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2011-11-30 Wed

#947. Ѹֻ [preposition][conjunction]

ֻ졤³졤ư졤졤̾졤طʤɤǽ (function word) 뤤ʸˡ (grammatical word) ȸƤФ졤äȤƤĤ (closed class) ȸ롥̾졤ư졤ƻ졤Ƹ (content word) ȸƤФ졤 (open class) 롥
塤ĤȤϡ˴ޤޤοͭ¤Ǥꡤʸùܤɲä뤳ȤʤäŪʰ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥްդ뤬ºݤˤĤؿùܤɲäȤȤϤ롥㤨СֻϡĤ1ĤǤϤ뤬ޤޤƤοŪ¿ʤĤ¿ˤβǥꥹȤ˲äƤùܤǤ롥ʣ¾ʻ줫ˤ줿ֻ⾯ʤʤ
ʲϡQuirk et al. (Sections 9.7--9.8, 9.10--9.11) ˵󤲤ƤȼʬˤֻΰΤǤ롥Ѹˤֻۤ줬äΤȶäФ

1. Simple prepositions
(a) Monosyllabic prepositions
as, at, but, by, down, for, from, in, like, near (to), of, off, on, out, past, per, pro, qua, re, round, sans, since, than, through (thru), till, to, up, via, while, with
(b) Polysyllabic prepositions
about, above, across, after, against, agin, along, alongside, amid(st), among(st), anti, around, atop, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between (tween, twixt), beyond, circa, despite, during, except, inside, into, notwithstanding, onto, opposite, outside, outwith, over, pace, pending, throughout, toward(s), under, underneath, unlike, until, unto, upon, versus (v, vs), vis-à-vis, within, without
2. Marginal prepositions
bar, barring, excepting, excluding; save
concerning, considering, regarding, respecting, touching
failing, wanting
following, pending
given, granted, including
less, minus, plus, times, over
worth
3. Complex prepositions
(a) Two-word sequences
up against, as per
as for, but for, except for
apart from, aside from, away from, as from
ahead of, as of, back of, because of, devoid of, exclusive of, inside of, instead of, irrespective of, off of, out of, outside of, regardless of, upwards of, void of
according to, as to, close to, contrary to, due to, near(er) (to), next to, on to, owing to, preliminary to, preparatory to, previous to, prior to, pursuant to, subsequent to, thanks to, up to
along with, together with
à la, apropos (of)
(b) Three-word sequences
in aid of, (in) back of, in behalf of, in cause of, in charge of, in consequence of, in (the) face of, in favour of, in front of, in (the) light of, in lieu of, in need of, in place of, in (the) process of, in quest of, in respect of, in search of, (in) spite of, in view of
in accordance with, in common with, in comparison with, in compliance with, in conformity with, in contact with, in line with
by dint of, (by) means of, by virtue of, (by) way of
on account of, on behalf of, on (the) ground(s) of, on the matter of, (on) pain of, on the part of, on the strength of, on top of
as far as, at variance with, at the expense of, at the hands of, (for) (the) sake of, for/from want of, in exchange for, in return for, in addition to, in relation to, with/in regard to, with/in reference to, with/in respect to, with the exception of

ΰˤ١ˡѰʤɤθ¤ƤΤޤޤƤ뤬۷194ĤΡʷֻ줬󤲤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ĤȤϤʤʤ˭ʸ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2011-11-29 Tue

#946. ̾ʣˤγ [plural][number]

̾ʣȯŸʼȤƽѸˤĹ餯椷ƤΤߤƤ뤿ᤫäƥ֥ȤƳפ񤭤Ť餤פ餤ϽαƤȤϤʤΤǡʲ˶ʽŪʵҤͿƤ2İѤ󤲤뤦ΤΤϴʰȤʸ (Hotta, "Review") 顤ΤΤϾܺȤ Baugh and Cable ΤΤǤ롥

The s-plural was fairly quickly generalised at the expense of other plural formations such as an n-ending, a vowel-ending, a zero-ending, and an i-mutation, first in the northern/eastern dialects of England in Late Old English (LOE). In the course of Early Middle English (EME), the trend was followed slowly but surely by the southern/western dialects. Although there long persisted older plural formations such as n- and vowel-endings and even unchanged forms, the s-form finally dominated the plural system by the end of ME, with the exception of a handful of "irregular plurals" that have survived to this day. (95)


In early Middle English only two methods of indicating the plural remained fairly distinctive: the -s or -es from the strong masculine declension and the -en (as in oxen) from the weak . . . . And for a time, at least in southern England, it would have been difficult to predict that the -s would become the almost universal sign of the plural that it has become. Until the thirteenth century the -en plural enjoyed great favor in the south, being often added to nouns which had not belonged to the weak declension in Old English. But in the rest of England the -s plural (and genitive singular) of the old first declension (masculine) was apparently felt to be so distinctive that it spread rapidly. Its extension took place most quickly in the north. Even in Old English many nouns originally of other declensions had gone over to this declension in the Northumbrian dialect. By 1200 -s was the standard plural ending in the north and north Midland areas; other forms were exceptional. Fifty years later it had conquered the rest of the Midlands, and in the course of the fourteenth century it had definitely been accepted all over England as the normal sign of the plural in English nouns. Its spread may have been helped by the early extension of -s throughout the plural in Anglo-Norman, but in general it may be considered as an example of the survival of the fittest in language. (160)


ϤεҤΤ褦˴ñʤ餳ͤù椬ΩĤΤάȤƤϤǴְ㤤ʤBaugh and Cable ΰѤ˸롤Anglo-Norman Ѹ -s ȯŸ˱ƶͿǽȤϡǤϤۤꤵƤꡤꤵ٤ȹͤ (Hotta, Development 154, 268 [Note 66])

Hotta, Ryuichi. "Review of The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English." Studies in Medieval English Language and Literature 25 (2010): 95--112.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.

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2011-11-28 Mon

#945. either 2Ĥȯ [pronunciation][ame_bre]

Ѹ either ȯˤĤƤϡAmE /ˈiːðə/, BrE /ˈaɪðɚ/ ̤ȸ롥ºݤΤȤLPD3 Preference polls ǤϡAmE Ǥ18% /ˈaɪðɚ/ ѤBrE Ǥ13% /ˈiːðə/ ѤȤ1첻βκϡѼħŤƤȤϸ뤫⤷ʤŤƤȤϸʤ褦neither ˤĤƤƱͤ
Ѹ첻ѰۤˤĤƤ⡤͡ʸڤ롥OED 򸫤Ƥߤ褦

The pronunciation (ˈaɪðə(r)), though not in accordance with the analogies of standard Eng., is in London somewhat more prevalent in educated speech than (ˈiːðə(r)). The orthoepists of 17th c. seem to give (ˈɛːðər, ˈeːðər); Jones 1701 has (ˈeːðər) and (ˈaɪðər), Buchanan (1766) has (ˈaɪðə(r)) without alternative (see Ellis, ''Early Eng. Pron.'' ix, x.). Walker (1791) says that (ˈiːðə(r)) and (ˈaɪðə(r)) are both very common, but gives the preference to the former on the ground of analogy and the authority of Garrick. Smart (1849) says that 'here is little in point of good usage to choose' between the two pronunciations, though in the body of his dictionary he, like earlier orthoepists, gives (ˈiːðə(r)) without alternative.


Jespersen ϡ/ˈiːðɚ/ ȯϥåȥǤϤʤȤҲ𤷤ʤ⡤20ȾФˤƤϡȯϤष󥰥ɤ¿Ǥ /ˈaɪðɚ/ ¿ȤҤ٤Ƥ (68) 첻ŪȯãʬۤˤĤƤϡ狼ʤȤ¿
θθűѸη֤ ǣȝhwæðer (ǣȝ "always" + hwæðer "whether") Ǥꡤ"each of two" ̣14ƬŪ "one or the other of two" ΰ̣ȯãϡỤ̄äƤʤűѸθ āhwæðer (ā "ever" + hwæðer "whether") ȤκƱη̤űѸ ā "ever" ϡevery each θƬˤ⤽κפĤƤ[2011-08-07-1]ε#832. every eachפ򻲾ȡˡ
Ϣơsays 첻ˤˤĤƤϡ[2010-10-20-1], [2010-10-22-1]ε򻲾ȡ

Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-01-23-1]

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2011-11-27 Sun

#944. ration reason [doublet][history_of_french][french][latin][etymology][loan_word]

Ѹä˻ (doublet) ϡΥˤȤ߹碌ˤä͡ʼबߤ롥ޤǤ doublet εǼ夲Ƥϡե󥹸ߤ¿ե󥹸줫μѸ򰷤ˤθǤƥη֤Ȥδ֤2ŸδطäƤߤƤߤ褦
ƥñϡ̼Ǥե󥹸ݤ˲ѲФβѲ1ĤˡƥŵŪ̾ -tiō(nem) ե󥹸 -son ؤȯãȤΤ롥ˤꡤƥ ratiōnem ϥե󥹸 raison ءƱͤ traditiōnem trahison ءpōtiōnem poison ءlectiōnem leçon ؤѲ
Ѳϸ§Ȥ㳰ʤȤȡե󥹸 -tion η֤ϻĤʤϤºݤˤϤǤ¸ߤ롥ϡե󥹸줬Ѳ뤲˲ƥƥ줫츻Ūʷ֤Ѥʤ뤤褵ˤǤ롥ʳǡǤˡե󥹸ˤƸ츻ˤ2Ĥΰۤʤ֡ʥե󥹸ȥƥˤ2ŸȤƶ¸ƤȤˤʤ롥ơե󥹸ˤ뤽2֤ɬƱǤʤˤ衤ΤޤޱѸؤѤ졤2Ÿδطԡ줿Τration -- reason, tradition -- treason, potion -- poison, lection -- lesson Τ褦ʥڥǤ롥
ration -- reason ˤϡratio ȤƱѸ¸ߤ3Ÿ (triplet) Ƥ롥tradition ϥƥ trādere ("through" + "give") ̾ǡ֡ʼˡ˰ѤȡϤȡפǤ롥Ʊ츻αñ treason ΢ڤˤϡ֡ʿͤϤȡפۤɤθȯãñ tradition Τ⡤1517ޤǤϡ΢ڤפθäƤ
[2011-02-09-1]ε#653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡פǸ褦ˡե󥹸ȥƥθϸʬΤ񤷤Ȥ¿ǤϤ줯餤ξκϾ˥ƥˤ⤢ٴƤե󥹤ν񵭤礤˺𤷤Ƥťե󥹸ˤƤϡե󥹸ȥƥʻ¸Ͼ֤ǤꡤξΤʤǾ嵭Τ褦2Ÿ줬߽Ф줿ơ;Ȥϳۤƥ󥰥ɤؤäѸˤξʤȤϡΤ褦˥ե󥹸ˤ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤ뤳Ȥ狼
Τ褦2ŸϡƱѸä¿򸫤ƤȤƳФƤ

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2011-11-26 Sat

#943. Ƭˤ [alliteration][reconstruction][germanic][glottal_stop]

[2011-07-02-1]ε#796. Ѹ˵ӱƳ줿ŪװפǡޥɤħŪʱͼȤƤƬ (alliteration) ˤĤտŪ˿줿ƬȤϡťɸαʸ Edda űѸαʸŵŪ˸ƱλҲʤȤ첻ˤܤƶ벻ȿ뤳ȡסʡؿѸؼŵ١ˤħȤǤ롥űѸŵŪƬĹԤˤ aa:ax Ȥ롥
ѸˤΦӱ⤿餵졤ƬϱƤʤä14ˤϥ󥰥ǸŪ褷ǤϡƬȾ (a-verse) aa ɸಽƬ (alliterative phrase) ȸƤФäθɽޤ줿㤨С "man on earth" ɽ魯 gome vnder Gode, man vpon molde, segge vnder sunne ʤɤ֤Ѥ줿ѸˤƬΡפʸ̤ʤΤ뤤ϸűѸηѾʤΤطʤˤĤƤϾܤʬäƤ餺Ѹ˾塤ʸػ˾ȤʤäƤ롥
ѸȡƬϻԤιȤƤѤ졤äѤŪǤȤʤä㥤 (chiming effect) ⤿餹Ƭεˡϡ̣ǤϸŪȤʸ˸¤餺Ѷ硤ɸ졤ɽꡤȤФʤɤˤơߤˤޤǹѤ³Ƥ롥Ѹ줫󤲤褦

(1) : flimflam, tittle-tattle
(2) ж硦Ѷ: bed and breakfast, birds and beasts, cash and carry, confidence and cowardice, footloose and fancy-free, from top to toe, house and home, part and parcel, through thick and thin, with might and main
(3) Ūľ (intensifying simile) 뤤ݸŪľ (proverbial simile): as blind as a bat, as bold as brass, as brisk as a bee, as clear as crystal, as cool as a cucumber, as dead as a door-nail, as dry as dust, as fit as a fiddle, as good as gold, as green as grass, as hungry as a hawk, as mad as a March hare, as queer as a Quaker, as strong as Samson, as sweet as summer
(4) : Birth is much but breeding is more; Care killed the cat; Hold with the hare, and hunt with the hound; Look before you leap; Soon ripe, soon rotten; Wilful waste makes woeful want
(5) Ȥ (tongue-twister): Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers
(6) : Guinness is good for you, You can be sure of Shell
(7) ʸŪ: fixed fate, free will, foreknowledge absolute (Milton); solid, so still and stable (J. Conrad); the great grey-green, greasy Limpopo River (Kipling)
(8) ɽ: Love's Labour's Lost (Shakespeare); Mice and Men (J. Steinbeck); Pride and Prejudice (J. Austen); Twice-Told Tales (N. Hawthorne)

ʾΤ褦ˡǤƬˤϱΧŪŪʸŪ䤬ǧ뤬ƬΤĥޥӸؾΰյ˺ƤϤʤʤűѸʤɤǰۤʤ첻ˤƬƤ¤ϡ첻Ԥĺ (glottal stop) ԤʤƤȤ򼨺ƤꡤʸˤʤƷ (reconstruction) ˴ͿƤ롥ޤ/sp/, /st/, /sk/ Ϥ켫ȤȤƬʤȤ顤2碌ƲŪñ̤ʤƤ餷Ȥ狼롥ƬϡΤ褦˸ŲοȤӸؾνפ˸ƤƤΤǤ롥
Ϣơ[2010-07-08-1]ε֤ˤƸŲꤹ뤫פ[2011-05-25-1]ε#758. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 (2)פ򻲾ȡ

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2011-11-25 Fri

#942. LAEME Index of Sources θġ [laeme][web_service][cgi]

LAEME Auxiliary Data Sets -> Index of Sources ȥ˥塼򤿤ɤȡLAEME оݤȤƤƥȥΥꥹ (The LAEME Index of Sources) ͡ʳ٤鸡ƼФȤǤ롥LAEME Υƥȥǡ١ǯ̡̡Grid Reference ̤ʤɤδʬϤˡŬڤʥƥȤΰΤǡLAEME ȤʤΤˤ˽פʵǽǤ롥
⤦˾줿ꡤνϤѥȤɽлȤ꤬褤ȻפäƤǡIndex of Sources ȼ˥ǡ١SQL ѤƸǽˤƤߤLAEME λѼԤǡSQL򰷤ͰʳˤϲΩʤΤääΤǸ

    


ʲˡơ֥̾ "ios" (for "Index of Sources") ǸꡥեɤϡLAEME ܲȤθоݤȤʤäƤ18Υեɤ˲äơֹȤƤ "ID" ȡƥȾηǺܤ줿饤ڡؤ "URL" ä20ե (ID, MS, TEXT_ID, FILE, DATE, TEXT, GRID, LOC, COMMENT, SAMPLING, TAGGED_WORDS, PLACE_NAMES, PERSONAL_NAMES, WORDS, SCRIPT, OTHER, STATUS, BIBLIO, CROSS_REF, URL) select ʸΤͭʲˡŵŪʸȤƺܤƤ

# Ancrene Wisse/Riwle ΥƥȾμФ
select TEXT_ID, MS, FILE, GRID, LOC, DATE, TEXT from ios where FILE like "%ar%t.tag" and TEXT like "%Ancrene%";

# Poema Morale ΥƥȾμФ
select TEXT_ID, MS, FILE, GRID, LOC, DATE, TEXT from ios where FILE like "%pm%t.tag" and TEXT like "%Poema%";

# Grid Reference ͿƤƥȤμФ
select TEXT_ID, MS, FILE, GRID from ios where GRID != "000 000";

# DATE "C13a" ޤƥȤμФ
select TEXT_ID, DATE from ios where DATE like "%C13a%";

# ǯ头Ȥ˽
select DATE, count(DATE) from ios group by DATE order by DATE;

# դƤƥȤȤ˳ǧ
select TEXT_ID, TAGGED_WORDS, PLACE_NAMES, PERSONAL_NAMES from ios;

# ƥȾؤΥ󥯽
select TEXT_ID, MS, FILE, URL from ios;

Referrer (Inside): [2012-10-10-1] [2012-03-19-1]

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2011-11-24 Thu

#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ [geography][me][wave_theory][geolinguistics][3sp]

űѸѸؤѸ˻ޤǡ¿θѲ󥰥ɤ̤Τˤ줫ؤŤƤä;̾ she she 򻲾ȡˤ they [2011-04-10-1]򻲾ȡˤڡ3ñ -s γ硤ʣ -s Hotta θ򻲾ȡˤοĹťΥɸ줫¿θäμѡƱѸ˾Ѳȸ뤫⤷ʤޤοʿʸˡξü⡤ΥꥹɸѸˤĤƤκפǻΤϡѸ˸줿Ρפ椨Ǥ롥
ʤ̤ȤʤΤŤθưϤϲʤΤȤϡǤ롥 (linguistic geography or geolinguistics) ǤϡѲŤȤ the wave theory Ť龧Ƥ롥ˤС󥰥ɤȤӤ礭Фꤲޤ졤;ȤŤƽ˼ϤءäؤȹäƹԤäǤ롥ºݤˡ嵭νѲϡȾμȤŤƤäȤΤƤʾʤȤ⡤ʣ -s ŤˤĤƤdzǧˡꤲޤ줿ФʤۤɤޤǤ˥ͥ륮äΤǤ롥ҲؤǤϡ̾Τ褦ʥͥ륮ϼҲŪ˱ƶϤΤϰŵŪˤԻˤȯȤ;ȤؤŤƤ椯ΤȹͤƤꡤΥɥ󤫤ļˤؤȤʤǤΤ¤ϵդǤ롥ʤʤΤ
ˤĤƤ (175) ǤڤƤ뤬ǰѤ Thomason and Kaufman (274) ΰҲ𤷤褦

Until about 1225 innovations starting in the South were spreading northward (e.g., /aː/ > /oə/, 'ɣ' > w/y), after 1250 practically all innovations in English were starting in the North and spreading southward (e.g. lengthening of short stressed vowel in open syllable, dropping of final unstressed schwa, degemination, spread of third person singular present tense -es at the expense of -eth). No explanation (except that York, England's second city, is located in Deira) can as yet be offered for why the North should have been so influential on the Midlands and South from 1250 to 1400, since it was much poorer than the rest of England, and was constantly being raided by the Scots, with whom the Northerners (ruefully, one supposes) shared a dialect.


¾ǡThomason and Kaufman (289) ϡSawyer (174--75) 򻲾Ȥʤ鼡Τ褦ˤҤ٤Ƥ롥

. . . there was a great growth of quite profitable sheep-farming at the hands of Norse-origin or even Norse-speaking entrepreneurs in the eleventh century in the Lincolnshire Wolds (which lie in Lindsey, the major town being Louth) and in the Yorkshire Wolds (which lie in the East Riding of Yorkshire part of Deira, the major town being Bridlington), which lie right across the Humber from each other . . . .


ʤ顤 (175) ˤơɤɤ˼Τ褦ʰոҤ٤ˤȤɤޤä

I cannot offer a strong alternative, but it is possible that as carriers of Norsified English in the North and East passed innovative linguistic features to neighbouring areas through person-to-person communication, the receiving areas willingly picked up the Norsified features as "faddish." For the time being, however, I would like to leave this question open.


ˤĤƺǶ O'Neil (266) ˸Ĥ̤ΰոҲ𤷤Ƥ

Now why the northern Middle English system became that of all England is not at all clear. . . . After the return to English as the language of the English realm there may have been a (mistaken, note) feeling that it was in the north that real English resided, thus leading to it becoming the accepted model toward which the rest of England moved. This is an explanation of sorts, albeit not a very satisfactory one (1).


ѺǸ (1) ϵؤλȤǡεˤϰʲΤ褦ˤ롥

(1) It is, however, difficult to reconcile this explanation --- such as it is --- with the general London antipathy toward the northern dialects of Middle English. (266)


ϿޤǤ롥

Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Sawyer, P. H. The Age of the Vikings. 2nd ed. London: Edward Arnold, 1971.
O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

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2011-11-23 Wed

#940. ¤ [productivity][word_formation][blend]

ˤĤơ##935,936,937,938 εƤϡ (productivity) Ȼʤ복ǰǤ¤ (creativity) ͤ롥ξԤζܤɬΤǤϤʤ¤ϡϤλɸȤƤϻƤΤΡ⿷񤵤տޤ
㤨Сƻ줫̾ -ness -th ͤƤߤ褦[2009-05-12-1]ε#14. ̾-thפ򻲾ȡˡѸǤϸԤϤۤܥǤꡤκǤ⤤ܼ1ĤǤԤȤӤˤʤʤä꤬Ʒƻ cool ̾ *coolth ¤ƻѤɤʤʹ -th ΤʤȤΤäƤΤ顤äȯ *coolth ϡѤǤʤȤС餫ʸŪ̡Ṳ̄äտŪʸոȤ򤹤coolness ˤϤʤ񤵤᤿Τ⤷ʤwarmth ȤΩ褦ȤΤ⤷ʤˤ衤áפ̣ marked ɽȤʤäƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥
ä꤬üʰտޤ *coolth 򻺽Фطʤˤϡ(1) -th ¤ʤ˶ᤤ(2) -ness Ʊͤ̾ϤϤ롤ȤȤߤ򤷤Ƥꡤ (3) *coolth 춦ƱΤ˹ǧ뤳ȤϤʤȤФⶦͭƤ롤ȤȤꤽĤޤꡤ*coolth ϡǽ餫׻ (nonce word) ήԸ졤뤤֤ǤΤѤ뱣 (jargon, argot) ΰФʤȤΤȤȯƤǽ⤤*coolth Τ褦ʸϡɽŪˤϿηǤ뤫Τ褦˸ΤΡŪ (productive) ȤϸƤ٤षȤ϶̤뤿ˡ¤Ū (creative) ȸƤ֤٤ǤϤʤ
Lieber (70) ϷŪ¤ˤĤơʲΤ褦Ƥ롥

Morphological creativity . . . is the domain of unproductive processes like suffixation of -th or marginal lexeme formation processes like blending or backformation. It occurs when speakers use such processes consciously to form new words, often to be humorous or playful or to draw attention to those words for other reasons.


¤ζ̤ϡ[2011-09-20-1]ε#876. Ѹˤ뤫Ф˹⤤פȤؤ롥ǤϡѸǤ׻ήԸȤƤΤФηӻ⤤פɽƤ褤ΤȤΤäФηϡ¤⤤פȤϸѤäȤ夷ʤ¤ꡤˤĤΤŬڤǤϤʤȤȤºݡ쥦å Word Spy ˤ¿ΤФ줬ϿƤ (Ф򸡺ꥹ򻲾ȡˤΤʤǼμϿۤɤ夷ϰ¿ϡ׻ȤϸʤޤǤ⡤ήԸȤƤä뱿̿ˤȹͤ롥¤Ȥϡ[2011-10-30-1], [2011-10-31-1]εǼ夲 bouncebackability θˤؤꤽ
¤ζ̤ϡ嵭 *coolth 㤫餢ľŪǤ뤬ҴŪ񤷤ޤƤ䡤¤εҴŪ¬Τʾ˺

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

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2011-11-22 Tue

#939. -dom ̻̾Ūʬ (2) [suffix][oed][productivity]

[2011-04-28-1]ε#731. -dom ̻̾ŪʬۡפǡѸޤǤ˰٤Ѥ줫 -dom 19ɤäаޤ򳵴Ѥ¾δϢ뵭 ##20,731,732 򻲾ȡˡǷǤ -dom ̻ŪܤΥդ OED ˤȤθФ측˴ŤΤäƱ OED ѤƤϤ뤬Ȥΰ˴Ť -dom ФȤߤ Lieber (68--69) Ĵ롥
Lieber ϡ㸡ˤȤ -dom Υȡ򽸷פΰˤ뤽Ψ׻[2011-04-28-1]Ǥοͤϥ׿Lieber οͤϥȡȤ㤤ꡤ¬ˤϸԤΤۤ٤ȤϸޤǤʤˤä줿̻ŪܤΥդϰʲ̤Lieber, p. 68 ΥդܸƤǿͤɤ߽Ф˺ƺˡ

Comparative Percentages of First Citations of -dom from 12th to 19th Century by OED

ˤȡ12--14 -dom ΰӤ򤿤ɤä餷Ȥ狼롥
ˡ19γܤơ10ǯߤƱͤˤޤȤ᤿ΤʲǤLieber, p. 69 ΥդܸƤǿͤɤ߽Ф˺ƺˡ

Comparative Percentages of First Citations of -dom per Decade in 19th Century by OED

Υդ򸫤ȡ19γȤϤäƤ⡤ϼȤƱȾ˵äȹͤƤ褵1塤20Ⱦξ򸫤ȡΤ˿ -dom Ͼʤ餺ƤϤΤ ([2011-04-29-1]) 1880ǯΤ褦Ϥʤ褦

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

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2011-11-21 Mon

#938. (4) [productivity][morphology][word_formation][affix][mental_lexicon][hapax_legomenon]

[2011-11-18-1], [2011-11-19-1], [2011-11-20-1]ȡˤĤ򿼤ƤѤ¬ϤޤԤʤ餷ȤϤ狼ä¾ˤϤɤΤ褦¬ˡޤǤˡΤ褦2ĤƤʤƤ (Lieber 66--67)

(1) ܼźäˤŪ˷ (A) Фˤܼźäˤºݤ˷줿 (B) ФA ˤ B γ򻻽Ф롥㤨СƻδΤղä̾ -ness ξ硤ƻ A Ȥʤꡤºݤʸڤ -ness B Ȥʤ롥
¬ˡˤ꤬롥ޤƻİ뤳Ȥ񤷤򻲾ȤȤȤˤʤСε[2011-11-20-1]Ǽ夲κǤ롥ºݤʸڤ -ness ˤĤƤƱͤ-esque ˤĤƤС[2011-11-19-1]εǿ줿̤ꡤϴΤ˼Ȥ¿θͭ̾׵᤹뤬ξƤϤޤΤο夲뤳ȤԲǽ˶ᤤʤޤ̾ŵ򻲾Ȥ!?ˡ
ˡ-esque ˸褦ʴΤ˲ݤ¤٤˱ƶΤǤ뤫顤Τ̾׵᤹Ȥʳ¤Τʤ -ness Τ褦ܼȤκۤ⤭ΩĤ褦¬ˡǤʤФʤʤ¬ˡǤϡ-esque Aͤ -ness Aͤ纹硤κʤȤ꤬롥

(2) 祳ѥѤơtoken frequency ˴Ť hapax legomenon γ򻻽ФˡιͤȤϤޤäۤʤ뤳ΥץϡŪʸ˸Ʃ (transparency) Ƚи٤δطˤĤƤθ˴ŤƤ롥[2011-11-18-1]ǽҤ٤褦ˡ㤤ϲỤ̄ŪƩ㤤߽ФƩ㤤ϡ (dictionary ˤ mental lexicon ˤϿ䤹Ĥޤò (lexicalize) 䤹ò줿ϡòƤʤ٤ơʿѤƥѥΥȡ٤⤤Ȥħ롥դ鸫ȡι⤤Ʃ⤤椨ˡò뤳ȤʤʿѤƥѥΥȡ٤㤤롥ºݤΤȤѥ1󤷤ʤ hapax legomenon Ǥǽ⤤
θ˴Ť-ness λФͤƤߤ褦ѥ˸ -ness ȡ٤ǿ夲 A Ȥ롥 hapax legomenon Ǥ -ness ο B Ȥ롥A ˤ B ΨС-ness ʾʤȤ⡤ؤʤˤħˤλɸȤʤ
Baayen and Lieber ǺѤ줿¬ˡϡδʻɸǤϤʤȤƤ⡤üԤľŪ褯ȿǤƤȹͤ롥

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.
Baayen, Harald and Rochelle Lieber. "Productivity and English Derivation: A Corpus-Based Study." Linguistics 29 (1991): 801--43.

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2011-11-20 Sun

#937. (3) [productivity][morphology][word_formation][affix][dictionary]

[2011-11-18-1], [2011-11-19-1]˰³ˤĤơεˤ͡¦̤ȤȤ򸫤ƤŪ¬ʤˤϡɤ¬Ф褤Τ㤨Сƻ줫̾ -ness ˤ¬ꤹˤϤɤФ褤Τ
ñ˹ͤȡ򻲾Ȥ -ness 夲Ȥˡ󤲤뤫⤷ʤǤΤ¬뤳ȤϤǤʤʤ

(1) 񤴤Ȥ˷ǺܤƤ -ness οϤޤޤǤ롥[2011-11-05-1]ε#922. ʤ񤷤 (5)פϤȤ γƵǿ줿褦ˡϤ줾ȼˤԻƤꡤɤ򤹤뤫ˤäƿ夲ۤʤǽ롥
(2) ϡܼޤ¸θο˰¸ȤϡषܼźäˤäŪʸο˰¸ȹͤ롥ŪʸϼˤϺܤäƤʤΤǡ򻲾ȤƤ̵̣Ǥ롥
(3) ι⤤ϡ̣ˤƩι⤤ʡͽ¬ǽι⤤˸Ǥ ([2011-11-18-1]) ͽ¬ǽ⤤ȤȤϡθ줬˷Ǻܤɬפºݤ˷Ǻܤ뤳ȤʤȤȤǤ롥㤤ϡ̣ˤƩ㤤ʡͽ¬ǽ㤤˸ǤꡤθϤҤȤ⼭˷Ǻܤ٤ǤȤȤˤʤ롥Ĥޤꡤʲε⤬Ω롥"[L]ess productive processes would be represented by more entries in the dictionary than more productive processes!" (Lieber 66) .

㤨СΤɤμ bovine ʥΡˤб̾ bovineness ǺܤƤʤȤä -ness ʬ㤤ȤСषդǤ롥ˤǺܤɬפʤۤɤˡ-ness ˤ̾Ūˤ̣ŪˤƩȤȤǤꡤ⤤ȤȤ
Τ¬뤳Ȥ񤷤Τϡ줬ֲμӡפǤϤʤ־򸫹ϡפλɸǤ롥

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

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2011-11-19 Sat

#936. (2) [productivity][morphology][word_formation][affix]

ε#935. (1) ([2011-11-18-1]) ³ơproductivity ˴ؤꡥ1Ĥ "frequency of base type" ȾҲ𤷤ܼղäΤοϰϤ礭ФθϹ⤤ȤȤˤʤꡤϰϤꤵƤФʬ㤤ȤȤˤʤ롤Ȥͤ
ǤϡΤΥפꤵ硤δˤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤʲˡLieber (64--65) β󤹤롥

(1) categorial restrictions: ʻθꡥۤȤɤܼϡΤʻǤ뤳Ȥ׵᤹롥-ness -ity ϸ§ȤƴΤ˷ƻ׵ᤷ-ize ϴΤ̾줫ƻ׵᤹롤
(2) phonological restrictions: ܼΤʤˤϡΤβ¤׵᤹Τ롥㤨С-ize ϴΤ2ʾ夫ʤǡĺǽ˼綯ʤ׵᤹롥ƻ줫ư -en ϡ˳ĴΤ˸ꤷղä (ex. darken, brighten, deafen but not *slimmen, *tallen)
(3) the meaning of the base: un- ϡΤǤŪʰ̣ӤӤƤˤղäʤ (ex. unlovely but not *unugly; unhappy but not *unsad)
(4) etymological restrictions: ̾줫ƻ -en ϡΤ˼Ȥ׵᤹ (ex. wooden, waxen but not *metalen, *carbonen) ǡ-ic ϡΤ˼Ȥƥե󥹼Ѹ줢뤤ϥƥѸ׵᤹ (ex. parasitic, dramatic)
(5) syntactic restrictions: -able ¾ư졤ŪˤϼưǤ¾ưղä뷹 (ex. loveable but not *snorable ) ʤˤĤƤϡ[2011-10-30-1]ε#916. bouncebackability α̿ "non-lexicalizability" (1)פȤ³[2011-10-31-1]򻲾ȡ
(6) pragmatic restrictions: Ѹ줫ǤϤʤȥꥢä Dyirbal ˤơ-ginay ?ʤ줿ˤȤϡΤ˱ΤԲʤΤɽ魯׵᤹Ȥˤϡʸ˺ŪװѤƤȹͤ롥ޤ̤ȤƤǤ register ꤵ褦ܼ¸ߤ⼨㤨С-ish Ϥʸ̮ǻȤ줬ʷƻʤɡˡ

ϤƷŪǤϤ뤬ˤäơ졤̣ѤȤäηϤΤ¦̤ιθɬפˤʤäƤȤΤ񤷤ȤǤꡤƱ̥ϤǤ⤢롥

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

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2011-11-18 Fri

#935. (1) [productivity][morphology][word_formation][affix][frequency][mental_lexicon]

(productivity) ˤĤƤϡproductivity γƵˤƤǤϡɤΤ褦뤫ɤΤ褦¬ꤹ뤫ϡˤǤȽҤ٤ˤȤɤޤäϡˤ⤦Ƨ߹ߤ
ޤϡLieber (61) ˤ롤"productive" "unproductive" ˤ󤲤褦

Processes of lexeme formation that can be used by native speakers to form new lexemes are called productive. Those that can no longer be used by native speakers, are unproductive; so although we might recognize the -th in warmth as a suffix, we never make use of it in making new words. The suffixes -ity and -ness, on the other hand, can still be used, although perhaps not to the same degree.


ˤꡤλؤƤ복ǰľŪǤ뤬Ū褦ȤȤʤʤ񤷤˴ͿװȤƤϡ3ͤ (Lieber 61--64)

(1) transparency: Ọ̇̄ƩݤƤꡤΤܼΤ˶̤ productive Ǥ롥㤨Сcandidness crudity ˤơ줾־ candid + -ness, crude + -ity ΤǤǤʤΰ̣Τܼʡ?Ǥ֡סˤν (compositional) ȤƲǤ롥ǡ-ness -ity ѤƩ٤⤤ȸ롥
-ity -ness ٤Ʃ٤㤤1Ĥˤϡrusticity ˤơֻ rustic + -ity ƩŪʬϤ뤬ȯϴΤκǸλҲ /k/ /s/ ѲƤꡤʬƩ㤯ʤ롥̤Ǥϡtimid ζ1timidity ζϴΤ2ذưƤꡤƩ㤯ʤäƤ롥ˡoddity ϡodd + -ity ưפȤꡤƩŪˡְ۾Ǥ뤳ȡפ̣Τߤʤ餺ѿ͡פ̣롥ԤθˤĤƤϡͽ¬ǽʡƩˤ㤤ȤߤʤȤǤ롥Ǹˡdexterity ǤϡΤȤ *dexter ͽۤȤϼºݤˤ¸ߤʤΤǤ롥ǤϡƩݤƤʤ
oddity ѿ͡ˤǿ줿̣ͽ¬ԡ˲ǽȤɸϡ줬 mental lexicon ϿƤ뤫ɤȤꡤò (lexicalization) ˴Ϣ롥ξ硤ְ۾Ǥ뤳ȡפθǤ oddity ϸòƤʤѿ͡פΰ̣Ǥoddity ϸòƤȤȤˤʤ롥äơƩ⤤ۤɸòˤƩ㤤ۤɸò䤹ȤطΩġ

(2) frequency of base type: ܼղäΤοϰϤ礭礭ۤɡθŪǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥 -esque ?Ρˤ̾ղä뤬ȤƸͭ̾˸ꤵ롥ñδΤˤղäˤȤ⤢뤿ᡤɤ̾ˤղä٤СΤϰϤʬ㤤ȤȤˤʤ롥[2009-11-29-1]ε#216. ̾ƻ -esque ħפ򻲾ȡ

(3) usefulness: ͭQŪˡ٤ƤηƻˤĤб̾줬뤳ȤͭѤǤꡤǤȹͤ롥ξ硤ƻ̾첽 -ness, -ity ͭѤǤꡤŪǤȤȤˤʤ롥ȿФˡɽ魯 -ess ϡѻߤμҲŪĬˤͭƤƤꡤʬ㤯ʤäƤƤȹͤ롥

ϡʤȤ⤳3˴Ťɬפ롥
Ѳ̣Ѳˤä (1) ääʤɤˤä (2) ҲŪʲʹѤѲˤä (3) ƶȤȤͤȡޤ̻ŪѲ˻ƤȤȤ餫

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

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2011-11-17 Thu

#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) [loan_word][borrowing][french][geography]

[2011-10-17-1]ε#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤפ³ԡˤäƼѸٹ礤ۤʤäƤˤĤơOtakar Vočadlo ȤԤ homogeneous, amalgamate, heterogeneous Ȥ3ʬ scale of receptivity ߤƤ뤳Ȥ˿줿Ʊ3ʬˡѤƤ븦Ԥ Décsy 롥ʲ (62--63) ˤ Décsy ξҲ򻲾ȤĤġ3ʬȤ줾°ʥ衼åѸ󤲤褦

(1) ѤѶŪʸ "Mischsprachen" ʺ: English, French, Albanian, Romanian
(2) Ѥ˾öŪʸ "introvertierte Sprachen" Ūʸ: German, Icelandic, Czech, Modern Greek
(3) Ūʸ "neutrale Sprachen" ΩŪʸ: Polish, Danish, Swedish, Dutch

Mischsprachen ȤʬवƤμѸ򵭤ȡʲ̤ꡥ

English: Old English, French, Celtic, Latin
French: Latin, Frankish, Celtic
Albanian: Illyrian, Latin, Slavic, Turkish
Romanian: Latin, Slavic, French

ե󥹸϶ǯñμѤǤȤ᡼ꡤѸξʤ줫Τ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸۤɤȤϸ鷺Ȥ⡤ʤ Mischsprache Ǥ롥ؤΥȸ˥ƥ줬ʤ蘆äΤߤʤ餺ե󥯸줫μѸ⾯ʤʤޥϤȥޥ󥹷ϤŪƱ路ƤȤǤϡѸȥե󥹸ϰפƤ롥
[2011-10-17-1]εǤ⿨줿褦ˡѸ¿ɤϡθι¤ŪȤϡθζƱΤŪҲŪ٤ȤƤȤ館ۤΤ褦˻פ롥äȸС[2011-11-10-1]ε#927. ޥζޤοءפǼ夲褦ˡƱΤŪΩ֤¿¸ʤΤǤϤʤ

Vočadlo, Otakar. "Some Observations on Mixed Languages." Actes du IVe congrès internationale de linguistes. Copenhagen: 1937. 169--76.
ͺӸ١ҡ1999ǯ
Décsy, Gyula. Die linguistische Struktur Europas. Wiesbaden: Kommissionsverlag O. Harrassowitz, 1973.

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2011-11-16 Wed

#933. ѸαѸüԿ͸ [statistics][demography]

ѸüԿ͸ˤĤƤ϶Ū̻Ū¦̤ demography ΤĤεǼ夲Ƥä˰ʲ򻲾ȡ

[2009-10-17-1]: #173. ENL, ESL, EFL üԿ͸
[2010-03-12-1]: #319. ѸüԿ͸ζɤեǥ
[2010-05-07-1]: #375. ENLESL ο͸Ψ
[2010-06-15-1]: #414. language shift θ줿Ѹüԥǥ
[2010-06-28-1]: #427. ѸüԤˢ֤ǥ

̻ŪʱѸüԿ͸οܤˤĤƤϡʸ͡ʿ¬ͤȤƵ󤲤Ƥ롥[2010-03-12-1]Ρֶɤեǥפο˼Ƥͤ⤽ΰĤǤ롥ͤ礭ۤʤʤرѸǯɽ٤˵Ƥ복Ȥˡ͸οܥդƤߤ1500ǯ1900ǯޤǤ100ǯߤǤο͸פǤ롥

Growth of English Speaking Population from 1500 to 1900
YearEnglish-Speaking Population
1500about 5 million
1600about 6--7 million
1700about 8 million (including about 2 million that had emigrated to the New World)
180020--40 million
1900about 123 million


19ȯŪäŪɽ蘆Ƥ롥ơ20Τʤȯˤꡤ2000ǯʳǡΥդι⤵10ܤˤƤ­ʤۤɤüԿ򼨤Ȥˤʤ롥ߡ2üԡüԤ碌ơѸä͸15--20ȿꤵƤ롥

߷ ˧ͺ 顡ԡرѸǯɽ?ѸˡѸػˡʸػˡ̻?١ҡ1993ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2013-09-04-1]

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2011-11-15 Tue

#932. neutralization ϰ۷֤ν̸ˤ׸ [oe][old_norse][inflection][conjugation][paradigm][contact][language_change][analogy]

[2011-11-11-1]ε#928. ޤ neutralization simplificationפ[2011-11-14-1]ε#931. űѸȸťΥɸζ޸κۡפǡťΥɸȤθܿ˵űѸζηϤδñˤĤƼ夲ƤO'Neil neutralization ȸƤ֡αѸκˤĤƤϡξüԤˤ޸ѶŪڤȤȤ¦̤Ĵ뤳Ȥ¿Ωʤ¦̡allomorphy ν̸Ȥ¦̤⸫ƨƤϤʤʤ
εǼѥоɽ򸫤С޸κۤڤȤۤƱθ촴ˤ̤ȤüԤάͭǤ뤳Ȥʬ뤬촴ΤΤƱɬݤǤʤ롥ѥΥåȤˤäƤϡ촴۷ (allomorph) ȤƸ뤳Ȥ롥Ǥϡdrīfan βˤƤϡñ13; (drāf) ā θ촴첻򼨤ñ2;Τʣ (drifedrifon) i θ촴첻򼨤
¾ˤ⡤ñ23;ΤζޤˤƸ촴첻 i-mutation 򼨤űѸưϾʤʤOE lūcan "to lock" θ߷γɽ򼨤ȡʲΤ褦˸촴첻Ѱۤ (O'Neil 262)

 Old English
Inflūcan 'lock'
Pres. Sing. 1.lūce
2.lȳc(e)st
3.lȳc(e)ð
Plur.lūcað


ȤѸŵŪʥѥǤϡñ23;Τθ촴¾ΥåȤƱ촴褦ˤʤäƤ롥Τ allomorphy ν̸Ǥꡤ̤ȤơѤθ촴߷Υѥ̤Ѥ褦ˤʤäưŤΤʤ allormophy 򤳤Τ褦˽̸뤳Ȥϡߤ˰ջ̤ޤȤƤűѸťΥɸüԤˤȤäƤϹŪ˷ޤ줿ʾˤ餬̸ѶŪ˷ޤ줿Ȥͤ뤳ȤǤ롥

I think it clear that working from quite similar, often identical, underlying forms but with different sets and intersecting sets of endings associated with them and bewildering allomorphies as a result of the conditions established by the endings, the basic underlying sameness of Old English and Old Norse had become somewhat distorted and thus a superficial barrier to communication between speakers of the two languages had arisen. It is not surprising then that the inflections of the languages were rapidly and radically neutralized, for they were the source of nearly all difficulty. (O'Neil 262--63)


allormophy ν̸ϡܿˤ neutralization βȤƤǤʤŪ (analogy) ñ㲽 (simplification) βȤƤª뤳ȤǤ롥ºݤˤϡΤߤѤƤȹͤΤǤϤʤξԤ˺ѤƤȹͤΤ⤷ʤ
allomorphy ν̸ϡѥ levelling ʿʿˤɤؤ뤳ȤǽѸˤĤƤϡ[2010-11-03-1]ε#555. 2 analogyפ򻲾ȡ

O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

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2011-11-14 Mon

#931. űѸȸťΥɸζ޸κ [oe][old_norse][inflection][conjugation][paradigm][contact][language_change]

[2011-11-11-1]ε#928. ޤ neutralization simplificationפǤϡűѸθηϤťΥɸȤܿˤñƤäO'Neil ѸѤ neutralization ȸƤβϡűѸȸťΥɸȤδ֤ǡб촴ϤۤƱǤˤ⤫餺б޸Ϸ㤷ۤʤäƤˡԤѶŪڤȤ줿ȤȤä
ǤϡŪˤɤΤ褦ξζηϤ򾷤ΤäΤƤߤ褦ʲϡŵŪʶѲư졤Ѳư졤Ѳ̾졤Ѳ̾ (o-stem) ζޤоɽǤ (O'Neil 257--59)

Strong Verb

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Infdrīfan 'drive'drífã
Pres. Sing. 1.drīfedríf
2.drīfestdrífR
3.drīfeðdrífR
Plur. 1.drīfaðdrífom
2.drīfaðdrífeð
3.drīfaðdrífã
Past Sing. 1. and 3.drāfdreif
2.drifedreift
Plur. 1.drifondrifom
2.drifondrifoð
3.drifondrifð
Pres. pple.drīfendedrífande
Past pple.drifendrifenn

Weak Verb

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Inftellan 'count'teljã
Pres. Sing. 1.telletel
2.telesttelR
3.telðtelR
Plur. 1.tellaðteljom
2.tellaðteleð
3.tellaðteljã
Past Sing. 1taldetalda
2.taldesttalder
3.taldetalde
Plur. 1.taldontǫldom
2.taldontǫldoð
3.taldontǫldõ
Pres. pple.tellendeteljande
Past ppl.etaldtal(e)ð

Weak Noun

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Sing. Nom.guma 'man'gume
Obliquegumangumã
Plur. Nom.gumangumaR
Acc.gumangumã
Gen.gumenagum(n)a
Dat.gumumgumon

Strong Noun (Feminine ō-stems)

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Sing. Nom.bōt 'remedy'bót
Acc.bōtebót
Gen.bōtebótaR
Dat.bōtebót
Plur. Nom.bōtabótaR
Acc.bōtabótaR
Gen.bōtenabóta
Dat.bōtumbótom


촴ϤۤƱǤꡤ鷺˰ۤʤȤƤ¤פεϰϤǤ롥Ȥб޸٤ȡΤۤΩġб륹åȤ˰ۤʤѤƤȤȤϤ뤳Ȥʤ顤ŪƱθۤʤ륹åȤѤƤȤΤ⺮򾷤˽ʬä㤨СűѸ drīfeð ϸ3;ñƱθťΥɸ drífeð ϸ2;ʣǤ롥
Τ褦˶ɽ٤ȡξüԤκ𿶤꤬Ū˸ƤΤǤϤʤ

O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-17-1] [2011-11-15-1]

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2011-11-13 Sun

#930. a large number of people οΰ [agreement][number][syntax][bnc][corpus]

Ѹǡa (large) number of + ʣ̾פΩĤȤưʣ˰פΤ§Ǥ롥ˤǤΤΤ褦ʸ˽Ф路

A large number of native speakers is perhaps a pre-requisite for a language of wider communication . . . . (Graddol 12)


ǡμʸˡҤä֤ƤߤۤȤɤ٤Ƥλͽ񤬤ζʣȤƤꡤʬϤͿƤΤˤĤƤϡnumber ǤϤʤξǸ native speakers (head) ȤߤʤƤ롥äˡOALD8, LDOCE5, COBUILD English Usage ȤäŵŪʳؽѱѱѼǤϡʣưǰפ褦ŪͿƤ롥ޤʸˡΤո Fowler "number" ιˤˤȼ̤ǡñפˤĤƤŪʸڤϤʤä

. . . as a noun of multitude in the type 'a number of + pl. noun', normally governs a plural verb both in BrE and AmE.


Ĵ٤ե󥹤ΤʤǡñפˤĤƸڤƤΤϰʲΤΤǤ롥

CGEL: "A (large) number of people have applied for the job. [2]" ȤʸˤĤơ"Use of the singular . . . would be considered pedantic in [2] . . . ." (765) ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
CALD3: ñפ򼨤ʸ "(slightly formal)" Ȥ졼٥ͿĤĵ󤲤Ƥ"A large number of invitations has been sent."
إ˥缭ŵ: ñפ(())פȤƤ"A ? of passengers were [(()) was] injured in the accident."

ǡformal or pedantic Ȥ register Ǥޤ˻Ѥ餷ȤȤʬäǤϡBNCWeb dzΤƤߤ褦ȡ"a (very)? (large|great|good|small)? number of ((_AV*)? _AJ*)* _NN2 (_VHZ|_VBZ|was_VBD|_VDZ|_VVZ)" ȤƸΤߤȤǽФƤߤ25㤢ä1Ƥ٤Ƥ񤭸դʸǤꡤΤ12㤬 Academic prose ΤΤäΤȤơɽ academic or pedantic ض򼨤ȤϳΤʤ褦

Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-05-20-1] [2013-01-11-1]

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2011-11-12 Sat

#929. Ѹ󥰥ɸδפȤʤäͳ [popular_passage][me_dialect][standardisation][chancery_standard]

ѸϡλפȸƤФۤɡֺ餭줬񤭸դˤǡ¤ȿǤ줿Ǥ롥ۤɰۤʤäƤΤǤСϤΥ󥰥ɳϤο͡ϸߤ˥ߥ˥뤳ȤǤΤȤѤʵ䤬夬롥[2010-03-30-1]ε#337. egges or eyrenפǾҲ𤷤 Caxton ͭ̾ʰäɤȡʤȤ⥤󥰥ɤ֤ǤʬŪʰջ̤ξ㳲äȤŪǤ롥ܸͤС׿ͤǤ˼褦ʬ
ѸˤʤäƤȡˤ䤫ʽ񤭸դɸȤ٤ΤƤ롥ߤν񤭸ɸΤ褦ʸ경 (fixed) ɸǤϤʤषߤäɸΤ褦濴ظ (focused) ɸ˶ᤤϤ᤿񤭸ɸϡκäΤǤϤäǤפȤʤäǤ롥Ϥʤʤ١ȤʤʤäΤ
1Ĥˤϡʸ濴ϤȤƤΥɥä졤񤫤ƤѸ졤ä˸ʸѤƤ Chancery Standard αƶϤ롥ŪɸܻؤǡҲŪҤդƤԤθθˡ򻲾ȤȤΤϼȯۤǤ롥ɥϡŪˤξζܤΤʤȤФͥϤdzݤ롥
2ܤȤơܤιɺ碌 London, Oxford, Cambridge κ뻰ӤѤƤȽŤʤäƤȤ𤬤롥ˤäơϳŪʸŪʸҤդ뤳ȤȤʤä
3ܤˡŪˤξ֤˰֤Ƥ뤿ᡤξǤƤꡤβֺ餯󥰥ɤˤƥ󥬥ե󥫤ȤƵǽȹͤ롥ˤĤƤϡRanulph Higden (c. 1280--1364) ˤƥ˽ Polychronicon 1387ǯ˱Ѹ John of Trevisa (1326--1402) ꡤMossé (288--89) 鼡βսѤ褦

. . . for men of þe est wiþ men of þe west, as hyt were undur þe same party of hevene, acordeþ more in sounyng of speche þan men of þe north wiþ men of þe souþ; þerfore hyt ys þat Mercii, þat buþ men of myddel Engelond, as hyt were parteners of þe endes, undurstondeþ betre þe syde longages, Norþeron and Souþeron, þan Norþeron and Souþeron understondeþ eyþer oþer.


[2011-11-10-1]ε#927. ޥζޤοءפ衼åѤˤȸδŪʷӤĤˤ󥰥ɹȤ꾮ʥ٥ǤˤƴŪʰ̣ĤȤȤ򡤤3ܤλϼƤΤǤϤʤ

Mossé, Fernand. A Handbook of Middle English. Trans. James A. Walker. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1952.

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2011-11-11 Fri

#928. ޤ neutralization simplification [inflection][contact][language_change][germanic][old_norse]

ѸˤǤϡűѸ줫ѸˤƵäηϤδñ򡤶ޤοʿ (levelling) ñ㲽 (simplification) ȤѸɽΤ̤Ǥ롥Ʊͤθݤ¿쾯ʤ¾ΥޥǤƤȤϡε#927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) #656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language." ([2011-02-12-1]) ˤƤǤʿñ㲽ȤѸ줬ŬѤ
O'Neil ϡޥ˸ޤοϡΤ˶̤٤2ĤѸ neutralization simplification ˤäƵҤ٤ȶĴƤ롥줾ϡO'Neil (283) ˤȼ̤ꡥ

(A) If there is significant and more-or-less permanent contact between two closely related languages differing for the most part only in superficial aspects of their grammars (inflections, accent, tone, etc.), these superficial differences will be rapidly neutralized or erased. (283)


(B) Without language contact, inflectional systems will simplify only so far as there is room available for easing learning without greatly decreasing perceptibility. (283)


ĤޤȤܿȤʤäʸˡƥ꡼ζ̤褦ʸηϤδñ neutralization ȸƤӡܿȤϴطʤؽγФ˴ؤüԤθ쿴Ū׵˴ŤƼ˿ʹԤηϤδñ simplification ȸƤʬ٤ȡO'Neil ϼĥƤ롥Ū˸Сneutralization ǡȤƷ㤷Ѥǥϡsimplification Ͼ˾ĺѤƤ륢ʥϤª
ѸǥޥζηϤδñƵҤȡΤ褦ˤʤIcelandic High German ʤɤŪݼŪʸǤϡȤ simplification ˤηϤδñΤߤѻΤФơñѸ졤Φ󥸥ʥӥ졤եꥫ󥹸ʤɤǤϡsimplification ˲äơܿˤäư줿 neutralization Ѥ
űѸŪ˿ʹԤƤޤδñťΥɸȤܿˤ®ȤŪϡǤϹƤ뤬Τ˶̤2ĤѸˤʤȤˡO'Neil ΰյ롥˿ʹԤƤץ (simplification) ΤޤޱĹ줿ΤǤϤʤñȤ̣Ǥϰˤ뤳ȤǤΤΡťΥɸȤܿˤͶȯ줿̤Υץ (neutralization) ˤäƸ岡줿ȹͤƤפǤ롥

O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

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2011-11-10 Thu

#927. ޥζޤο [germanic][inflection][synthesis_to_analysis][contact][geography][map][dutch][german][faroese][icelandic][danish][afrikaans]

Map of Germanic Europe

ΥޥɤüԤʬۤϿޤ˼ȡü Continental Scandinavianü High Germanü Englishü Icelandic ˤĻշ롥Ͽޤ붽̣ϡĤǼ English Continental Scandinavia Ū˶ޤ㤷פƤޥǤꡤ֤Ǽ Icelandic High German Ū˶ޤǤ褯ĤƤޥǤȤ¤ơ׿Ū졦üݼŪü˰Ϥޤ줿ФǼշ˴ޤޤ Faroese, Dutch, Frisian, Low German ϡޤ򤢤٤פƤ뤬٤ݻƤȤŪʤ򼨤ȸѲشطϸΤΤ뤤ϼ¼ŪʤΤ
ˤĤƹŸƤΤO'Neil Ǥ롥

Now from the point of view of their inflectional systems, it is in the languages of the extreme southwest and northeast areas, among the Scandinavians and the English, that things are farthest from the state of the old languages, where --- in fact --- the old inflectional system has become so simplified that the languages can barely be said to be inflected at all. It is in the other two areas, in the northwest in Iceland and in the southeast among the High Germans (but most especially in Iceland) that an older inflectional system is best preserved. Between these two extremes and their associated corners or areas and languages, lie other Germanic languages (Faroese, Frisian, Dutch, etc.) of neither extreme characteristic: i.e. not stripped (essentially) of their inflections, nor heavily inflected like the older languages. (250)


ľܤ˸Ѳ˱ƶڤܤȤȤϤʤüԤŪΩ˱ƶڤܤŪΩ줬ˤ˱ƶڤܤˤȯŸ˱ƶڤܤȤŪʴطꤹ뤳Ȥϲǽ
ޤ礤ñ㲽Ѹξ硤ťΥɸ (Old Norse) Ȥܿñ㲽ηŪʰȤʤäȤϡǤϹƤ[2009-06-26-1]ε#59. ѸˤˤťΥɸΰյ򶵤äפ򻲾ȡˡǡɸ (Icelandic) Ū˸ΩƤ뤬椨ˡŤޤޤǤ褯ĤƤȤȤ褯[2010-07-01-1]ε#430. Ѳ˳װפ򻲾ȡˡŪ˷иƤܿ٤ȤδؿȤƤ뤬θܿˤȤؾװˤä礤˾դƤΤǤ롥ǤϸѲŪˤŪưŤƤȤ
ǤϡѸ䥢ɸʳΥޥˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤǽO'Neil ϡΦ󥸥ʥӥζޤñ㲽ѸΤʿŪʴطˤȼĥ롥ξ硤Φ󥸥ʥӥ줬ܿΤϥɥĸ (Middle Low German) Ǥ롥

It is clear then that Continental Scandinavian is inflectionally simple like English, with --- however --- its idiosyncratic sense of simplicity. The reasons for its simplicity seem to be exactly those that led to the development of the neutralized northern Middle English inflectional system: language contact between Middle Low German and Danish in the countryside and between Middle Low German and all Continental Scandinavian languages in the centers of trade. (267)


ˡѸΦ󥸥ʥӥƱ褦ñ㲽ޤĥեꥫ󥹸 (Afrikaans) ˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤεΩġǤϡ (Dutch) ϥޥ (Low German) ȤܿͿƤ롥

. . . the original population that settled Capetown and then the Cape was not a homogeneous Dutch-speaking population. The group of people that arrived in Capetown in 1652 was first of all predominantly German (Low German mercenaries) and the Dutch part of it was of mixed Dutch dialects. Thus just the right conditions for the neutralization of inflections existed in Capetown at the time of its settlement. (268--69)


¾ˤ⡤եꥸ (Frisian) ȥ (Dutch) ȤԻǸܿи̤ȤƤ "Town Frisian" (268) 󤲤롥
ȿФˡʣʶޤŪ褯ݤäƤȤơɸ¾˵󤲤ƤΤϥɥĸ (High German) Ǥ롥Ǥ O'Neil ϡϥɥĸ⥢ɤۤɤǤϤʤŪ˸ƳΥƤƤ롥

. . . High German has not been so completely isolated as Icelandic. But then neither is its inflectional system as conservative. Yet in fact the area of High German has been generally isolated from other Germanic contact --- the sort of contact that would lend to neutralization, for the general motion of High German has always been away from the Germanic area and onto its periphery among non-Germanic peoples. (277)


ǸˡϿ޾λշǼޤŪʶ٤򼨤췲ˤĤƤ O'Neil ŪشطǧƤΤǡŦƤʲϡե (Faroese) ζޤŪħŤƤʬΰѤǤ롥

. . . the Faroese fished and worked among the Icelanders and still do, at the same time being administered, educated, and exploited by continental Scandinavians. Thus for centuries was Faroese exposed to the simplified inflectional systems of continental Scandinavia while in constant contact with the conservative system of Icelandic. Unless this conflict was resolved Faroese could neither move toward Continental Scandinavian, say, nor remain essentially where it began like Icelandic: neither completely neutralize its inflections, nor simplify them trivially. The conflict was not resolved and as a consequence Faroese moved in a middle state inflectionally. (280)


O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

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2011-11-09 Wed

#926. Ūǽ [stress][prosody][diatone]

ˤƶεǽϲMartinet (105--06) ˤСʣ뤬ǤŪʵǽ "contrastive" 뤤ϤΤ "culminative" ǤȤȤȤˡϢսѤ롥

La fonction de l'accent est essentiellement contrastive, c'est-à-dire qu'il contribue à individualiser le mot ou l'unité qu'il caractérise par rapport aux autres unités du même énoncé; une langue a un accent; et non des accents. Lorsque, dans une langue donnée, l'accent se trouve toujours sur la première ou la dernière syllabe du mot, cette individualisation est parfaite puisque le mot est ansi bien distingué de ce qui précède ou ce qui suit. Lá où la place de l'accent est imprévisible, doit être apprise pour chaque mot et ne marque pas la fin et le début de l'unité accentuelle, l'accent a une fonction dite culminative: il sert à noter la présence dans l'énoncé d'un certain nombre d'articulations importante; il facilite ainsi l'analyse du message. Que sa place soit prévisible ou non, l'accent permet, en faisant varier l'importance respective des mises en valeur successives, de préciser ce message.

εǽܼŪεǽǤ롥ʤϡħŤƤñ̤Ʊȯ¾ñ̤Ȥˤ̲뤳Ȥ˹׸롥äơ1ĤζĤΤǤꡤʣζĤΤǤϤʤͿθˤơ˸κǽ餢뤤ϺǽβȤԤΤ³ΤΤ˶̤ΤǤ뤫顤θ̲εǽϴȤʤ롥ΰ֤ͽ¬ǽǤꡤñ줴Ȥ˳ؽͤФʤ餺ñ̤κǸȺǽʤˤϡĺɽȸƤФ뵡ǽġĤޤꡤϡȯäˤĤνפĴ¸ߤȤȤ򵤤ŤƯ򤷤ƤΤǤꡤˤäƥåʬϤưפˤƤΤǤ롥ΰ֤ͽ¬ǽǤԲǽǤ졤ϡϢ³벻줾ν㤨ʤ顤ΥåΤˤƤ롥


Martinet (106) ϡѸʤɤθǤ϶ΰ֤ˤäƸ̤ (distinctive) 㤬ꡤ϶Ūʵǽ򼨤ΤǤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ΰ֤ˤäʻѤ increase, permit (diatone) ŵ򼨤٤Ƥθ˶̤ħȤƹͤΤǤСμ礿뵡ǽ "contrastive" 뤤 "culminative" ȤäƤ٤Τ褦ʸ̤ɴѤ̤ơѸˤ붯ħ⤭Ħˤʤ褦˻פ롥

Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.

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2011-11-08 Tue

#925. conversion ϶ŪƱǤ뤫 [conversion][word_formation][diatone][semantic_change][affix]

[2009-11-03-1]ε#190. ʻžפۤ conversion νǤϡconversion ȤŪȤƲᤷƤŪʸô֤δطȤƲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥ξˤ conversion ϰռƤ褦˻פ롥conversion zero-derivation ȹͤȡνȯ (base) (derivative) ȸƤʬ뤳ȤǤ뤬ŪˤƱǤ base derivative 򶦻Ū˶̤꤬ϤɤˤΤ (167--73) Lieber (49--50) 򻲾ȤפˡˤĤ󤷤褦

(1) ̣򻲾Ȥˡ̾ưˡ net ˼ȡ̾ȤƤΡ֡פȤȡư "put into a net" ȤưפǤ뤬εդϴñǤϤʤ̾ȤƤ net Ūʰ̣äƤȤȤǤꡤȹͤ٤Ūʺ󶡤Ƥ롥ȿФˡư줫̾ؤžɽ魯̻Ū˳ǧƤȤƤϡwash throw 롥줾̾ΰ̣ϡбư X Ȥ "an instance of X-ing" ȤΤ̤ǤꡤդˤŵŬ礷Ƥư줫̾ؤžǤǽ⤤
(2) ܼäˤ򻲾ȤˡθˡʻŵŪ˷ӤĤܼǤղäƤˤϡʻȤƤˡǤȹͤ롥㤨Сcommission ŵŪ̾äƤΤǡ̾ˡǡưˡǤꤵ롥
(3) conversion ǤϤʤθؤȼ̾ư (diatone θǤϡ§ȤƴΤưǤȹͤ롥Sherman (53) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤ1˶ĤΤ̤Ǥ̾줬ΤǤˤϡư첽Ȥ˶θؤΨ㤤 ("the creation of stress alternation is more likely to occur as stress-retraction in an oxytonic pair than to occur as stress-advancement in a paroxytonic pair") Ϣơabstráct Фˢ ábstract ȴˢ ábstract ȴ褹ˤΤ褦2ʳ conversion ([2011-07-30-1]ε#824. smoke --- 2Ťʻžפ򻲾ȡˤФա
(4) ͭ̾줬ΤȤʤäƤˤϡṲ̄Ĥ䤹boycott ʥܥåȤ, lynch ʥä, meander ʶʤ꤯ͤ, shanghai ʰռ򼺤碌Ϣǿפˤ, japan ʼɤˤʤɡ
(5) Ĥȳब conversion δطˤ硤ԤԤؤžǤǽ⤤But me no buts. ʤȸʡˤʤɡ
(6) ư줫줿̾ʳǤϡ̾ϹȤ뤳ȤǤʤȤ˴Ťˡthe robber of the bank ϲǽ*the thief of the bank ԲǽǤ롥ϡthief ̾Ǥʤ̾Ǥȹͤ롥Ѥȡhis release by the government the government's release of the prisoners Ǥ release ϹȤäƤΤ̾ȽǤ롥
(7) conversion ˤ를ܼϡ奯饹IIܼǤȵ뤳ȤǤ뤿ᡤ饹IܼղäǤ뤫ɤǴΤζ̤ǽǤ롥figure Ϸƻ -al ղä figural ΤǡŪˤ̾Ǥȹͤ롥picture ϡư -ize ղä picturize ΤǡŪˤưǤȹͤ롤

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.
ط١ҡ1988ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2012-04-23-1]

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2011-11-07 Mon

#924. ʣʬ [compound][word_formation][morphology]

ʣ (compound) ʬˤϤĤδ롥Lieber (46--49) ʲ󤹤롥

(1) right-headed compound or left-headed compound: head ʼˤȤϡʣ2ĤθǤΤ̣ƤŤǤؤ㤨Сgreenhouse, sky blue Ǥϡ줾 house, blue head Ǥ롥greenhouse ϲȤΰ狼̾Ǥꡤsky blue Ŀΰ狼ķƻǤ롥Ǥϼ¦ǤǤ뤿ᡤright-headed ȸƤФ롥ѸʣŵŪ right-headed ե󥹸ʣ timbre-poste ڼˤŵŪ˸褦 left-headed Ǥ롥äơե󥹸줫Ѥ줿ʣ court martial ʷˡġˤʤɤϱñǤäƤ left-headed ȤȤˤʤ ([2010-03-29-1]ε#336. Law Frenchפʣ򻲾ȡˡ
(2) root (or primary) compound or synthetic (or deverbal) compound: θǤưͳǤꡤưιȤʤäƤ褦ʣ synthetic compound ȸƤФ롥2ĤθǤΰ̣Ūʴط꼫ͳǤʣ root compound ȸƤФ롥ǤϼưͳǤʤΤ̤Ǥ롥synthetic compound Ȥ dog walker, hand washing, home made 󤲤졤root compound Ȥ windmill, ice cold, hard hat, red hot 󤲤롥
(3) attributive compound, coordinative compound, or subordinative compound: attributive compound ϡˤ̣ŪϢؤˤ򽤾ƤʣǤ롥ˤ̣ŪϢؤȤϡ㤨 school book ϡֳعǻȤܡסyearbook ϡ1ǯν򵭤Ģ̡סnotebook ϡ֥ΡȤȤƻȤĢ̡פȤä褦ˡƱ book äƤƤ⤽줾Ǵ֤δطϸꤷƤʤȤؤ
coordinative compound ϡproducer-director, prince consort, blue-green ʤɤξǤδطǷӤĤƤʣΤȤǤ롥ޤdoctor-patient confidentiality ˸ doctor-patient Τ褦ʡִطפɽ魯 coordinative compound ⤢롥ξǤ⡤̣ŪˤϳƸǤȤ롥
subordinative compound ϡŵŪưͳΡ˼Ȥδطˤʣǡ(2) Ǹ synthetic (or deverbal) compound μϰϤȤۤܽʣ롥truck driver, food shopping, meal preparation, cost containment ʤɤȤʤ롥pickpocket Τ褦ˡξǤ subordinative ʴطˤʤ (to pick pockets) Ǥ pocket ¦ưͳǤϤʤȤ synthetic compound ǤϤʤ⤢Τǡsubordinative compound = synthetic compoundפɬΩʤ
(4) endocentric compound or exocentric compound: ʣλؼоݤμλؼоݤƱǤ褦ʣ줬 endocentric ǤꡤǤʤΤ exocentric Ǥ롥windmill, producer-director, truck driver ϤʣλؼоݤϼλؼоݤƱʤΤ endocentric Ǥ롥air head Ƭäݤο͡ˡparent-child ʿƻҤΡˡpickpocket ʥˤǤƱǤϤʤΤ exocentric Ǥ롥

ä (3) (4) δȤ߹碌ʣʬޤǤޤȤȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

Classification of Compounds

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-12-1] [2016-07-31-1]

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2011-11-06 Sun

#923. ̣Ƥˤܼʬ [affix][word_formation][morphology][polysemy]

ܼ (affix) ˤ͡ʼब롥ʻѤ transpositional affix (or category-changing affix) ⤢С̣Ѥ meaning-changing affix ⤢롥ԤˤĤựƤˤäܼʬहȡפʤΤϰʲΤ褦ˤʤ (Lieber 40)

(1) personal affixes: ŵŪư (agent) ɽ魯 -er (ex. lover, philosopher) 䡤ŵŪ˼ư (patient) ɽ魯 -ee (ex. employee, interviewee) ʤɡ
(2) negative and privative affixes: ɽ魯 un-, in-, non- (ex. unable, infinite, non-smoker Τۤɽ魯 -less, de- (ex. hopeless, debug) ʤɡ
(3) prepositional and relational affixes: ֤֤ΰ̣ɽ魯 over-, out- (ex. overfill, outrun) ʤɡ
(4) quantitative affixes: ̤˴ؤ̣ɽ魯 -ful, multi-, re- (ex. handful, multifaceted, reread) ʤɡ
(5) evaluative affixes: ؾ (diminutive) Ȥ -let (ex. booklet) (augmentative) Ȥ mega- (ex. megastore) ʤɡԤϰްդԤϷΤްդ뷹롥

ʾΤΤĤϡ̣ѤǤʤƤѤ뵡ǽäƤ뤳Ȥդ줿 -er ư줫̾de- ̾줫ư뤳ȤǤˡ
̣Ƥˤܼʬϡܺ٤ˤʤ롥㤨СǤưɽ魯 -er personal affix ȸƤprinter ʰ, freighter ʲʪˤˤƱϡƻפȸƤ֤Τդ路loaner ߿͡, fryer ʥե饤Ѽܡˤϡּưԡסdiner ʿƲ֡ˤϡ־פȸƤ٤Ʊ -er ȤǤ¤¿Ū (affixal polysemy) ǤꡤϤƤ1ĤƤˤ뤳ȤǤΤΤưŪʹ๽¤¿бΤʤɤŪ꤬Ƥ (Lieber 193--95)

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

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2011-11-05 Sat

#922. ʤ񤷤 (5) [word][dictionary][lexicography][mental_lexicon]

ɸˤĤơ##910,911,912,921 ε³ԡؤθԤ㳰ʤ񹥤ʹ֤ŪǤϤʤȤȤ褯ΤäƤ롥ʬȤϲȤˤ䤤ФΤʤˤ⤫餺Ի˴ؤǽ餢뤫
Τμ (dictionary) ϡȸ¤ŶλʪǤꡤǾθϿ (lexicon) ȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤʤԤϡޤǸŪʽȿǤصŪʸåꥹȤǤ롥ȤΤϡԻԤϡԽ˺ݤưʲξ뤫Ǥ롥Lieber (27) ꡤԻԤθʤФʤʤѤ褦

the size of the dictionary, which determines the number of words it can hold;
the intended audience of the dictionary (adults, children, language learners, etc.);
whether a word has a sufficiently broad base of usage;
whether it's likely to last;
whether it's too specialized or technical for the intended audience;
for a word borrowed from another language, whether it's assimilated enough to be considered part of English.


ǯ online dictionary ζδˤꡤԹȤμεϹĤĤ롥online ȤϤɤ⡤ȤƤɼԤоݤȤʾ塤¾ξʤ
Τμ¿쾯ʤʣθѼԤ򥿡åȤˤ뤬mental lexicon ϸѼ԰ͤĤ¸ߤΤǤ롥ξԤĴ¤ȤȼΤ̵ʸʤΤ⤷ʤdictionary (mental) lexicon ȤѸδ֤˲ͤΰ㤤ǧ뤳ȤפǤ롥

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

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2011-11-04 Fri

#921. ʤ񤷤 (4) [word][dictionary][lexicography][oed][mental_lexicon]

[2011-10-26-1]ε#912. ʤ񤷤 (3)פ (2) ǿ줿ˤϰ̣ԾܤǤˤ⤫餺ФȤƷǤƤΤꤦ롥ΰ̣ԾܤǤȤȤϼԻԤξǤȤǽӽǤʤˤ衤θ줬ŪΤƤʤǤȤȤ϶餯ְ㤤ʤ
OED ǤϡΤ褦ʸ줬ʤȤ77ĤϿƤ롥ʲϡOED "meaning obscure" 뤤 "obscure meaning" ȤɤˤФ줿Ǥ롥Lieber (26) ǤϡOED ǤƱθˤ87줬Ф줿ȤƤ뤬ˤϸ1ĤΤߤ̣ȤΤޤޤƤ롥Ȥӽ̤77

cremitoried (ppl. a.), †emporture (v.), †gestyll (v.), †leary (a.), †leg-saw, †minority waiter, notchet, †rag (v.4), †reordi (a.), †reprobitant (a.), †resaille, †residence (v.), †rok, †romb (v.), †rompering, †rownfol(d, †rubell, †rum (n.3), †ruvell, †ryne2, scuncheon anglers, -crest, †sheer-point, short-coat vicarage, †shreake, shuffle-breeches, †sidder (v.), †sithy-coat, †skyvald, †slampamb, †slope (v.3), †smazky (a.), †spanner2, †sparth2, †spen (n.), †spencer (v.), †spene (n.), †sperring (vbl. n.), †sperware, †splet (n.), †splete, †spleyer, †spyccard, †squaleote (v.), †squalm, †squirgliting (a.), †start-rope, †strothe (a.), †threte (n.), †thwerl (v.), †traythly (adv.), †trice (n.3), umbershoot, †unbrede (v.), †uncape (v.), †underdrawn (ppl. a.), †uniable (a.), †unthwyuond (pres. pple.), †untwitten (ppl. a.), †val-dunk, †ver (n.2), †verge-salt, †verling-line, †versing box, †very(e), †vezon, †viridary (a.), †vitremyte, †vounde (a.), †vowgard, †vrycloth, †wandclot, †way-flax, Welsh brief, †werder, †wesel, †wranchevel, †wrast (? n.)


71줬ѸȤΤ¤ϤΤ褦ʸ줬˥ȥ꡼ƤȤ¤뤳ȤǤ롥dictionary θФ mental lexicon ϿɬפʤȤȤϡ㤫餫ȤϲȤ䤤ؤ򼭽ԽԤǤ櫓ˤϤʤȤȤ򼨤

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-12-1] [2014-07-20-1]

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2011-11-03 Thu

#920. The Gavagai problem [psycholinguistics][language_acquisition][mental_lexicon][philosophy_of_language][translation]

ͤϤɤΤ褦ˤ¿θ򵭲 (mental lexicon) ѤƤ椯ΤȤϸ콬 (language acquisition) ʬˤ礭Ǥ롥ͤˤʤˤĤ첻֡ε§νǽϤƹԤȹͤƤ뤬äνǽϤϰݻȤҶˤͤˤ衤äɤΤ褦˽Ƥ椯ΤռŪʸóؽ̤ȤơΤʤǤθýˤĤƤϡޤ椬¿
ůؼ W. O. Quine ʲΤ褦ʾ˸ڤơؼԤ the Gavagai problem ȾΤƤý꤬롥

Picture yourself on a safari with a guide who does not speak English. All of a sudden, a large brown rabbit runs across a field some distance from you. The guide points and says "gavagai!" What does he mean? / One possibility is, of course, that he's giving you his word for 'rabbit'. But why couldn't he be saying something like "There goes a rabbit running across the field"? or perhaps "a brown one," or "Watch out!," or even "Those are really tasty!"? How do you know? / In other words, there may be so much going on in our immediate environment that an act of pointing while saying a word, phrase, or sentence will not determine clearly what the speaker intends his utterance to refer to. (Lieber 16)


̤ǤС嵭ξˤ gavagai 򥦥Ȳ᤹ΤΤ褦˻פ뤬ľŪʡּפϤɤΤؼԤϡͤϸý˴ؤ뤤Ĥθ§äƤȲꤹ (Lieber 17--18)

(1) Lexical Contrast Principle: ΤΥΤ˺ä̤ΤΥΤܤˤꡤ̤Τθ줬ȯΤʹȤؽԤϤ̤ΤΥΤȤ̤ΤθӤĤ롥
(2) Whole Object Principle: ̤Τθ̤ΤΥΤȷӤĤȤؽԤϤθ򤽤̤ΤΥΤؼΤȤƲ᤹롥̤ΤΥΤΰʤɤؼΤȤƤϲᤷʤ
(3) Mutual Exclusivity Principle: ΤΥΤܤˤꡤ̤Τθ줬ȯΤʹȤؽԤϼϤ̤ΤΥΤõƤȷӤĤ뤫뤤ϴΤΥΤΰؼΤȤƲ᤹롥

β¿μ¸ˤäƻٻƤ롥¤ˤϵ the Gavagai problem ȤƤ⡤嵭Τ褦άŪ§ͥ褵뤳Ȥˤäơ桹¿θäƤΤǤ롥ΤˡΤ褦ʸΨŪάʤСؽԤϿȤäǤϤʤ

Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-02-01-1] [2022-01-26-1]

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2011-11-02 Wed

#919. Asia ȯ [pronunciation][diachrony][variation]

1019ˡؤѹ David Warren ˤֱ񤬳줿Υ饷ˡ1952ǯɥޤ Warren ιֱǤϡAsia(n) Ȥ줬ѽФ/eiʃə(n)/ ȯƤȯϻʹ뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤ߤǤϳ /eiʒə(n)/ ȯΤǧƤΤǡȤȯˤĤAsia ϡ[2010-08-28-1]ε#488. ȯɤ򼨤ΰפˤޤޤƤꡤȯɤ򼨤ŵΤ褦ʤΤǡĴ٤Ƥߤ
LDP3 ˤСAmE ǤϤۤ /eiʒə/ BrE Ǥɤ줬㤷ȤPreference Poll η̤ϡ̤ꡥ

Asia in LPD3

ޤ1942ǯޤ줿͡ϡͭҲ 32%̵Ҳ 68% Ȥפ⼨ƤWarren ϾҤ̤1952ǯޤǤϤ뤬ΥꥹѸüԤǤϤޤ /eiʃə/ ϤʤȤȤͽۤ롥
[2011-10-28-1]ε#914. BNC ˤä庹ĴפǤ⿨줿Ǥȯǯ𺹤Ĵ٤뤳ȤǡŪ˲ǯ̻ŪѲѻ뤳ȤǤ롥Ԥ "apparent time"Ԥ "real time" ȸƤФ졤ŪѰ (synchronic variation) ̻ŪѲ (diachronic change) ӤĤˡǯμҲ˸ؤdzΩƤξԤƱǤ櫓ǤϤʤŤ˰С̻ŪѲŪ˴ѻˡȤͭǤ롥

Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-07-11-1] [2013-10-17-1]

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2011-11-01 Tue

#918. sow, swine, hog, pig θ츻 [etymology][i-mutation]

ѸΥƥȤ sow ʻڡˤ˽Ф路[sū] ȲɤƤȤ첻 swinei-mutation δطˤʤȵŤ츻ŵ򷫤äƤߤi-mutation ˤĤƤϡ[2009-10-01-1]ε#157. foot ʣϤʤ feet פ򻲾ȡˡʲĴ٤Ƥ⡥
Ĺ˿Ѥλڤɽ魯 sow [saʊ] θ츻򤿤ɤȡME soue < OE sugu < Gmc *suȝō < IE *- "pig" ؤ̤롥Ϣˤ cognate ϡG Sau, ON sýr, L sūs, Gr hûs ʤɡ/h/ /s/ бˤĤƤ[2010-04-14-1]ε#352. ƥ /s/ ȥꥷ /h/ бפ򻲾ȡ
ȤƽŪѤ뤤ŪʸȤƤڤɽ魯 swine ڡˤˤĤƤϡOE swīn < Gmc *swīnam < IE *suəīno- "pertaining to swine" ؤ̤롥IE η֤ϡ*- ĤΤǡƱ OE gǣten "of goats" ʤɤˤ⸫롥ϡ[2010-04-18-1]ε#356. ưʪɽƥƻפǵ󤲤 bovine feline ˸ƥηƻȤƱƤꡤ˴ޤޤ첻 i-mutation äΤ
BrE pig AmE ̾˿Ѥͺڤΰ̣Ѥ hog ⡤츻Ūˤ IE *- ̤롥Celt. *hukk- űѸ hogg ȤƼѤ줿ΤǤ롥
ΰ캬ȴطճʸˡhyena ʥϥʡˤ롥θϸťե󥹸줫Ѹ hiene ȤäΤǡ̤о嵭 Gr hûs ˽ -ainā ղä줿ˤɤ夯
ơѸǺǤŪڤɽ魯Ǥ pig ϤȤȡܤ츻ʬäƤʤФѸǡűѸ̤֤ϤʤΤΡdocga "dog" frocga "frog" Ȥ *picga ƤƤ롥ޤͤФɡȤϢۤ pick pike ȤδϢŦ⤢롥űѸ졤ѸǤ swine, hog ŪѤƤ19ʹߤ pig ͥȤʤä

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