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ե˵ŪʸǤȤ롥ϼϱѸˤ⤢뤬եˤϱѸ붯Ϥ롥⤷쵬ϼŪʸȤ뤫⤷ʤΥեεϼγΩȡȼο (language_myth) ˤĤƤϡʲεǰäƤ
#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤá ([2011-01-13-1])
#1077. Rivarol Υեͥº (1) ([2012-04-08-1])
#1078. Rivarol Υեͥº (2) ([2012-04-09-1])
#1079. Rivarol Υեͥº (3) ([2012-04-10-1])
Perret (70--71) ˽äƥե쵬ϼȯŸˤ⤹ȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥15--16եϥƥäƥեθȤƽѤϥեɸಽή¥ʤ17ˤ Academie française Ω1635ǯ˵ڤӵŪʸˡ伭νǤ꼡18ΥեݲνפФȤʤä18γ̿ˤեϿȤΥܥ˻Ωƾ夲졤եʳθɸŪʥեѼˡŪӽ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤɸեм20ޤ³20ʹߤϡѸŨĬήǻ1994ǯ Toubon ˡǤϡѸɽθŪʻѤ¤褦Ȥаޤ롥ˤ La Francophonie ([2015-04-28-1], [2015-04-29-1]) 20ȾˤȯŸϡΤ褦ʱѸŨδ֤Ť뤳ȤǤեŪȻȼɸŪŪʥե줬θҤɬݻǤʤʤäƤȤ¤Ǥ롥ϰ褴Ȥι̱ŪեѼ (français nationaux) ¸ߴƤƤ롥 (World) Englishes (world_englishes) ΥեǤȤ
եεϼβȥե̿δطˤĤƤϡ4ϡ֥ե̿ȸפɤߤ䤹٤ࡥ
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ
˰³La Francophonie ˤĤơLa Francophonie θǸեեˡ ˡե˴ؤפޤ͡ʿǺܤƤ롥οϡOIF (Organisation internationale de la Francophonie) ˤ2014ǯ4ǯȤ˹ˤ˴ŤΤȤĤ
La Francophonie 80ιϰ褬äϢ54β23Υ֥С3ν
եϱѸȤȤ5ΦäƤǤ
27400ͤΥեüԡʤ5Φ21200ͤȤƻѡ
12500ͤΥեؽԡ7600ͤȤơ4900ͤȤƳؽ
衼åѤ7700ͤŪʥեüԡڤ5200ͤΥեǽϤͭ
5ܤˤ褯ä
3ܤζ̳Ѹʥ衼åѤǤ2ܡ
4ܤΥͥåѸ
2ܤ˹ݵؤѤƤ
嵭ΥȤˤϥե˴ϢϿޤ⤤ĤǺܤƤ롥ʲŽդ褦



2ܤϿޤˤ褦ˡLa Francophonie ˤ54β (États de gouvernements membres de l'OIF)23Υ֥С (États observateurs), 3ν (États associés) η80ιϰ褬äƤ롥ϰ褴Ȥ̾褦
Afrique de l'Ouest
#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1]) ΥեʸǤȸƤǤ褤ΤˡLa Francophonie ʥեϢˮˤ롥֤դפ4ˡ˳ȤեեˡLe Monde de la Francophonieפꤹ뵭ߤ30Ǥ˼Τ褦롥 *
֥եοʸŪŪ¿οסʿ¡̱οʡסֶȸλٱסֻ³ŪȯŸ˷Ҥ붨Ϥγȯפ̿Ȥݥեˡ (OIF: Organisation internationale de la Francophonie) 80˵ڤֹϰ5Φ٤Ƥʬۤ뤬Τ٤ƤեѸȤ֥եפȤ櫓ǤϤʤ֥եեˡפȤϡե̤βʹѤȤƾ嵭̿Τ2ǯȤ˥ߥåȤԤʤޤޤʳư˼ȤŪȿǤ롥
տȤ館褦ΰǡ֥ե̤βʹѤȤơפȤ꤬Ǥʤ̸˲餫βͤȤ̸ˤʹѤտ路ƤȤȤǤ롥ե餷Ǥ롤ŪʸǤ롤ʿ¤θǤβͤŤΤȤեФ뤳βͤŤɤȤȤǤϤʤ̸ˤϱˤƤΤ褦ʲͤŤʤΤȤ̣ǡ˲ʹѤտ路Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥ΰѤǤϡե˲ʹѤտ路ƤȽҤ٤ƤΤǤϤʤեȤ̸ֲʹѤȤפȤ롥⡤ֶ̤βʹѤȤפȤޤǽҤ٤Ƥ롥ϰβ̣Τ̸ʹѤȤȤϡɽαDz꤫Ƥ褦ʵơʤThe Commonwealth of Nations La Francophonie ⡤εῴϤѤƴˤ䤫ʹݥ֤ȤݤȻפ뤬Ϳ褦ˤʤȡꥹեˤ뿷̱ϼǤȤηǰ롥La Francophonie ˤȿѸδȤ¦̤⤢뤬С켫Ȥ (linguistic_imperialism) οԡԤȤʤӤӤƤ褦˻פ
ΤȤƤ La Francophonie ʥ1960ǯˤ뤬θ塤ĤʳФȯŸƤǽιݥߥåȤϡ1986ǯ˥ߥåƥΤθƤӤˤ륵dzŤ줿ʸ塤褽2ǯ1٤ΥڡǥߥåȤƤ롥La Francophonie OIF αפˤĤơPerret ΥեˤΥ (71) Ѥ褦
La Francophonie et la francophonie La Francophonie (avec une majuscule), organisation plus politique que linguistique, est née au debut des années 1960 de la volonté de quelques dirigeants de nations francophones devenues indépendeantes, comme Hamani Diori, Habib Bourguiba, Norodom Shihanouk et Leopold Sédar Senghor, malgré les réticences de la France, alor peu désireuse de s'impliquer dans un «Commonwealth français». De Conférence des états francophones (1969) en Organisation commune africaine et malgache (1966) et en Agence de coopération culturelle et technique (1970), l'idée prit corps et le gouvernement canadien finit par accepter que le Québec et le Nouveau-Brunswick soient inclus dans l'organisation naissante. Les sommets francophones ont commencé à se réunir à partir de 1986; ils ne regroupent pas seulement des États dont l'une des langues officielle est le français, mais aussi des régions, des «États associés» et des «États observateur», si bien que cette Organisation internationale de la francophonie compte en son sein des pays non francophones comme l'Albanie, la Bulgarie, La Guinée-Bissau, la Guinée-Équatoriale, la Macédoine, la Moldavie, le Mozambique, la Pologne, la Roumanie, Saint-Thomas-et-Prince, la Serbie et l'Ukraine, pays qui ont choisi le français comme langue d'enseignement, première ou seconde, et/ou comme langue internationale. Aussi ne parle-t-on plus d'États francophones mais d'États ayant le français en partage.
ܤˤˤĤƤϡLa Francophonie θ Une histoire de la francophonie - Organisation internationale de la Francophonie ˾ܤ
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
ȥåϡŵŪˤ (1) ȯۡ(2) ֡(3) ʸΡˡ(4) (5) ȯɽ5ʬƤΥȥå (3) νʸΡˤؤǤ͡ʵˡ̿̾졤ʬवƤǯŵŪȥåǧθؤλ鸫ľƤƤꡤñʤ뵻ѤĶơʹ֤ǧȿǤΡεǽˤĤƺƹͤΤȤܤӤƤƤ롥
ͤɤߤ䤹ܸΥȥå٤Ǥϡ뽤Ūˡ30Ĥ˸ꤷǫʲ⤬äƤ롥ˡ̾Ρ̾ʱѸ̾ˡˤĤơ (200--05) Ρ֥ȥåḫɽפʲ˺Ƹ
| ̾ | ̾ | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| ȡե (metaphor) | ˤȤŤȤǤ롥ֿפιפȤ褦ˡŵŪˤŪоݤŪʤΤ˸ΩƤɽ롥 | ιɹβ | |
| ľ | ȡߥ (simile) | ?Τ褦פʤɤˤäľܼȡФФɤǻƤΤ롥 | ĤϥåݥΤ褦 |
| ˡ | ѡ˥ե (personification) | ʹְʳΤΤʹ֤˸ΩƤɽȡȤΰȤФʹ濴˻ȤޤƤ뤳Ȥڤ롥 | Ҳ¤Ǥ롥ʤϡ |
| ˡ | ͥ (synesthesia) | С̣С̳ССİФθδ֤ɽȤꤹɽˡɽߤ¦ȼڤ¦Ȥδ֤ǡȤ߹碌롥 | ̣礭ʲȤ |
| Ӥˡ | 塼 (zeugma) | ܤΤӤƬεĤʤ褦ˡҤȤĤɽĤΰ̣ǻȤɽˡ¿ΰۤʤäյѤ롥 | Хåˤԥå㡼ˤä |
| ȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) | ֤פ֤פؤ褦ˡǤΤΤȤΤܴطˤȤŤƻؼ٤ꤵɽˡ | 餬Ѥ롥ձΤ椯̬Ȼ | |
| ͥɥ (synecdoche) | ŷפǡ֤ŷפ̣礬褦ˡȼδ֤δطˤȤŤựϰϤ̤ɽˡ | Ǯ롥ƤĻָ˹Ԥ | |
| ĥˡ | ϥѡХ (hyperbole) | °ʾ礲ʸޤ路ǭγۡפΤ褦˻¤ᾮɽ⤢뤬礲ɽˡΰ | 齩λפȱ桥Υߤο¡ |
| ˽ˡ | ޥ (meiosis) | ɽ٤Ҥ뤳Ȥˤäơäƶ̣ˡҤʤȤФȤ֤äȡפʤɤź롥 | դäƤޤĤȤ줷 |
| ʸˡ | 饤ȥƥ (litotes) | ̣ȿФɽꤹ뤳Ȥˤäợäƶɽˡ | ʤ¤㤤ʪǤϤʤä |
| Ʊȿˡ | ȡȥ (tautology) | ޤäƱɽӤĤ뤳ȤˤäơʤỊ̇ʤɽˡȤФδŪʰ̣Ƴǧ롥 | ϻͤˤλҤˤλҤ |
| Ƶˡ | е硤 (oxymoron) | ȿФΰ̣Ȥ߹碌ơʤ̷˴٤餺˰̣ʤɽˡȿʪΰספθ롥 | ̩Źε̵ΤΡ |
| նˡ | 桼եߥ (euphemism) | ľܸˤȤФնŪ˸褯ɽˡŪդΤΤȹŪʰΤΤȤ롥 | Ѽ̿ݸ⡥ |
| ոˡ | ѥץ (paralepsis) | ʤȤäƼºݤˤϸɽˡŪʤΤΤʤΤޤǤ롥εŪѤ | ޤǤʤθդ⤢ޤ |
| Ūˡ | ȥꥫ롦 (rhetorical questions) | ϵʸǰ̣ʿʸȤɽˡʸϤѲͿǤʤɼԡʹʤŪüġ | ä;ϤϤΤ |
| ްˡ | ץꥱ (implication) | ̣ľܸΤǤϤʤɽ̣ˤäƴŪˡäΥ롼ΰտŪʰȿˤäƴްդ롥 | µ̤餹äȤͤ |
| ȿˡ | ԥƥ (repetition) | Ʊɽ֤ȤˤäợϢ³ꥺࡤĴɽˡΤѤΤϥե졼ȸƤФ롥 | ȤäȡȤäȡ |
| ˡ | ѥ (parenthesis) | ååʤɤλѤˤäơʸϤμήȤϰۤʤ뤳ȤФɽˡȤˡæפȤʤ롥 | ʸϿͤʤʿͤʸʤȤ٤ˡ |
| άˡ | ץ (ellipsis) | ʸ̮ǤǤάʷ;ΤɽˡܸǤϤεˡȯãƤ롥 | Ϥɤ⡥Ϥϡ |
| ˡ | ƥ (reticence) | ǵޤä䤹뤳Ȥˤäơ⿴Τ餤䴶ưؤζƯɽϤᤫۤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥 | ֡ġġס֡ס |
| ˡ | (inversion) | ε֤Ĵ뤿ˡ̾θžɽˡդĤ֤줿Ǥ֤롥 | ޤͤΥҡϡ |
| жˡ | ƥ (anthithesis) | ƱʸΤʤǰ̣Ūʥȥ饹ȤݤɽˡоŪʰ̣ߤȤ餷 | դϽ졥ߤϤĤȤơ |
| Υޥȥ (onomatopoeia) | ɽ̣ϰչפŤ餹ɽˡ̤ؤ졦ָϤΤҤȤġƬӱ⤳˴ޤޤ롥 | äѤäѤäѤä | |
| ˡ | 饤ޥå (climax) | 夲ƥԡɽˡҤȤĤʸΤʤǤ⡤ޤҤȤĤΥƥΤΤʤǤǽǤ롥 | ٤Ǥġ٤Ǥġ٤Ǥġ |
| ˡ | ѥɥ (paradox) | ̤˿¤ꤵƤ뤳ȤεդҤ٤ơˤ¤ޤޤƤ뤳Ȥɽˡ | 쥹ϵɤ̤ȤϤǤʤ |
| 쥴 (allegory) | ӤեϢ³ʤʸϡʥƥȡˡưʪʤɤͲ (fable) ϡΰǤ롥 | ԤϤή䤨ơġ | |
| ȿˡ | ˡ (irony) | ΤȤФѤƤȤʤȽäɽˡޤ̣ȿžΤȿǤ롥 | 0ФơͤۤȤͤ |
| 롼 (allusion) | ͭ̾ʰŤ˰Ѥʤΰ̣ä뤳ȤˤäơŪʰ̣⤷ФˡܲμϤΰ㡥 | ɤɤ郎餷ڤˤʤ餶롥 | |
| ѥǥ | ⤸ (parody) | ͭ̾ʸϤ귿ѥ㲽ʤѤˡƤåۤơȽߤʤɤ롥 | ǰǰ |
| ʸϼˡ | ѥƥ (pastiche) | κȡԤʸΤޤͤ뤳Ȥˤäơ.Ƥˡʸϼ̤ʸΤΤߤѤ롥 | ʸά |
ܥ֥ǤϡոˤĤ intensifier γƵǼ夲ƤȤ櫓#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1]) #1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1]) Ǥϡո줬Ū˼ȸƤѤƤˤĤѸˤˤ붯ոȯãζεǤϡŪѤƤѸǤ⤢٤褯Ѥ붯μθðؤǫͿƤΤϡWilliams (191--92) Ǥ롥ʲΤ줾ˤĤơθ餤ˤƶĴΰ̣ȯãΤθϺǤϤɤٴ뤫ˤĤ䤦ƤߤƤۤ
| Intensifier | Example Phrase | Earlier Meaning | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | abominably | abominably tired | (excite disgust) |
| 2. | amazingly | amazingly dull | (cause to lose wits) |
| 3. | astonishingly | astonishingly minor | (stun with a blow) |
| 4. | awfully | awfully unimpressive | (cause dread or awe) |
| 5. | confounded | confounded happy | (bring to perdition) |
| 6. | damned | damned pleased | (doomed) |
| 7. | dreadfully | dreadfully small | (excite dread or awe) |
| 8. | enormously | enormously good | (abnormally evil) |
| 9. | excessively | excessively happy | (go beyond just limits) |
| 10. | extraordinarily | extraordinarily normal | (beyond the ordinary) |
| 11. | extravagantly | extravagantly unambitious | (wander beyond bounds) |
| 12. | extremely | extremely limited | (uttermost) |
| 13. | fabulously | fabulously cheap | (fabled) |
| 14. | fantastically | fantastically real | (exist in imagination) |
| 15. | full | full weary | (complete) |
| 16. | frightfully | frightfully boring | (full of horror) |
| 17. | grandly | grandly expensive | (great) |
| 18. | greatly | greatly exhausted | (great) |
| 19. | hideously | hideously expensive | (excite terror) |
| 20. | horribly | horribly expensive | (excite horror) |
| 21. | horridly | horridly embarrassed | (excite horror) |
| 22. | hugely | hugely amused | (immense) |
| 23. | immensely | immensely unimportant | (large beyond measure) |
| 24. | immoderately | immoderately hungry | (beyond limits) |
| 25. | incredibly | incredibly real | (not to be believed) |
| 26. | intensely | intensely tired | (stretched) |
| 27. | magnificently | magnificently pleased | (greatness of achievement) |
| 28. | marvelously | marvelously stupid | (miraculous) |
| 29. | might(il)y | mighty weak | (power) |
| 30. | monstrously | monstrously excited | (deviating from natural) |
| 31. | outrageously | outrageously ordinary | (exceeding limits) |
| 32. | perfectly | perfectly stupid | (complete in all senses) |
| 33. | pretty | pretty ugly | (firm, nice, proper) |
| 34. | powerful | powerful tired | (force,influence) |
| 35. | really | really imaginative | (objective existence) |
| 36. | right | right foolish | (what is good) |
| 37. | simply | simply confusing | (without complication) |
| 38. | sore(ly) | sore(ly) afraid | (cause pain) |
| 39. | stupendously | stupendously alert | (struck senseless) |
| 40. | tremendously | tremendously calm | (excite trembling) |
| 41. | terribly | terribly pleased | (excite terror) |
| 42. | terrifically | terrifically happy | (excite terror) |
| 43. | vastly | vastly insignificant | (of great dimensions) |
| 44. | very | very false | (true, real) |
| 45. | violently | violently opposed | (producing injury) |
| 46. | wonderfully | wonderfully boring | (causing astonishment) |
| 47. | wondrously | wondrously tedious | (causing astonishment) |
εʸˡˤϡǤ̤ΤȤǤäƤ will ѤʤȤब롥㤨СIf it rains tomorrow, we will stay home. Τ褦ʸ˸褦ˡif ξǤϡפΤȤˤ⤫餺ư˸߷ rains ѤƤ롥̤ɽ魯 will ٸΤ顤°Ǥ will ޤΤ;Ǥ롤ʤɤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬Τ褦Ūˤʤ
ѸˤϡǤϡޤ¾Ǥưľˡ (indicative) ǤϤʤ³ˡsubjunctive; ߤβˡˤη֤äʸǤСѸޤǤ if Ǥľˡ߷3ñ -s դ rains ǤϤʤ³ˡ߷ʸѸѸǤϲˡ߷ˤ rain Τ̤ä֤⤷ʤСפǤСif it be fine tomorrow Τ褦ľˡ is ǤϤʤ³ˡ be ѤΤǤ롥
Ť̤ΤȤؼΤ̤ will Ѥ٤ȤȯۤϤʤषɽ魯Τ³ˡưѤ٤Ȥռä衤Ѹλ (tense) Υƥˤ̤ȤΤʹϤʤʸߤ̤ޤˤ2ζ̤ʤäȤط롥̤ϸ߷ѤƤΤǤꡤ³ˡָߡȤСϼưṲ̄ؼ뤳ȤǤˤƶռ줿Τϡ̤Ȥ֤Ȥ⡤ƬΤʤǤΡߤײǽˤĤƤäζŪʴϡ̤νȤ will Ѥ٤Ǥˤ⤫餺 will ʤΤϤʤפȤռ̻Ūʴϡ will ȤηӤĤϺǽ餫ԺߤäΤǤ롥
ɸפϡѸޤǤ if it rain tomorrow if it be fine tomorrow Τ褦³ˡ߷ѤΤ̤äˤ⤫餺ѸǤϤʤľˡ߷Ѥ if it rains tomorrow if it is fine tomorrow Ȥ褦ˤʤäǤ롥ϱѸˤˤ³ˡ뤤ϲˡοࡤľˡˤִȤ礭ʥơޤΤʤ٤ǤꡤǷڡ˰ȤϤǤʤĴȤϡɸѤʵظˤ䤦٤Ѹ˾礭꤬ǤȤȤǤ롥³ˡߤʤɤΤ褦˶Ѹʹߤ˿षľˡߤ˵ۼƤäȤ礭ʲ꤬Ƥ롥
űѸ -estre, -istre (< Gmc *-strjōn) Ͻιټ̾ (agentive suffix) ǡιټ̾ -ere ΩƤޥ췲˻ȯŪ˸ǡMLG -(e)ster, (M)D and ModFrisian -ster ƱHG, OS, OFrisian ˤʸڤʤűѸ줫θȤƤ hlēapestre (female dancer), hoppestre (female dancer), lǣrestre (female teacher), lybbestre (female poisoner, witch), miltestre (harlot), sangestre (songstress), sēamstre (seamstress, sempstress), webbestre (female weaver) ʤɤ롥¤ˡˤΤäȤꡤѸˤ spinnestre (spinster) ʤɤƤ롥Ѹʹߡޤǡ16ޤǤˤǤ⡤˸¤餺Ū˹ټ̾Ȥȯã㤨С1300ǯǽ줿 Cursor Mundi Ǥϡdemere ǤϤʤ demestre ̤˴طʤȽ (judge) ΰ̣Ѥ줿ˤ seamster songster ñȤǤ˽ζ̤Ĥʤʤꡤ̤Ĥ٤ -ess ä seamstress songstress 줿
-ster ϡñʤư̾ -er ФơŪʴްդäƿȤ佬ɽ魯 (ex. fraudster, gamester, gangster, jokester, mobster, punster, rhymester, speedster, slickster, tapster, teamster, tipster, trickster) ηŪʶϡƥͳǤϤ뤬Ūټ̾ -aster Υͥƥʴްդαƶͤ (cf. criticaster, poetaster) -ster ƻղäȤƤϡoldster, youngster 롥̾Ǥ뤫ͭ̾ȤʤäΤ⤢ꡤ嵭 Webster ΤۤBaxter (baker) ʤɤߤ롥
ۤˤ¿ -ster 줬뤬̾ȤűѸΤϡspinster ΤߤȤʤäƤޤäθˤĤƤϡ̤δ#1908. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (1) ([2014-07-18-1])#1968. ΰ̣ʬʬϡ ([2014-09-16-1]) ǿ줿Τǡ⻲Ȥ줿
դΤ (figure of speech) ΤʤǤ⡤ԤȤΤ (metaphor) Ǥ롥ưʪǤʤΤ˰ػҤΡ֤פȤȤǤʤΤ˿͵μؤơ֥פȤȤʤƤߤ櫓ǤϤʤΤˡִŤȤȤȤѤƤ롥ɽޤ˸ŤƾȤʤäȤˤϡȤκѤۤȤɴʤʤꡤե (dead metaphor) ȸƤФ롥ܸˤѸˤեդƤꡤΰ̣եǤȤޤǸʤۤɤ
metaphor ˤƤϡӤδȤʤ source ӤŬѤ target 2ĤɬפǤ롥ػҤΰǤСsource Ͽʹ֤ưʪεӤǤꡤtarget ϰػҤλ٤ʬǤ롥ʪΤΡȶΤΤǤǡsource target 2Ĥΰۤʤɥᥤ (domain) °Ȥ롥2Ĥϸߤ˴طΤʤΩɥᥤ֤פʤΤβˤäΤ٤ΤΡפȤ塤ǽζ̹ˤꡤξɥᥤ֤˶ͤ롥Τ褦ˡmetaphor ˤɬ餫 (similarity) 롥
#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ ([2015-01-28-1]) Ƥ줿 Williams ϡmetaphor ˭٤ͿƤƤ (184--85) ʲθäϡ츫Ȥ metaphor ȰռʤΤФθŪȯŸޤǤ롥줾ˤĤơ source Dz target ʤΤ2ĤΥɥᥤϤ줾첿ϤȤʤäƤ붦̹ϲõäƤ餤ե˶ᤤΡ˺ƤȤܤΤˤĤƤϡθȤθ줾첿ˤĤƥҥȤͿƤʤä f. ȤΤϸɽ魯ˤΤǡȤʤθ줿
1. abstract (f. draw away from)
2. advert (f. turn to)
3. affirm (f. make firm)
4. analysis (f. separate into parts)
5. animal (You animal!)
6. bright (a bright idea)
7. bitter (sharp to the taste: He is a bitter person)
8. brow (the brow of a hill)
9. bewitch (a bewitching aroma)
10. bat (You old bat!)
11. bread (I have no bread to spend)
12. blast (We had a blast at the party)
13. blow up (He blew up in anger)
14. cold (She was cold to me)
15. cool (Cool it,man)
16. conceive (f. to catch)
17. conclude (f. to enclose)
18. concrete (f. to grow together)
19. connect (f. to tie together)
20. cut (She cut me dead)
21. crane (the derrick that resembles the bird)
22. compose (f. to put together)
23. comprehend (f. seize)
24. cat (She's a cat)
25. dig (I dig that idea)
26. deep (deep thoughts)
27. dark (I'm in the dark on that)
28. define (f. place limits on)
29. depend (f. hang from)
30. dog (You dog!)
31. dirty (a dirty mind)
32. dough (money)
33. drip (He's a drip)
34. drag (This class is a drag)
35. eye (the eye of a hurricane)
36. exist (f. stand out)
37. explain (f. make flat)
38. enthrall (f. to make a slave of)
39. foot (foot of a mountain)
40. fuzzy (I'm fuzzy headed)
41. finger (a finger of land)
42. fascinate (f. enchant by witchcraft)
43. flat (a flat note)
44. get (I don't get it)
45. grasp (I grasped the concept)
46. guts (He has a lot of guts)
47. groove (I'm in the groove)
48. gas (It was a gasser)
49. grab (How does the idea grab you?)
50. high (He got high on dope)
51. hang (He's always hung up)
52. heavy (I had a heavy time)
53. hot (a hot idea)
54. heart (the heart of the problem)
55. head (head of the line)
56. hands (hands of the clock)
57. home (drive the point home)
58. jazz (f. sexual activity)
59. jive (I don't dig this jive)
60. intelligent (f. bring together)
61. keen (f. intelligent)
62. load (a load off my mind)
63. long (a long lime)
64. loud (a loud color)
65. lip (lip of the glass)
66. lamb (She's a lamb)
67. mouth (mouth of a cave)
68. mouse (You're a mouse)
69. milk (He milked the job dry)
70. pagan (f. civilian, in distinction to Christians, who called themselves soldiers of Christ)
71. pig (You pig)
72. quiet (a quiet color)
73. rip-off (It was a big rip-off)
74. rough (a rough voice)
75. ribs (the ribs of a ship)
76. report (f. to carry back)
77. result (f. to spring back)
78. shallow (shallow ideas)
79. soft (a soft wind)
80. sharp (a sharp dresser)
81. smooth (a smooth operator)
82. solve (f. to break up)
83. spirit (f. breath)
84. snake (You snake!)
85. straight (He's a straight guy)
86. square (He's a square)
87. split (Let's split)
88. turn on (He turns me on)
89. trip (It was a bad (drug) trip)
90. thick (a voice thick with anger)
91. thin (a thin sound)
92. tongue (a tongue of land)
93. translate (f. carry across)
94. warm (a warm color)
95. wrestle (I wrestled with the problem)
96. wild (a wild idea)
ƥͳθ줬¿ޤޤƤ뤬̤¿ǤʤƥѸϡαѸǤϡʸŵƥˤƤ˸ȤѤ⡤ŪȯŸѤ뤳ȤΤۤ¿Τ̤ưʪɽ魯Ȥ source Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿ (synaesthesia) λ¿ޤŪʸ¯Ūʶ⾯ʤʤ
Τ褦ȤˤϤħ졤̸Ūˤѻ뤳Ȥ顤̣ѲΰŪ뤳ȤǽȤʤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1])#1955. ̣ѲΰŪ ([2014-09-03-1])#2101. Williams ΰ̣Ѳ ([2015-01-27-1]) ʤɤεȡ
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
420դǡWEBޥ Lingua 졼Ϣܡdzؤ֥ѥѽˡμɮ֥ѥõѸαƺԡεǺܤޤϡΥ졼ϢܤȻεˤĤƾҲ𤷤ޤ *
Ϣܡּdzؤ֥ѥѽѡפϥѥѽ鿴ԸΥ˥Хǡ͡ʸظԤо줷פļŪ˥ѥѤˡ⤷Ƥ椯ǤǤ20εǺܤƤꡤѥδܤϤޤꡤƼΥѥξҲѤΥġ㸦桤˻ޤǡѥ˴Ϣ͡ʻǫ˲⤵ƤޤʲˡƵؤΥĥäƤޤ
1. ʤѥ ֿܡ
2. Ѹ쥳ѥθĥ BNCweb Ƥߤ ԡ а桡
3. Ѹ쥳ѥθĥ BNCweb Ƥߤ ʸԡ а桡
4. Google ѥ˸ΩƤ ʿβʡ
5. פδáԡˡ ٺθ ʾӡͺϺ
6. פδáʸԡˡ ʾӡͺϺ
7. ѥѤŤƿΰ衧ե쥤 ʰ塡͡
8. ѥѤŤƿΰ衧ե쥤 ʰ塡͡
9. ؽԥѥȤϲ ʳҡΡ
10. ؽԥѥDzǤΤ ʳҡΡ
11. ѥ륳ѥβǽ ʿβʡ
12. ܸ쥳ѥ˸봷Ѷˡ ġץꥷ
13. ܸ쥳ѥ˸봷ѶѲǽ ġץꥷ
14. COCA Ȥäθ ġ͡
15. COCA Ȥäθ ġ͡
16. ѥäդõ롡 ڡ
17. ѥäդõ롡 ڡ
18. ؽԤäեѥȤäʬϡ1ɸ well, I mean, kind of, like λȤ ʻ
19. ؽԤäեѥȤäʬϡ2㤤ʪǤɽ ʻ
20. ǧθؤѤƥѥ̣õ롽 ëľˡʢ2015/05/18(Mon)˥ɲá
21. ǧθؤѤƥѥ̣õ롽 ֻ졦ư ëľˡʢ2015/05/18(Mon)˥ɲá
22. ѥõѸαƺԡ ġδ
23. ѥõѸαƺԡ ġδˡʢ2015/05/21(Thu)˥ɲá
νϡѥѤƱѸαƺˤĤƹͤ褦Ȥݤǡߤϸ奤ꥹѸȸ奢ꥫѸζŪӤǤ2ѼоȤäƤŪطʤ̻Ūʻ礫ʤȤȤĴƤޤϡִԡפǤäơѸαƺäƤνƺĴѤǤ륳ѥҲ𤷤Ƥޤ
ʲΥ졼Ϣܤεȹ碌ɤͭѤȻפܥ֥ε˥ĥޤۤˤ⥳ѥѤˤĤƤ corpus εѸαƺˤĤƤ ame_bre ε⤴Ȥ
#1730. AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-21-1])
#1739. AmE-BrE Diachronic Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-30-1])
#1743. ICE Frequency Comparer ([2014-02-03-1])
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#607. Google Books Ngram Viewer ([2010-12-25-1])
#517. ICE 7ϰѼ拾ѥ ([2010-09-26-1])
#1278. BNC 濴Ȥ륳ѥϢΥ ([2012-10-26-1])
#307. ѥѤ ([2010-02-28-1])
#367. ѥѤ (2) ([2010-04-29-1])
#368. ѥϸβǽ ([2010-04-30-1])
#240. ֻαƺ礭 ([2009-12-23-1])
#244. ֻαƺΥꥹȡ ([2009-12-27-1])
#312. ʸˡαƺ ([2010-03-05-1])
#315. ꥹѸϥꥫѸ٤ݼŪ ([2010-03-08-1])
#357. American English or British English? ([2010-04-19-1])
#627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ ([2011-01-14-1])
#628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ (2) ([2011-01-15-1])
#677. Ѹˤˡưο ([2011-03-05-1])
#880. ˤ⥤ꥹѸ졤ˤ⥢ꥫѸñ ([2011-09-24-1])
#1010. ѸαƺˤĤ Martinet ΰ ([2012-02-01-1])
#1221. ˡ ([2012-08-30-1])
#1304. ꥫѸΡݼס ([2012-11-21-1])
#1331. äαƺ뤿νѸ ([2012-12-18-1])
#1343. ѸαƺʼȤȯȸáˡ ([2012-12-30-1])
Υ졼ϢܵϡִԡפǤϡּԡפǺܤͽǤ
եؽԤեˤ̾ưȤƥ뤬ѸˤϤʤΤϤʤȤǤ롥ŪˤϡMa mere se lève tôt. ʻˤΤ褦ʸˤ롤se leve ʬ̾ưȤ졤ֺƵ̾ưפȤ¤ʤƤ롥ѸˤʤСMy mother raises herself early. ȤɽǤ롥̤αѸǤ rise get up ʤɤưѤȤǡեǤ̾ưȤȤΤ¿ޤɥĸǤ Du hast dich gar nicht verändert. (You haven't changed at all) Τ褦ˡֺƵ̾ưפ褯Ѥ̾ưŪɽȯãƤȤ롥
Τ褦ɽϵŪˤϰĸ (middle_voice) ˡ̤ꡤäưˤ¿쾯ʤбʪ¸ߤ롥ºݡѸˤ help oneself, behave oneself, pride oneself on ʤɺƵ̾ư줬¤ʤɽ¿롥ѸǤϥե̾ưΤ褦ư1ƥȤߤۤɤˤȯãƤʤȤΤϻ¤ˤΤϡȤ̤ȤȤˤʤ롥ѸǺƵ̾ѤưɽΩʤΤϤʤ
εΤ˲褦Ȥк٤Ĵɬפ뤬绨ĤˤСѸǤŤϺƵ̾ȼưɽä˭٤ˤäȤȤǤ롥¾ưܺƵ̾פΤߤʤ餺ּưܺƵ̾פι¤ŤϤä¿Ԥϡ#578. go him ([2010-11-26-1]) #1392. ͿʤκƵ̾ ([2013-02-17-1]) ǸȤǤ롥Τ褦ʹ¤ʤư췲ˤϸʩȸȤӤΤ¿ưɽ魯ư (ex. go, return, run, sit, stand, turn) Ū֤ɽ魯ư (ex. doubt, dread, fear, remember) ɽ魯ư (buy, choose, get, make, procure, seek, seize, steal) ¾ (bear, bethink, rest, revenge, sport, stay) äȤΤ褦ɽ϶Ѹʹߤ˽Ѥ졤Ƶ̾æ˻ä
ѸǤƵ̾æĬή塹³Ƥ롥㤨Сadjust (oneself) to, behave (oneself), dress (oneself), hide (oneself), identify (oneself) with, prepare (oneself) for, prove (oneself) (to be), wash (oneself), worry (oneself) ʤɤǤϡƵ̾Τʤñʹ¤ޤ뷹롥Quirk et al. (358) ϡΤ褦ư "semi-reflexive verb" ȸƤǤ롥
ʾޤȤСѸޤǤϰĸͳ褹Ūʷ֤٤ޤݻȯŸƤʹߤƵŪʷִ֤ƤȤѸˤƤοबʤΤȤ櫓ʤѸȤߥΤˤĤƤϡʤĴɬפǤ롥Ƶ̾η֤ -self ᤹褦ˤʤꡤŪ˽ŤʤäȤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤʱѸˤˤƺƵ̾줬 -self ޤͭη֤߽ФΤѸʹߤǤꡤ⤽ʸζѸǤ⡤-self ޤޤʤ̤ο;̾äƺƵ̾ѤƤȤա#1851. Ƶ̾ oneself ͳˤĤƤν ([2014-05-22-1]) ȡˡ뤤ϡñΤưФ̣ŪʺʬϤȤȤ⤢ʣŪʻ٤Τ褦˻פ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ε#2183. ñȥեñ (1) ([2015-04-19-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥϡʩбη̣Υ٤(1) äμѲ (borrowing) ˵꤬ʸݤܤϡ(2) եäμѤλȤθθѲ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäեȤ2ĤλƳ롥
ޤ (2) ˤĤơѸȥեбӤȤ´κθϡֺǤ롥䤿ӤƤΤϡ̾ѸȸեбǤ롥եñ줬ѸؼѤ줿Τϡ¿ѸˤƤǤ (cf. #117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])) Ĥޤꡤ6--8ۤΥեä6--8ۤαѸήεǤߤ褦ˡμѲˤƤ model Ȥʤեñ loan ȤʤñΤ¿ΥåפΤ̤äΤǤ뤫顤ޤƤФˤξбɤ̣ˤƥԥäȰפʤΤ϶äȤǤϤʤ6--8Τˡθη̣ϡե¦ǤѸ¦ǤȼѲƤǽ⤤
㤨СѸ doubt ϥե douter б뤬ֻϰۤʤ롥ñֻ <b> ƤΤϱѸˤǤꡤֻϥեǤ夷ʤä (cf. #1187. etymological respelling ζ ([2012-07-27-1])) ޤե journée ϡ1פΰ̣бѸ journey ϡιԡפǤ롥ѸǤѸˤϡ1פθäˡ1ΰưΥפФơιԡפθȯŸȤȤθѤ줿λ֤СäȤ줬ΤϤΤȡ鸫ǤϤбΤȵ虜ʤۤɡߤˤΥ줿ؤȯŸǽ롥
ˡ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäեȤ˽פǤ롥ǯǤϤʤäȤΥåפ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤եѤθɬեɸեˤǤϤʤȤ¤롥䤿ؽ븽եΥեͳ褷Ƥ뤬Ȥ櫓Ѹ˱Ѹ줬Ѥեä¿ϼ¤ϥե˹ԤƤΥޥե (norman_french) Ǥ (cf. #1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])) פˡΡ¤äץեñ줬ñȤƼѤƸߤ˻äƤΤǤꡤȸɸեȤӤȤˡ줬ΤǤ롥ΥեüԤλ鸽Ѹбįȡ֤ʤѸΤΡ¤äեñѤƤΤפȼʤ롥ŪʻˤĤƤϡ#76. Norman French vs Central French ([2009-07-13-1])#95. ޤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2009-07-31-1])#388. äȤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2010-05-20-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
ʾ塤2ˤ錄äƱñȥեñθˤĤƲ⤷ƤξԤΥåפϡ(1) ѲΤΤ˵Τ⤢С(2) Ѥ夬ΤȤǤꡤθξŪȯŸη̤ȤƤȤ館⤢뤷(3) μѥեɸäȤ¤ˤΤ⤢롥ñȸեñȤʿŪįƤǤϸƤʤΩŪʱԤѸˤ̤ƴƤ餤
Ѹ˳μȤʤɤǡѸθäˤ¿Υեñ줬ޤޤƤ뤫ˤȡʹϰͤ˶ä绨ĤˤäƱѸä1/3ե줢뤤ϤοƸǤƥ줫μѸǤ롥Ϣ뤤ĤפˤĤƤϡ#110. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-15-1]) ӡ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) ƬĥäȤ줿
λ¤ʹȡѸȥե˶̤ä¿Τϡñ줬ե̤¿褦ߤαѸŪͥޤܸˤ¿αѸäήƤ¤ͤСե줬¿αñѤƤϤȤΤ̵Ϥʤ
ѸˤȤмºݤˤϵդǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ū˱Ѹ줬եñ̤˼ѤƤ椨ˡ̤Ȥξ˶̤θä¿ΤǤ롥üŪˤС1066ǯΥΥޥ (norman_conquest) ˤꡤɤΰҿ줬Ѹ줫եذܤäˡ̤Υե줫̤αѸؤȸä̤ήȤȤǤ롥ʱѸ줬եͿƶȤλϡŪˤŪ˵Ǥ롥#1026. 18Ѹ줫եäѸ ([2012-02-17-1])#1012. ˤѸ줫եؤαƶ ([2012-02-03-1]) ȡ
եǤ⤫äȤΤԤǤСʩǶ̤ϳΤ¿ɡ̣ߤˤƤȤ㤬ʤʤȤ˵ŤбäϤΤ̩ˡƱפǤ櫓ǤϤʤˤꡤfalse_friend (Fr. "faux amis") ꤬뤳Ȥˤʤ (cf. #390. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset (2) ([2010-05-22-1])) ե¦ model ȱѸ¦ loan Ȥδ֤ˡ̣Τ줬ƤޤΤϡäʤmodel loan ȤѸˤĤƤϡ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) ȡˡ
䤤ˤϡ(1) äμѲ (borrowing) ˵꤬ʸݡ(2) եäμѤλȤθθѲ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäեȤ3ˤĤƤɬפ롥ϡ(1) ܤ褦äμѲ˵꤬ʸݤȤϡѸˤη̣¿ʤȤĤƼإԡΤ̤Ǥ뤳ȤޤܤСѸϡȤȯֻ¿쾯ʤηϤŬ礵ήΤ̾Ǥ롥㤨Сեα߿첻 /y/ Ÿɡ /ɲ/ ϡɬ⤽ΤޤޤηDZѸ˼줿ΤǤϤʤ¿ξ礽줾 /ɪʊ/, /nj/ ȤƼޤ줿 (cf. #1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#1727. /ju:/ ε ([2014-01-18-1])) ̯ʺۤǤϤ뤬μѤˤ model Τޤ˥ԡ櫓ǤϤʤȤƤ롥Ѹ /ʃəːt/ (shirt) ܸ /shatsu/ ʥġˤȤƼޤʤɡäդäȤܤǤϡΤ褦ʥ줬Τ϶ˤ̤Ǥ롥
˰̣ܤƤ⡤model loan δ֤ˤϤФХåפѻ롥Ȥ櫓ѤˤƤ model θΰΤߤѤ뤳Ȥ¿̣ϰϤȤƤ model > loan δطΩĤȤ¿ͭ̾ưʪȡѸ beef ϸťե boef, buefѤǤ롥model ˤϵȵξθޤޤ뤬loan ˤϵθޤޤʤǤϥեñ줬̣̾DZѸؼѤƤʤ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1])#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1]) ⻲ȡˡƱͤˡѸ room ϡ֥롼פȤθˤܸäƤ뤬;Ϥθϡ֥롼פˤϤʤ
ǵƤǤϡñȥեñδ֤κۤϤäȤƤŪΤäեؽˤƽвñαʩ֤ΥȰ´ϡФФä礭õˤϡ(2) (3) λȤɬפǤ롥ˤĤƤϡεǡ
ǯ٤ʤΤǡȤDZѸˤγʤɤҲ𤹤뵡뤬Ѹˤ֡̾Ȥ Baugh and Cable Ǥʤۤˤϡ#1445. Ѹ˳ν ([2013-04-11-1]) ⻲ȡˡ#2089. Baugh and Cable αѸ˳ܼ ([2015-01-15-1]) 2013ǯ˽Ǥ줿6ǤܼҲ𤷤Ǥϡ6ǤԤ5ǤɤΤ褦ѲΤξǤӤĤˤȡΤ褦ʰƱǧȤ
(1) 12ϤȤơ21˸Ѹ䤽¾ιŪʸ˴ؤϤդä졤͡ʸŪץˤŪʣȤäޤʤƤ롥(2) ѲˤĤơץä졤3ϤθűѸ졤7ϤѸγƾϤǾҲ𤵤Ƥ롥(3) ͥαѸˤĤơѥŪʥץäƤ롥(4) accent register ˴ؤ륻äƤ롥(5) եꥫϹͱѸδ creolists neo-Anglicists ˴ؤǿεäƤ롥(6) ιʤƤ롥
ĤˤȡѸεҤŪʤȡ38ˤƸűѸ濴Ȥλ˵äѲβ⤬ܤƤꡤˡ§ʸμפʲѲĤˤĤʤ褦ʹפʤƤȤѸ7ϤƬʡ111--12ˤǤ⡤ǤˤϤߤʤäѸβѲŪ˲⤵ƤꡤʬǤκǿθ̤ȿǤ줿Τȹͤ롥
21αѸ졤뤤ϱѸ̤褦ʾɲäϡǯФ줿Ѹ˳˶̤ħǤ롥ҲŪʻ˭٤˼ƤΤǶηѥؤθˤĤƤϡäȼƤ褤ΤǤϤʤȻפ줯餤˥ѥѤοŸBaugh and Cable νѤ餺˭٤ǡŤǤ롥
Ѹˤ֤γˤϡᤤʳǤɤᤷޤ
ۤ˱Ѹ˳ܼꡤʲε⻲ȡ
#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1])
#2038. Fennell αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-11-25-1])
#2050. Knowles αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-12-07-1])
ǦֿҲAlbert C. BAUGH & Thomas CABLE, A History of the English Language, Sixth edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ, Pearson, 2013, 446+xviii p., $174.07ס5桤2013ǯ159ǡ
űѸ첻ˤϡû첻 (short vowel)Ĺ첻 (long vowel)첻 (diphthong) 3ब̤롥첻ˤûΤĹΤ롥ʲޤûĹ첻ޤûĹ첻ɽ魯

ޤûĹ첻ߤƤȡѸ٤С̤첻ʬμʲǡˤϾʤ (cf. #1601. Ѹܸ첻ΰӡ ([2013-09-14-1])ˡĹ첻бû첻̤Τޤ䤷ΤǤꡤΰ㤤ϤʤΤȹͤƤ롥첻ˤʿ i(ː) ȱ߿ y(ː) ̤뤬߿ y(ː) ϸȥ (Late West-Saxon) Ǥʿ i(ː) Ȥʤä
˱ޤ첻ߤȡ̤̤ˤС3첻뤳Ȥ狼롥i(ː)e, e(ː)o, æ(ː)a ϡ夫鲼뤤ȤäƤꡤ1Ǥ2Ǥ첻 (falling diphthong) ȹͤ롥i(ː)e ˤĤƤϡ첻ǤϤʤ i e Ū첻ɽ路ƤȤ븫⤢롥Mitchell and Robinson (15) ˤȡ
The original pronunciation of ie and īe is not known with any certainty. It is simplest and most convenient for our purposes to assume that they represented diphthongs as explained above. But by King Alfred's time ie was pronounced as a simple vowel (monophthong), probably a vowel somewhere between i and e; ie is often replaced by i or y, and unstressed i is often replaced by ie, as in hiene for hine. Probably īe had a similar sound.
űѸβѲθȤĤâɬפȤʤ뤬οޤ˽С7ñûĹ2ˡܡ3첻ûĹ2ˤȤȤǷ20ۤɤ첻̤ƤȤˤʤ롥#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸɸѼǤ20첻Ǥ̤Ƥ뤫顤餤иűѸ첻ηϤ⤪褽ƱϤäȤˤʤ롥
Mitchell, Bruce and Fred C. Robinson. A Guide to Old English. 8th ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
ʲϡMitchell and Robinson A Guide to Old English (179) ˷ǺܤƤ롤ѸȤƤۤܤΤޤɤűѸʸϤǤ롥
Harold is swift. His hand is strong and his word grim. Late in līfe hē went tō his wīfe in Rōme.
Is his inn open? His cornbin is full and his song is writen.
Grind his corn for him and sing mē his song.
Hē is dēad. His bed is under him. His lamb is dēaf and blind. Hē sang for mē.
Hē swam west in storme and winde and froste.
Bring ūs gold. Stand ūp and find wīse men.
ǯ٤νμȤǸűѸƳĤǾʸϤȡ˸ȤˤʤѸȤǤäʸˡǶˤǤäʸϤǤꡤºݤˤϡۤȤɰ´ʤɤƤޤΤ褦ʸűѸʸ˽вϤޤȸ虜ʤűѸȸѸ줬ǯʾλ֤ƤϢʤȤĤʤäƤ뤳ȤϡʸϤ餫Ǥ롥ϤꡤѸϱѸǤ롥
³ơܤϸѸȤΥƤ뤬¿θűѸȯ§ؤȯƤߤȸѸζˤ褽̤褽ǽȤűѸʸƤߤ褦 (Mitchell and Robinson 179--80)
Is his þeġn hēr ġīet?
His līnen socc fēoll ofer bord in þæt wæter and scranc.
Hwǣr is his cȳþþ and cynn?
His hring is gold, his disc glæs, and his belt leðer.
Se fisc swam under þæt scip and ofer þone sciellfisc.
His ċicen ran from his horsweġe, ofer his pæð, and in his ġeard.
Se horn sang hlūde: hlysten wē!
Se cniht is on þǣre brycge.
Sēo cwēn went from þǣre ċiriċe.
Hēo siteþ on þǣre benċe.
God is gōd.
Þis trēow is æsc, ac þæt trēow is āc.
Hē wolde begān wiċċecræft, and hē began swā tō dōnne.
Fuhton ȝē manlīċe oþþe mānlīċe?
His smiððe is þām smiðe lēof.
ǯ٤θűѸؼԤΤߤʤɬפϤޤ
Mitchell, Bruce and Fred C. Robinson. A Guide to Old English. 8th ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
#1813. IPA ٵήˤҲʬ ([2014-04-14-1]) ˰³Ĵؤ˴ؤɽˤĤơCarr (xx--xxi) βؤζʽˡĴﴱοޤIPAʬɽڡ˰ƤΤĤΤǡʲåPDFˡ

ä˱ˤٵήˤҲʬɽˤĤơؽΰˤʤ褦ˤȡɽηġʲ˺äƤߤĴؤγؽΰˤɤ
Grice ζĴθ (cooperative_principle) ȲŪް (implicature) ˤĤơ#1122. Ĵθ ([2012-05-23-1])#1133. Ĵθι ([2012-06-03-1])#1134. ĴθˤȤ ([2012-06-04-1])#1976. ŪްդȤ¾͡ʴްա ([2014-09-24-1])#1984. ŪްդỌ̇̄Ѳ ([2014-10-02-1]) ʤɤεˤƤGrice ϸ˳̿⤿餷θθοŸˤ礭ʱƶڤܤʤǤ⿷饤 (Neo-Gricean) ˤȯŸܤͤ롥
饤ɤ Laurence R. Horn ϡGrice ε4Ĥθ (Quality, Quantity, Relation, Manner) 2ĤθؤȺQ[uantity]-principle R[elation]-principle ȤǤ롥ξ꼰ϡʲ̤Ǥ (Huang 38 )
Horn's Q- and R-principles
a. The Q-principle
Make your contribution sufficient;
Say as much as you can (given the R-principle)
b. The R-principle
Make your contribution necessary;
Say no more than you must (given the Q-principle)
Q-principle Ϥ¿ξ褦Ȥ븶ǤꡤR-principle Ϥ꾯ʤǺѤޤ褦Ȥ븶Ǥ롥δϡäθȤξΤ礤ˤۤʤʤˤϸѤˤ "most effective, least effort" λۤȿǤƤꡤѤηкŪʸǤ른åפˡ§Zipf's Lawcf. #1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])ˤȤط롥Huang (39--40) ۩
Viewing the Q- and R-principles as mere instantiations of Zipfian economy . . ., Horn explicitly identified the Q-principle ('a hearer-oriented economy for the maximization of informational content') with Zipf's Auditor's Economy (the Force of Diversification) and the R-principle ('a speaker-oriented economy for the minimization of linguistic form') with Zipf's Speaker's Economy (the Force of Unification).
ợѲɽŪʼȤơ̲ (generalization) ü첽 (specialization) 롥줾ζϡ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])#2060. ̣Ѹ콸ˤߤ̣Ѳʬ ([2014-12-17-1])#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ ([2015-01-28-1]) ǵ̤Ǥꡤ֤ʤǤϡ̣ΰ̲ü첽饤ɤθΩ줫顤줾 R-principle Q-principle бΤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤܤ
줬̣ΰ̲Фȡ줬Ѥʸ̮¿ʤ뤬Ūˤθξ̤Ͼʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ̣ΰ̲ȤϾ̤ʤ뤳ȤǤ롥ȡβϡɬǾ¤ξͿФ褤Ȥ R-principleʤä¦ηкѤˤäưŤƤ˰㤤ʤ
ǡ줬̣ü첽Фȡ줬Ѥʸ̮Ͼʤʤ뤬Ūˤθξ̤礭ʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ̣ü첽ȤϾ̤礭ʤ뤳ȤǤ롥ȡβϡǤ¿ξͿ褦Ȥ Q-principleʤʹ¦ηкѤˤäưŤƤ˰㤤ʤ (Luján 293--95)
Τ褦ʤȤ館ϡ̣ѲˤĤƸΩ줫ǤǽƤ롥
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
Luján, Eugenio R. "Semantic Change." Chapter 16 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum International, 2010. 286--310.
#2175. Ūʰ̣ѲؤȽ ([2015-04-11-1]) εMcMahon (184--86) ϡ̣ѲϤǡϤŪʰ̣Ѳ⤷ʤ⡤ФȽ깭Ƥ롥εȽŤʤƤ¿McMahon εʹƤߤ褦
ޤŪʰ̣ѲˤƤϡ̲ (generalization)ü첽 (specialization) (pejoration)ɲ (amelioration) Τۤե (metaphor)ȥ˥ߡ (metonymy)ά (ellipsis)ָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ʤɤΥפФж̤뤬Ǹ2Ĥϸ̩ˤϰ̣ѲμǤϤʤ̣ˤŪ˱ƶڤܤ֤ѲȤ٤ΤǤꡤŪʰ̣ˤ̣ѲˤʤС semasiological Ȥ onomasiological ʴ˴ؤΤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1]) ǤȽŪ
ˡʣΰ̣Ѳμब¸뤳ȤǤ롥㤨Сָ̱츻ȤƤФм夲븽Ѹ belfry (bell-tower) Ǥϡ (bell) ˤäƾϰɽ "pars pro toto" Υȥ˥ߡʤ뤤 (synecdoche)ˤѤƤ롥ΰ̣Ѳʬष褦ȤСָ̱츻Ǥ⤢ꡤĥȥ˥ߡǤ⤢ȤȤˤʤꡤȤȤϳ餵ФǤϤʤȤϪ褷Ƥ롥ΤȤϤޤ̣Ѳθᥫ˥बˤʣǤ뤳ȡͽ¬ԲǽǤ뤳Ȥ롥
ǸˡƤˤꤢ̣ѲμबԤ줿櫓ǤϤʤ礱Ƥ롥äȤ̣ѲμǤ䤷ƤФ褤ȤΤǤʤ⤽Ȥ뤳ȤǤΤȤϤ롥
ɤΤȤιۤΤϡ(1) ̣ѲҲʸȤʤеҡǤʤȤ¿(2) Ե§ͽ¬ԲǽǤꡤ(3) Ụ̄ŪפʶŪʤɤˤޤ夤˵褦˻פ롥
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Ѳ٤δطˤĤƤϡ#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis ([2012-09-17-1])#1243. ٤θ̻ŪΤˡ ([2012-09-21-1])#1265. ٤ȲѲνδط˵ŤƤ Schuchardt ([2012-10-13-1])#1864. ȴդٸ̡ ([2014-06-04-1]) ʤɤǵƤεǤϡٸٸǤϤɤ餬˸Ѳ˴ޤ뤫ʤɤνꡤ뤤ϥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) ˼㤬äȤ̤ˡٸ줢뤤ٸˤʤѲǤȤष䤹ѲǤȤΤ褦ʤȤϤΤ
Ѥ Fortson (659) ϡʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) ٤δطˤĤƤ뤬ȤƤξԤδ֤شطϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥Ĥޤꡤʸˡ̣ѲϹٸˤѤ뤷ٸˤƱ褦˺Ѥ롥ˡ٤ȤװƳɬפϤʤȤ
We have seen, then, that both frequent and infrequent forms can be reanalyzed; both frequent and infrequent forms can be grammaticalized. If all these things happen, then frequency loses much or all of its force as an explanatory tool or condition of semantic change and grammaticalization. The reasons are not surprising, and underscore the sources of semantic change again. Frequent exposure to an irregular morpheme, for example (such as English is, are), can insure the acquisition of that morpheme because it is a discrete physical entity whose form is not in doubt to a child. By contrast, no matter how frequent a word is, its semantic representation always has to be inferred. Classical Chinese shì was a demonstrative pronoun that was subsequently reanalyzed as a copula; exposure to shì must have been very frequent to language learners, but so must have been the chances for reanalysis.
Fortson Τ褦˼ĥΤϡε#2175. Ūʰ̣ѲؤȽ ([2015-04-11-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡ̣ѲˤϡФпƤ褦Ϣ³ϤʤषϢ³ŪʤΤǤȹͤƤ뤫Ǥϡʸˡ̣Ѳ¾θѲۤʤ櫓ǤϤʤٸ줢뤤ٸɤȤǤϤʤȤ٤ͿƤ뤫Τ褦˸ȤС diffusion (or transition) μˤƤǤäơimplementation μˤ٤δͿϤʤȡϡ#1872. Constant Rate Hypothesis ([2014-06-12-1]) ۵ѲѤǤ롥
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. "An Approach to Semantic Change." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003. 648--66.
#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])#2060. ̣Ѹ콸ˤߤ̣Ѳʬ ([2014-12-17-1])#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ ([2015-01-28-1]) ʤɤǡŪʰ̣ѲߤƤȤ櫓ɤγˤФƤ̣Ѳ4ϡ[2010-08-13-1]Ǽ夲̲ (generalization)ü첽 (specialization) (pejoration)ɲ (amelioration) Ǥ롥ŪʬǤϡǽ2ĤؼоݤϰϤγ̾Ȥ denotation μ˴ؤꡤ2ĤŪɾιȤ connotation μ˴ؤäƤ롥2ĤμΤߤǥѥäڤڤ̣ɤƤΤ̣ѲȤФ4郎ɬڤ롥
Τʬ䤹ǤϤ뤬4ΤˤƤϤޤʤ̣ѲϿ¿ǧƤꡤФȽˤ餵ƤΤ¤Ǥ롥㤨С̾Ǥ count one's beads ˤ beads (cf. #1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])) ηФ̣Ѳϡ4Τˤ⤢ƤϤޤʤŪϡޤŪǤʤϳ줬¿ȤȽȤʤޤ̣Ѳü첽Ǥ⤢갭Ǥ⤢ʤɤΤ褦ˡ2ĤζʬƱˤƤϤޤäƤޤ⾯ʤʤϡΤ꤬뤳ȤʪäƤ롥
⤦1ĤȽȤơ̲䰭ʤɤѸϡΰ̣ѲˤAȿBȤỤ̄뤤ϴỤ̄бط̾դŪʥ٥ˤȤɤޤäƤ롤ȤΤ롥ºݤˤϰ̣ѲΤΤưŪʲǤꡤΤꤿΤϤβɤΤ褦ʤΤǤ뤫ǤϤˤĤƾ嵭Υ٥ϲⶵƤʤȡʴϢȤơ#2101. Williams ΰ̣Ѳ ([2015-01-27-1]) ȡ
ŦȽԤ1ͤǤ Fortson (650) ϡưŪʲȤʬ (reanalysis) ˤۤʤʤǸ롥ʬϤϸѼԤοŪʲǤꡤ켫ȡ°ʸ˰¸ȤǼҲŪӤӤƤ롥äơѲΰ̣ߤ˴طŤͼϡ4ĤۤɤγǰǤޤȤۤñǤϤʤष¿ͤʤϤǤ롥λ¤ʤƤޤǡ경ŪΩʤFortson (652) μĥϼ̤Ǥ롥
. . . a fundamental flaw of most categorizations of semantic change is that they rest upon the assumption that an old meaning becomes the new meaning, that there is some real connection between the two. As these and other examples show, however, this assumption is false; a connection between the new and old meanings is illusory. The set of meanings in a speaker's head is created afresh just like all the other components of the grammar. It may legitimately be asked how it is, then, that one can seem so often to find a connection between an old and a new meaning. In the case of metonymic change, the question makes little sense. Metonymic changes are so infinitely diverse precisely because . . . the connections are not linguistic; they are cultural. This has in some sense always been known, but when metonymic extension is defined in terms of an "association" of a word becoming the word's new meaning, we can easily forget that the "association" in question is not linguistic in nature.
Fortson ϡ̣ѲΥᥫ˥ˤΤϺʬϤȤϢ³ŪʲǤǤƤꡤŪ˼ĥƤ̣Ѳˤ̣Ϣ³ꤷƤ롥Fortson ΤθϸѲλҶײΩӤƤꡤ줬ɤޤΤϤ狼ʤŪʰ̣Ѳ˲ʤΤȤФ1ĤƤƤ롥
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. "An Approach to Semantic Change." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003. 648--66.
ε#2173. gospel d æ ([2015-04-09-1]) ǡgospel "good + spell" ǤϤʤ "God + spell" ȡָäơײᤵ줿ȤҲ𤷤ָ̱츻ΰǤ롥ָ̱츻ˤĤƤϡޤǤ folk_etymology γƵ sand-blind, bikini/monokini, wedlock, bridegroom, bonfire ʤɤƤ
ָ̱츻ǤϡƱ뤤2ĤηǤδ֤˰̣ŪӤĤ뤳ȤˤäƵ롥ǤС줾 sam- ȾʬΡˤ sand ʺˡbi- ʤ켫Ȥ̵̣ǡˤ bi- 2ĤΡˡ-lāc ư̾ˤ lock ʾˡguma ʿʹ֡ˤ groom ʼԡˡbone ʹˤ bon ɤˤȤӤĤ̤ȤƸԤɽ̣Ԥɽ魯̣̤˽ФƤơߤϤΰ̣뤳Ȥ¿Ƥ뤳Ȥϡ仨Ѥʤ̤θС2ĤƱ۵ (homonymic morphemes) ̣ŪˤĤʤΤΡʤ1Ĥ¿ (polysemic morpheme) ȤƺƲᤵǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ¿ΰȤ뤬θ˺졤üƤޤСṬ̌鿷̣ؤΰ̣ѲȤˤʤ롥ǡָ̱츻ϰ̣Ѳ̩ܤʴطˤ롥
դΤϡָ̱츻ϡ2ĤηǤ̩ƱǤʤȤ⡤Ƥ뤳ȤǤȤǤ롥ºݡ˵¿˸ΤϡƱǤϤʤФˤʤạ̇̄ѲȤϡƱβ (signifiant) б̣ (signifié) Τ¾ΤΤؤ֤뤳ȤǤ롥äơָ̱츻Ọ̇̄ѲδطϤʣָ̱츻ϡ̩ƱǤϤʤ2ĤβȤˤĤʤΤȤˡ̣Ϣء¿̣ѲǤ롥ָ̱츻̣ѲȸƤӤΤϡΤ褦ʴŪʰ̣ˤƤΤߤ
ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄ѲιäطˤĤơLuján (292) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Folk etymology plays an important role in morphological reshaping and in lexical modification, and it must be mentioned here in connection with semantic change---a synchronically unanalyzable word or expression is restructured, so that its form allows for a semantic connection with other lexical items in the same language. This is what has happened in well-known cases as English asparagus sparrow-grass or chaise lounge (from chaise longue 'long chair').
δطˤϡhomonymy Ʊˤ polysemy ¿ˤζ̤ؤäƤ˰㤤ʤξԤζ̤ۣ椵ˤĤƤϡ#286. homonymy, homophony, homography, polysemy ([2010-02-07-1])#815. polysemic clash? ([2011-07-21-1])#1801. homonymy polysemy ζ ([2014-04-02-1]) Ȥ줿
Luján, Eugenio R. "Semantic Change." Chapter 16 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum International, 2010. 286--310.
ʡʽˤ̣ gospel θ츻Ϥ褯ΤƤ롥θϡƥ evangelium ʤ켫Τϥꥷ euaggélion "good news" ͳ褹ˤ (loan_translation) ǤꡤűѸ˼줿űѸ godspel (good news) 1Ǥ gōd (good) Ĺ첻äƤgod (God) Ȥ䤫û첻ԤƤ褦ϡָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ȤäƤ褤OED Jespersen (126) ⤳ָ̱츻ٻƤ롥⤦1ĤȤơ#2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡû첻3ҲûȤη̤ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ (142) ϡβǤ˽űѸ줫ϤޤäƤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
첻̤ˤĤƤϾΤ褦ͿƤ뤬űѸ godspel d æˤĤƤϤɤ (405) ˤС13ˡҲθ³ d κβĤθˤƴѻȤȡan (and), handeselle > hanselle (handsel), wenesday (Wednesday), godspell > gospel, andswerian > answerie (answer) Ǥcf. #1261. Wednesday ȯֻ츻 ([2012-10-09-1])ˡ
d æȤ˴ؿäΤϡWordorigins.org gospel ˴ؤ뵭ˡ13 godspel d ǡȤƾäȤεҤäǤ롥ǡȤƤȤȤǤСܤͤ롥LAEME ǴñĴ٤Ƥߤ
̤ϡμΰ۷ޤ213Τ18ˤ (¿ d ˲ä t 1Ĥäˤæ줿æΨ8.45%ˡ6ƥȤ˽椷Ƥꡤ North, South-West Midland, Southwestern ȤФФŪˤ13Ⱦ1Ƥ٤13Ⱦ14ȾˤĤơĤޤ1300ǯǤ롥1300ǯʹߤˤ d Τۤ¿ɤǤϤ뤷d ˴ؤɤƥȤ⤢롥ΤȤơWordorigins.org ξεǽҤ٤Ƥ褦13 d æȤפϤʤäæǡȤȤ櫓Ǥʤ餯θڤˤ⤢̤ꡤ13 d κϤޤäκǡȤƵä櫓ǤϤʤ14ʹߤ˸ƽ˿ʹԤȹͤΤMED gospel (n) ⻲Ȥ줿
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Mitchell and Robinson (83--86) ꡥƳ³롥Non-prepositional conjunctions Prepositional conjunctions ʬ롥ޤԤ顥
[ Non-prepositional conjunctions ]
| ǣr | "before" |
| būtan | "but, except that, unless" |
| gif | "if" |
| hwonne | "when" |
| nefne, nemne | "unless" |
| nū | "now that" |
| oð | "until" |
| sam . . . sam | "whether . . . or" |
| siþþan | "after, since" |
| swā þæt | "so that" |
| swelce | "such as" |
| þā | "when" |
| þā hwīle þe | "as long as, while" |
| þanon | "whence" |
| þǣr | "where" |
| þæs | "after" |
| þæt | "that, so that" |
| þēah | "although" |
| þenden | "while'' |
| þider | "whither" |
| þonne | "whenever, when, then" |
| þȳlǣs (þe) | "lest" |
| æfter + dat., inst. | Adv. and conj. "after". |
| ǣr + dat., inst. | Adv. and conj. "before". |
| betweox + dat., inst. | Conj. "while". |
| for + dat., inst. | Adv. "therefore" and Conj. "because, for". For alone as a conj. is late. |
| mid + dat., inst. | Conj. "while, when". |
| oþ + acc. | Conj. "up to, until, as far as" defining the temporal or local limit. It appears as oþþe, oþþæt, and oð ðone fyrst ðe "up to the time at which". |
| tō + dat., inst. | Conj. "to this end, that" introducing clauses of purpose with subj. and of result with ind. |
| tō + gen. | Conj. "to the extent that, so that". |
| wiþ + dat., inst. | Conj. lit. "against this, that". It can be translated "so that", "provided that", or "on condition that". |
εǾҲ𤷤#2170. gravity model ([2015-04-06-1]) ϸѲŪŤͥ줿³⤢롥ΥǥǤϡŤͼ2֤εΥȳơοϤˤäޤȲꤵ뤬ºݤˤϤ2ĤΥѥΤۤˤ⤤Ĥװθɬפ롥㤨С˸¤餺ŪŤθԤäƤ Rogers ϡ(1) the phenomenon itself(2) communication networks, (3) distance, (4) time, (5) social structure 5ѿװȤƷǤƤ뤬gravity model äƤΤ (3) ȡ绨Ĥʰ̣ˤƤ (2) ΤߤǤ롥
ǤϡWolfram and Schilling-Estes (726--33) Ȥʤ顤¾װͤƤޤ "barrier effect" θʤФʤʤ㤨СɤȥåȥɤζϡΤޤפʱѸȤʤäƤ롥åȥɤζѲåȥȾˡ뤤ԻŤ뤳ȤäƤ⡤ۤƥɤζŤ뤫ɤϤ狼ʤդξǤ롥ŷͤͤζξ¦¼ǡͽۤʾ˰ۤʤäƤȤ⡤˵äθѲߤ˶ۤŤʤäȤ롥
ˡgravity model ϤȤʪؤοʸҲʳؤؤαѤǤꡤԤȤưǸ뤳ȤϤǤʤ㤨СʸʪŤͼȸŤͼ˴Ϳװϰۤʤ (cf. #2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1])#2065. ʸμѼ (2) ([2014-12-22-1])ˡ㤨СŤݤˤϡηϤؤ (embedding) ¦̤θɬפ뤬gravity model ϤΤ褦ʥѥǰƬ֤ƤʤηϤ˴ؤѥˤĤƤϡ#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1])#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1]) ȡηϴ֤ŤѤˤƤɤ٤θ̤ĤˤĤƤŪʵ⾯ʤʤȤդäƤ
ˡgravity model ŪŤˤĤƤβǤꡤҲŪŤٳ뤷ƤȤ꤬롥1ĤϰˤʣμҲṲ̄Τ̤Ǥ롥ѲϰŤȤȤϰΤ٤ƤμҲƱŤȤϸ¤餺μҲˤΤŤȤȤ⤢ꤦ롥gravity model Ūʲμ˱äŤθƤʤѲŤͻǤϼҲŪʽĤμƱ餤˽פʤΤǤϤʤ
social_network ˤС夤 (weakly_tied) ĸĿͤ佸ĤѲŤĥܿͤȤʤȤ롥gravity model ϿϤ礭Ȥ龮ȤؤȤޥΥͥåȥռƤ뤬θĿͤ佸ĤδͿߥΥͥåȥϹθƤʤȤ롥η䤦Ȥơ#882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1])#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡ס ([2012-07-19-1])#1352. ߥ˥̩٤̻֡ ([2013-01-08-1]) ͤˤ줿
ǸˡϤξϰ褫礭ϰؤȡֵήפ "contra-hierarchical diffusion" λ𤵤Ƥ롥εǤ줿褦 Oklahoma Ǥϡ/ɔ/ -- /a/ εۼ gravity model ͽۤȤԻԤļˤؤ hierarchical ŤƤ뤬Ʊ Oklahoma ǽˡư fixin' to (= going to) ϤषļˤԻԤؤ contra-hierarchical ŤƤ뤳ȤǧƤ롥Tennessee ɡ /ɪ/ /ɛ/ εۼƱͤ contra-hierarchical ŤƤȤܸǤ⡤#2074. ѸѼαǥ ([2014-12-31-1]) Ǿˤ褦ˡؤήȤݤϰճ¿ߤ졤contra-hierarchical Ť褷ƵʻǤϤʤȤƤ롥
Wolfram, Walt and Natalie Schilling-Estes. "Dialectology and Linguistic Diffusion." The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003. 713--35.
Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. 5th ed. New York: Free Press, 1995.
ѲŪŤͼˤĤơȾ (wave_theory) 䤽η̤ȤƤ (cf. #1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])ˤ褯ΤƤ롥Ӥꤲޤ줿ФƱ߾椬Ȥ褦ˡȯϤƱ߾˼ϤŤƤȤͤǤ롥
ѲɬƱ߾³˳ȤȤϸ¤ʤषȳȤäƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥#2034. Ⱦʤ ([2014-11-21-1])#2037. Ťȸ֡ ([2014-11-24-1])#2040. ([2014-11-27-1]) ʤɤε褦ˡΤۤȤͭǤ褦ʸѲλ롥ȤۤƱȯۤȤäƤ褤ΤˡҲؤؤʸ gravity model 뤤 hierarchical model ȸƤФƤѲŤ˴ؤǥ뤬롥 Trudgill ǡWolfram and Schilling-Estes (724) Τ褦ͿƤ롥
According to this model, which is borrowed from the physical sciences, the diffusion of innovations is a function not only of the distance from one point to another, as with the wave model, but of the population density of areas which stand to be affected by a nearby change. Changes are most likely to begin in large, heavily populated cities which have historically been cultural centers. From there, they radiate outward, but not in a simple wave pattern. Rather, innovations first reach moderately sized cities, which fall under the area of influence of some large, focal city, leaving nearby sparsely populated areas unaffected. Gradually, innovations filter down from more populous areas to those of lesser population, affecting rural areas last, even if such areas are quite close to the original focal area of the change. The spread of change thus can be likened not so much to the effects of dropping a stone into a pond, as with the wave model, but, as . . . to skipping a stone across a pond.
gravity model ϡŤϡȾΤ褦֤εΥ˰¸ǤϤʤοϤˤ¸ȤȤǤ롥ϡ2ĤŷΤΰ礦ϤΥ̩٤δؿǤ뤳ȤӤ롥ΥȿϤ2ĤѿΤȤŤͼޤȤ gravity model ϡȾळȤǤͥƤ롥ȤΤϡΥΤߤͭѿȤϤѿ̵ȤСʤȾȤʤ뤫Ǥ롥
gravity model ˱äѲλϾʤʤWolfram and Schilling-Estes (725) ˵ƤΤѸ˴ؤΤˤĤƤСLondon dzϤ줿Ƭ h-dropping ֤ϰӱۤľ East Anglia Norwich ؤӲФȤ㤬𤵤Ƥ롥Chicago [æ] 첻 [ɑ] 岽⡤ƱͤΥѥ Illinois νԻԤŤOklahoma Ǥ /ɔ/ -- /a/ εۼŤǤ롥
ξȤơgravity model ǽǤϤʤºݤŤλѻȡΥȿϰʳˤ⤤ĤѿꤻʤǤ롥gravity model θ³ˤĤƤϡεǼ夲롥
Wolfram, Walt and Natalie Schilling-Estes. "Dialectology and Linguistic Diffusion." The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003. 713--35.
#1905. ܸˤֽס ([2014-07-15-1])#1915. ܸˤֽ (2) ([2014-07-25-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ2ĤεǤϡܸνȤФεȯŸˤĤơܸˤŪ˸ƤȤ˴ŤƵҤ¼ϥʬϡ˼ҲؤΩ줫顤ԤƤȤФ˵Ҥ˰۵ĤȤФϳƻͭθ쥤ǥʡ#2163. 쥤ǥ ([2015-03-30-1])ˤˤƤȼĥ롥
㤨СĮν˼ȤФεȤŪʸˤĤơ¼ϵǰɽƤ롥ֽȤäƤդŤ¿ͤʤΤǡ¿ͤʸդŤˤҤȤĤΡֽȤСפ뤳ȤϹͤˤ (50) Ȥ褦ˡ˼ϸνȤФο¿롼Ĥθ1ĤǤϤ뤬줬ñȤľܤ˽ȤФȯŸƤä櫓ǤϤʤȤ⤽⡤˼°ˤϡ˻ѤȤȤǤʤǻѤȤҲ˴ؤ¦̤ޤޤƤ롥षԤ֤С˼ϽȤФȤϳȸƤ֤ۤդ路Ȥȳ˶ᤫäոΤĤ˽̤εŪʸոΤʤذտŪ˼ळȤˤäơ˽ȤФƤȹͤ롥
¼ϡ头ȤνȤФȯŸطʤˤϤĤŪŪ¦̤äȼĥ˻٤졤٤Ƥ쥤ǥΤ˽ƤɸˤȤФӽʸױưʸؤ˶ư줿ȤФϽСҶιޤȤȤ˵ѤäƽȤФղä褦ˤʤä奢ƥδߡ黿٤ܸȤƤνȤСμʽ餷ȯϪΤȤª줿ȤС
¼θ쥤ǥΤ褯ޤȤ뤳ȤǤʤΤǡ¼ȤηѤ (227--29)
ܽǤϡȤФȤǰΤ䥢ȤΥХʴط䡤ԻԤήϫƯԳ顤̤ȲʤɤΤޤޤΩҲǡֽ餷εϡסζȤοס֥奢ƥסŷȤסֲĹβ²١סʸͥסܸפʤɤΰ̣ŤͿ뤳ȤǷƤȤƤޤ
һ夫³Ϥθˤäƽȯۤ뷹ͻν줿˼ȤŪʸäˤäƶ졤֤ĤĤߡפʡפȤʤäƸΥޥʡܤˤ⸫褦ʽ餷ȤηӤĤĴ褦ˤʤäȡ
γ塤ȷߤβɬפȤʤäǰ̱θդȤƽ㲽뤿ˡơҳζܤ𤹤Ū¾ԤȤ뤿ˤ⡤֤Ƥ衦פʤɶŪʸȷӤĤȤФڤȡ
ˤϡο̱Ϥοܸ͡뤳ȤǹḺ́ˤƱĹŪʲ²ŪȴѤ˴ŤƽưưطʤˡȤФŷȤȤ졤ĹξħǤ̤ΤפĴ줿ȡ
ˤϡηˤä˽ʿʤ졤ŷĹꤵǡȤФʽ餷ȯϪȤƺ⤬ڤȤФˤϡܤħ뤳ȤԤ褦ˤʤäȡ
βǡֽθաפϡ㲽ȤơܸȤơˡܸפܡפȤδطǸ³ƤޤܸˡֽȤФפȿƤΤϡĤλˤθ٤ˤĤƸ⤬ǽˤʤꡤ̣ڤ褦кѾäǤΰ̣ǡȤФˤΤ뤳ȤϡˤݤȤ⡤ܸ줬ʤƤΤǡ礯ȤΤǤʤȤȸΤǤ
˼Τ뿷ä
¼ ҡؽȤФܸ١ȽŹҴȿӡ2012ǯ
ǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤ㳰ʤѲΥơȡѲϸäδ֤˥褦ˤSʤʤȤóȻΥơȤϡŪ˿øΩΤȤߤʤƤLass ϡ#1641. Neogrammarian hypothesis lexical diffusion ͻ¡ ([2013-10-24-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡΩϻΰ㤤ˤΤˤܼŪǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ʤ㳰ʤѲŪʻóȻŪʻĤȤ㤤Ǥȡ
ŪˤߤȤƤ⡤ξơˤ̷⤻˶¸Ǥƻ롥öŵŪSˤۤʬǯʸˡήε§ŪʲѲȲᤷˤ䤫ʽڤʬóȻȲ᤹ˡǤ롥СˤȤʤäƤѲ˸ŪʴͿ®٤ϴˤ䤫Ǥ뤬ȾФǤϸŪʴͿ§ŪʲѲȤư쵤˿ʹԤ롥θѤСŪʻȤäȤƤ⡤2ĤΥơ϶¸Ǥ롥Wolfram (720) ۩
. . . we submit that part of the resolution of the ongoing controversy over regularity in phonological change may be related to the trajectory slope of the change. From this perspective, irregularity and lexical diffusion are maximized at the beginning and the end of the slope and phonological regularity is maximized during the rapid expansion in the application of the rule change during the mid-course of change.
ȤȡѲϡŪäδͿ§ŪʥơȡŪäδͿζԵ§ʥơȤߤ˷֤ȤȤˤʤ롥ʤΤ褦ʥơζ̤ȹͤΤŪˤϡ#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ ([2013-08-16-1]) 褦ʤȤͤ뤬̤䤤ȤäƤ褤
Wolfram, Walt and Natalie Schilling-Estes. "Dialectology and Linguistic Diffusion." The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003. 713--35.
#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1])#1998. The Embedding Problem ([2014-10-16-1])#2012. ѲȤ٤̸§7 ([2014-10-30-1]) ǡWeinreich, Labov, and Herzog θѲ夲ƤWeinreich et al. ˤȤʤ¤ˡ"orderly heterogeneity" äۼˤ롥ηŪѰ۲ǽ (systematic variability) ȸƤǤ褤Ѱۤ츫ФФ¸ߤƤ褦ˤߤ뤬ΤȤƤϹ¤ʤƤȤˤ "orderly heterogeneity" ֤ǤƱˡϸ줬ѲƤ뤳ȤθǤ롥
"orderly heterogeneity" ϡѲäδ֤˥Τ褦˽˿ʹԤƤȼĥóȻ (lexical_diffusion) βˤ˴ѻ롥ѲϤĶ̤θĶؤηϤϤ⤤ƤΤλ֤γ̤ߤȡȿäѰۤ«롥̻ŪѲΥѥȶŪѰۤȤߤбͤѻΤǤ롥äȤ⡤˽Ҥ٤ΤŪʾǤꡤºݤˤϸ¤Ϻ٤ȤƸ뤳Ȥ¿Ǥ⡤ŪʥǥڵϿ¿θФƤ롥
Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (716) ϡCharles-James N. Bailey (Variation and Linguistic Theory. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1973.) ˰͵Ѳκˤ "orderly heterogeneity" ɤΤ褦˸ΤǥͿƤ롥Ѳεȿ X, Y ȤY ȤäƤ2ĤθĶ E1, E2 ȤȡѲϼγʳФƿʹԤƤ
Variation model of change
| Stage of change | E1 | E2 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Categorical status, before undergoing change | X | X |
| 2 | Early stage begins variably in restricted environment | X/Y | X |
| 3 | Change in full progress, greater use of new form in E1 where change first initiated | X/Y | X/Y |
| 4 | Change progresses toward completion with movement toward categoricality first in E1 where change initiated | Y | X/Y |
| 5 | Completed change, new variant | Y | Y |
#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) 褦ˡΩѼ autonomy ʼΧˤȤ졤˰¸Ѽ heteronomous ¾ΧŪˤȸ롥Ѽ郎ΧŪ뤤¾ΧŪǤȤȤ϶ŪˤϤɤȤʤΤζ̤ϼҲŪʴްդäƤĤΤ̤Ū¦̤ϤΤ
Χ¾ΧͤݤˤϤɸϰǰƬ֤Τ̤ǤϤɸŪʸոȱ (argot) Ȥ줾켫ΧŪʥɤ¾ΧŪʥɤȹͤƤߤ褦argot ȤȺԤ֤ѤŹŪʸոǤꡤŸĭȤƤФ롥slang jargon νĤѤոǤꡤǤϻƤ뤬argot ϤȤ櫓Ⱥƿʤ argot Τ褦ʸո¸ߤΤˤϡ2ħŦǤԽʬǤ롥argot θ̣ιϡ֤ɸŪʸոθΰդΰæäƤΤǤꡤΰ̣ˤƤäɸФ¾ΧŪ¸ŪǤȤ⤬Ƥ뤳ȤפǤ롥˴ؤơIrvine (253) Τ褦˻ŦƤ롥
. . . the codes' origin in counter-societies is reflected in many aspects of their linguistic form, for instance in their elaboration of lexicon and metaphor relevant to their special activities and their attitudes toward the normative society, and in their frequent use of formal inversions and reversals, such as metathesis. Also significant is their conspicuous avoidance and violation of forms recognized as "standard" . . . . These anti-languages are clearly not autonomous codes, then, although the normative codes on which they depend may be. The anti-language is not, and has never been, anyone's native tongue, nor are all its formal characteristics simply arbitrary. Both functionally and formally it is derived from the normative code, just as its speakers define their social role in opposition to the normative society.
Ѥˤ "anti-language" ϡHalliday ѸǤꡤargot ʤɤΥɤؤΤȤȤ館Ƥ褤Τ褦ŪʥɤѤüԤŪʥɤŪ˴˲뤿ˤϡषԤ̤Ƥɬפ롥ϤŪˤȤС褯ƤʤФʤʤΰ̣ˤơargot ޤ "anti-language" ¾ΧŪǤ롥
ܸαߤСžη̤ȤƤΡ֥ͥפʤ鵬ŪʡּפȤʤäƤꡤ¾ΧŪǤ롥֤ΰפϡֽפδ˴Ť뤫顤ֽפФ¾ΧŪǤ롤
Τ褦ˡΧ (autonomy) ¾Χ (heteronomy) ζ̤ϡҲŪ¦̤Ʊ˸Ū¦̤į뤳ȤǤ롥
Irvine, Judith T. "When Talk Isn't Cheap: Language and Political Economy." American Ethnologist 16 (1989): 248--67.
ѸοƳˤƤϡʣ (compounding) (derivation) 礿ˡȤʤäƤƤꡤ (borrowing) ι٤Ū㤤1ۤɤοܤߤƤ⡤ѤγŪܸꤷƤ (cf. #873. ѸοˤʣΥХ ([2011-09-17-1]) #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1])#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ([2011-09-22-1])#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]))
Ū˸äƤƤȤϤüѤϸѸǤ³Ƥ롥#874 Algeo ξܺ٤ʶʬΤʤǤ⼨Ƥ褦ˡѤ餺¿ͤǤ롥#45. ѸäˤޤĤ͡ ([2009-06-12-1])#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1])#142. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸʬۡ ([2009-09-16-1]) ǤϡѸؤθԤȤưƳܸ줬ͭϤǤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ܸʤɤޤ̤Τܤ礬ΤꤿȤ
Algeo (78) ϡGarland Cannon (Historical Change and English Word-Formation. New York: Peter Lang, 1987. pp. 69--97) Ĵ˴Ťơ20ȾäƤѸäΥ̳Ƥ롥Ūˤϡ褽1963--88ǯδ֤˱ѸäƤѸϿ4ĤμĴоݤȤ̤˼Ѹ夲줾γФ4ĤμȤϡ(1) The Barnhart Dictionary of New English since 1963 (1973), (2) The Second Barnhart Dictionary of New English (1980), (3) Webster's Third (1961), (4) The Barnhart Dictionary Companion Index (1987) Ǥ롥줾줫407, 332, 523, 1661428ξýǤϤ뤬˴ŤưʲĴ̤줿
| (1) BDNE | (2) BENE2 | (3) 81W3 | (4) BDC | Rank | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| French | 31.4% | 17.5 | 21.2 | 12.0 | 1 |
| Spanish | 6.6 | 10.8 | 6.1 | 12.7 | 2 |
| Russian | 3.4 | 5.4 | 2.1 | 24.1 | 3 |
| Japanese | 7.9 | 9.3 | 6.3 | 9.0 | 4 |
| African | 6.1 | 7.2 | 6.7 | 3.0 | 5 |
| Italian | 4.7 | 4.5 | 10.7 | 2.4 | 6 |
| German | 5.9 | 5.4 | 4.8 | 5.4 | 7 |
| Greek | 6.9 | 4.8 | 8.0 | 1.2 | 8 |
| Latin | 5.2 | 5.1 | 9.4 | 9 | |
| Yiddish | 5.7 | 2.7 | 5.0 | 3.6 | 10 |
| Arabic | 2.0 | 3.9 | 1.7 | 6.0 | 11 |
| Chinese | 1.7 | 4.2 | 3.6 | 6.0 | 12 |
| Portuguese | 1.0 | 2.7 | 1.0 | 1.8 | 13 |
| Hindi | 2.2 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 2.4 | 14 |
| Hebrew | 0.7 | 1.5 | 0.4 | 1.2 | 15 |
| Sanskrit | 1.7 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 16 | |
| Persian | 0.2 | 1.2 | 1.8 | 17 | |
| Afrikaans | 0.5 | 1.5 | 0.4 | 18 | |
| Dutch | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.8 | 19 | |
| Indonesian | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 1.2 | 20 |
| Malayo-Polynesian | 2.1 | 0.2 | 21 | ||
| Norwegian | 0.2 | 1.5 | 0.6 | 22 | |
| Swedish | 1.0 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 23 | |
| Korean | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 24 | |
| Vietnamese | 1.0 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 25 | |
| Amerindian | 1.2 | 0.6 | 26 | ||
| Bengali | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 27 | |
| Danish | 0.5 | 1.0 | 28 | ||
| Eskimo | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 29 |

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