤹȡ椬ȤնǤϰ⥢ʥĮˤޤ롥īϥƥΤפߤȤʤޤפή줿ǤͤùΤϡֹŷפֹŷפɤäʸ̮ȸŪȽǤºݤˤϸ뤳ȤϤʤƬΥʥˤŬʤϸʤȻפäĤƤϡֹŷפƥֹŷפ復ƥȲ̾ξǤϰۤʤäƤȯƱʤΤƱȿոȤ롥
ȤʬˡʤȽǥʥή줿ΤǤ롥ϰŷΤפߤȤʤޤפơ˿ʬˤϡĹˤ밭ŷΤפߤȤʤޤפȺƤѲɤɤʬ䤹ʤäƤǤϤʤ˶ää뤤ϸƤɤ߾夲ƤƲʤʬˤȻפäΤˤ衤Ǻפ˻äͽäˤ褯ʬåȤʤä
ơ¾˸䤹ƱδϸȤƤϡкߡפȡߡפפĤѴκݤդפϸ켭ŵ٤ˤȡ
ؤкߡ̾ѡˤä¸ߤ뤳ȡԻˡס٤Ρ
ؤߡ̾ѡ椭錄ä¸ߤ뤳ȡܳϤˡ
ܸʤȻפ碌뤬Ʊ۵ ( homonymic clash ) ȸƤФ븽ݤϱѸˤ⸫롥Ѹˤ̾ϡqueen ֽ ( < OE cwēn ) quean ֤Фء ( < OE cwene ) Ǥ롥ξԤϷŪˤ̣Ūˤ̤ƤѸ첻ͻ礷̡Ū˶̤Ĥʤʤạ̈ŪˤȿոȤͤǽ⤤ɡԤ18ȾФ˿ष
gate ( < OE geat ) gait ƻ ( < ME gate < ON gata ) ƱͤǡȿոȤޤǤϸʤʸ̮ˤäƤϸǽʬˤڥʤΤǡԤΡƻϩפθϿषξˤ gait Ȥ켫ΤäƤޤȤϤʤ⤭פȤò뤳ȤˤäĤä
ܸǤѸǤƱ۵줬¸㤬ǧȤϤ¿Ϥʤ٤λ֤Ϥ뤬ǽŪ˥ڥΤɤ餫ޤǸѲʤȤȤ¿Ʊ۵ͤβѲθưϤȹͤ뵡ǽŪʸ ( functionalism ) ϡŪŪ ( teleological ) Ǥ뤳ȤϤ뤬ΡֹŷפΥʥʹƤȡ⤢ʤƱդʤ롥
ֹŷפ褦ˤʤäƤ椯ȤܸɽϤϼ岽ȹͤ⤢Сߥ˥βȤߤ⤢ˡʤȤäƤϱѸˤȤǤʤΤ˾λ㤫ȽǤȡĹܤǸСʤȤäդˤơֹŷפֹŷפΤɤ餫ѤʤʤäƤ椯ǽ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
ε[2010-10-16-1] bikini θ츻ˤĤĴ٤太⤷Ϣ줬롥monokini trikini
ܤñޤbikini bi ƥǡ2פ̣ƬʬϤ2ԡοפȲ᤹롥˰äơ1ԡοפɽΤ˥ꥷΡ1פ̣Ƭ mono- ѤȤȤǤ롥Ʊͤˡ3ԡοפˤϥƥ졦ꥷΡ3פ̣Ƭ tri- Ƥ
줾οΥץʥǥդˤҸȤϰʲȡ
monokini
bikini
trikini
εǤߤ褦ˡbikini ϥޡθϸθͭ̾ͳ褹Τǡ츻Ū˥ƥ䥮ꥷƬȤϴطʤäơmonokini trikini ͷӤˤ¤Ǥ롥⤷ΤϡθФƼ㤨 monokini ˤĤơҡؿ¼ŵ6ǡ٤ϡֵŪ¤פƤ뤬Ϸޤ OALD8 "the first syllable misinterpreted as bi- 'two'" ȤƤ롥ԤΤäƤ롥ϤͷӤǤ礦ȸ
ܤȤϤäΤΡOALD8 ϩǤ⤹ȤɤʤƽɤäƲ⤹롥
(1) bikini bi + kini ʬ ( metanalysis )
(2) bi- 2פ̣ƥƬȤơkini "piece(s)" 餤ΰ̣˲ᤷָ̱츻 ( folk etymology )
(3) bi-, mono-, tri- Ȥŵ˴ŤƬηϤ ( analogy ) Ū˱Ѥ monokini trikini ޤ
θͷӤǤ촪㤤Ǥ졤̤Ȥ3˴ޤޤ뤳Ȥˤʤä kini ϱѸˤưηǤȤΩȤäƤ⤤⤷ʤ
ؤäƤ顤ƱνȲƤϲƤȤäˤʤäιԢȢᢪ墪ӥˤ꤬ܤꡤbikini θ츻äˤʤä

ꥫˤ1946ǯο¸ϤȤΤ롤ʿ⤫֥ޡ ( the Marshal Islands ) Υӥ˴ľ ( Bikini Atoll ) ȷӤĤϤȤȤʬäƤ⡤ʤ줬˴طΤϤ褯ʬʤäĴ٤ƤߤƤ⡤ʶȤƤɤ줬θ츻ϤäꤷʤOED ˤбѸǤν1948ǯǤꡤǯ˥եѤ줿ΤѸ˼Ѥ줿Ȥ顤Ūˤϥӥ˴ľ̤Ǥμ¸ȳΤ礷Ƥ롥ʳǤϸ츻ԾܤȤ٤餷4ġʲ˵Ƥߤ롥
(1) 1946ǯ˥ӥ˿夬ƥѥΥ硼Ǹ줿ȤξȡƱǯΥӥ˴ľ̤Ǥο¸ξȤä
(2) ӥ˿õեεѼԡ륤륪 ( Louis Ruault ) ̾դʲˤʤǤ
(3) ӥ˿ϥ륤륪ȥåबƱȯɽϺǽ֥ȥפȸƤ¸˰äƸˡ֥ӥˡפ̾դľ줿
(4) ӥ˴ľ̤θ̱Τˤʤ
(5) ¸ˤ뤭ΤȤη
⤷ (1) β⤬Ȥȡ1954ǯμ¸ʡεݤλפȤܿͤˤȤäԶʸ츻ʤȻפ虜ʤʼ²ȤΤФʡεŸΤǤʤߤ˥˥塼ˤʤޤǯ81˥ӥ˴ľ̤ͥΡΡ仺Ͽޤˡ
־ĴǤϤۤȤɤ (1) ѤƤ褦ǡ¾⤬Ҳ𤵤ƤʤФ꤫츻ԾܤȤȤ餬ܤ䤱Ƥ褦ʸ̤Фääȴʤ
[2010-10-10-1], [2010-10-14-1]˰³OED ΰѥǡꡥϡä˺ε[2010-10-14-1] (2), (3) Ǽ夲ǯ̰ѿ⤭ߤռǡͤդ˻вƤȹͤ
Brewer 10ǯȤ OED ΰѿοܤĴ٤Ƥꡤºݤ˥ղ⤷Ƥ (48--49) ʸƤ륰դ1470ǯʬƤꡤ٤ߤ˰ۤʤäƤΤӤˤϤؤǤ롥ǡʲ٤·դƺƤߤBrewer ˤϥպΤȤˤʤͥǡͿƤʤΤǡդܸƤǿͤɤ߽Ф˺ʢ ϼ OED DzƿФФΤɡˡäơ˼ƤΤϤޤǷȤ館뤿ΤΤȤƻͤޤǤˡ

OED ̻ѥȤѤˤϡä˰ѿϤŪ㤫ä⤫äꤹΰѤݤդɬפǤ롥ΥդϡκݤΤȤƻȤ줿
Brewer, Charlotte. "OED Sources." Lexicography and the OED: Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 40--58.
[2010-10-10-1]εǤϡHoffmann ʸȤơOED ΰѥǡϼ㴳դɬפʬ˥ѥȤʤꤦΤǤϤʤȤǡOED ΰѤϼ㴳ǤϤʤդʧʤȴʤȤ⤬롥Brewer ˤСOED ΰѥǡƻɽ륳ѥȤߤʤȤˤϿŤǤ٤ȤBrewer ʸȤĤ͡ʾڵƵƤ뤬ʤΤˤޤȤƤߤ롥
(1) ʸغȡʸغʤΰѤ礤¿ѿȥå5κȤϡShakespeare, Walter Scott, Milton, Wycliffe, ChaucerShakespeare ΥСΨ100%˶ᤤȸ졤ѿ33304롥5̤ Chaucer ΰѤ11902㡥ѿȥåפκʤϡͽ̤2̤1300ǯ˽줿Ĺ Cursor Mundi 12772롥ͭ̾ʺȡʤˤĤƤϥ䤹ˡѤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤Ȥ (45--47) ѤϸɽƤȤ⡤ԻԤɽ路ƤȤ٤Ǥ롥
Any inferences drawn from the OED coverage about the significance of these writers for the development and illustration of the English lexicon are flawed ones: the exceptionally full representation of their language in the dictionary is due at least as much to the lexicographers' consultation of the concordances as to the intrinsic qualities of these writers' diction. (51)
(2) ѿǯ̤˥ץåȤ c1581--1610 ˰ѤƤ롥ޤ19ȾѤʤФƤ롥ˤĤƤ[2010-10-10-1] (4) Ǥ줿ԤλˤĤƤ Shakespeare ΰѤ¿ȤȿϢƤꡤɬ⤽λθɽƤȤȤˤϤʤʤΤǤϤʤ (47, 58) ԤλˤĤƤϡOED ΤλǤꡤɬŪưפ˼ŵο¿Ǥ롥
(3) 15Ǥ 1291--1300, 1391--1400 λ˰ѤΥԡ뤬1Ĥˤǯ夬ΤʺʤˤĤƤ϶ڤΤ褤Ѥܤڤ夲ڤ겼ꤹ뤳Ȥꡤ줬ȿǤ줿̤Ȥ̤ͳȤƤϡ1300ǯ Robert of Gloucester 3222ˤ Cursor Mundi 10771ˤ1400ǯ Trevisa 6750ˤ椷Ǥ (57--58)
(4) OED ˺Ѥ븫ФϱѸΥܥƥɼԤˤñȤΥ⤬ˤʤäƤ뤬ܥƥ̤Ǥʤ̤Ǥʤ̣äդƽ褦˻ؼƤ". . . this resulted in partial reading and uneven representation of sources" (50).
(5) OED ˤϽѸμľܰѤƤ븫Ф줬¿뤬μθФ줬٤ƼϿƤ櫓ǤʤФ줬Ƥפ롥Ĵˤȡ1/5ۤɤ OED ˤϼϿ줺ڤΤƤ줿ȤǤϡԻԤŪȽǡ餯19οʲѤǤ줿ϼŪȽǤäƤȹͤ (52--52)
[2010-10-10-1]Ȥ碌 OED ΰѥǡѥȤƤߤʤƤ褤ɤˤĤƻξ1000ǯ˱ѸС밷䤹̻ѥ¾˸Ƥʤʾ塤˵褦ռ OED դѤ롤ȤȰʳϤʤ褦˻פ롥
Brewer, Charlette. "OED Sources." Lexicography and the OED: Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 40--58.
Chaucer The Canterbury Tales "The General Prologue" 顤ޤˤͭ̾Ƭ1ʸ ll. 1--18 from The Riverside Chaucer )
Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote,
And bathed every veyne in swich licour
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
Inspired hath in every holt and heeth
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
Hath in the Ram his half cours yronne,
And smale foweles maken melodye,
That slepen al the nyght with open ye
(So priketh hem nature in hir corages),
Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,
And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,
To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;
And specially from every shires ende
Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende,
The hooly blisful martir for to seke,
That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke.
ɤѸʸϤʸäȤͤ¿ΤǤϤʤĴι⤤ĹФŪʸι¤ȤƤ Whan . . . Thanne عʸǤʸ̣襤ɼԤοΤ⤷ʤ Burnley (46--47) ˽äƻ ( tense ) ( aspect ) ܤɤҲ𤷤
ޤѤƤưλϤܸۤߤ줵Ƥͣ㳰ϺǸιԤ were ΤߡˡΤʤФǤθ߷Ѥϡ롥4ˬ졤ܳФФƱˡͤˤޤ줺٥ؤνפΩġȤȤǯΤ褦˷֤Ƥ뤳Ȥż롥ν۴ġβ۵롤餫𤤤Ǥ롥
( aspect ) ܤܤȡWhan ǤϼȤƴλѤƤ롥 Whan Ȥ³ Thanne ƤŪ˴֤˷ѵƤ뤳ȤȤȤˡñ˻ŪѵΤߤʤ餺̴ط⼨Ƥ롥͡פΩĤΤϡ¾ʤ4μΰˤΤʤΤĹʸǤʤ顤Whan That Ƥ̩˷ӤĤƤΤϡλϤ椨Ǥ롥
ޤȤСƬʸǤϡּܳФᢪܳ͡ФפȤ̴طǯΤ褦˷֤ȤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʸθˤ "Bifil that in that seson on a day," ȲǤθ꤬ϤޤΤǡоŪƬθȤ줬ްդΩĤȤˤʤ롥ʾ塤ͭ̾ƬˤäɤǤߤ
ʸ嵭2022/05/03(Tue)Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פˤơ1Ѹȯɤ߾夲ƤޤΤǤȤѸäȤɡ硼Ρإ٥ʪ٤ƬǤ
ʸ嵭2023/10/10(Tue)Ellesmere MS Ƭʬβ
Ǥ
Burnley, David. The Language of Chaucer. Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1983. 13--15.
105դ CNN.com Previously unknown language emerges in India Ȥɤ Arunachal Pradesh 800ͤüԤˤää줬ȯ줿ȤNational Geographic λ the Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages θؼԤEnduring Voices Project θĴˤä餫ˤĴΤ2008ǯΤȡˡ

θ Sino-Tibetan ² Tibeto-Burman ɤ°Ȥ롥Tibet-Burman ɤˤϥ400ۤɤθ줬ޤޤ졤ɤǤƱ²150ۤɤθ줬ǧƤ롥Koro ²θˤĤƤϿΰ̣̤Τʤ櫓ǤϤʤäޤǤ Hruso-Aka طˤȡθüԤδ֤Ǥ顪˿Ƥꡤ̸ĤθȤǧƤʤä줬Ĵˤ Koro ²θˬˤꡤ餫˼ϤθȤϰۤʤǤ뤳Ȥǧ줿ΤǤ롥Ethnologue report for Hruso ƤߤȡKoro Hruso Ȥ̸Ĥθ餷ȤϤꡤĴ餫ˤȤȤͽȯä櫓ǤϤʤ褦
Ϥ "the black hole of the linguistic world" 뤤 "a language hotspot where there is room to study rich, diverse languages, many unwritten or documented" ȤߤʤƤꡤ̤Ĵθ줬Фǽ⤤ɤ[2010-06-02-1]εǤߤ¿ؿǤС0.9409̤Ǥ롥ޤθǤС4454̡ιˤϺûƤ椯ݥƥϽʬˤ롥
Ĵ Ethnologue μĥθ69091뤳ȤˤʤΤ ( see [2010-01-22-1] ) Koro 800ͤüԤͭƤ餺20аʲüԤۤȤɤʤȤ顤ˤȯפ줿ִ֤̤Ȥˤʤä ( see [2010-01-28-1] ) ̾ȥݥƥ֤˻פ뤬֤ [2010-02-09-1]ǾҲ𤷤 Bo ξǤʤɤθλȻŤκʤ
̾Ų COP10 ʹϢʪ¿10ġˤŤƤ롥̤ǤϴϢ꤬ǺܤƤ뤬ºݤΤȤܤǤϰδȤʤɤؿ٤Ϥۤɹ⤯ʤ褦Ǥ롥ʪ¿Ǥ͡δؿʤΤ顤¿䡤Ǥ롥
National Geographic δϢӥǥåפΥɤ
ѸˤǤ϶δ顤űѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸϤ줾켡Τ褦˵Ҥ롥
Old English: full inflection
Middle English: levelled inflection
Modern English: lost inflection
ޤȤȤޤǽ̾졤̾졤ư줬פ⤫֤űѸǤϷƻʣ˶ޤƻϤ켫Τ餫η֥饹ʬव櫓ǤϤʤפ̾ȤȤ˷Ū˶ޤΤǡष1Ĥηƻ줬ꤦ variation ̾ʤɤŪʴѲѲʬ졤ʤΥѥˤäƤΤ40ζűѸ full inflection λȸƤФʤǤ롥
Ѹʹߤϡ¿ͤʶ٤ƾü ( lost inflection ) ʳ levelled inflection λ夬Τ㤨Ѹ Chaucer ηƻޤߤȡ֤ȤϤäƤ¤ʤ lost inflection ˶ᤤChaucer ƻ good ˵ȡѲñǥޤʳǤ -e ȤΤߤι٤˿ʿ줿ѥǤ롥
| Weak | Strong | |
|---|---|---|
| Singular | goode | good |
| Plural | goode | goode |

OED (2nd ed. CD-ROM) ˱Ѹ쥳ѥȤѤȤȯۤäŻǤǤƤ鹭ͭƤºݤ¿θ OED ѥȤƳѤƤ롥⤽⤬ѥȤԤޤ줿櫓ǤϤʤ OED νѥȤߤʤƸ椹뤳Ȥϡɤ줯餤ʤΤƻˤĤΤ뤳Ȥϸ漫ȤƱ餤פȻפΤǡΥơޤ˴Ϣ Hoffmann ʸޤȤƤߤʻ伫ȤƻȤƤ OED ħ褯˸˻ȤäƤ餤ΤǡʬΤ˺ϿȤĤǤսν줿ʸͤˤƤޤ
Hoffmann OED νѥȤѤ뤳ȤǤ뤫ȤФơ4Ĥδ饢ץƤ롥ƴȡб Hoffmann η롥
(1) Selection criteria for the quotations
"a collection of pieces of language that are selected and ordered according to explicit linguistic criteria in order to be used as a sample of the language" (19; cited from Sinclair) Ȥ̩ʥѥ˾Ȥ餻СOED νѥȸʤȤϤǤʤΤˡġθФ첼ǼƤ㷲θФܤŬڤʥѥˤʤʤȤȤϸθü٤η֤̣åפ뷹뤫Ǥ롥äˤ븫ФܤΤǤʤСΤȤ OED ϳƻαѸɽƤȹͤ졤ѥȤƳѤ뤳ȤǤ롥
(2) Representativeness and balance of the quotations
OED ϼºݤ˲餫ŵƤ "true quotations" (20) Ǥ롥ԼԤˤäƺ줿ʤǤϤʤϤƾʤޤŵΥ¿ˤ錄ꡤüʸغʤ˸¤ʤɤиʤΤǡ˴ؤƤ "representative" ȸäƤ褤ƥ뤬츦ˤȤäŬڤʳʬۤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡ"balanced" Ȥϸʤ㤨 Shakespeare 1ͤ33,000Ƥʤɤ롥OED ѥȤƸΩƤˤϡ"balance" դפ롥
(3) Reliability of the data format
ʸΰάƤ褦㤬ʿѤ20?25%ۤɤ롥ۤȤɤξάǤʸι¤ƤʤˤŬڤʾάʸι¤ѲƤޤäƤʸ⤢롥ʾι¤Ĵ٤뤿 OED ѤˤϡդɬפǤ롥
(4) Quantification of the results
1ǯդ˥ץåȤȡ174000ۤ뾮ԡ1910000ۤԡǧ뤬20ˤϷ㸺롥ǡοϻˤ餺13٤Ȱǡ20㤬ĹʤΤܤαޤ٤Ǥ롥240ۤʽǤ180ۤɤäˤȤȾ嵭ʿѸơOED ˴ޤޤ3300?3500ȿꤵ롥OED ѥȤѤˤϡ19ä¿ȤʤɤդƸ̤᤹٤
Ǹ Hoffmann ηѤ (26) OED νϸѲη绨ĤŪɽ魯ѥȤƸѲˤȤäͭѤǤ롤ȤQŪʷŪʿФƤƻͤˤʤä
Although the OED quotations database is not a completely balanced and representative corpus, it can nevertheless provide the linguist with a wealth of useful information. The data it contains chiefly represents naturally occurring language, and the time-span covered is unmatched by any other source of computerized data. Even though over 20 per cent of all its quotations have been shortened, the large majority of these deletions is unlikely to distort the results of many diachronic studies of linguistic features. Given the nature of the data, normalized frequency counts might suggest an inappropriate level of precision, but tendencies in the development over time can nevertheless be expressed in quantitative terms. (26)
The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM. Version 3.1. Oxford: OUP, 2004.
Hoffmann, Sebastian. "Using the OED quotations database as a Corpus --- A Linguistic Appraisal." ICAME Journal 28 (April 2004): 17--30. Available online at http://icame.uib.no/ij28/index.html .
Tanabe, Harumi. "The Rivalry of give up and its Synonymous Verbs in Modern English." Language Change and Variation from Old English and Late Modern English: A Festschrift for Minoji Akimoto. Ed. Merja Kytö, John Scahill, and Harumi Tanabe. Bern: Peter Lang, 2010. 253--75.
106ʿˡ7ڡˤʸؤȶ߷ؤǡ̾ Manfred Görlach ιֱ줿߷ؤǤܤ "English in America: the US, Canada and the Caribbean" ǡAmE ˴ؤ diversion conversion 줿
Υ֥Ǥ BrE 椷 AmE ˤĤ͡˽Ƥ褽괬ѸĬή Americanisation ǤȤݤǰոҤ٤Ƥ㤨[2010-04-21-1]εȡˡGörlachˤˤĤƼ䤷Ƥߤ顤衼åѤǤϤޤޤ BrE ήǤȤβäΤˡ衼åѤϤȤƥꥹ̱ϤŪطʤä¿ϰ褬ꥹѸɤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤŪطʤΰۤʤ¾¿ιäܤޤ EFL ȸƤФǤϡѸȤХꥫѸȤȯۤ㤤͡δ֤ˤΤ褦¸ߤ롥Ѹ Americanisation 露ˤߤ錄äƤƤΤϵ褦ʤ
Americanisation ȤɽϡꥫѸȤ1Ĥؤδʼ«̣ΤǤϤʤޤǡȤ AmE αѸѼ˱ƶڤܤƤȤȤǤ롥Ǥ⡤ conversion äƤ褤ǡαѸѼ diversion ⼨Ƥ롥ϰ٥Ǥ ESL Ѽ EFL Ѽ郎ȸƤΤȻפ롥conversion diversion Ʊ˵äƤȤΤϰ츫̷⤷Ƥ褦ɬ⤽ǤϤʤˤϤĤꤦ뤬Görlach ֱǼˤȡäȯȤǤϡָפۤʤȤȤǤ롥¿Ѽ֤ǡäϼ« ( conversion ) ȯȯ ( diversion ) ΤȤΤˡ㤨 BrE Ǹä Americanise ƤƤ뤳Ȥ礤ˤäƤ⡤ȯޤǤ⤬Ʊ٤ AmE ˱ƶ뤳ȤϤʤȤΰ֤ʤɤؤαƶ controversy harass ʤɤ˸Ϥ뤬BrE βηϤŪɤ뤬櫓ǤϤʤȤϸѸǤܸǤ⡤äʸˡϤۤɸѼ˽äƤʤ顤ɤƤ⤪¤꤬ȴʤüԤϤ롥ȯϤФ䤹ȤȤ
ơŪGörlachϡ轵ˤƴ̤ǹֱȥߥʡͽǤʾܺ٤ˡǰʤɤäǤʤΤܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤӻȡѤƤäƤʤΤǺܤƤ椭
;̾ηϤˤĤƤϡűѸ ([2009-10-24-1])Ѹ (Chaucer) ([2009-10-25-1])Ѹ ([2009-11-09-1]) ǶɽǤƤ2;̾˾ƤȡűѸǤ þū ֤ʤסñˤ ȝē ֤ʤסʣˤ־塤˶̤ƤѸǤƱͤ thou / ye ñʣζ̤ĤƤξ [2009-10-11-1], [2009-10-29-1]ǿ줿褦 T/V distinction ʿƾΤȷɾΡˤζ̤ʤ֤ꡤŪʣʻȤʬ褷ѸʹߤϿζ̤ζ̤쵤˲ä졤ɸǤ you ͣ2;̾ȤʤäʤΤؤʤΤ褯ʬʤߤǤñʣζ̤ɾΡƾΤζ̤Ĥʤ you ݤǤ롥
ɸѸ˸¤ääǤ롥ɸѼθСѸǤ§Ūñʣζ̤Ĥ褦̾ηϤȯãƤ롥[2010-03-05-1], [2010-03-06-1]Ǹڤ褦ˡñ you Фʣν֤ѤѤѼ郎롥ʲΤ褦ʷ֤ǧƤ롥
yous(e): many parts of North America (esp. New York City and Boston), Ireland, parts of Britain (e.g. Liverpool, Glasgow), Australia, New Zealand
you-uns: upper Southern USA (western Pennsylvania and the Appalachians)
you-all, y'all: Southern US
you guys, youse guys: in a spoken variety (newer innovations than the other dialectal forms)
you folks, you people: in a more formal variety
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Dictionary ΥդλѥȤˤޤȤƤƤ롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 210.
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 168--69.
߷ ⡡رѸˡ١ҡӡ2008ǯ. 125ǡ
ε[2010-10-06-1]ǾҲ𤷤 Lieberman et al. ʸǵ⤦1Ĥä˴Ťͽ¬ˤȡǤᤤ̤˵§ưٻɸ餤ä wed Ǥǽ⤤ȤΤȤȤϤѲͽ¬ǤǽȤΤϼ¤˶̣
What will be the next irregular verb to regularize? It is likely to be wed/wed/wed. The frequency of 'wed' is only 4.2 uses per million verbs, ranking at the very bottom of the modern irregular verbs. Indeed, it is already being replaced in many contexts by wed/wedded/wedded. Now is your last chance to be a 'newly wed'. The married couples of the future can only hope for 'wedded' bliss. (715)
ͽ¬ΤϤ褤ȤơɽΤǻŦƤ⤽ wed ϸűѸμѲưʵ§Ѳư weddian ͳ褷 dental suffix ȼä wedded 䤽ΰ۷֤̾βʬäѸǤ wede 뤬ǡԵ§ưȤƳѤ뤳ȡ֤פäȤΤΤǤ롥ξ⡤̩ˤԵ§ư첽Ȥ weded ʤɤ첻άñҲβФ̤ȹͤΤ⤷ʤ
Ե§Ѳ wed Ϥθ塤ѹ䥢ꥫǰŪˤʤäwedded ʤɤε§Ūʷ֤ϢʤȤ³ƤΤǤꡤwed wedded regularize Ȥͽ¬ϡθη֤ˤľŪŪˤªƤʤȤˤʤ롥the modern irregular verbs ɽƤ뤳ȡĴоݤȤ177θűѸζѲư wed äƤʤȤ顤Lieberman et. al ʾλ¤ޤäΤʤäȤȤǤϤʤȻפ롥ޤͽ¬ʸκǸΤۤǼƤꡤ餫ʸݿ褦Ȥտޤ졤äȤդΤĤʤΤȤפ(1) ưη֤ѲɬǤϤʤȡ(2) §Ե§ζ¸Ƥ֤ɾɬפ뤳ȤϡŦƤ
Lieberman, Erez, Jean-Baptiste Michel, Joe Jackson, Tina Tang, and Martin A. Nowak. "Quantifying the Evolutionary Dynamics of Language." Nature 449 (2007): 713--16.
ʲΩ줫ζä٤ʸɤűѸζѲưԵ§Ѳưˤ֤ȤȤ˸ߡ̤˸äƵ§Ƥ椯®٤ϡưٻɸ2ȿ㤹ȤΤǤ롥Ե§ε§٤شط뤳Ȥ¿δϢ餫ˤƤƤ뤬θǶäΤ϶ŪʿƤȤǤ롥
űѸ줫Ф177Ե§ưʸߤˤޤѸȤʤäƤʤΤΤߡˤΤѸǤԵ§ΤޤĤäΤ145ġѸǤԵ§ΤޤޤʤΤ98ĤȤޤ̤˷ƤϤ2500ǯޤǤԵ§ΤޤĤäƤΤ83ĤǤͽ¬Ƥ롥
ʸˤϷ˴ؤƤ뤬٤ߤФȵ來ФƤ롥
Ѹˤư٤ѥǵƤΤϤ褤ȤơűѸѸˤ٤εŬڤԤѸ˴ؤƤ The Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Middle English ѤȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬Ѹ٤ήѤƷƤս⤢ääȤ⡤ήѤˤͤ礭ʤȤʸŸƤϤ뤬
ѸˤĤƤɸѼꤷưƤ뤬αѸˤĤƤϤɤѼǤΤ餯ϻ¿ѼޤѥоݤȤƤΤ
űѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤ褽®٤ǵ§äƤȤ̤ʹߤϡּʡѲ˴Ĥä뵬ʸˡΩ䶵ڤȤҲŪʽäͤ碌ǰ®٤ǤȤȤϲ̣Τ
§ǤϤʤԵ§Ǹ˸줿ʤΤˤ⤦ʤȤˤʤ˻ȤδˤƤ뤬ξ¸ƤĹˤĤƤϲ뤳ȤϤΤ
礭ʻθʤΤǡޤ٤ФɾΤɤȤϻפǡ٤ȤȴˤƤΥޥʸ̤Ū˼Ƥߤ뤳ȤˤơˤθθϤ礭ʲͤƤߤʸˤä further studies ƤʤäΤǡˡ
ֵ§®٤ưٻɸ2ȿ㤹פȤ̤ФθϱѸưε§ŬѤñȯθȹͤƤ褤Τ¾ΤĤΡ˾餯¿Ρ˸Ū§ˤŪŬѤǤΤǤФȤƤͭյ餯ۤɤޤϹԤʤȡΤ褦˸ƳФŪʡ§ϡդ˸ȤɤΤ褦ʾƤΤξ̲뤳ȤϤǤΤޤ̣Τ
ŪʸѲοܡפˤϴؿꡤѲ slow-quick-quick-slow ΥѥSȤóȻ ( lexical diffusion ) ȤܤƤ뤬嵭ƱƤ롥¤ˤϡŪʸѲοܤε뤳ȤϵǤ롥ˤĤƤϺ⤸äͤƤ
Lieberman, Erez, Jean-Baptiste Michel, Joe Jackson, Tina Tang, and Martin A. Nowak. "Quantifying the Evolutionary Dynamics of Language." Nature 449 (2007): 713--16.
[2010-10-03-1], [2010-10-04-1]˰³եѸλѤܤ줬 Chaucer ѸѤƤͤƤߤܤΤϡƬ for- ޤǤ ( Horobin 75--76 ) Ƭϸ캬ΰ̣ꡤ̣źꤹ뵡ǽ롥ѸʸŤᤫΤ⤢뤬ˤǤ forbear ּͤ, fordo Ǥܤ, forfend ͽɤ, forget ˺, forbid ֶؤ, forsake ָΤƤ, forswear äǧפʤɤ롥
ʲ3ϡOED Ǥ MED Ǥ Chaucer ȤƵƤʰʲѤ The Riverside Chaucer ˡ
forbrused "severely bruised" (MkT: 2613--14)
But in a chayer men aboute hym bar,
Al forbrused, bothe bak and syde.
forcracchen "scratched severely" (RRose: 322--23)
Nor she hadde nothyng slowe be
For to forcracchen al hir face,
forsongen "exhausted with singing" (RRose: 663--64)
Chalaundres fele sawe I there,
That wery, nygh forsongen were;
forwelked "withered, shriveled up" (RRose: 361-62)
A foul, forwelked thyng was she,
That whylom round and softe had be.
forwrapped "wrapped up, covered" (PardT: 718; ParsT: 320)
Why artow al forwrapped save thy face?
Al moot be seyd, and no thyng excused ne hyd ne forwrapped,
¾ fordronke "completely drunk", forlost "disgraced", forpampred "spoiled by indulgence", forpassing "surpassing", fortroden "trampled upon", forwaked "tired by lack of sleep", forweped "worn out by weeping" ʤɤ⡤Chaucer ʽǤϤʤȤѤ for- Ǥ롥
ε[2010-10-04-1]ǿ줿 drasty ΡֲʤפȤϢ뤫⤷ʤΤ䤹ֶĴפȤǽǤѤդ路Ȥͤ롥ִʤ뤿γפȤǤȤ館ȡChaucer θäΰä¦̤ƤΤǤϤʤ
դδʤˤĤƤϡ[2010-03-27-1]ȡ
Horobin, Simon. Chaucer's Language. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
ε[2010-10-03-1]˰³Chaucer αѸꡥ Horobin 夲롥drasty ֤Τ褦ʡʡؤܤ (p. 75) ȤλȤߤƤߤ褦θϸűѸ dræstig ͳ褷dærst ֡ʱΤΡˤꡤפηƻǤ롥űѸ褷Ф餯ʸϻѤäƤChaucer Ѹǽ褵Ǥ롥Horobin (74) ۩
According to the MED, Chaucer is the first ME writer to use a number of words that appeared in Old English but were not used by earlier ME authors.
Chaucer ˤ褽θԤˤ衤θλѤѸǤϵǤ롥⤷ȤˡChaucer Ǥ2ϡɲʵˤμͤθȯƤ롥 Chaucer ˤ "The Tale of Sir Thopas" ǼͤפȤ̤ǡ֤ؤäס֤ؤܻפۤɤΰ̣ǻȤƤʰʲѤ The Riverside Chaucer ˡ
Myne eres aken of thy drasty speche. (l. 923)
Thy drasty rymyng is nat worth a toord! (l. 930)
¤Ȥ֤פɽ魯ѸǤ뤫顤Ūˤ٤㤤Ǥ롥ɲʵˤμͤθФȤΤϹ椯ʤǤϤΡֲʤפΤ褦ʤΤä뤫Τ褦Ǥ⤢롥֤ؤܤפ¾ˤ⤢äǤ drasty λѤϽʬưŤƤȤȤʬ롥
Horobin, Simon. Chaucer's Language. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
[2010-01-09-1], [2010-02-19-1]εǡChaucer αѸ˾˲̤ˤĤƿ줿衤äˤĤƤϡChaucer եѸν¿ƤȤơαѸ˾ΰյ줿ǶǤϤϸǤȤɾФƤƤ롥Chaucer ʸΤ䱤ΧΤ˥եѸ礤˳ѤȤϻ¤ɬ Chaucer ⤿餷ǤϤʤޤǴ¸θֺ¤ˡ׳Ѥ Chaucer ħȤȤ
եѸ¤˳Ѥ뤿ˤϡʤ餽椵Ѹ¾θ줫μѸʼȤƸťΥɸƥˤ¤˳ѤƤʤФʤʤϤϡChaucer θäˤĤƥեѸαǤޤܤ뤳ȤΤʤ1ġѸܤƤߤȤơHorobin ˵Ƥ stevene (pp. 72--73) 夲롥
Chaucer λˤϡפɽ魯ˤϱѸ stevene ( < OE stefn ) ȥեѸ voice 2ĤäξԤʬۤϰͤǤϤʤѥ The Canterbury Tales ˹ʤȡԤ6㡤Ԥ28㸽ʤηĴ A Glossarial DataBase of Middle English: Canterbury Tales θ˴ŤˡŪ˸ԤΤ̤ۤǤ롥⡤Ԥ6Τ5ޤǤ˸졤餫˵ӱưŤƤ롥ä˶̣Τ "The Knight's Tale" ll. 2561--62 μǤʰʲѤ The Riverside Chaucer ˡ
The voys of peple touchede the hevene, (l. 2561)
So loude cride they with murie stevene, (l. 2562)
voys stevene ξѤƤꡤʩä variation ʸŪ˳ѤƤ롥ǡstevene λѤˤä hevene ŷפȤεӱΩƤꡤΧ⸫ˤޤȤޤäƤ롥⡤ŷϤͻҤä롥stevene λȤƤ¾Ǥ4ޤǤ hevene Ȥεӱ뤳Ȥ顤θűѸͳθϤۤܵӱθȹͤƤ褵stevene Chaucer κˤϤϤŪǤʤʤäƤΤ⤷ʤǤˤϤʤäƤʤȤ Chaucer Ϻ¤ѤƤʸṲ߽̄ФƤΤǤ롥
Horobin, Simon. Chaucer's Language. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
ҥȤθˤ͡ʵǽ롥سǽȤϥߥ˥Τˤ櫓ǤϤʤHinzen (128) ꡤεǽƤߤ褦
(1) ؤ ( reference )
(2) ݡʻ¡ˤεϿ ( the recording of natural phenomena (facts) )
(3) ͤɽ ( the expression of one's thoughts )
(4) ¤Ū ( creative imagination )
(5) ¾ͤ뤳 ( the manipulation of others )
(6) Ūǽ ( the metalinguistic function (using language to talk about language itself ) )
(7) Ūǽ ( the phatic function (establishing and maintaining contact) )
(8) Ūǽ ( the poetic function )
(7) "phatic" ˤĤƤϡ926 Merriam-Webster's Word of the Day Ǥθ夲ƤΤǡȤȼΤ褦ˤ롥
adjective : of, relating to, or being speech used for social or emotive purposes rather than for communicating information
פˡȤδطۡݻ뤿ȯäǡ¼ŪʾȼʤHow are you? --- Fine, thank you. And you? --- Fine, thank you. बŵǤ롥դ˵ͤޤäȤΡֺ뤤ǤͤפƱͤ
ˤεǽȡϥߥ˥ΤȤ⡤ष̤ŪǻȤƤ뤳ȤΤۤ¿ΤǤϤʤȤ䤬롥εȿʲ˴ؤǯθˤС⤽⥳ߥ˥εǽ1ĤȤǧƤ褤ɤȤ嵭ΥꥹȤǤ⡤Ф֥ߥ˥פȤܤϴޤޤƤʤ
Whether communication is a distinct function additional to all these, or simply an abstraction denoting one joint overall effect of several of them on certain occasions, is unclear. It is certainly true that we continuously use language without quite literally 'communicating our thoughts' or wanting to do so in talking to others, let alone in talking to ourselves. We may be just talking for social reasons, for purposes of manipulation, or for fun. (Hinzen 128)
줬ߥ˥ΤˤΤʤΤȤϡ֥ߥ˥פɤΤ褦뤫ˤäƤ롥㤨С (144) ˤ뼡ꤷƤߤ褦
äʹȤδ֤ǤȤФˤջפãԤ졤ˤäʤ롤뤤ϡޤ뤳ȡ
Ȥȡ嵭 (1) (8) θεǽΤʤǥߥ˥̤ȤǤΤ (1), (2), (3) 餤ǡʬŪˤ塤βäʸϤϤ٤ߥ˥ˤʤ뤫顤Υ֥ʸϤؤιֵ⥳ߥ˥ǤϤʤȤˤʤ롥
εǽǤ뤫õ뤳ȤϡοʲѲǤŪʰ̣ġȤΤϡѲϸεǽ礭»ʤʤϰϤȤȤǤ뤫뤤ϡ⤷εǽ»ʤ褦ʸѲΤǤСҥȤˤȤäƸȤϲʤΤƹͤȤʤ롥
Τ˥ߥ˥˳ؤθѲȤΤ¿롥ǤͻȤƱ۵ηʤɤ⤷줬˥ߥ˥Τ¸ߤΤǤСΤ褦ʸѲϵʤϤ
ϥߥ˥ΤˤȤQϰΤɤΤ餤ʤΤ
Hinzen, Wolfram. Mind Design and Minimal Syntax. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ؤҤȤΤȤФεȿʲ١ҳҡ졦ʸ19ӡ2010ǯ
ν²ؤȷŪʬहˡǤŵŪʸǤȤС2ܤ˸ŵŪʸϸηˤʬǤ롥줬ñǤäƤ뤫ʣǤäƤ뤫ԤǤзǤɤΩƤ뤫ͻ礷Ƥ뤫ˤäƲ̶ʬƤ椯
Τ褦ˡˤˤ̩ܤ˴Ϣ2Ĥλ롥1Ĥͻ ( fusion ) ٹ硤⤦1Ĥ ( synthesis ) ٹǤ롥Ԥϡ1˴ޤޤǤοȹͤƤ褤
(1) ͻ ( fusion ) ٹ˴Ťʬ
Ω ( isolating language ) 1줬1Ǥ롥ʸˡطɽ魯ΤܼʤɤѤ뷹¾塤(2) ʬŪ ( analytic language ) Ʊ͡ŵŪʸϥ٥ȥʥ졥
( agglutinating language ) 1줬ʣǤ롥ʸˡطɽ魯Τܼ¿Ѥ롥ŵŪʸϥȥ륳ܸ졥
ͻ ( fusional language ) 1줬ʣǤ롥ʸˡطɽ魯Τͻ礷ǤѤ롥ŵŪʸϥƥ졤ꥷ졤åȸ졥
(2) ( synthesis ) ٹʤ뤤1ηǤοˤ˴Ťʬ
ʬŪ ( analytic language ) 1줬1Ǥ롥¾塤(1) θΩ ( isolating language ) Ʊ͡٥ȥʥǤϡʿѤ1ˤĤ1.06ĤηǤȤ롥
Ū ( synthetic language ) 1줬ʣǤ롥åȸǤϡʿѤ1ˤĤ2.59ĤηǤȤ롥
Ū ( inflectional language ) : Ūΰǡղä첻Ѱۤʤɤˤäʸˡطɽ魯פθ졥ŵŪʸϥƥ졤ꥷ졤åȸ졥
¿ŪŪ˸ ( polysynthetic language ) 1줬¿ηǤ롥Ȥ1줬1ʸ⤢롥ŵŪʸ Inuit ( see [2010-04-27-1] ) ʿѤ1ˤĤ3.72ĤηǤȤ롥
(1) (2) λϸߤ̩ܤǤꡤΤԤδ֤ѸѸμϰϤˤĤƼ㴳κ⤢褦ˤ19ĹꡤɸȤƤϳΤդΤϤ1ĤΥƥƤϤ뤳ȤԲǽȤǤ롥ƥϢ³ΤʤƤ֣Ϥɤ餫Ȥ fusional agglutinating 뤤 isolating ⤢٤ϸפ뤤ϡ֣¸Ϥ analytic ȤäƤ褤 synthetic ʸ⾯ʤʤפʤɤȤ褦Ǥ뤳Ȥ̤Ǥ롥
㤨СѸˤǤϡֱѸŪ줫ʬŪؤѲפȸ뤬ʬŪȤꤵƤ븽ѸǤ;̾ζޡԵ§Ѳưγѡ3ñ -s ʤɤ˸褦ŪħϻĤäƤ롥ѸǤʿѤ1ˤĤ1.68ĤηǤȤ졤ʬŪŪ֤Ȥ⤤롥űѸ٤餫ʬŪȤΤǡɽŬڤʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ѸñζǤߤƤ⡤dog asparagus ϸΩŪungentlemanly unfriendliness ŪǤ롥sang were Ūʤ뤤϶ŪˤǤꡤout-ranked fox-hunting ¿ŪǤ餢롥
Ѹˤˤ礫ʬϡפޤ hellog εϡ ʬפɤ
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992. 610--11.
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