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Bybee ˤܤɤǤơ̸Ūˤߤ³ˡ (subjunctive) ̿ˡ (imperative) ȤδطݤεҤäѸˤδϡ#2476. Ѹˤˤư̿ˡ³ˡŪǽŪͻ礷 ([2016-02-06-1]) Ǽ夲²ʳθޤǡƵǤBybee (186) Ѥ롥
Since the subjunctive is usually a marker of certain types of subordination, it is very difficult to say what the subjunctive "means" in any given language. There is a long literature on this problem in European languages, and no satisfactory solution. At most, it might be said that the subjunctive has a very general meaning such as "non-asserted" and then it takes more specific meanings from the context in which it occurs.
Considered cross-linguistically, there is evidence of a relation between the subjunctive and imperative or related moods. When subjunctive forms are used in main clauses, they have an imperative function in Maasai, Basque and Yupik, and/or a hortative function in Tarascan, Pawnee and Maasai, in keeping with their non-asserted subordinate clause functions. The marking of subjunctive parallels that of indicative or imperative in most languages. In Maasai and Pawnee, the subjunctive is a prefix, just as the imperative is, and in Tarascan, Ojibwa and Georgian the subordinating mood is expressed in the same way as the imperative or optative
³ˡ̿ˡʤӴϢ¾ΤĤˡˤϤФеǽŪˤŪˤƤǤȤȤ̸Ūˤ⼨줿櫓ξDzƱѸˤäƤߤΤ⤪⤷ѸˤǤϡŪˤ³ˡ̿ˡϤȤȰۤʤäƤͻ礷ƤȤ̣ݤäƤ뤫
Ϣưʲε⻲ȡ
#2475. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ ([2016-02-05-1])
#3538. Ѹ subjunctive ֤ϰĸ optative ֤ ([2019-01-03-1])
#3540. ˾ʸȴʸ̯ʴط ([2019-01-05-1])
Bybee, Joan. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1985.
ñֻϤФԵ§Ǥ롤뤤㳰¿ʤɤȸ뤬θˤϡֵ§פ¸ߤȤ롥ֵ§פϤ뤬æƤΤ¿ȤͳǡԵ§פʤΤȤΤ褦
æ¿ȤС⤽ֵ§פȸƤǤΤϡ¤ϵ§̾ͤʤäΤǤϤʤȤˤʤ롥Ե§뤿ˤϵ§ƱꤵʤФʤʤΤ줬ԤˤäΩƤ뵬§ۤʤ뤫
ˤĤ Crystal (284) ̣ͿƤ롥
Regularity implies the existence of a rule which can generate large numbers of words correctly. A rule which works for 500 words is plainly regular; one which works for 100 much less so; and for 50, or 20, or 10, or 5 it becomes progressively less plausible to call it a 'rule' at all. Clearly, there is no easy way of deciding when the regularity of a rule begins. It has been estimated that only about 3 per cent of everyday English words are so irregular that they would have to be learned completely by heart, and that over 80 per cent are spelled according to regular patterns. That leaves some 15 per cent of cases where we could argue the status of their regularity. But given such statistics, the chief conclusion must be that we should not exaggerate the size of the problem, as some supporters of reform are prone to do. Nor minimize it either, for a great deal of confusion is caused by that 3--15 per cent, and some 2 per cent of the literate population never manage to resolve it . . . .
ֻ˸¤餺ˤֵ§פϤ褽ιʪǤꡤοԡ˵§ο⤢뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. CUP, 2018.
<wh> Ȥ2Ż (digraph) ϵΤ褦ʹٸ˸Τ߿2ŻбȯˤĤƤ褯ƤѸؽԤ¿ʤ
what, which ֥ۥåȡס֥եåפȥʽȯꤹͤ¿⤷ʤꥹɸѸˤƤϡ֥åȡס֥åפǤ롥ĤޤꡤWatt, witch ȤޤäƱȯȤʤ롥Ūˤ̵ [ʍ] ǤϤʤޤͭ [w] ȤȤ
嵭ϥꥹɸѸäǤꡤꥫѸϤθ¤ǤϤʤ what, which ϳơ [ʍɑt], [ʍɪtʃ] ŪȤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ºݾͭ [w] ǤȯޤäƤƤ褦
<wh> ɽ魯ҲθˤĤ Cruttenden ȤƤߤ褦
In CGB (= Conspicuous General British) and in GB speech in a more formal style (e.g. in verse-speaking), words such as when are pronounced with the voiceless labial-velar fricative [ʍ]. In such speech, which contains oppositions of the kind wine, whine, . . . /ʍ/ has phonemic status. Among GB speakers the use of /ʍ/ as a phoneme has declined rapidly. Even if /ʍ/ does occur distinctively in any idiolect, it may nevertheless be interpreted phonemically as /h/ + /w/ . . . . (Cruttenden 233)
ʤߤ˾嵭ʸ "CGB (= Conspicuous General British)" Cruttenden (81) ˤȡ"that type of GB which is commonly considered to be 'posh', to be associated with upper-class families, with public schools and with professions which have traditionally recruited from such families, e.g. officers in the navy and in some army regiments" Ȥ롥 "RP" (= Received Pronunciation) ˶ᤤΤªƤ褤͡ͳ RP ȸƤ֤٤ǤʤȤΩ줬ꡤΤ褦Ѹ츯ƤΤǤ롥
¾ѼˤĤƤϡΰѤͤˤʤ
The only regional variation concerns the more regular use of [ʍ] in words with <wh> in the spelling. This happens in Standard Scottish English, in most varieties of Irish English and is often presented as the norm in the U.S., although the change from [ʍ] to /w/ seems to be more common than is thought by some. (Cruttenden 234)
긵ˤä Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.) "wh Spelling-to-sound" Ƥߤ
Where the spelling is the digraph wh, the pronunciation in most cases is w, as in white waɪt. An alternative pronunciation, depending on regional, social and stylistic factors, is hw, thus hwaɪt. This h pronunciation is usual in Scottish and Irish English, and decreasingly so in AmE, but not otherwise. (Among those who pronounce simple w, the pronunciation with hw tends to be considered 'better', and so is used by some people in formal styles only.) Learners of EFL are recommended to use plain w.
ѤκǸˤ̤ꡤ䤿ѸؽԤϰ̤ <wh> /w/ ƤƤĤʤ
<wh> ȴϢơ#3870. Ѹˤ wh- ʤ q- ֻ ([2019-12-01-1])#3871. åȥɱѸˤ wh- ǤϤʤ quh- ֻʸ Alexander Hume ([2019-12-02-1]) ε⻲ȡ
Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
1 Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ˤơkhelfʷѸ˥ե˼ŤֱѸ˴ؤѤʵ䡡ܥΥåڹδˡ2ơϤޤͽ⻲ȡˡ
hellog ɼԤ heldio Υꥹʡˤϡ¿μ120ܤۤɡˤƤޤˤ⻲äƤޤơ꤬Ȥޤޤǡ1ƤˤޤƼ¤ꤢȤʤޤ
Ͽī heldio ˤƥȤۿޤΤǡʲꤪİ60ʬ֤ĹǤˡ16:10դ꤫ϡޤ碌ʡ콤ؤεˤ⻲äƤޤޤ39:48դ꤫Ρֿ䤷ñϲǤפȤ䤤äơ˽ԡʡˤ⸽ʤ顤夬ޤԸ10ʬ֤ΡֳڲȡפޤǴޤƤڤߤФȻפޤбԤȤƤ⤿ؤڤٶˤʤȤʤޤ
ΤȤ͡ʳ٤䤬졤䤾ǤޤϤȤ櫓ֱѸ˸Ԥθդθפ֤ȤʤäƤޤͤˤʤФȻפޤ
ΡܥΥåפˤĤƤۤ䤴ոʤɤޤ顤 Voicy Υȵǽ̤Ƥꤤޤ
ܥΥå˲ԤȤƻ路Ƥڹʷܳرءˤȵ콤ءˡƻʲΤޤˤʷرˤαĤ륦֥ؤΥʲˤҲ𤷤ޤѸˤγؤӤΤˡҤˬ䤯
ڹΥۡڡѸ˴ϢΥ֥ YouTube ֵư褬Ƥޤ
Υۡڡ: Ѹ˴ϢμȻֽƤޤ
ޤˤˤ YouTube ֤ͥޤˤͥڱѸˡۡ: űѸפָ츻dzؤֱñפΥʤɱѸˤѸؽ˴ؤư褬ܤǤ
ѸޥηإФεΡ (Sir Gawain and the Green Knight) ݰƺʤȤʤDzإʥȡ1125ޤεƨءʱˤμȤʤɤ SGGK θʸɤǤޤ
hellog Ǥ#4890. ѸʡإФεΡ٤ФεΤо줹륷 ([2022-09-16-1]) Ҳ𤷤Ĥ Voicy ϢȤɤ߾夲ƤߤޤİƤߤƤˡϡƱǤƬ2 (ll. 1--36) Ѹ츶ʸAndrew and Waldron ǡˤ˴Ť Voicy #514. إФεΡ٤Ƭ2Ѹ츶ʸɤ߾夲ޤɤ߾夲ޤʲθʸȤȤˤİ
Siþen þe sege and þe assaut watz sesed at Troye,
Þe borȝ brittened and brent to brondez and askez,
Þe tulk þat þe trammes of tresoun þer wroȝt
Watz tried for his tricherie, þe trewest on erthe.
Hit watz Ennias þe athel and his highe kynde,
Þat siþen depreced prouinces, and patrounes bicome
Welneȝe of al þe wele in þe west iles.
Fro riche Romulus to Rome ricchis hym swyþe,
With gret bobbaunce þat burȝe he biges vpon fyrst
And neuenes hit his aune nome, as hit now hat;
Ticius to Tuskan and teldes bigynnes,
Langoberde in Lumbardie lyftes vp homes,
And fer ouer þe French flod, Felix Brutus
On mony bonkkes ful brode Bretayn he settez
Wyth wynne,
Where werre and wrake and wonder
Bi syþez hatz wont þerinne
And oft boþe blysse and blunder
Ful skete hatz skyfted synne.
Ande quen þis Bretayn watz bigged bi þis burn rych
Bolde bredden þerinne, baret þat lofden,
In mony turned tyme tene þat wroȝten.
Mo ferlyes on þis folde han fallen here oft
Þen in any oþer þat I wot, syn þat ilk tyme.
Bot of alle þat here bult of Bretaygne kynges
Ay watz Arthur þe hendest, as I haf herde telle.
Forþi an aunter in erde I attle to schawe,
Þat a selly in siȝt summe men hit holden
And an outrage awenture of Arthurez wonderez.
If ȝe wyl lysten þis laye bot on littel quile,
I schal telle hit astit, as I in toun herde,
Wyth tongue.
As hit is stad and stoken
In stori stif and stronge,
With lel lettres loken,
In londe so hatz ben longe.
̣ǧ뤿 Bantock θ層ʸӾˤܸƤޤ
When the assault on Troy and the siege had come to an end,
The ramparts smashed to a heap of smouldering ruins,
And that treacherous man Antenor brought to trial
For treason worse than has ever been known on earth,
Then noble Aeneas, with his clan of kindred knights,
Subdued the lands and at length became the lords
Of well nigh all of the wealth in the Western Isles.
Then swiftly, courageous Romulus swept into Rome,
His first concern to found, with fast-growing pride,
The noble city that now upholds his name.
Then Ticius with tents built interim towns in Tuscany,
And Langeberde laid out new homes in Lombardy.
Then the Channel was challenged from France by Felix Brutus,
Who boldly established Britain on her broad green slopes ---
In gladness long ago!
Though hatred, war and hell
Brought turmoil, tears and woe,
Their fortunes rose or fell
In endless ebb and flow.
The famous warrior founded Britain thus,
And bred a race of battle-loving men,
Who caused great torment in those troubled times.
More heart-enthralling things have happened there
Than anywhere else on earth since the ancient days.
But of the rulers reigning there, I have heard,
The noblest of all in honour was Arthur the king.
So now one great adventure will I make known,
Which many men will think a miracle ---
The most astounding tale of Arthur's time.
And if you'll listen to this legend a little while,
I'll tell it as I heard it told in town
In spoken song;
Inspired, I will expound
A story bold and strong,
With letters linked by sound,
As minstrels have made for long.
ȥϹ⤬ĤԤ˵Ƥ顤ȿդƤΤڤκƺȽˤ줿äǤ롥ϲҥ͡Ȥιʰ²ǡϤθνκۤȤɼˤۼԤȤʤäʥ륹ϥޤ˰®ȡޤϤˤԻԤߤ̾Ȥä̿̾Ǥ⤽̾ǸƤФƤ롥ƥϥȥ뤭ơХɤϥХǥ˲ȲĤꡤեʹʡʡˡ֥롼ȥϤϤ뤫եۤ¿ιʵͤ˥֥ƥϤä
ͦǡ
ƮԻĤʤȤ
ꤪꤽǵꡤ
ӤᤷߤȤθ塤ߤˤȤƤ롥
ι֥ƥȡʼԤɤ⤬졤ߡ٤ʶιǤϤΤꡤ䤬ΤäƤɤι˶ä٤ȤФеäƤ롥ϤȤ⤫ι˵ޤ٤ƤΥ֥ƥΤǡǤⵤ⤤ǤäʹƤ롥Ǵ̯ʸʤȻפҤȤ⤤褦ˤ˴ؤäΤǤʤѤä̤ĤߤʤФδ֡ʪ˼ƤʤСޤ˵²δۤʹȤ˸ꤿȻפ
դȤ
ͦԤ϶ʪ
α夷
ʸǷФơ
ιĹ줿Ρ
Andrew, Malcolm and Ronald Waldron, eds. The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript. 3rd ed. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2002.
Bantock, Gavin, trans. Sir Gawain & the Green Knight . Pearl: Two Middle-English Poems. Brimstone P, 2018.
Ӿ 鹰ˡء֥͡ФεΡ١콤ؽǶɡ2009ǯ
ī Voicy ǡᵯϻʸפ䤷ĤġαѸǤΤȤ虜 The early bird catches the worm Ҳ𤷤ƤΤǤʤȸǤȯۤžɤ It's the second mouse that gets the cheese. ƬĤĤȤޤޤĤĤ⡤ʤۤɤǼǤ
ޤäȤơŵŪʡʻֽѤʤ̡˷ѤȤƤ The early bird . . . . ˤĤƻ䤬äƤ뺣ī Voicy #513. ŵŪʻֽ --- The early bird catches the worm. ᵯϻʸסİ
The Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs 17νФ鸽ޤǤΰ۷Ƥߤޤ礦
The EARLY bird catches the worm
The corollary in quot. 2001, it's the second mouse that gets the cheese, is attributed to US comedian Steven Wright (born 1955); it is found particularly in the context of entrepreneurial or technological innovation, where the advantages of being the first (the early bird) may be outweighed by the lower degree of risk faced by a follower or imitator (the second mouse).
1636 W. CAMDEN Remains concerning Britain (ed. 5) 307 The early bird catcheth the worme. 1859 H. KINGSLEY Geoffrey Hamlyn II. xiv. Having worked . . . all the week . . . a man comes into your room at half-past seven . . . and informs you that the 'early bird gets the worm'. 1892 I. ZANGWILL. Big Bow Mystery i. Grodman was not an early bird, now that he had no worms to catch. He could afford to despise proverbs now. 1996 R. POE Return to House of Usher ix. 167 'I got home at midnight last night and I'm here at seven. Where are they? . . . Well, it's the early bird that catches the worm, and no mistake.' 2001 Washington Post 4 Sept. C13 The early bird may catch the worm, but it's the second mouse that gets the cheese. Don't be in a hurry to take a winner. . . .
αѸ줳Ȥ虜ŵϡѸˤؤ֤ˤؤ֤ˤŬɤʪǤѸܤDzɤ⤦¤ä顤ˤǤhellog proverb γƵ⤴ɤ
Speake, Jennifer, ed. The Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs. 6th ed. Oxford: OUP, 2015.
ɸνѸ mood modality Ϥ褯Ʊ롥ؿ缭ŵ٤ˤ mood ϡ֡ưΡˡˡԤɽư֤ФüԤοŪ٤ưθѲաסmodality ϡˡˡơԴ˾̿Ꭵ½ʤɼοŪ٤칽¤ˤäɽ뤳ȡפȤ롥ξԤζ̤ˤĤơBybee (165--66) "Mood and modality" ꤹǫ˲⤷ƤΤǡѤ褦
The working definition of mood used in the survey is that mood is a marker on the verb that signals how the speaker chooses to put the proposition into the discourse context. The main function of this definition is to distinguish mood from tense and aspect, and to group together the well-known moods, indicative, imperative, subjunctive and so on. It was intentionally formulated to be general enough to cover both markers of illocutionary force, such as imperative, and markers of the degree of commitment of the speaker to the truth of the proposition, such as dubitative. What all these markers of the mood category have in common is that they signal what the speaker is doing with the proposition, and they have the whole proposition in their scope. Included under this definition are epistemic modalities, i.e. those that signal the degree of commitment the speaker has to the truth of the proposition. These are usually said to range from certainty to probability to possibility.
Excluded, however, are the other "modalities", such as the deontic modalities of permission and obligation, because they describe certain conditions on the agent with regard to the main predication. Some of the English modal auxiliaries have both an epistemic and a deontic reading. The following two examples illustrate the deontic functions of obligation and permission respectively:
Sally must be more polite to her mother.
The students may use the library at any time.
The epistemic functions of these same auxiliaries can be seen by putting them in a sentence without an agentive subject:
It must be raining.
It may be raining.
Now the auxiliaries signal the speaker's degree of commitment to the proposition "it is raining". Along with deontic modalities, markers of ability, desire and intention are excluded from the definition of mood since they express conditions pertaining to the agent that are in effect with respect to the main predication. I will refer to obligation, permission, ability, desire and intention as "agent-oriented" modalities.
The hypothesis implicit in the working definition of mood as an inflectional category is that markers of modalities that designate conditions on the agent of the sentence will not often occur as inflections on verbs, while markers that designate the role the speaker wants the proposition to play in the discourse will often occur as inflections. This hypothesis was overwhelmingly supported by the languages in the sample. Hundreds of inflectional markers that fit the definition of mood were found to occur in the languages of the sample. In fact, such markers are the most common type of inflection on verbs. However, inflectional markers of obligation, permission, ability or intention are extremely rare in the sample, and occur only under specific conditions.
mood ϼȤƷʤտ路ựŪƥָ̿modality ϼȤựŪƥָ̿ΤȤ⤢йټԻָΤȤ⤢롤ȤȤ館Ƥ褵̣δ餤СԤϸԤݤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Bybee (169) ˤϼ̤ꡥ
The cross-linguistic data suggest, then, the following uses of the terms modality and mood. Modality designates a conceptual domain which may take various types of linguistic expression, while mood designates the inflectional expression of a subdivision of this semantic domain. Since there is much cross-linguistic consistency concerning which modalities are expressed inflectionally, mood can refer both to the form of expression, and to a conceptual domain.
Bybee, Joan. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1985.
YouTube 69ޤֻȥǥѤҸŪáPhatic communionŪߥ˥ˡǤ
phatic_communion ˤĤƤǤŪʸŪҸŪŪ˸Ѥʤɤޤ͡ˤεǽ (function_of_language) 1ĤǤΰ饹⡼ȡüĤƱΤβäޤǡΤΤ礿ŪʤΤǤϤʤդ魯Ȥ켫ΤŪȤʤ褦ʸѤȤΤޤΤ褦ʾ̤ǤϡդȤϤۤɽפǤʤդ魯Ȥ٤ΤΤҲطۤΤ˽פʤ櫓Ǥ
McArthur αѸѸ켭ŵѤޤ
PHATIC COMMUNION [1923: from Greek phatós spoken: coined by the Polish anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski]. Language used more for the purpose of establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact than for exchanging information or ideas: in speech, informal comments on the weather (Nice day again, isn't it?) or an enquiry about health at the beginning of a conversation or when passing someone in the street (How's it going? Leg better?); in writing, the conventions for opening or closing a letter (All the best, Yours faithfully), some of which are formally taught in school. . .
εǽȤоãȻפǤ¿ȻפޤǤϤޤphatic communion Τ褦ˡȤ̤˶Ȥ⡤Ǥդ魯ȤˤդƤޤΤεǽ˵ŤƤȤϡѸؽˤƤȤƤǤʤʤСȾαѸؽԤϡο͡Ⱦ뤿֤פ˱ѸؤǤȿǤޤäƤ뤫ǤǤϸʱѸˤεǽޤ˶ƤޤäƤ뤳ȤˤʤޤդäȹȤ館Ƥߤޤ
phatic communion ˴Ϣ¿ͤǤȤаʲε
#523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1])
#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1])
#1559. в̤ΰ ([2013-08-03-1])
#1564. face ([2013-08-08-1])
#1771. ܼŪʵǽ1ĤȤƤ phatic communion ([2014-03-03-1])
#2003. ܥꥸˡȥդΤ٤δ ([2014-10-21-1])
#2700. Źˤ륳ߥ˥ ([2016-09-17-1])
#2818. 蘆εǽ ([2017-01-13-1])
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ؤˤϡˡ͡ʶʬ2Ω롥塼 (Ferdinand de Saussure; 1857--1913) Ƴ (langue) ȥѥ (parole) (form) ȼ (substance) (synchrony) ̻ (diachrony) ʤɤ̾Ǥcf. #3508. 塼Ωǰ3 ([2018-12-04-1])ˡ
ޤ (phonetics) (phonology) (morphology) (syntax)̣ (semantics) (pragmatics) ʤɤ⡤ˡνפʶʬǤcf. #377. ѸˤȤʤꤦʬ ([2010-05-09-1])#378. ϸδܹ礫ݤ ([2010-05-10-1])#4865. Ѹ --- ֱ̿Ѹء Day 1 ([2022-08-22-1])ˡ
ۤˤϡĿͤȼҲäʹꡤäդȽդʤɡΩϵϤХ꤬ʤ˸ؤǤлʬ (periodisation) פʶʬǤ롥
פʤΤϡζʬϸؤˡ塤տŪߤ줿ΤˤʤȤȤ¤θ֤ϤޤʣʤᡤԤϤΤޤѻʬϤꤹ뤳ȤǤʤǡص微ʬ˶ʬʬ줿äѻʬϤȤάΩƤ櫓Ǥ롥ơʬˤơζˤĤƤ褽餫ˤʤäǤˤϡ֥åΤ褦Ȥ߹碌ƺǽŪ˸ȤΤΤΤ褦ά˴ŤơޤǺȾ塤͡˶ʬƤΤ
άŪʬˤĤơŵŪѸ A History of English 路 Strang "Synchronic variation and diachronic change" ˤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ (17)
Language is human behaviour of immeasurable complexity. Because it is so complex we try to subdivide it for purposes of study; but every subdivision breaks down somewhere, because in practice, in actual usage, language is unified. The levels of phonology, lexis and grammar are interrelated, and so are structure and history. There remains a further dichotomy, implicit in much of our discussion, but not yet looked at in its own right. Language is both individual and social. Acquisition of language takes place in the individual, and we have stressed that he (sic) is an active, even a creative, participant in the process. Yet what he learns from is exposure to the social use of language, and although cases are rare there is reason to think that the individual does not master language if he develops through the relevant stages of infancy without such exposure. And if he does have normal experience of language as a baby the speaker's linguistic creativeness is held on a fairly tight rein by the control of social usage --- he cannot be too idiosyncratic if he is to be understood and accepted. The governing conditions come from society, though executive language acts (speaking, writing, etc.) are made by individuals. Here, too, then, we have not so much a dichotomy as an interplay of factors distinguishable for certain purposes.
ʤ͡ʸƱͤάŪʬˤʤȹͤƤ롥Aϡ츽ݤΤˤϤȯ뤬٤Ƥθ츽ݤ줤뤳ȤϤǤʤBCǤ롥ˤ줾ΰꡤŪˤĤʤ --- 줬ؤάʤΤȹͤƤ롥äơɤȤäƤ⡤줬ŪȤְ㤤ȤȤϤʤȻפäƤ롥
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
<ch> ۻ (silent_letter) Ȥʤñ줬4ĤȤȤƤäʵŤʾ꤬Ȥˡdrachm /dræm/, fuchsia /ˈfjuːʃə/, schism /sɪzm/, yacht /jɑt/ Ǥ롥ŵϡ#2518. Ҳۻ ([2016-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲 (7) Ǥ롥
4Τ yacht ܤƤߤθ16Υ jaght(e) ѤΤǡOED ˤȽϰʲʸǤcf. #4444. Ѹĺ15 ([2021-06-27-1])ˡ t λҲߤʤΤˤʤȤǤϤ롥
a1584 S. Borough in R. Hakluyt Princ. Navigations (1589) ii. 330 A barke which was of Dronton, and three or foure Norway yeaghes, belonging to Northbarne.
ѸǤνֻʤ餯ȯˤϡ gh ȯɤΤ褦ˤƼफɤ줬ä餷͡ä褦OED βˤȡ
Owing to the presence in the Dutch word of the unfamiliar guttural spirant denoted by g(h), the English spellings have been various and erratic; how far they represent varieties of pronunciation it is difficult to say. That a pronunciation /jɔtʃ/ or /jatʃ/, denoted by yatch, once existed seems to be indicated by the plural yatches; it may have been suggested by catch, ketch.
<t> <ch> ȿž yatch Ȥʣֻ EEBO ǸƤߤȡ1670ǯ夫1690ǯޤǤ50ۤɾ夬äƤʤߤˡΤ褦ֻȿžѸǤʤȤ櫓 "guttural spirant" ؤˤϤ褯줿Τạ̇̄ǤϤʤѸˤޤǤϤ߽ФƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
yatch ȯֻˤĤƤϡDobson (371) Τ褦˸ڤƤ롥
Yawt or yatch 'yacht' are two variant pronunciations which are well evidenced by OED; the former is due to the identification of the Dutch spirant [χ] with ME [χ], of which traces still remained when yacht was adopted in the sixteenth century, so that it was accommodated to the model of, for example, fraught and developed with it, while OED suggests that the latter is due to analogy with catch and ketch---it is certainly due to some sort of corrupt spelling-pronunciation, in the attempt to accommodate the word to native models.
<t> <ch> ֻȿžȡ³ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) η߽Ф줿 yacht ̯ʰ۷ȤȤˤʤ롥
Silent Consonant Letter ʬϡä˱Ѹˤδ鸫濴Ȥơסʡؿʸѡ51, 1973ǯ117--45ǡ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Ρ#4905. ְΡפ Aichi Aiti ([2022-10-01-1]) ȴϢơīīʹī2̤ǡ֤狼롪ΤĤŤʣΡפꤹ2Υβ⤬ǺܤƤˤȡ־عιǤϡչդޤƷἰ濴˳ؤ֡Ǥ⡤ѥݡȤɽƻϩɸʤɼҲǤϡѸ˶ᤤإܥ¿롥ʸģ9ȯɽ2021ǯ٤ι˴ؤĴǡ̾ʤɤǽʤɤ졩ʹȡإܥƩƤդ¿äἰ¿Фդ⤢äפȤ롥
衹ΤȤǡ夲ƵˤĤ̾ΥˤĤƿҤͤȤ̣ȤʸģĴƱͤˡĿͤˤäɤ줬褦ȤȤʬä伫ȤϡȤĤŤΤ̤ȻפäƤΤˡȤĤŤͤ⤱äΤʤȵŤʤʤեåʷиä
Aiti/Aichi, Gihu/Gifu, Uzi/Uji, Akasi/Akashi, Atugi/Atsugi, Gosyogawara/Goshogawara, Tanba/Tamba Τ褦ʷἰȥإܥκۤˤĤơȤΤĤŤ֤ꡤʬϤƤä⤷ʬϤФΤǤĤҲ𤷤褦
ĿŪˤ sho ǤϤʤ syo Ȥ⤷餽θ syo ȤʸѸǸ뤳ȤʤΤǡti ȰäƱѸȯǴĤƤʤȤ𤬤Τ⤷ʤ
ռŪˤ̵ռˤϤ狼ʤɽ줬ѤʤɤθƤޤΤǤϤʤ㤨СפϴѸҸѤ뤳Ȥ¿顤ǽȤʤä˱ѸʡإܥˤռǽȻפä
ĿͤȤƤϡTamba ðȡ˰ʳϽȤ⥭ܡɤǤĤȤ⤹٤ƥإܥäΤǡʤʤΤȹͤƤߤ餯 chi shi, sho ʤɤϡñǤܤˤ뵡¿ƬDZѸ˼ưѴ䤹ʤäƤΤȴ롥ǡ֤Сפ֤ƤפפΡ֤פȤ m ȼưѴǤۤɤˤϱѸǾˤʤäƤ餺ޤܿͤδФβǥƤ
ѥǤʸϤκݤˤϡ֤פϱѸŪʡchiפϤΤФơ֤פܸŪʡˤʡsyoפǤĤΤ¿ɤǤäΰ첻첻Ǥΰ㤤ϤɤΤ褦ʸˤäΤʤΤ˵ˤʤä
Ǥ˽ФƤɤޤ뤳ȤռƽȤȤ礭ƶȴȤɽܸüԤǤϤʤ͡ʼ˱ѸüԡˤꤹΤǡϥإܥǽȤ¿褦˴롥ѥǤľʤɼºݤɽɽ˽ФʤϥإܥȷἰߤƻȤäƤ褦˻פ
ɤɽɤΤˤϡĿͤαѸи佬ҲŪθ˻ޤ͡װǤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ѸΥڥؤδ˴ŤĤȤװܤͤ롥
Ѥ variation ΤɤäΤǡҳ
Ĥߤγȡ֥鹽ʸפȯͤˤĤƵˤʤäΤȤϡĴ٤Ƥߤͤ͡⤷͡äƤ⤽֥鹽ʸפȤϡˤܤαѸ춵ʼѸȳˤͭ jargon ݤʳưϰ̤ΤʤȻפäƤΤƳΤϺƣϺ Practical English Grammar (1898--99) 餷ƣܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ٤ p. 112 ˼Τ褦ˤäʸ̮碌ưѤ롥
ĤŤƻˤƤ⡤Ȥߤ§Ƨ줿ǡ˴ޤޤɽΰ̣Ż뤵줿㤨Сפɽ certain some, any ΰ㤤Τۤ(a) few (a) little ˡˤ every, each, all, ever, always, since, ago, often, either, nearly, almost, still, same ʤɤˡ椵뤫Dz⤵줿ΤǤ롥
廊ơ㤨зƻ other ˡϢươ'one after the other' 'one after another' ʤɤɽҲ𤵤줿Ȥ˾ħ褦ˡġɽ˴Ϣ륤ǥ乽ʸ̤ηϲ뤳Ȥˤʤäη̡ΤˤȤäƤʤ߿ 'would rather A than B' 'no / not more /less than' Ϥᡤ'A whale is no more a fish than a horse is.', 'He saves what little money he earns.' Ȥä֤ʸƳ줿
ܤαʸˡˤ˻ȵ鹽ʸоǤ롥
ΤֹʸפȤäƤߤȡƤζ˶äŵ٤1ĤιʸȤܤ˸ΤǡƶϤ礭ΤֱѸεʸˡפȤǰ18ɤμڤʪ켫Τ绨ĤŪǤ롥ƣϺήΡ֥ǥפȤ֤ήȡߥΤ褦˺٤졤ġζŪʡֹʸפȤʤäƽФƤ롥ޤǶŪñ̤Ȥޤʤ¤ꡤѸȤʤؽԤˤȤäơֵʸˡפʤɤޤȤ˳ؤ֤ȤϤǤʤܿͳؽԤοäƺƣϺ꼰ΡֹʸפκǤͭ̾ʤΤ1ġ줬֥鹽ʸפʤΤǤϤʤ
ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
ɸ̤ꡤܳرؤڹδȤǡֱѸ˴ؤѤʵ䡡ܥΥå2ơפ褷Ƥޤ1027ڡ 13:00--14:00 Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ȤǤϤͽǤkhelfʷѸ˥ե˼ŤδȤʤޤʲ̳Τϡkhelf ĹˤܽθűѸ YouTube ֤ͥޤˤͥĤޤˤ (masanyan) Ǥ
921ˡ1ơפ Voicy ǤϤޤ (cf. #4886. ֱѸ˴ؤѤʵ䡡ܥΥåڹδˡפΤΤ餻921ʿ16:00--17:00 Voicy ˡ ([2022-09-12-1])ˡޤΥۿ碌¿İ褷ƤɾޤΤǡΤ2Ƥ褷Ǥ
Ʊ͡2ƤΤˤ⡤˳ֱѸ˴ؤѤʵפ罸ȻפޤѸˤĤƤ뵿ڡĤ˱ѸˤδꤹͽǤ
Ǥİˤϡ饤֤ꤲVoicy ץͳǡˤդͽǤΤǡҤäʤǤİʤǤ⡤˼ϿۿͽǤΤǡǤİ
ƤֱѸ˴ؤѤʵפΥեꤪǤʤ٤¿夲Ȼפޤ
Voicy ؤͽѤߥȤʤޤֱѸ˴ؤѤʵפϡ뤤ˡΥ Voicy Υȵǽ̤ƴƤƤ⤱äǤ

1ƤޤİƤʤȤϡۿꤪİʷϵĤ뤫Ȼפޤ

ϢƣܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ٤ѡȤƤ롥
ܤΡֳؽʸˡפܱѳسε͡פȤΤƣϺ (1866--1929) μ1Ĥ Practical English Grammar (1898--99) 롥ƣʸˡνפħ1ĤȤơʻȤˤγʧäȤ롥ƣ (110) Ѥ롥
ޤΤ˴ؤ뤳ȤȤơŪʡʻʸפȡפζ̤űѤ줿Ȥܤ롥ʤ༫ȤθդڤС'In learning a language so slightly inflected as English, the study of form should go hand in hand with that of meaning. There is no need of separating English Syntax from English Etymology. The student must know the use and meaning of the different forms' ȤΤǤʺƣϺ Practical English Lessons, No. 2 (Fourth Year) ǡ1901ǯˡ
ĤޤƣϡѸηŪФθ顤ηϤۤƤֽijפȿѤˡַ ('form') ȡְ̣ ('meaning') ˤȤŤηϤȤƲŪʸˡݤªƤΤǤ롥
#4917. 2500ǯ˵ڤֳ֡ؽʸˡפο̮ --- ƣˡܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ٤ ([2022-10-13-1]) dzǧ褦ˡܤˤʸˡϡŪˤΤΥꥷƥʸˡ̤롥θŵ϶Ǥ뤫顤ʸˡʤ礭͵ΤǤäʹߤαѸ϶ȤƤ˼Ȥ˰¸ʸˡĤ˻äƤˤ⤫餺ʸˡϷ˽Ť֤ˤߤĤƤˡȤϥʱʸˡۤȤʤä
ԤȴʤȤʤзζ̤ʤ̵ѤˤƤޤȸäΤܿͤǤƣϺä櫓ʤʤ˲äǤϤʤ
ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
ε#4919. Lowth αʸˡ9ʻ ([2022-10-15-1]) ơ Lindley Murray (1745--1826) ʻˤĤơMurray ȤС#2592. Lindley Murray, English Grammar ([2016-06-01-1]) Ǥ夲̤ꡤLowth ʤɤߤˤĤġ18ϱʸˡֱʸˡפǤ롥
1795ǯ English Grammar, adapted to the different classes of learners; With an Appendix, containing Rules and Observations for Promoting Perspicuity in Speaking and Writing ǤȯŪʿ͵ؤꡤ夲1850ǯޤǤ150ʾϿȤƣ (42) ˤȡEnglish Grammar ϡܺǽܳŪʱʸˡפȤʤľˤرʸաʤ֤ߡˡ (1840--41) ܤȤʤä
Murray αʸˡ Lowth ʤɤѤ9ʻܤȤʤäƤ롥ƣ (45) ʬ
(1) (Article): Definite/Indefinite
(2) ̾ (Substantive or Noun): Common/Proper
(Number): Singular/Plural
(Case): Nominative/Possessive/Objective
(Gender): Masculine/Feminine/Neuter
(3) ƻ (Adjective)
(Comparison): Positive/Comparative/Superlative
(4) ̾ (Pronoun): Personal1/Relative2/Adjective3
1 ; (Person): First/Second/Third
2 Interrogative ϡRelative pronoun ΰ
3 Adjective: Possessive/Distributive/Demonstrative/Indefinite
(5) ư (Verb): Active (Transitive)/Passive/Neuter (Intransitive)
ˡ (Mood or Mode):
Indicative/Imperative/Potential/Subjunctive/Infinitive
(Tense):
Present/Past (Imperfect)/PerfectʸߴλΤȡ/PluperfectʲλΤȡ/First futureñ̤Τȡ/Second future̤贰λΤȡ
ʬ (Participle)ư (Auxiliary or helping Verbs)
ǽư֡ư (Active voice/Passive voice)
§Ե§ǡư (Regular/Irregular/Defective)
(6) (Adverb):
Number/Order/Place/Time/Quantity/Manner or quality/Doubt/Affirmation/Negation/Interrogation/Comparison
(7) ֻ (Preposition)
(8) ³ (Conjunction): Copulative/Disjunctive
(9) (interjection)
Ʊ9ʻǤ Lowth ζʬȤδ֤˼㴳κۤ롥㤨̾γʤΥƥˤĤơMurray Lowth Nominative/Possessive ˲ä Objective ޤƤ롥ޤʬˤĤ Lowth ˡΥƥ˴ޤƤ뤬Murray ư1ȤߤƤ롥
ΤȤ Murray 9ʻϡŪʱʸˡѤˤޤŤƤȤȤǤ
ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
δñѸ in English٤11椬ȯ䤵ޤϢܡˤѸΥܥʵפ20ȤʤޤϤʤʤܼŪ䤤֤ʤѸʸˤϼ줬ɬפʤΡפ夲Ƥޤ

ѤʵǤ뤫餳줤ΤǤ͡äܸϼ줬ʤƺѤΤۤ¿ΤǡоȤȡѸΡּФ¸ߤʤФʤʤפȤʶ̾ˤǤ⤷ˤ櫓ǤʤѸϤʤ˼¸ߤˤ뤵Τȡ
ȤѸˤ֤äƤߤȡűѸѸȤŤˤϡɬ줬¸ߤʤʸ⤢äΤǤ⡤¸ߤ٤ʤΤ˾άƤȤǤʤ⤽¸ߤꤵƤʤʤĤޤά褦ˤά٤Τʤ˥餢äΤǤ
ϢܵǤϡդλޤκǸǤϡʸǼưҤä֤ꡤ̿ʸǼά쵬§ˤĤƤڤޤ11˼äƤߤƤ
Ǥ̾18εʸˡ Robert Lowth (1710--87) Ȥ A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762) ˤĤơhellog Ǥϡ#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]) lowth γƵǼ夲Ƥε#4918. William Bullokar 8ʻ ([2022-10-14-1]) ơLowth ʻǧƤLowth 9ʻǤƤ롥ʲƣ (26--27) ꡥ
(1) (Article): Definite/Indefinite
(2) ̾ (Substantive, or Noun): Common/Proper
(Number): Singular/Plural
(Case): Nominative/Possessive
(Gender): Masculine/Feminine/Neuter
(3) ̾ (Pronoun):
Personal/Relative/Interrogative/Definitive/Distributive/Reciprocal
; (Person): First/Second/Third
(4) ƻ (Adjective), (5) (Adverb)
(Comparison): Positive/Comparative/Superlative
(6) ư (Verb): Active (Transitive)/Passive/Neuter (Intransitive)
ˡ (Mode): Indicative/Imperative/Subjunctive/Infinitive/Participle
(Tense):
Present/Past/Future
Present Imperfect/Present Perfect/Past Imperfect
Past Perfect/Future Imperfect/Future Perfect
'Imperfect' ϡΡֿʹԷפ
ư (Auxiliary)§Ե§ư (Regular/Irregular)
ǡư (Defective)
(7) ֻ (Preposition)
(8) ³ (Conjunction): Copulative/Disjunctive
(9) (interjection)
Bullokar 8ʻ٤ Lowth 9ʻˤĤܤ٤ϡ (Article) äƤ뤳ȡ̾줫ƻ줬ʬ̤褦ˤʤäƤ뤳ȡʬ줬ư۲1ʬȤƳʲƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ƣ (27) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ΤȤƸСΤˤȤʤ߿ǰ¿ΩƤ뤳Ȥ¤Ǥꡤ줳16³Ժΰãäפ뤳ȤǤ롥
ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
#2579. ǽαʸˡ William Bullokar, Pamphlet for Grammar (1586) ([2016-05-19-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡBullokar (c. 1530--1609) ˤ Pamphlet for Grammar (1586) ȤҤѸ˾αʸˡȤƤ롥 Bullokar ʻʬƤߤ
ޤʻʬˤĤΩǧƤŤ쥯ɥꥢ Dionysius Thrax (c. BC170--BC90) ꥷ8ʻǧΤȯǤ롥Υޡ̾졦ƻˡ졼ޡưˡȥʬˡȥʴˡȡ˥ߥ̾ˡץƥֻˡԥ졼ޡˡǥ⥹³ˤǤʺƣp. 11ˡ
ѤΤʱƶϤؤƥʸˡ路 Donatus (c. 300--399) Ǥ롥ƥˤϴʤΤǼ졤줬ä줿̤ȤƿȤƤ8ʻˤȤɤޤäƤ롥̾ (nomen)̾ (pronomen)ư (verbum) (adverbium)ʬ (participium)³ (coniunctio)ֻ (praepositio) (interiectio) Ǥ롥 Priscianus (fl. 500) ⤳˽äʺƣpp. 14--15ˡ
ϲä16ΥɡDonatus αƶΤȡ1509ǯ˽Ǥ줿 William Lily Υƥʸˡα Short Introduction of Grammar (1548) ӤƤ˰͵ƽ줿Τ Bullokar αʸˡ Pamphlet for Grammar (1586) äΡ
ƥʸˡѤǡBullokar ϱѸˤ8ʻǧ̾졤̾졤ư졤졤ʬ졤³졤ֻ졤Ǥ롥Bullokar (115 (22)) θʸˤȼΤ褦ˤBullokar ͭΥڥˤաˡ
Spech may be diuyded intoo on of thæȝ eiht parts: too wit, Nown, Pronoun, Verb (declyned). Participle, Aduerb, Coniunction, Preposition, Interiection, (vn-declyned).
Ĥޤꡤ8ʻ Thrax Donatus Lily Bullokar ȥ졼ʤ顤1700ǯˤ錄ݻƤΤǤ롥ơBullokar θʸˡǤ8ʻ줬ѤƤȤˤʤ롥ޤȷ³Ϥ
ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
Bullokar, William . Bref Grammar and Pamphlet for Grammar. William Bullokar: Book at large, Bref Grammar and Pamphlet for Grammar. P. Gr.: Grammatica Anglicana. Edmund Coote: The English Schoole-maisterٱѸʸݹ亮1Ʋ1971ǯpp. 107--64.
ǯ5˸ҤǤ줿ƣˡܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ٤ɤΥꥷʸˡϤޤꡤƥʸˡ˼Ѥ졤νŸܤˤäƤ2500ǯ˵ڤ֡ʱѡʸˡή˾Ǥ빥Ǥ롥

ܽ1ϤκǽΥڡˡܤΡֳؽʸˡפˤϡĤ2500ǯ;ˤڤĹʸʬϤޤƤ (p. 8) ȤꡤΤ褦ʸޤƤ롥ޤŬڤǡ˿ͤƤꡤʬ䤹ƴưƤޤä
ڸۥꥷʸˡ
ȥåζδ
ڡʸ~ۥƥʸˡ
㽡ע
16~18۱ʸˡ
19ꥹΥʽТ
19~20ܤΡֳؽʸˡ
㡡˰ϤޤƤϡưפɽ路ƤȤʸˡˤΥåޤüŪˡ7ԤǡŤߤˤޤϤߤȤʤϡ
奮ꥷʸˡƥʸˡФơΥʥ顼ȤƤαʸˡϺ˻ޤǤˡܤˤֳؽʸˡפܤܽδߤȡˡסˤˤĤƤϡhellog Ǥ͡˵ƤȤ櫓ŵȤδϢǤϡΤ褦ƤΤǡؿΤϤҰʲɤ
#664. littera, figura, potestas ([2011-02-20-1])
#892. ʸˡ Dionysius Thrax η ([2011-10-06-1])
#1256. Τʻʬˡ ([2012-10-04-1])
#1257. ʤгʡפ "accusative case" ʤΤ ([2012-10-05-1])
#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1])
ܽǤϡѸػˤαǽ뤳ȤǤ롥Ѹ˴ؤƤϱѸˤȱѸػˤθͻⵯäƤƤΤǡҤΥȥɤĤߤȤ
ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
ε#4915. ѸˤΥǥ --- رΥǥ롦ҥ塼ޥ˥ƥֵ ([2022-10-11-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ޤȤѤ饤ɤƤޤȤǤϡ8֥ѥθơǥѤθˤĤƳǰոФ礤ޤּԤϿʸϤȾǤҲϤ칶⾯ޤʬˤäơ֥ǥפμ䵬Ϥ͡Ǥ줾δؽѸDXȼɤ֥쥹ȤƤ餤ޤ
ǥΤΤ˸櫓ǤϤޤʹ֤Ǥ븦ԤɤΤ褦˻ȤʤΤȤƤޤΤȤ˸ΤȹͤޤǥˤϡԤɤ뤤ϰͶŪϤΤΤǤ
ʲФ줿ָפȡֺפβվޤݤȤƽʣΤ¿褦Ǥ٤Ƥޤ褽¿ζո¤Ǥޤ
26Фƺ41Ȥʤޤ֥쥹ȤȾϸ¿ФƤޤ褽пԤȾ˰ܤꡤƤȤήǤΤȤơָʪפ˿뵡ʤʤäȤؤηǰѤؤθڤΩޤȤƤ⤪⤷֥쥹ȤǤ
Ѹ˸ˤ֥ǥפϥѥϿޡǡ١ʤ¿ˤ錄ޤȤ櫓ѥѤ˴ؤˤĤƤϡ#3967. ѥѤ (3) ([2020-03-07-1]) ȤĥäƤ뵭ȤƤ
شرΥ˥Хֺ¡ֿʸؤˡʥǥ롦ҥ塼ޥ˥ƥˡפ1ֵȤơ˿ʸϤԤоݤˡָ츦ȥǥ륳ѥϿޡפäޤñȯμȤȤȤǡ⺣Ѥ뤳ȤʤǤΤǡΤʤ˲ù˸ޤŪˤϡѸˤȤʤʸرιֵΤ˽ͻǤ饤椫 hellog ؤλȤ⤿ޤ
1. ָ츦ȥǥ륳ѥϿޡ
2. ޤѥȤϡ
3. 1980ǯʹߤαѸ˸
4. Ѹ쥳ѥȯŸ3
5. ˱Ѹ쥳ѥ
6. ˱Ѹ켭
7. ˱ѸϿ
8. ѥθ
9. ʸ
䤫ϱѸ˸ˤǥȤդ礤Ȥ褦ä櫓Ǥۤܳۤʤʬ칶äΤǡ̤ƳơʬǤ "DX" οŸˤĤƶƤ餦졤ؤٶˤʤޤ
1103 khelfʷѸ˥եˤꥦ־ȯԤ줿رѸ˿ʹ3ˤĤơƤ⤷ޤ PDF ꤴ (cf. #4908. رѸ˿ʹ3 ([2022-10-04-1])ˡ
4ڡۤɤûѥեåȤΤ褦ʿʹǤ¿̤ǤƤˤĤƻ YouTube heltube --- Ѹ˥ͥʢȺǶҤǻϤƤޤˤ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) Ǥ3⤭פΤ褦ʼݤǴñ˾Ҳ𤷤ƤޤΤǡʲɤ
YouTube (heltube) #2. khelfʷѸ˥եˤˤرѸ˿ʹ3椬2022ǯ103־Ǹޤ2022ǯ108
Voicy (heldio) #495. رѸ˿ʹ3椬Фޤ2022ǯ108
رѸ˿ʹ٤ΥХåʥСʹ泰ޤˤҲ𤷤Ƥޤkhelf HP ΥڡХåʥС˥Ǥޤ
رѸ˿ʹ1ϴ2022ǯ41
رѸ˿ʹٹ泰12022ǯ410
رѸ˿ʹ22022ǯ711
رѸ˿ʹٹ泰22022ǯ718

#2278. ̣ۣ ([2015-07-23-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡۣȤäƤ͡ʥפ롥פ1Ĥξ (ambiguity) 롥ơξΤˤ͡ʥפ롥εǤŪʤΤȸŪʤΤϤ⤦٤ߤƤߤ褦Cruse (66) ˤС4郎Ȥ
(1) Pure syntactic ambiguity:
old men and women
French silk underwear
(2) Quasi-syntactic ambiguity:
The astronaut entered the atmosphere again.
a red pencil
(3) Lexico-syntactic ambiguity:
We saw her duck.
I saw the door open.
(4) Pure lexical ambiguity:
He reached the bank.
What is his position?
줾ɽˤɤΤ褦ξǤ뤫ʬ
(1) ˤĤƤϡ(old men) and women ʤΤ old (men and women) ʤΤ(French silk) underwear ʤΤ French (silk underwear) ʤΤȤ칽¤ζڤΰ㤤ˤξͿƤ롥
(2) ˤĤƤϡ絤ؤϵؤεԡˤ1ܤʤΤ2ܤʤΤ֤ɮפʤΤֱɮפʤΤȤξؤäƤ롥츫ŪΤ褦ˤ⸫뤷뤤ϸŪˤ⸫뤫⤷ʤºݤˤϤɤȤ⤤ʤȤⰷŤ餤פξʤˤĤƤ Cruse ˤ¿εˡ
(3) ξϡΥҥΤΤΤ⤬ƤΤΤ⤬ΤΤΰ㤤˴ط롥ǤŪװȸŪװåȤǺѤƤ롥
(4) ξϡbank ڼʤΤԤʤΤposition ʬʤΤʤΤȤ˸¿˴ŤΤǤ롥
Cruse, D. A. Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: CUP, 1986.
ε#4911. ̣Ĵˤ뾺ʤȹ߳ʡ ([2022-10-07-1]) ˰³ʸ̮Ϳ̣Ĵ (semantic modulation) ˤĤơ
̣Ĵˤϡ (promotion) ߳ (demotion) ȻƤϤ뤬̼Υפ롥"highlighting" "backgrounding" ȸΤ̡줾ʲסطʲפƤCruse (53) 㤬ʬ䤹
Another effect of contextual modulation on the sense of a lexical unit involves the relative highlighting or backgrounding of semantic traits. Different sorts of trait can be affected in this way. Two examples will suffice. First, some part of an object (or process, etc.) may be thrown into relief relative to other parts. For instance, The car needs servicing and The car needs washing highlight different parts of the car. (This is not to say that car refers to something different in each of these sentences --- in both cases is is the whole car which is referred to.) Second, it is commonly the case that what is highlighted or backgrounded is an attribute, or range of attributes, of the entity referred to. For instance, We can't afford that car highlights the price of the car, Our car crushed Arthur's foot its weight. It is in respect of 'contextually modulated sense' that a lexical unit may be justifiably said to have a different meaning in every distinct context in which it occurs.
ʸ̮˱Ʊ car Ȥ˰̣ĴƯ̯Ƥ櫓ʲʤطʲˤϡؼоݤΡʬפ°פܤǡȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) ȴط
Cruse, D. A. Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: CUP, 1986.
ΰ̣ʸ̮ˤäĴ븽ݤϡ̣Ĵ (semantic modulation) ȸƤФ롥̣ĴܼȤϢ³ŪήưŪǡ̯ʤΤǤ롥̣Ĵμ1Ĥ˾ (promotion) ȹ߳ (demotion) 롥ʸ̮ˤꤢΰ̣ħ "canonical" ˤʤä硤ΰ̣ħϾʤ줿Ȥ롥ȿФˡ̣ħʤʤä硤Ϲ߳ʤ줿Ȥ롥Cruse (52) 褦
(1) A nurse attended us.
(2) A pregnant nurse attended us.
(1) nurse ˤϡ¿ξֽפȤ̣ħޤޤƤͽ롥餯Ǥꤽ餯ǤϤʤۤɤͽǤ롥
(2) nurse ˤäƤϡֽפȤ̣ħ "canonical" Ǥ롤Ĥޤ᤹ɬܤΰ̣ħǤ롥ʸ̮ʤ뤤 pregnant ȤζˤˤäợħֽפñˤꤽȤϰ̤顤ǤʤФʤʤȤϰ̤˾ʤȤȤդˤСפȤ̣ħϡˤäƤϤȤϰ̤顤ФˤʤȤϰ̤˹߳ʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
⤦1С
(3) Arthur poured the butter into a dish.
Ȥʸˤơbutter ɬŪˡֱפȤ̣ħӤӤ롥̾ butter αϡˤäƤϤ٤ΰ̣ħˤʤʸ̮ʤ뤤 poured ȤζˤˤäƤϡǤʤФʤʤȤϰ̤˾ʤƤΤǤ롥
Cruse, D. A. Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: CUP, 1986.
Ť Wardale ѸǤ˼äƤ롥Ѹ (Middle English) ϸűѸ (Old English or Anglo-Saxon) ȲɤۤʤΤWardale (2--3) 3Ƥ롥
(a) One of these marked differences is that whereas the latter contained very little foreign element, only a limited number of Latin words and a very few from Celtic and other sources being found, the vocabulary of Middle English has been enormously enriched, especially from Old Norse and French.
(b) Another point of distinction is that whereas in the O.E. period the West Saxon dialect under Ælfred's encouragement of learning had come to be the standard literary dialect, the others being relegated chiefly to colloquial use, in M.E. times no such state of affairs existed. In them all dialects were used for literary purposes and only towards the end of the period do we find that of Chaucer beginning to assume its position as the leading literary language.
(c) But more important than these external points of difference, if perhaps less obvious, and more essential because inherent in the language itself, is the modification which gradually made itself seen in that language. English, like all Germanic tongues, has at all times been governed by what is known as the Germanic accent law, that is by the system of stem accentuation. By this law, except in a few cases, the chief emphasis of the word was thrown on the stem syllable, all others remaining less stressed or entirely unaccented. . . . But by [the M.E. period] all vowels in unaccented syllables have been levelled under one uniform sound e . . .
ĤޤꡤűѸ٤ȤѸκΩ3롥˭٤ʼѸ졤ɸѼԺߡ̵첻οʿȤ櫓3ܤŪܼŪħǤꡤ2Ĥνʷ̤⤿餷ȡWardale (3--4) ϵ롥
The consequences of this levelling of all unaccented vowels under one are twofold.
(a) Since many inflectional endings had by this means lost their distinctive value, as when a nominative singular caru, care, an a nominative plural cara both gave a M.E. care, or a nominative plural limu, limbs, and a genitive plural lima both gave a M.E. lime, those few endings which did remain distinctive, such as the -es, of the nominative plural of most masculine nouns, were for convenience' sake gradually taken for general use and the regularly developed plurals care and lime were replaced by cares and limes. In the same way and for the same reason the -es of genitive singular ending of most masculine and neuter nouns came gradually to be used in other declensions as when for an O.E. lāre, lore's we find a M.E. lǫres
(b) The second consequence follows as naturally. The older method of indicating the relationship between words in a sentence having thus become inadequate, it was necessary to fin another, and pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions came more and more into use. Thus an O.E. bōca full, which would have normally given a M.E. bōke full was replaced by the phrase full of bōkes, and an O.E. subjunctive hie 'riden, which in M.E. would have been indistinguishable from the indicative riden from an O.E. ridon, by the phrase if hi riden. In short, English from having been a synthetic language, became one which was analytic.
1Ĥη̤ϡΤ˶̤ -es Τ褦ͥʶ̲ȤȤ2ĤϡȸδطɸΤ˶ޤ뤳ȤǤʤʤäˡ̾졤ֻ졤³Ȥä˰¸ٹ礬Ūʸ줫ʬŪʸذܹԤȤ
ʾ塤ѸȸűѸΰ㤤ˤĤפäΤǾҲ𤷤
Wardale, E. E. An Introduction to Middle English. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1937. 2016. Abingdon: Routledge, 2016.
#4902. eWAVE 3.0 ξҲ --- ѸθŪħǼǡ١ ([2022-09-28-1]) ǡ77ѼαѸ־Ѥǡ١ eWAVE 3.0 (= The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English) Ҳ𤷤ܤ˴ؤʬۤϿ˥ץåȤƤͥΤɤ봶Τ褦ʤΤƤ
ƻפäϽѸΥϿ LAEME LALME θѸǤǤϤʤȡդˤСLAEME/LALME eWAVE ѸǤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ΤȤ˵Ťִ֡eWAVE LAEME/LALME αѸ˾ΰ֤ŤȰյǤ
eWAVE LAEME/LALME оݤȤŪʵϤۤʤäƤ뤬ȤƤƤ¿αѸθܤˤĤơϰѼ老Ȥ˥ץեޤȤƤ졤ϿʬۤץåȤƤ롥ơϤ줿̤᤹뤿ˤϹ٤ʱѸءѸˤμɬפǤȤƤ롥ɸѼפγǰԺߡ뤤ϾʤȤռƤʤȤΤⶦ
⤽ϢȤռ줿ץȤǤϤʤ櫓ǡʤۤʤ¿롥
eWAVE ΥåȤϸѸȤХʵϡLAEME/LALME ΥåȤϽѸ쥤ɤȤʵ
eWAVE ΥեޥȤϳѼ̤ȡLAEME/LALME ΥեޥȤϤޤ¸ƤܻeWAVE ˤ "fit-technique" Τ褦Ūʼˡס
eWAVE ֹܤòץեLAEME/LALME ϲֻ֡ܤòץեƤ
eWAVE Υϥǡ١LAEMEηŪǤϤʤ LALME ˤΥϥѥGloWbE Τ褦Ѹ쥳ѥ¸ߤ뤬eWAVE ȤΩƤ뤿ᡤLAEME Τ褦ϿޤȥѥȤΥ쥹ϢȤ˾ʤ
⤷ΤϡŪ eWAVE LAEME/LALME δ֤˰֤ѸˤĤơϿޤƤʤȤѸ鸽¸ȾɸѼǽƤꡤϰѼͻҤƤʤˡǡ١⥳ѥԻǤʤϰѼθȤ餹ȡ֤ƤѸȸѸΤۤषƤΤǤ롥
khelfʷѸ˥եˤˤرѸ˿ʹ3椬־ǸޤPDFǤɤ
khelf ĥå @khelf_keio ˤΥĥǤ3⤷ƤޤҤʤɤ̤ƹƤйǤ

ϤäѸ˼դεܤǤ饤ʥåפҲ𤷤ޤ
GloWbE ȤѸ쥳ѥѤָѡפȤܤ discuss about Ĵ
OED Ǥߤ롤ܸ줫Ѹ˼Ѥ줿 ikigai
ѸdzȤñ they
֥פ zzz ΥΥޥȥ
űѻ Beowulf DZͺɤäƻڡѥ
Ѹ˴Ϣʸ
khelf ߥåơȥ
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ơرѸ˿ʹ٤ΥХåʥСʹ泰ޤˤҲ𤷤Ƥޤ.碌Ƥɤkhelf HP ΥڡˤХåʥСޤˡ
رѸ˿ʹ1ϴ2022ǯ411031398ץӥ塼
رѸ˿ʹٹ泰12022ǯ410282ץӥ塼
رѸ˿ʹ22022ǯ711615ץӥ塼
رѸ˿ʹٹ泰22022ǯ718174ץӥ塼

#1904. ƻ no no ϰۤʤ츻 ([2014-07-14-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ no εɤȸ "never" ˶ᤤ no Ȥ yes/no no ̤꤬褵εʸǼȤꡤ̤λȤ⤢롥
㤨 Their way of life is no different from ours. I am no good at tennis. Τ褦ʡηƻ줬ŪѤˡꤹ no Ѥ뤳Ȥ롥ϤƴŪǤꡤɤʽҷƻꤹݤˤ no Ѥ櫓ǤϤʤ
ŵŪȤƤ no ϡƻӵΤ¿no better, no longer, no more ʤɤ㤫顤Ǥϼ¼Ūʰ̣ȤƤ as good, as short, as little ƱȤʤפǤ롥
no Ȥ no one, no problem, no way Τ褦˷ƻȤѤ礬ꡤषƻӵȷӤĤȤƤ no ηǤˤĤƤϡƥϥäȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤǤʤääƵŤΤϡthe ȤƷƻʴŪʸ줬ϤƻӵȥåȤǡ֤ʬפΰ̣ŪѤ뤳ȤȤʿԴطǤ롥ܤϡ#811. the + ӵ + for/because ([2011-07-17-1])#812. The sooner the better ([2011-07-18-1]) Ȥ줿
ΤȤ˵ŤƤ줿ΤϡQuirk et al. (10.58) ΤûȤǤ롥
Except for a few fixed phrases (no good, no different), the adverb no modifies adjectives only when they are comparatives (by inflection or by periphrasis): no worse, no tastier, no better behaved, no more awkward, no less intelligent. (Compare the positive with the: He is the worse for it.)
no the ʿŪʤΤλϤꤽǤʤä
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Crystal (203) ֤ʤʸˡؤ֤ΤפˤĤơ˱ѸüԸˤǤϤ뤬6ĤβͿƤ롥
WHY STUDY GRAMMAR?
'Because it's there'. People are constantly curious about the world in which they live, and wish to understand it and (as with mountains) master it. Grammar is no different from any other domain of knowledge in this respect.
But more than mountains, language is involved with almost everything we do as human beings. We cannot live without language. To understand the linguistic dimension of our existence would be no mean achievement. And grammar is the fundamental organizing principle of language.
Our grammatical ability is extraordinary. It is probably the most creative ability we have. There is no limit to what we can say or write, yet all of this potential is controlled by a finite number of rules. How is this done?
Nonetheless, our language can let us down. We encounter ambiguity, imprecision, and unintelligible speech or writing. To deal with these problems, we need to put grammar under the microscope, and work out what went wrong. This is especially critical when children are learning to emulate the standards used by educated adult members of their community.
Learning about English grammar provides a basis for learning other language. Much of the apparatus we need to study English turns out to be of general usefulness. Other languages have clauses, tenses, and adjectives too. And the differences they display will be all the clearer if we have first grasped what is unique to our mother tongue.
After studying grammar, we should be more alert to the strength, flexibility, and variety of our language, and thus be in a better position to use it and to evaluate others' use of it. Whether our own usage in fact improves, as a result, is less predictable. Our awareness must improve, but turning that awareness into better practice --- by speaking and writing more effectively --- requires an additional set of skills. Even after a course on car mechanics, we can still drive carelessly.
¿ѸؽԤǤ⤢ܥ֥ɼԤγϡǼǤ礦뤤ϡλͤȤȤơ֤ʤʸˡؤ֤ΤפФȼβͤƤߤޤ
Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. CUP, 2018.
īʹī1335̡ˤˡAichi Ȥ AitiĤŤߡʸģƤפꤹ뵭ǺܤƤ롥30ʸģ2021ǯ٤ֹ˴ؤĴȯɽ줿3ǯ١ֹ˴ؤĴפη̤ˤĤơ (PDF) Ǥ롥
Ĵ̤ΤʤܤΤ3ϤΡ֥ɽ˴ؤռפˤĤƤǤ롥ܸΥɽ˴ؤ뤤Ĥμ䤬ΩƤƤΤСסְΡפʤɤɤΤ褦˥ɽ뤫Ȥȷ̤⤷ä
㤨ССפξ硤Akashi 75.4%Akasi 23.3%ȤʤäƤ롥֥إܥפȡַἰפΰ㤤ɤǤԤˤɽϤȤ櫓70аʾ41%ȹ⤤ͤƤȤְΡפˤĤƤ Aichi 88.0%Aiti 10.8%ȤʤꡤǤإܥͥǤ롥
Ȥָפˤʤȡἰ Gosyogawara 54.8%إܥ Goshogawara 43.9%ȤʤꡤžƤΤ⤷ˡפκ֤ⶽ̣إܥ matcha maccha 줾32.4%12.1%ἰ mattya 23.6%ȤإܥϴˤֱѸ켰פªƤ褤Ѹˤ <tch> ֻˤĤƤϡ#4033. 3Ż <tch> ʬۤˡ ([2020-05-12-1])#4034. 3Ż <tch> ֻ˹ Caxton ([2020-05-13-1]) DZѸˤδȤ롥
֤ɤΥɽȤפȤβ̤ɤ߲ȡΤοȤƤϷἰإܥͥǤȤܸüԤѤɽȤƤϡܸβηϤ˴źäἰΤۤ§Ū㳰ʤߤ䤹ȤΤεʤΤºݤΤȤϱѸ춵ʤɤ̤ƱѸֻ˴ƤǤͤ¿إܥؤηФǧ줿Ȥˤʤ롥
ܸΥɽˤĤƤϡܸ첻ηϤ뤤ϱѸֻηϤȤοȤֻδ顤ἰȥإܥʤȤ¾ˤΤ줬ޤȤʤƤפϡɤΤ褦ʵܸ줬ɽΤȤҲŪʸ̮ˤȻϹͤƤ롥
ܸʤХˬԤǰƬܸɽȤ̤ǤСݸǤѸ˴źäإܥѤۤ䤹Ȥ¿ܸüԤܸԥݤ˥ѤȤ̤ǤСǿδܸ˴źäἰΤۤŪǤ롥
ǤϡƻϩɸʤɤǴ줿̾ο겾̾ȤƥѤˤϡɤ餬٥ܸüԤˤȤäƤϴɤ߲ҥȤ̤⤷ʤɤʤܸüԤˤȤäƤϡɽϥҥȤɤΤΤȤʤ롥
ʣΥɽȺΤΤ褤ȤոǤ롥Ȥ櫓Ūʿ̤ζʸǤϤ̤ҤΤ褦˥Ȥ̡ʼҲŪʥ쥸ˤϸʸʳˤ⤢ꡤ¿ͤǤ롥ˤ衤ɤޤΤ褤ΤȤȤϤɬפ롥
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