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2016-11-30 Wed

#2774. ʬˤĤƵƤߤ [periodisation][hel_education][historiography]

ѸˤλʬˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ periodisation ΤĤεƤϡѸˤ˸¤餺̤ˡˤ򰷤ݤˤϡǽפȻפäƤ롥˲ȤˤȤäơζʬʬ̾ʬʬʬˡϡ˴ѤǤüŪ󼨤뵡ǤʤǤ뤫ޤʬ򲼼򤷤Ƥޤȡ#2640. Ѹˤλʬ ([2016-07-19-1]) 褦ˡȤ⼺Ȥ¿Ȥˤʤ꤫ͤʤˤĤƤϡ٥ߤʤɤǵƤߤȻפäƤ1޻֤䤤ơƤߤѸˤˤλʬˤĤưŪˤƤ뤳Ȥ⤷ǡʬߤ뤳ȤĹûͳ˵Ƥäη̤ΤĤñ˲վ񤭤Ƥ

[ ʬɤ ]

ؽԤˤȤäƤϡʬȤ˳ؤǤФ褤ΤdzؤӤ䤹
򻲾ȤΤ̾ĤƤ
ʣλӤΤ
ˤĤ줿̾ˤŵŪʥ᡼
ŬڤʶʬǶڤƤȲȰ䤹

[ ʬ ]

֤Ϣ³Ĥߤˤʤ
ʬʬʬ̾ʤɤ
ڤǯܤ졤¾ǯʿޤʿʤΤȤƤȤ館뷹
ʬλǤϡѲäƤʤ褦ʰݤͿƤޤ
ˤĤ줿̾ˤ괭륤᡼ȤϰۤʤŪ郎ä硤򤽤λŵŪǤʤԼʽȤȤ館Ƥޤ

¾ˤ⤤äȤꤢפʤΤ󤷤ƤߤʬǤСλ򻲾ȤΤˤؤͥƤȤȤ⡤λˡλħɽŬڤ̾Ĥ뤳ȤˤäơŵŪʥ᡼䤹Ǥϡñˡ֡פֵǯפȤ褦ʿˤ뻲Ȥ⡤ʤͥƤʤΤ˻ȤλŪΤϾȤʤˡ
ʬˤĤƺǤפʤΤϡʬˤƻ̾ͿȡƻƤϤνν勞ˤޤȤƤޤѲ˳ʿóʻ֤ήƤ뤫Τ褦ʺФ뤳ȤդˡʬζܤǯˤϡǡȤ礭ѲΤ褦ʺФºݤˤϡˤˤѲϡ٤κˤ䤫ʥפǤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤ롥ϥפʤΤˡʬߤ뤳ȤǡⳬʤǤ뤫Τ褦˺ФƤޤȤǡǤ (#2628. Hockett ˤѸν񤭸դäդδطɽ魯ľ ([2016-07-07-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ˵Ҥδ餤СŪ³ĥȤˤϡʬȤͿ̾פ뤳ȤǤŪãǤȤȤǤꡤŪϢ³ĴȤˤϡʬϤषȤʤ뤳Ȥ餢ȤȤǤ롥
ˤĤƤϡͻƤ

Referrer (Inside): [2017-07-08-1] [2017-06-04-1]

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2016-11-29 Tue

#2773. ɸಽȵϲλߤϡâʸˡȯν (2) [standardisation][prescriptivism][prescriptive_grammar]

ε ([2016-11-28-1]) ³ԡϡѸˤˤɸಽȵϲλߤâʸˡȯνǿʤǤäΤϤʤȤ䤤ˤĤƹͤƤߤν֤˴ؤϤޤɤʤͻƤߤͤϤꤽ
ޤŪ¤ƳǧƤ褦ˡ褽âʸˡȯνǿʤȤȤϸդʤФʤʤΤϡ줾ɸಽϲδ֤ˤʤ饪Сåפʬ뤳ȤääƤʸˡϤޤꡤʸˡäƤȯϤޤäȤ褦ʿ͹ŪʶڤΤ褵ǧ櫓ǤϤʤϼԤǽ餫3ڤʬλ֤򤫤 "divide and conquer" 褦ȷײ褷Ƥ櫓Ǥʤ
1ĹͤΤϡνɸಽϲμȤߤ䤹ȴϢƤΤǤϤʤȤȤɸಽϲȤȤоݤȤʤΤϡƤäդ񤭸դǤ롥ϡ񤭸դ˴ؤ뵬§ۤꡦɽڤ䤹Ȥ𤬤äθ̤⡤񤭸դȤ³ŪΤ˻Ĥۤɾ䤹ɸಽϲŪȤΰҿ⳰˼ȤˤäȤСθ̤Ϥޤܤ˸Ǹ졤ĤäƤʤȺΤǤ롥ȤСäֻǤ⸫䤹Ūˡü᤯դȤȤˤʤꤽ
ˡäŪǤϤ뤬Ϥ񤭸աפȶӤĤǤʸˡåȤȤʤ롥ƽ񤭸դʡáˤȹʡʸˡˤСѸ줫ɸಽϲβϺ¤ΤȤã줿Ȥˤʤ
ˤ⤦ʤȤʤСåȤ񤭸դäդذܤۤĤƤʤ͡äդȤȤϡźǤ롥ºݡ#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1]) ξ׷ϡǧȯ (rp) ȯãȤʤϤºݤǧȯѤ褦ˤʤäͤϡߤ˻ޤǾɤǤꡤ¿ΰ罰ȯϡפƤʤĤޤꡤȯɸಽϲϡäʸˡ٤ơƤפȤϸ񤤡ʤäȤ⡤äʸˡȤơɤޤǡƤפΤϲŪˤФƤפ褦˻פˡ
Ѹˤˤɸಽϲϡ嵭Τ褦ˡȤθ̤θ䤹мȤߤ䤹νǿʤȤȤǤΤǤϤʤ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-07-05-1]

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2016-11-28 Mon

#2772. ɸಽȵϲλߤϡâʸˡȯν (1) [standardisation][prescriptivism][prescriptive_grammar][emode][pronunciation][orthoepy][dictionary][lexicography][rp][johnson][lowth][orthoepy][orthography][walker]

ѸѸȾФˤƵäѸɸಽȵϲĬήˤĤơ#1237. ɸѸΥǥȱѸɸಽ ([2012-09-15-1])#1244. ʤϼ18˵Ĺ ([2012-09-22-1])#2741. ascertaining, refining, fixing ([2016-10-28-1]) 濴Ȥơstandardisation prescriptive_grammar γƵˤƤήˤĤħŪĶ̣ϡΥСåפϤˤ衤âʸˡȯν˵ϲλߤʤƤȤ
󥰥ɡƥꥹ줿ѸɸಽܻؤƤǽϡää16ȾϸäƤȤϤθ17ˤƤϡֻε§첽˾Ƥ褦ˤʤääȤֻϡ17--18ޤǤˤϤ褽褷Ƥꡤ1755ǯ Johnson μνǤϤᲡȤߤƤ褤ʴϢơ#1407. Ѹ3Ĥ ([2013-03-04-1])#2321. ֻɸಽδĬή ([2015-09-04-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ɸಽϲΥåȤȤʤäΤϡʸˡǤ롥18ˤϵʸˡνǤ꼡Ǥ#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]) #2592. Lindley Murray, English Grammar ([2016-06-01-1]) 繥ɾ
ơ٤18Ⱦ19ˤơȯפؤΤ꤬褦ˤʤ롥Ū (orthoepy) ؤδؿϡ#571. orthoepy ([2010-11-19-1]) ǽҤ٤褦16鸫ΤŪˡȯפԤʤ٤ȤĬ͡δ֤Ǥˤ狼˹ޤäƤΤ18ȾԤʤФʤʤä礭ʹ׸ʤΤϡ#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1]) Ǥ롥
ȯפμĥʤ褦ˤʤäΤ18ȾȤŪ٤äȤˤĤơBaugh and Cable (306) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The first century and a half of English lexicography including Johnson's Dictionary of 1755, paid little attention to pronunciation, Johnson marking only the main stress in words. However, during the second half of the eighteenth century and throughout the nineteenth century, a tradition of pronouncing dictionaries flourished, with systems of diacritics indicating the length and quality of vowels and what were considered the proper consonants. Although the ostensible purpose of these guides was to eliminate linguistic bias by making the approved pronunciation available to all, the actual effect was the opposite: "good" and "bad" pronunciations were codified, and speakers of English who were not born into the right families or did not have access to elocutionary instruction suffered linguistic scorn all the more.


ǤϡḽѸɸಽȵϲλߤáֻޤˢʸˡȯȤǿʤǤäΤϤʤˤĤƤεǡ

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-07-05-1] [2016-11-29-1]

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2016-11-27 Sun

#2771. by and large [idiom][etymology]

ɸϡֳ, Ū, Ū˸ơפ̣륤ǥǤ롥ʲʸΤ褦ˡʸƬ˻Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿

By and large I think the emphasis should be on recruiting the right people.
By and large, I enjoyed my time at school.
By and large, the papers greet the government's new policy document with a certain amount of scepticism.
Charities, by and large, do not pay tax.
There are a few small things that I don't like about my job, but by and large it's very enjoyable.

ʤ by large ӤĤơֳơפΰ̣ˤʤΤ
¤ϡȤȤϹҳѤɽǤ롥by ϤǤϡ˸äơ (by the wind) ۤɤ̣ȤȤ館롥ֻ by ϡ?˸äơ (toward) ̣뤳Ȥꡤ㤨 do well by a friend ͧˤ褯Ƥˡdo one's duty by one's parents ξƤʬԤˡDo to others as you would be done by. ʿͤˤƤ餤褦˿ͤ˿ԤˡNorth by East ̡ˤʤɤ򸫤ȤǤ롥large ϡΥơפ̣ȤѤƤ롥ΰ̣Ǥ to go large to sail large ʤɤȻȤ뤳Ȥ¿Фʤ by large ϡҳѸȤ17Ƭ˽ФƤ롥
ơ2ӤĤ by and large Ȥǥ⡤٤1669ǯ˽ФƤ롥ΰ̣ϡͽ̤ۤ˸äΥ줿ꤷơ ("to the wind and off it") ۤɤä줬䤬ơ֤̤ˤ錄äơ ("in one direction and another, all ways") ΰ̣1706ǯ˸졤˸ߤΡֳơ ("in a general aspect, without entering into details, on the whole") ΰ̣1833ǯѤƤ롥̣ΰ̲ȸäƤʲˤ줾ΰ̣ν OED 󤲤Ƥ

1669 S. Sturmy Mariners Mag. 17 Thus you see the ship handled in fair weather and foul, by and learge.
1707 E. Ward Wooden World Dissected 35 Tho' he trys every way, both by and large, to keep up with his Leader.
1833 J. Neal Down-easters I. 23 A man who feels rather perplexed on the whole, take it by and large.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-12-25-1]

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2016-11-26 Sat

#2770. ض⡦䡦Ƽܻˡ٤ȱѸ [periodisation][history]

¼δˡض⡦䡦Ƽܻˡ٤ɤڤˤˤȤΤϡ̤ˤȤϰۤʤȯۤ뤳Ȥ¿Ѹˤˤƹͤǻͤˤʤ롥ܤˤ°ˤϡ¼ (v--vi) ˤСüŪ˼Τ褦󤵤롥

ܤˤơܳŪ˶°о줹ΤϡޤǤΤܤ롥ܤǤϡĹѤäƤ°Ϥޡǯ٤ˤʤ⡤ʸŪȯãǼȯŪ߽Ф줿ΤǤϤʤ顤¾ȤϰۤʤŪǤ롥άΦīȾ礫ϤäƤͤäˤʤʤ顤Ѥΰž¸Ĺǯ򤫤ȤΩ˻롥ơ䤬ƶޤ뺢ˤϡŪ˸Ƥ⡤बѤκǹˤޤФͤȤȤˡˤͭζ°йȤʤꡤˤ͢йˤʤΤǤ롥


ξǡ¼ (vii) ϡֶ⡦䡦Ƽפ濴Ȥ°ܻˤ7Ĥλ˶ʬƤʰʲǤϡʸδϥӥѤƤˡ

ϴ?ʩ538
ʩ538?ʩ㶡ܡ752
Ϻʩ㶡ܡ752?и仳γȯ1526
ȯŸи仳γȯ1526?Ƚ¡ʶ¤ȡˤ֡1595
Ƚ¡ʶ¤ȡˤ֡1595?ʸβʾ1736
ॽϴʸβʾ1736?ڥ꡼ҡ1853
ڥ꡼ҡ1853?


λʬˤ⤷Ϻפ800ǯ³Τ츫ԶѹդĹ褦ˤפΤΡ°Ȥڤ鸫СϤŬäƤ褦¼ (114) ˤС

ơ褤Ȭǯˤ錄ĹϺŤˤȤ褹롥ˤȤԻ׵ĤʤΤǤ롥ĤνƤưФ褦ʽִ֤롥ϻνκ⡤礦ɤʤȤäΤֶ⡦䡦ƼפᤰʥߥθФڤΤǤ롥üưФȵ޷ʣѤư졻ǯˤʤ֤ˡܤǡؤιۻˤޤǵĹĹϺ˽ʬʳͥ륮Ѥ줿顤֤ǵ޷ȿΤǤ롥


ѸˤǤϡ11--12ȤŪû֤ˡʸˡηϤɤ뤬ѲƤ롥Ǥ⡤ΡĹϺ˽ʬʳͥ륮Ѥ줿顤֤ǵ޷ȿפȹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ֥ʥߥθФڤס޸οʿʤοࡤʸˡξüƬֻȿǤʤɤΡ֤ĤνƤưСפȸ뤳ȤǤ
°˾ƤܤˤȱѸˤȤδ֤ζϡ줾ֶ°פֱѸפȤоݤˤ򰷤äƤ褦˸ΤΡºݤˤϿʹּҲ񤬡ֶ°פֱѸפɤΤ褦ѤƤȤˤǤꡤޤǼΤϿʹ֤Ǥ뤳ȤĤޤꡤˤλʬϡ켫Τ̻ͭͤŪѲбƤ櫓ǤϤʤ͡ɤΤ褦˻ȤʤƤȤ̻ŪѲбƤ롥ξԤΰۤʤΤϡ°ּפΤΤǤꡤμˤ⵭Ҳǽ϶°Τ褦ʰ̣ˤơּפǤϤʤȤ⤢̣ǤϡּפȸʤʤȤǽǤϤˤĤƤϡ#10. Ͽ͹ ([2009-05-09-1]) "phenomena of the third kind"軰θݡˤ򻲾ȡ

¼ δض⡦䡦Ƽܻˡ١ȽŹҴȿӡ2007ǯ

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2016-11-25 Fri

#2769. Dreadnought [etymology][history]

ܸǡĶ׸פʤɤȤȤΡ׸פȤϡ1906ǯ˥ꥹˤϤˤĤ̾ Dreadnought ƬʸȤꡤˡ֤ߡߡ϶ݡפ̣ƤΤǤ롥Dreadnought ʸ̤ dread + nought (= nothing) ǡ֤襤Τ餺פϤǤ롥ꥹϡμ׳ФưŪʺĤ٤дϤ³礭 Dreadnought Ф¤˴ؤϱƤᡤ¾󶯤 Dreadnought νи˹Ƥɿ路ƼΡ׸ϡפ줿American Heritage Dictionary ˤȡ"a battleship armed with six or more guns having calibers of 12 inches or more" Ǥ롥
dreadnought ȤñνФϼ¤20ƬǤϤʤǤ˥ꥶ٥ī1573ǯˤϤϤ̾ȤƻȤƤΤǤ롥OED ˤȡ"Acct. Treasurer Marine Causes (P.R.O.: E 351/2209) m. 8d, In newe beildinge and erectinge fower newe shipes called the Swifte sewer, the Dreadnoughte, the Achates & the handmayd." ȤʤäƤ롥
ˤɤؤ20ƬΡ֥ɥåɥΡȡפϡ˽Ҥ٤褦1906ǯΤȤǡ"Outlook 20 Oct. 495/2 The Atlantic Fleet will consist of three Dreadnoughts and five of the Canopus class." ȤƽФƤ롥ɥåɥΡȤνиŪʥѥȤŪäϡ᤯1908ǯ the pre-Dreadnought period ȤɽФƤ뤳Ȥʬ
dreadnought Ϥ¾θǤѸѤƤ롥֤襤Τ餺Կ͡աפθ17㤬뤷18ˤϡֹŷѤθΥ饷ˡפθǤѤƤ롥θϤΰ̣ȤƤϡ fearnought (or fearnaught) Ȥ⤢ꡤϤ18Ⱦ˸Ƥ롥
ơ˾βʤ Dreadnought νиطʤˤϡܤγȯϪܳȤ¤ͿƤȤϤХåϤˤƤˤʤ٤ʤä (191--94۩

Ԥ줵äλѤ򸫤ơγطԤ礭ʥåäˤɸפȤͤˤäƤޤäꤵƤޤäǤ롥
ܳʹߡϤϰѤ塻ϻǯ˥ꥹ¤ɥåɥΡȹȤϤκǽˤʤäɥåɥΡȹǤϡޤǸ¦¤٤ƤˤѤŴĤˤ˼줿ˤΤߤĤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥
ˤϡФξ֤ʤΤǡΤ褦Фޤǽˤʤ롥֤ʤСäΤˤѤơˤ˼ưʼˤˤ褦פȤΤꥹȯۤǤä
ˤѻߤ櫓顤ʬˤοƤ롥ޤǤϤǤϼˤ˰示Ĥη׻ǤäΤɥåɥΡȹϰ󥤥ˤ롤ʪΤ褦Ϥˤʤä
衤γϡϵˤɤ롥
ɥåɥΡȤνиϡ¸Ϥ򤹤٤Ƶ켰ϤˤƤޤä顤󶯤äơ֥ɵϡפ뤤ϡĶɵϡפ¤뤳ȤˤʤäʥɵȤϡɥåɥΡȵάˡη̡϶褬ޤˤǮᡤȤȤ亮ȥġʰ?ˤ򳫤ơ󶯤δ֤ͭ¤ʤФʤʤäۤɤǤä


ɥåɥΡȡ٤ (Dread it!)

졡ˤФܡ١ܤˡ5ӡå2016ǯ

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2016-11-24 Thu

#2768. ưư come ľ [verb][deixis][pragmatics]

¿θˡ˴ؤľ (deixis) 롥ľŪɽˤϡhither thither ʤɤ̣ܼǤ侮ɽ蘆Τ⤢Сcome go Τ褦˰ưư (motion verb) ʤɤɽ蘆Τ⤢롥
褯ΤƤ褦ˡѸ go/come λȤʬϡܸΡֹԤפλȤʬȤϼ㴳ۤʤ롥ä꤬ʹ˶ŤưϡܸǤϡֻϤʤΤȤعԤޤפɽΤФơѸǤ I'll come to you ɽ롥ϡѸ come ܸפ˴ؤľۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ򼨤Ƥ롥
Ѹ come ϡFillmore ̾ʸˤСʤȤʲ5ĤξΤȤѤȤʰʲHuang 161 ˡ

(i) movement towards the speaker's location at CT [= coding time]
(ii) movement towards the speaker's location at arrival time
(iii) movement towards the addressee's location at CT
(iv) movement towards the addressee's location at arrival time
(v) movement towards the home-base maintained at CT by either the speaker or the addressee.

Ū John will come to the library next week. ȤʸǹͤƤߤ褦ʸȯ뤳ȤǤΤϡޤä꤬޽ۤˤǤ (= (i)) ˡä꤬轵 John äƤ֤˿޽ۤˤˤΩ (= (ii)) ˡʹ꤬޽ۤˤ (= (iii))뤤轵 John äƤ֤˿޽ۤˤ (= (iv)) ˤȤ롥Ǹˡäʹ꤬ºݤ˺뤤轵˿޽ۤˤ뤫ɤˤ餺޽ۤäʹܾ̾ "home-base" 㤨СˤǤˤϡʸΩ롥㤨Сäʹ꤬Ȥˤο޽ۤλʽǤȲꤹȡʸʤΩ롥John will come to the library next week, but both of us will be on holiday then.
̸Ū come ˤ褽ưưľξ郎ۤʤäƤ褦ˡ˸¤äƤ⡤̻Ūˤξ郎ѲƤȤǽϤ롥Ԥ˸Ȥʤ뤬Τ褦ʸϤǤˤΤѸˤǤõäƤߤΤ⤪⤷
deixis ̤ˤĤƤϡ#2680. deixis ([2016-08-28-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.

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2016-11-23 Wed

#2767. ưαѸŪյ [machine_translation][elt][future_of_english][sociolinguistics]

ưγȯѸ䤽¾θͿ׷ˤĤƤϡޤܳŪ˵Ƥʤ褦˻פ롥ɥ館̩ƻ1ġ֤ۤ䤯˥㥯ס뤤ϱѸΤ Babel fish Τ褦̴ġϡǯˤSFäˤʤȻפƤ21äߡʷεȯŸˤѲʤߤĤĤ롥
1117դīʹͼ1̤ˡ֤ۤ䤯˥㥯Ѳפꤹ롤ưλѼ¸˴ؤ뵭ǺܤƤԥåˤऱơ٤äܸ줬ΤޤޱѸʤɤ¾ƲȤƽϤ롤ѥʥ˥åγȯᥬۥ֥ᥬۥ䥯פϤȤ̵ؤǼ¸Ū˻ѤϤƤȤŪˤϡ㤨Ѹξˤϡܸ첻ǧñ줴Ȥ˱ѸѴפѤ¤ؤȤ³Ƨ褦ǡΤ1äۤɤǺѤȤۤˡȥǤϲưץ򥤥󥹥ȡ뤷֥åȤѤʤɡǤ˼ѲؤưϿʤǤ롥λ̱ܺΤȤʤäƿʤƤ롥
Ƭˤϡư٤ϤޤޤǤꡤʤȤǯϤȸƤθεѤοŪǤ롥˾ܤȤϡȾܿͤαѸϤ餱󤯤ʤפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥Ω̾ĻһִñƤϵǤǤ褯ʤꡤαѲ濴μȤפعɬפΤƸƤ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤϡסѸɬפϤʤʸΤγؽ˼­ܤפȥȤƤ롥ϡͽ¬Ϥ褽ȹͤƤ롥
Ѹ춵ϤȤضΤ⺬ŪѤǽ롥¿γؽԤưŤѲȤȤ˶ΰռפɬפȤʤäƤؤȤϤ⤽ⲿΤˤΤȤܼŪʵʤʤФʤʤ伫ȤѸ춵ȤƼ󤬤äƤΤǤޤä¾ͻǤϤʤΤˤϡѸ˸ԤȤƥ說說Τ򴶤Ƥ롥ưδڤϡҲˤѸΰ֤Ť礭ѲǽꡤѸ˾塤ŪʽȤƹޤϤǤ롥ѳ׿ϡĤλ⡤Ū¦̤ˤƤҲŪ¦̤ˤƤѤƤΤǤ롥

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2016-11-22 Tue

#2766. Ѹˤ1;̾ʤΰ۷֤ʬ [laeme][eme][map][personal_pronoun][owl_and_nightingale][compensatory_lengthening]

ѸΥƥ The Owl and the Nightingale Cartlidge ǤɤǤ롥868ԤˤΥƥȤͣȤơ1;̾ʤȤ ih ֻ롥椬ΤΤˤĤƵƤ륷ǡNe singe ih hom no foliot! ȤѤƤ롥ֻCܤΤΤǤꡤФJܤǤϤβս˰Ūֻ ich ѤƤ롥
λ¤顤Ѹˤ1;̾ʤΰ۷֤ʬۤ˴ؿäǡLAEME ʬۤ򤵤äĴ٤Ƥߤ뤳Ȥˤä˵ˤʤäƤΤϸλҲ̵ͭӤλҲμǤ롥첻̵뤷ŵŪֻפФƤߤȡich, ik, ih, i դ꤬󤬤롥٤Фۤˤ⤢ꤦ뤬̤4ֻˤĤƽиʬۤ绨ĤˤߤƤ
LAEME ΥץϤ褯ǤƤΤǡιԤʤäȤȤС֤˴ؤϿޤɽ뤳ȤΤߤʲ4ʬۿޤĤʤ碌ΤǺܤ롥ץ󤬾ɤߤˤִطϼɽ˼̤ʲ򥯥åгǤˡ

ʲιϿޤǤΰMap No.
00001312I: Ih, ih and yh
00001305I: 'ik', all k forms, incl icke.
00001302I: '(h)ich' and 'ych' incl iich and ichs
00001308I: I.

LAEME Map for Variants of I

ʬۤȤƤϡŪ ich ϤǤ̤˹äƤΤʬ롥λҲ i Ϥֻ̤ǤꡤȤ˹äƤ롥 ih Ϥܤֻɽ魯ΡǤݼŪȸʬ˻٤Ǥ롥 ik Ϥϡ˻ߤ٤ǡŪǤϤʤ
The Owl and the Nightingale ˤĤƤ͡ʵʤƤμܤ⡤ΤΤȤ᤬ŪǤ롥餹ȡCܤ ih 줿ȤȤϡѸΤȰפ
˴ؿäƤΤϡŪ ich ʤϩéäƸ I ؤѲƤäȤŪ˴ط뤫μդˤĤơ#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1])#1773. ich, everich, -lich ch ä ([2014-03-05-1]) Ǵñˤñ /ʧ/ ꤵҲü첻Ĺ (compensatory_lengthening) ȹͤƤǤ褤ΤǰĤΤǤ롥Ū˻ ih ik θҲϡ/ʧ/ ̻ŪŪˤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤih λҲ /ʧ/ μ岽ǡüؤʳɽ魯ΤǤϤʤʲǽƬ⤫֡

Cartlidge, Neil, ed. The Owl and the Nightingale. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2001.

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2016-11-21 Mon

#2765. Oxford Dictionaries "Word of the Year" --- post-truth [woy][lexicology][prefix]

Oxford Dictionaries ǯɽƤ Word of the Year ˤȡ2016ǯΡֺǯñפϷƻ post-truth Ǥ롥ϡ"relating to or denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief" Ȥ롥ܤ Word of the Year 2016 is... 򻲾Ȥ줿
θ1992ǯ˽ФƤ뤬ʸ̤Ρֿ¤Τ줿ΡפθǻȤƤΡֿ¤̵طȤʤäΡפȤǤλѤƤΤϡäȺǶᡤ餯10ǯ餤ΤΤǤϤʤˤ衤θ줬޷ʹ򼨤Ϥ᤿ΤϡĤǶᡤǯ5ʹߤǤȤŵŪ post-truth politics Ǥ롥طʤˤϡ餫˥ꥹEUΥæ䥢ꥫ󤬤롥θ줬줿ͳȤơ˥ǥ֥¿ѤƤ뤳Ȥ顤󸻤ȤƤΥǥƬ󤲤ޤŪˤϡؤ󼨤¤Ф͡ԿȤɾ롥ƻŪʸǤ롥
ѸŪˤϡpost- Ȥƥͳ褹ƬˤѸˤä夷ȤʪȤƶ̣post- ȤƬΤ϶Ѹ餢뤬ˡ?ΡʻŪˡ˸ΡפȤ顤Ūʰ̣礤ġ?̵طȤʤäΡʻˡפȤѤ졤͡ʸʤ褦ˤʤäΤϡ20ȾФΤȤǤ롥Ϣơ#560. Ƭ post- ([2010-11-08-1])#561. Ƭ post- (2) ([2010-11-09-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ơpost-truth Τۤ˥Υߥ͡Ȥ줿ˤĤƤ Word of the Year 2016: other words on the shortlist 뤬̤󤲤Ƥߤȡhygge, n., Brexiteer, Latinx, n. and adj., coulrophobia, n., adulting, chatbot, glass cliff, n., alt-right, n., woke, adj. Ǥ롥
Oxford Dictionaries "Word of the Year" ϤɤΤ褦򤵤졤ꤵΤWord of the Year: FAQ ˤȡμȤƤϡOxford Dictionaries Υब͡ΤԻ줿15ۤɤ Oxford English Corpus ȤˤĴʤɤԤʤ򤤤Ĥ󤲤ǡǥ֥ʤɤˤ̤󤻤Ƥ̣ʤΤȤνнŵŪˤϥꥹꥫ濴Ȥʤ뤬ʤ٤줫ι˻ѤФäƤǤϤʤ깭ԡ뤹򤹤褦θƤȤȤ
Ϣơꥫ American Dialect Society ˤ Word of the Year ⻲ȡˤĤƤϡܥ֥εȤ ads woy

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2016-11-20 Sun

#2764. رѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡ٤Ǥޤ [toc][link][notice][sobokunagimon]

رѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡ٤ҤǤޤȤܥ֥ε򸵤ˤƼɮƤΤǡʥ֥ɤǤƤˤϴؿäƤ館ΤǤϤʤȻפäƤޤѸؽԤ٤ϤΡѤʵפŰŪˤäƽ񤭤ޤ

naze_front_cover

δʤۤä夦رѸΡ֤ʤפϤƤαѸˡ١ҡ2016ǯ206ǡISBN: 978-43274016892200ߡ̡ˡ

ܽѥ˥󡦥

ܽϡAmazon.co.jp Υ饤ŹǤǽǤ



ˤ⤢褦ˡܽѥ˥󡦥ҤΥ֥ߤƤޤΤǡ⤴äˡޤܽξҲڡˬƤߤƤˤϡƾҲܼ䡤ѥ˥󡦥Ѥ˽񤭲ܽΤͤ餤ǺܤƤޤޤץPDFؤΥĥƤޤΤǡɤץǤϡ֤Ϥˡסܼסܽ pp. 26--30 2.1֤ʤ *a apple ǤϤʤ an apple ʤΤ2괧פʸΤɤळȤǤΤǡƤΥե󥰡ʢܥ֥˶ᤤǤˤĤȻפޤޤȤʤäƤ¿Ǥ夳Υѥ˥󡦥Ȥˤϡܽ˴ؤʤ뤤ϱѸ̤˴ؤ͡­򥢥åץɤƤͽǤޤܽƤȴϢ󶡤ϢܡפǤ
ܽΤͤ餤˾ܤǤܽϡֱѸ춵ϤȤѸˤ¿ˡɤǤ餤ȻפɮޤˤäȤϡˤҤ٤褦ˡѤʵפ򰷤ȤȡֱѸˡפΤ⤷ȤȤ뤳ȡɼԤˡܤڤθ̣äƤ餦ȤǤϤƤŪϤޤ̤Ƥ뤫ɤɼԤΤߤʤȿԤƤޤ
ѥ˥󡦥ˤܼܽޤѤ˾ܤСʲ˺ƸƤޤ



Ϥ

1ˤƱѸϸߤλѤˤʤäΤѸ
1.1Ѹˤλʬ
1.1.1ƻʬ̾
1.1.2ʬ
1.2
1.3ֻѲ
1.3.1Ѳ
1.3.2ֻѲ
1.4ʸˡѲ
1.5äѲ
1.6Ѹ¿
2ȯֻ˴ؤѤʵ
2.1ʤ *a apple ǤϤʤ an apple ʤΤ2괧
2.1.1첻Ϣ³򤱤뷹
2.1.2ҲǤ n æ
2.1.3Ū̻Ū
2.2ʤ̾ récord ʤΤư recórd ʤΤ̾ưפζѥ
2.2.1̾ưȤ
2.2.216θóȻ
2.2.3̾ưγط
2.2.4ѥβ
2.2.5ߤ̲
2.3ʤ often t ȯͤΤȯֻδط
2.3.1ֻȯ
2.3.2often εȯã
2.3.3ѲΤѲ
2.4ʤ five Ф fifth ʤΤűѸȯ§
2.4.1five θפ
2.4.2ͭ˶ޤȻҲͭ뵬§
2.4.3third βž
2.4.4first, second 佼ˡ
2.5ʤ name ϡ֥ʥפǤϤʤ֥ͥפȯΤѲȥޥå e
2.5.1<e>
2.5.2ʥޤͥ
2.5.3ѹˤڤȴ
2.5.4ֻݼ
2.6ʤ debt, doubt ˤȯʤ <b> Τͥ󥹴θ
2.6.1츻Ūֻ
2.6.2츻Ūֻ
2.6.3ե󥹸ˤ츻Ūֻ
3˴ؤѤʵ
3.1ʤ3ñ -s դΤޤŪ
3.1.1ŪŪ
3.1.2ŪǽŪ
3.1.3̻Ū
3.2ʤ *foots, *childs ǤϤʤ feet, children ʤΤ§Ե§ (1)
3.2.1§ʣ -s ε
3.2.2child ʣ children Ȥʤ櫓
3.2.3foot ʣϤʤ feet
3.2.4ٸԵ§ʣ
3.3sometimes -s ϲɽ魯ΤűѸγʤκ
3.3.1űѸ°
3.3.2űѸг
3.4ʤԵ§ư줬Τ§Ե§ (2)
3.4.1Ե§ưε§
3.4.2Υꥨ
3.4.3set -- set -- set
3.4.4ʤ go β went ˤʤΤ
3.5ʤ -ly դˤʤΤƻδط
3.5.1-ly ܼ
3.5.2-e οΰ
3.5.3ñ
4˴ؤѤʵ
4.1ʤ̤ɽ魯Τ will ѤΤ̤ȯã
4.1.1Ǥ̤ΤȤǤ will Ѥʤ
4.1.2Ѹ̤Ϥʤä
4.1.3Ѹ̤ȯã
4.2ʤ If I were a bird ȤʤΤˡοȻ¸
4.2.1be ư
4.2.2ˡľˡȤʪȹͤ
4.2.3ˡߤ should
4.3ʤѸˤϼ줬ɬפʤΤθ경 (1)
4.3.1;ιʸ
4.3.2;ιʸ;ιʸ
4.3.3Ѹ˻Ĥ;ιʸ
4.4ʤ *I you love ǤϤʤ I love you ʤΤθ경 (2)
4.4.1θδܸ
4.4.2űѸ줫Ѹؤθȯã
4.4.3°֤̾ of ȯã
4.4.4ʤѸ̾νϡ̾פʤΤ
4.5ʤ May the Queen live long! ϤθʤΤ may ȯã
4.5.1Ѹε may ȯã
4.5.2űѸ졦Ѹˤ뵧 may ˨
4.5.3ɸȤƤ may
5äỌ̇̄˴ؤѤʵ
5.1ʤ Help me! Ȥ϶֤ Aid me! Ȥ϶ФʤΤѸäγ (1)
5.1.1ܸäγ
5.1.2Ѹäγ
5.1.3žι¤
5.2ʤ Assist me! ȤϤʤ鶫ФʤΤѸäγ (2)
5.2.1Ѹä3ع¤
5.2.2ܸä3ع¤
5.2.33إԥߥåɹ¤
5.3ʤ1Ĥñ͡ʰ̣ΤƱ۵¿
5.3.1Ʊ۵
5.3.2though they Ʊ۵ͤ
5.3.3Ʊۢ
5.4ʤñΰ̣ΤȺǰ㤦Τñΰ̣Ѳ
5.4.1̣Ѳ෿
5.4.2deer μդηŪʰ̣Ѳ
5.4.3̣
5.5ѸοϤɤΤ褦˺Τή
5.5.1οκ
5.5.2
5.5.3ʣ
5.5.4
5.5.5Ƭ
6ȼҲ˴ؤѤʵ
6.1ʤꥫѸǤ r 򤽤ȯΤ r ȯȰ̱
6.1.1ꥹˤ r
6.1.2ꥫˤ r
6.1.3ꥹ饢ꥫϤä̱νп
6.1.4ִѼפ r
6.2ꥫѸϥꥹѸֿפΤ colonial lag ε
6.2.1ꥫѸΥƥ쥪
6.2.2֥ꥫѸ׿Ū׿ä
6.2.3֥ꥫѸݼŪ׿ä
6.2.4Ƥ෿ȶѹդμ줿
6.2.5ˤݼŪȤϲ
6.3ʤͱѸɸѸȰۤʤäƤΤѸѼи
6.3.1AAVE ε
6.3.2AAVE ħ
6.3.3ͱѸϤ˰ۤʤäƤΤͱѸιήʬ
6.3.4AAVE 3ñ -s
6.4ʤ̾ she ǼΤѸˤ른 (1)
6.4.1Ѹ
6.4.2Ūط
6.4.320θ
6.5ʤñ they Ȥ褦ˤʤäƤΤѸˤ른 (2)
6.5.13;ñ̾
6.5.2¤ϸŤ餢äñ they
6.5.3Ū he ο͹

????
Ѹǯɽ
ɽ

ˡʤѸˤؤ֤Τ

ʸ




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2016-11-19 Sat

#2763. Ѹ줫βȸߴλ (2) [perfect][preterite][aspect][tense][present_perfect_puzzle][prosody][poetic_license][rhyme]

#2750. "Present Perfect Puzzle" --- Ѹ줫βȸߴλ ([2016-11-06-1]) ˰³ƤꡥVisser ϡѸˤȸߴλˤĤơե󥹸ʤɤαƶ⤢ꤦȤϽҤ٤ƤΤΡ礿ͳϻŪ (poetic_license) ˤȹͤƤ롥ȤΤϡξԤؤӱ (rhyme) 䱤Χ (metre) ưŤƤȤܤ㤬ºݤ˾ʤʤӱưŤȤơVisser (713) ε󤲤ƤΤ椫餤ĤȴФƤߤ롥

c1386 Chaucer, C. T. H264: His bowe he bente, and sette ther-inne a flo, / And in his ire his wyf thanne hath he slayn, - / This is theffect, ther is namoore to sayn.
c1390 Gower Conf. Am. (ed. Morley) V p. 245: Wherof this lord hath hede nome / And did hem bothe for to come.
c1390 Gower Conf. Am. (ed. Morley) V p. 277: whan it came unto the grounde, / A great serpent it hath bewounde.
c1400 Syr Tryamowre (ed. Erdman Schmidt) 1030: The messengere ys come and gone. / But tydyngys of Tryamowre herde he none.

ƱͤˡΧˤȹͤΤĤ Visser (717--18) 꼨

c1250 Floris & Bl. 985: Clarice, joie hire mot bitide, / Aros up in þe moreȝentide, / And haþ cleped Blauncheflur.
c1386 Chaucer, C. T. B628: This gentil kyng hath caught a greet motyf / Of this witnesse, and thoghte he wolde enquere / Depper in this.
c1386 Chaucer, C. T. H203: And so befel, whan Phebus was absent, / His wyf anon hath for hir lemman sent.
c1390 Gower, C. A. (ed. Morley) p. 277: And he, which understood his tale, / Betwene him and his asse all softe / Hath drawe and set him up a lofte.

ȸߴλ󤬼ȤƻŪƤ˵Ȥϡ줬ĶˤäƤٻ롥Τ褦ϡ14--15αʸˤܸۤ¤ƤΤǤ롥θűѸѸǤϡʸˤ軶ʸˤ衤Ϥ㤷ǧʤޤѸǤ⡤ʸǤ̤ߤʤˡȸߴλ󤬤ߤĶǤϡȸ߷ƱͤˤߤȤ¤⡤ŪƤˤɤȤʤ롥ḽˤơŪʥƥ꡼ȤƽŻ뤵褦ˤʤꡤȸߡʴλˤζ̤⤦뤵ʤäƤѸǤϡΥƥ꡼ȤηϡΧС̤ê夲Ƥ褤٤νפǤȤ館ƤΤ
ǤϡḽˤơδƤ졤ͤˤʤäƤäΤϤʤʤΤϡȼҲᤰ礭ʱѸ˾Ǥ롥

Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.

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2016-11-18 Fri

#2762. plankton [etymology][greek][grimms_law][voice]

ץ󥯥ȥ (plankton) ȤϡɴʻŵˤȡֿǤäƤʪͷʪȤƤФ롥ʤɤοǡޤäưʤ鷺˱ưʤ顤äƤ롥Ԥʤʪץ󥯥ȥȡ򿩤٤ưʪץ󥯥ȥȤʬ롥Τ礭ϤޤޤǡʪƱ餤ξʤΤ顤饲Τ褦1m餤ΤΤޤǤס
Τˡ֥ץ󥯥ȥפΥ᡼ϥߥɥॷߥ󥳤ʤɤξʪ礭̵طȤȤǤ롥˾0.02m2m緿饲ޤǤޤߡӡˡˡʥޥˤưʪץ󥯥ȥȤ餷Ƥ롥Ĥޤꡤץ󥯥ȥȤϡưη֤ˤʪʬȤȤΤ褦
plankton ȤñϡɥĤؼ Viktor Hensen (1835--1924) ꥷǤѤ¤äΤѸ줬ѤΤǡOED ˤȽФ1889ǯǤ롥ꥷưư plázesthaí (to wander) θʬ plagktós plagktón ͳ褹롥ưθ촴ϡŪˤϰĸ *plāk- (to strike) ̤롥̣Ūˤϡáפ֤Ҥä֤פФơư֤Ρֲžס֥֥֥餹פϲפؤѲΤȻפ롥
θ캬ıñȤƤϡꥷ줫 apoplexy ʷΰС, paraplegia , plectrum ʥΤĤ, -plegia ˤꡤƥ줫 complain 򤤤, plague ʱ¡, plaint ʹʾ, plangent Ǥ󤻤ˤ롥ťΥɸͳ flaw , fling ꤲĤˤǤϡҲ p ˡ§Ф f ȤʤäƤ롥
Ʊˤθ캬̤ȤϤplague Ǥ to strike ǽưŪǹŪʴްդޤΤФplankton Ǥ to wander ưưŪʥեեﴶʿ¤Ǥ롥²ۤ羮͡ʥץ󥯥ȥɺѤį䤵줿Τǡʵ񤤤Ƥߤޤ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2016-11-17 Thu

#2761. ָŪݼ׺ƹ [language_myth][purism][linguistic_ideology]

#2751. T. S. Eliot ˤѸλ˭ ([2016-11-07-1]) ǰѤˤȡݼθήϥޤαѹۥåޤ Edmund Burke (1729--97) ̤롥ݼפȤѸ Burke Ѥ̣ѤʤСʲΤȤƧޤɬפȤʱp. 13ˡ

(1) ݼ餹٤϶Ū٤䴷Ǥꡤ
(2) Τ褦٤䴷ˤΤʤݤ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥ˺ƤϤʤ餺
(3) ڤʤΤϼͳݻ뤳ȤǤꡤ
(4) ̱粽ˤĤġŪפܻؤ

Burke ˤݼפΤȤäƤ櫓ˤݼפ˱ѤʤСɤΤ褦ʤȤˤʤȤΤϡ#1318. ˤݼŪȤϲ ([2012-12-05-1])#1304. ꥫѸΡݼס ([2012-11-21-1]) 褦ˡˤݼȤǰϡ͡ޤǤ뤫
äȤ⡤ѸˤΤޤƤϤ褦ȤƤ̵ȤͽۤǤ롥(1) Ρ٤䴷פȤΤϡǤʸˡȯˡʤɤζŪʸܤȤäƤ褵Ǥꡤ(2) Ρˤݤ줿פȤɽ⤽Τޤ޸ƤϤ뤳ȤǤ롥(3) ּͳݻפȤϡˤƲΤѼԤˤġɽμͳΤȤ뤤ŪʵϼδȤ褦ʤȤ̣Τ(4) Ρ̱粽פ⡤ƤϤȡΰ̣ʬʤʤ롥ˤĤƤϡӡ#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1])#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2013-01-22-1])#1845. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ (2) ([2014-05-16-1])#2359. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ (3) ([2015-10-12-1]) ǹͤƤ̤Ǥ롥(4) Ρפֲספ⡤ξˤϲΤȽȤʤ
餯ָŪݼפȤϡŪݼθŪ¦̡פ򤷤ƤΤ褤ΤĤޤꡤηϤΤΤ˴ؤǤϤʤˤĤƤŪ˴ؤʤΤΰ̣ǡָŪݼפȤϡ⤦1Ĥθ쥤ǥ (linguistic_ideology) ˤʤΤ⤷ʤ (see #2163. 쥤ǥ ([2015-03-30-1]))

ŵݼȤϲȿե󥹳̿鸽ܤޤǡ١ҡӡ2016ǯ

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2016-11-16 Wed

#2760. ꥢȥե󥹤Υǥߡȡ Johnson [prescriptivism][academy][johnson][italian][french][dictionary][lexicography][popular_passage]

ε#2759. Swift ˤ륢ǥߡΩƤ̤ʤäͳ ([2016-11-15-1]) ȴϢơѸ쥢ǥߡΩƤ˥󥹥ԥ졼Ϳꥢȥե󥹤ȡɤŨ Johnson μβͤˤĤ
ꥹѸ쥢ǥߡΩ褦ȲΤϡǤ˥ꥢȥե󥹤˥ǥߡ㤬ä顤Ȥͳ礭衼åѽϹֹפ (cf. #2741. ascertaining, refining, fixing ([2016-10-28-1])) ǤꡤǥߡȤؤ̤Ƥ¸褦ȹͤƤܤĤΤϥꥢǤ롥ꥢˤ͡ʥǥߡäǤ褯ΤƤΤ1582ǯΩ줿 Accademia della Crusca Ǥ롥εؤϡ1612ǯ Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca ȤǤʪĤθŤͤơ1691ǯˤ3ʬ1729--38ǯǤǤ6ʬˤޤĹ (Baugh and Cable 257)
ե󥹤Ǥϡ1635ǯ˿ Richelieu ʸإõͿνġʺ40̾ˤ l'Académie française ȤΤ褦ˤʤäεؤϡʸˡԽ뤳ȤŪ1ĤȤƷǤƤꡤȤ١ȤƤΤΡ1694ǯˤϼ񤬽Ǥ˻ä (Baugh and Cable 257)
Τ褦ˡꥢե󥹤Ǥ17˥ǥߡϤˤӤѤ߾夲ƤƱꥹǤϥǥߡΩƤʤƤʤäΤǤ롥θ塤1712ǯ Swift ˤƤʤ줿̤Ȥή줿аޤˤĤƤϺεǽҤ٤˸1755ǯˤϡǥߡˤ餺Johnson ĿͤϤǡꥢե󥹸μɤŨѸμ񤬽Ǥ˻äJohnson ο David Garrick ϡΥԥĤƤ (Baugh and Cable 267)

And Johnson, well arm'd like a hero of yore,
Has beat forty French, and will beat forty more.


Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-03-03-1]

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2016-11-15 Tue

#2759. Swift ˤ륢ǥߡΩƤ̤ʤäͳ [swift][prescriptivism][academy][lowth][johnson]

Swift ˤ A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue (1712) ϡѸΥǥߡ (academy) Ω˸ƺǤᤤȤޤߤäǤ17ȾˤϱѸ쥢ǥߡϾ夬äƤꡤ18Ƭ Swift Ƥˤƥԡޤˤ衤θ18⥢ǥߡΩ׵ϤñˤϾǤʤäˤ򿶤֤äƤߤСSwift Ƥ̤ʤäȤˤꡤǥߡΩƤʱ٤뤳ȤˤʤäȤϸäƤ褤Ǥϡʤ Swift Ƥή줿Τ
ˤϡĿŪŪ Anne λȤ𤬤äBaugh and Cable (262) ˼Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

   Apparently the only dissenting voice was that of John Oldmixon, who, in the same year that Swift's Proposal appeared, published Reflections on Dr. Swift's Letter to the Earl of Oxford, about the English Tongue. It was a violent Whig attack inspired by purely political motives. He says, "I do here in the Name of all the Whigs, protest against all and everything done or to be done in it, by him or in his Name." Much in the thirty-five pages is a personal attack on Swift, in which he quotes passages from the Tale of a Tub as examples of vulgar English, to show that Swift was no fit person to suggest standards for the language. And he ridicules the idea that anything can be done to prevent languages from changing. "I should rejoice with him, if a way could be found out to fix our Language for ever, that like the Spanish cloak, it might always be in Fashion." But such a thing is impossible.
   Oldmixon's attack was not directed against the idea of an academy. He approves of the design, "which must be own'd to be very good in itself." Yet nothing came of Swift's Proposal. The explanation of its failure in the Dublin edition is probably correct; at least it represented contemporary opinion. "It is well known," it says, "that if the Queen had lived a year or two longer, this proposal would, in all probability, have taken effect. For the Lord Treasurer had already nominated several persons without distinction of quality or party, who were to compose a society for the purposes mentioned by the author; and resolved to use his credit with her majesty, that a fund should be applied to support the expense of a large room, where the society should meet, and for other incidents. But this scheme fell to the ground, partly by the dissensions among the great men at court; but chiefly by the lamented death of that glorious princess."


ĤޤꡤSwift ƤƤ켫ΤäȤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ롥ǥߡΩ¿ο͡δꤤǤ⤢ä塹ȿʤǤŪˤ Swift ȿФʪ˶ӡո԰פޤ줿ȤȡƲ⡤ǥߡΩ˸ưФƤ Anne 1714ǯ˴ʤäȤSwift αοԤä
־夫פαѸ쥢ǥߡĤ˺ʤäȤˤꡤ18ϡֲפθ쵬Ϥκ꤬ʤǤȤˤʤ (see #2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]), #1421. Johnson θѡ ([2013-03-18-1]), #141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1])) ꥹϡǥߡջ֤ʤä櫓ǤϤʤȾˤζǺ˻ʤäɾΤŬڤ

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

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2016-11-14 Mon

#2758. Ferguson ˤֹȤμҲŪسԡ [sociolinguistics][methodology][typology][world_languages][world_languages][demography]

ε#2757. Ferguson ˤҲŪʡȯŸפٹ礤 ([2016-11-13-1]) ˰³Ferguson ʸ˰͵򤷤ʤ顤ʶƱΡˤ෿ˡˤĤƹͤ롥Ferguson (25) ϡؼԤŪ˹ȤȤñ̤򤢤ƹθʤȤ٤äƤҲؤΩ줫ϡȤȤƹͤ뤳Ȥɬפȼĥ롥

From many points of view . . . it is desirable to use the nation as the basis for general sociolinguistic descriptions: communication networks, educational systems, and language "planning" are generally on a national basis and national boundaries play at least as important a role in the delimitation of linguistic areas as any other single social barrier.


Ferguson ϡȤȤƸλѾ򵭽ҤȤԲķǤꡤ٤ƤιȤˤĤưӤǵҤ뤳ȤˤꡤӤǤ褦ˤʤ뤷෿Ǥ褦ˤʤȼĥ롥Τ褦ʹ̤εҤ"national sociolinguistic profile" (26) Ǥ롥ΰӤˤĤƤϡͽŪʤΤȤʤ顤ιܤ󤲤Ƥ (26)

. . . how many major languages are spoken; what is the pattern of language dominance; are there national uses of a LWC [= language of wider communication]; for each major language spoken in the country, what is the extent of written uses of the language (W0. --- W2.) and what is the extent of standardization (St0. --- St2.) and its nature (multimodal? range of variation from the norm?).


ޤǤˡ褽 Ferguson Ƥ̤ˡֹȤμҲŪسԡפεҤʤƤEthnologue Τ褦ʥǡ١褦ˤʤä

Ferguson, Charles A. "The Language Factor in National Development." Anthropological Linguistics 4 (1962): 23--27.

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2016-11-13 Sun

#2757. Ferguson ˤҲŪʡȯŸפٹ礤 [standardisation][writing][sociolinguistics][methodology][typology][world_languages]

Ferguson ϡ "language 'development'" ¬ˡƤƤ롥'development' Ȱ䤬뤳Ȥ鼨褦ˡϿʲŪʸѤ˴ŤƤ櫓ǤϤʤҲŪȯŸٹ礤¬ȤߤǤ롥Ferguson (23) Ū˵󤲤ƤΤϡֽ񤭸դλѤٹ礤 ("the degree of use of written language") ȡɸಽ١ ("the nature and extent of standardization") 2Ǥ롥
1ܤλɸǤֽ񤭸դλѤٹ礤פˤĤƤϡ绨Ĥ W0, W1, W2, W3 4ʳǧȤ (23--24) ʳߤʬ̤ꡤ̤صŪʻɸȤäƤ褤

W0. --- not used for normal written purposes
W1. --- used for normal written purposes
W2. --- original research in physical sciences regularly published
W3. --- languages in which translations and resumés of scientific work in other languages are regularly published

2ܤλɸǤɸಽ١פϡäȹäƤ롥λɸˤ2Ĥ¦̤ꡤ1ΤΤ "the degree of difference between the standard form or forms of a language and all other varieties of it" (24) Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤѼ֤κٹ礤˴ؤ¦̤ǤʴϢơ#1523. Abstand language Ausbau language ([2013-06-28-1]) #1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿ˡ
2¦̤ "the nature of the standardization and the degree to which a standard form is accepted as such throughout the community" (24) Ǥ롥Ferguson (24--25) 3ʳꤷ

St0. --- "a language in which there is no important amount of standardization" (ex. Kurdish) (24)
St1. --- a language which "requires considerable sub-classification to be of any use. Whatever scheme of classification is developed, it will have to take account in the first instance of whether the standardization is unimodal or bi- or multimodal, and in the case of more than one norm, the nature of the norms must be treated" (ex. bimodal Armenian, Greek, Serbo-Croatian, Norwegian; multimodal Hindi-Urdu) (25)
St2. --- "a language which has a single, widely-accepted norm which is felt to be appropriate with only minor modifications or variations for all purposes for which the language is used" (24)

¬ΤλɸȤƹӺǤϤ뤬ʬ䤹ǤͥƤ롥
Τ褦¬ͤ˴ŤơʶƱΡˤҲŪ෿褦Ȥߤϡۤˤ⤢롥#1519. ҲŪ෿ؤƻ ([2013-06-24-1]) #1547. μҲŪ°7 ([2013-07-22-1]) ׻ȡ

Ferguson, Charles A. "The Language Factor in National Development." Anthropological Linguistics 4 (1962): 23--27.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-01-10-1] [2016-11-14-1]

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2016-11-12 Sat

#2756. ɤ߽ǽϤϸѲ®٤ˤ뤫 [glottochronology][lexicology][speed_of_change][schedule_of_language_change][language_change][latin][writing][medium][literacy]

Swadesh θǯ (glottochronology) ˤСŪʳǰɽ路ʸˤۤܰ¸ʤȹͤøäϡ֤ȤȤ˰Ψ֤ƤȤǰƬ֤ƤΤϡäդθݤǤꡤ񤭸դȤƤʤȤȤϡɤ߽ǽ (literacy) ϤΡְΨפ̤ʱƶڤܤʤȤȤްդƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ľŪˤϡɤ߽ǽϤȽ񤭸դϸФݼŪ˺ѤĹˤ錄ä¸ʤɤˤ׸ΤǤϤʤȤ⵿롥
Zengel ϤΤ褦ռ顤衼åѻˤ2ǯʾˤ錄Ѿ줿ˡʸˡΧä򽦤ФݻΨĴĴˡΧʸŵΤʤǺǤŤΤϡ450ǯ The Twelve Tables Ǥ롥ˡǯδ֤򤪤Ƶ533ǯ Justinian I ˤ The InstitutesǸˡǯʾλ֤Ф1621ǯ˥ե󥹤ǽǤ줿 The Custom of Brittany Ǥ롥ĴˤơƱδϸ촴٥ǤΰפǤꡤŪѷʤɤϹθƤʤǽǯ "First interval"ǯ "Second interval" ȤƥƥˡΧäݻΨ¬ȤΤ褦ʿͤ줿 (Zengel 137)

 Number of itemsItems retainedRate of retention
First interval685885.1%
Second interval584680.5%


2֤ʿѤ83%ۤɤȤʤ뤬¾θפοͤӤ롥㤨СZengel (138) ˼Ƥ褦ˡ"200 word basic" ݻΨ81%"100 word basic" Ǥ86%Swadesh ΥꥹȤǤ93%ǤʤӤΤᡤ̸äǤ51%Τ̤䵡ǽɽ魯ä68%ˡˤꡤSwadesh ˤϤʤä񤭸դ̩ܤ˷ӤĤˡΧѸȤüʻѰθääۤɹ⤤ݻΨ򼨤Ƥ뤳Ȥ¾ڤ줿Ȥˤʤ롥Zengel (138--39) ϡΤ褦ʸǤ롥

Some new factor must be recognized to account for the astonishing stability disclosed in this study . . . . Since these materials have been selected within an area where total literacy is a primary and integral necessity in the communicative process, it seems reasonable to conclude that it is to be reckoned with in language change through time and may be expected to retard the rate of vocabulary change.


ʤۤɡZengel ϥƥˡΧäȤˤꡤݻФɤ߽ǽϤαƶ¾ڤ褦Ȼߤ櫓ǤϤ롥Ф줿ϡ̣ľŪQŪˤȤɤޤηȤʤʤSwadesh ˤиʸ˰¸äݻΨŪ㤤ϤǤꡤˡΧѸϤʸŪʸäȹͤ뤫顤ޤޤݻΨ㤤ϤȤλǤϤषݻΨϹ⤫äϡäȤ٤ʸŪǤäƤ⡤줬Ĺˤ錄٤ȷӤĤΤǤС˱ƸäĹݤ롤Ȥθݤɽ路ƤˤʤΤǤϤʤξ硤ä٤ϡäݻΨǤϤʤ2ǯˤ錄ä٤ȤƵǽƤˡη³ϤʤΤǤϤʤˡΧѸΤۤѸʳѸʤɡ̤ΤѤȹͤͤʤɤɽäϡβͤ¸³뤢Ϥ¸³ΤǤϤʤ󡤤Τ褦ʼθäϡɤ߽ǽϤ񤭸դ̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ뤳Ȥ¿Τǡ⤪˴ͿƤȤưפ롥ޤää٤ǤϤʤ
Ѳ® (speed_of_change) ˤĤơȴϢơ#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1])#753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1])#2417. ʸݼƿ ([2015-12-09-1])#795. 󥿡ͥåȻϸѲβžΨκǤ® ([2011-07-01-1])#1874. ٸθݼ ([2014-06-14-1])#2641. Ѳ®٤ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2016-07-20-1])#2670. 񤭸դݼˤĤơ ([2016-08-18-1]) ʤɤ⻲Ȥ줿

Zengel, Marjorie S. "Literacy as a Factor in Language Change." American Anthropologist 64 (1962): 132--39.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-05-23-1]

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2016-11-11 Fri

#2755. ʾȸ (3) [saussure][langue][arbitrariness][sign][semiotics][linguistics][diachrony]

#2743. ʾȸ ([2016-10-30-1])#2746. ʾȸ (2) ([2016-11-02-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ[2016-11-02-1]εκǸǡֲʾʪŪʲͤȷӤĤƤ뤬ϤޤdzǰŪʲͤȷӤĤƤˤʤȤϡषξԤ礭פȽҤ٤θڤȴϢơ塼˵ȤƤβʾȸоȤƤս꤬롥塼ˤСξԤϵȤƺŪ˰ۤʤ°Ȥε̤ơ쵭 (arbitrariness) ͳ褹ʤ֤̻֤ܼŪΩ⤭Ħˤʤ롥
ε򤹤뤿ˡޤ塼θˤֲ͡ (valeur) ˤĤƸƤʤФʤʤݻ (68--69) ˤС

塼ηϤϡޤطȤƤβͤηϤǤ롥ǤϡŪŪˤäġǤ꽸ޤäΤΤǤϤʤΤȤδϢ¾ǤȤߴطǤϤƸĤβͤ롥⡤󥰤ʤηϤϡưʪȤƤΥҥȤǽ޼ȿǤʤߤ̤ǤϤʤʹ֤ˡҲŪˤäƤϤƷꤵͤηϤǤꡤλʪɤ֤ɤطդƤ뤫ȤΤǤϤʤȤñ̤ȤҴŪʼΤ¸ߤʤηϤʤΤǤ롥󥰤Ϥ줬ηϤǤ¤ꡤϢ³ñ̤¸ߤꤵ롥ñ̤ϡץꥪ˼¸ΤǤϤ塼ޤäĤ򽪻϶줷ޤϡñ̤ºǤä塼ηϤϡܼ˴ؤڤΥ뤳ȤϤǤʤȸ
֥ȥФϺŪˡΩ˴פ֤ηϤȤʤġϤ礦ɡޤޤʶͿ줿ϤΤޤޤȤ߹碌ΩĥΤ褦ʤΤסˤ⤫餺ΤȤƤñ̤ϤɤˤͿƤʤ֥ȥФ˼ͿƤʪ򸫤븸ۤκϿפȤϸߤΤϴطΩʹ֤λʡᶦƱѡˤǤ롥ֿͤΩʪ֤嫤ϡʪΩä¸ߤʪꤹƯʤ̡ġͿͤϤλˤäŪ˻ʪ¤롥̡ġͤʤʪ⡤ʤоݤ⡤ʤִ֤ˤƤ¨ŪˤͿƤʤפΤ


塼ˤȤäơŪʲͤˤϤΤ褦˼ŪŪʼΤλ٤ʤΤǤ뤫顤ϲʾβͤȤ٤٤ʤȤȤˤʤ롥塼3ֵǡˤĤƿƤ롥ݻ (116) ȡ

塼ˤС쵭ϡ¾ΤɤΤ褦ʵ桤ɤΤ褦٤ˤˤʤŪäƤ롥ȤС빭ϤˤĤʾŪʲͤʤɤϡɤäƤѲĴ٤뤳ȤǤϡʾȤε椬ϤȤѤμŪоݤ򤽤γ˻äƤ뤫ạ̇̄ǤεܼŪˡñפʤΤǤ롥Ȥ쵭ˤϡλ٤ϤɤˤʤΤǤꡤΤϤİбפȡֳǰפĤιࡤΰ֤«δ֤δطˤäƤݾڤƤʤĤιࡤȤȤˤʤ롥ιϡ¬ꤹɤΤ褦ʼ٤ʤȤǡҤѲ򤳤롥ѲǤ٤Ͼ֤ΤˤϤʤ֤᤿ͳѲΤˤϸФʤȤϤ٤ơ쵭椬ֻʪμŪطפˤȤŤʤŪַפǤ뤳Ȥ餯Τǡؤ̻ؤ̡ǤΩƤɬ⡤¤Ϥ˺Ƥ櫓Ǥ롥


Ǥϡ쵭ΤȲʾΤΩƤ롥ΰ㤤椨ˡʾˤĤƤϡ֤̻֤ζ̤ä˰ռˡñפ˰ȤǤΤФ쵭ˤĤƤξ֤˶̤ưʤФʤʤȤפΤȤΤȤĥƤս Saussure (115--16) Ѥ褦

   Il est certain que toutes les sciences auraient intérêt à marquer plus scrupuleusement les axes sur lesquels sont situées les choses dont elles s'occupent ; il faudrait partout distinguer selon la figure suivante : 1o l'axe des simultanéités (AB), concernant les rapports entre choses coexistantes, d'où toute intervention du temps est exclue, et 2o l'axe des successivités (CD), sur lequel on ne peut jamais considérer qu'une chose à la fois, mais où sont situées toutes les choses du premier axe avec leur changements.
   Pour les sciences travaillant sur des valeurs, cette distinction devient une nécessité pratique, et dans certains cas une nécessité absolue. Dans ce domaine on peut mettre les savants au défi d'organiser leurs recherches d'une façon rigoureuse sans tenir compte de deux axes, sans distinguer le système des valeurs considérées en soi, de ces mêmes valeurs considérées en fonction du temps.
   C'est au linguiste que cette distinction s'impose le plus impérieusement ; car la langue est un système de pures valeurs que rien ne détermine en dehors de l'état momentané de ses termes. Tant que par un de ses côtés une valeur a sa racine dans les choses et leurs rapports naturels (comme c'est le cas dans la science économique --- par exemple un fonds de terre vaut en proportion de ce qu'il rapporte), on peut jusqu'à un certain point suivre cette valeur dans le temps, tout en se souvenant qu'à chaque moment elle dépend d'un système de valeurs contemporaines. Son lien avec les choses lui donne malgré tout une base naturelle, et par là les appréciations qu'on y rattache ne sont jamais complètement arbitraire ; leur variabilité est limitée. Mais nous venons de voir qu'en linguistique les données naturelles n'nont aucune place.


ȤƤβʾȸоȤ̤ơ줾⤭ĦˤʤäƤ

ݻ Ϻإ塼뾮ŵ١罤ۡ1985ǯ
Saussure, Ferdinand de. Cours de linguistique générale. Ed. Tullio de Mauro. Paris: Payot & Rivages, 2005.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-01-26-1]

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2016-11-10 Thu

#2754. εǽ --- ŪķȳŪ [sociolinguistics][official_language][standardisation]

ȤˤȤäơ (national language) β̤礭ȤȤñ̤򼫳ФԤϡưɸಽʤɤ̤Ū¸褦ȤưȤƤϡŪķ (internal cohesion) ȳŪ (external distinction) 2बäHaugen (927--28) λŦŪͤƤ롥

[The nation] minimizes internal differences and maximizes external ones. On the individual's personal and local identity it superimposes a national one by identifying his ego with that of all others within the nation and separating it from that of all others outside the nation. In a society that is essentially familial or tribal or regional it stimulates a loyalty beyond the primary groups, but discourages any conflicting loyalty to other nations. The ideal is: internal cohesion---external distinction. / Since the encouragement of such loyalty requires free and rather intense communication within the nation, the national ideal demands that there be a single linguistic code by means of which this communication can take place.


ȤˤȤäơο͡Τα߳ʥߥ˥ϡɬܤǤ롥顤ɬŪ˸׵᤬롥ŪķΤιפɬǤ롥ȤˤȤäƤϡο͡賰ο͡ȤƱ褦˱߳˥ߥ˥뤳ȤǤƤϺ롥ϡ͡ʬ¦ιȤ˰ĤƤΤԹäơΤ褦гŪʥߥ˥ʤ٤Ψˤ뤿ˡȤ¾ιȤεफʤ٤ۤʤ뵬Ѥ褦Ȥ롥ֳṲ̄ΤιפɬǤ롥
ȤŪķȳṲ̄ƹꤹȡ¾ιȤɱŪϤƱ褦ˤǹꤹ褦ˤʤơˤơֹȡפȡֹפŤ뼰äƤäΤǤ롥
ʤߤˡ#2743. ʾȸ ([2016-10-30-1])#2746. ʾȸ (2) ([2016-11-02-1]) ǹͤƤ褦ˡʾ⥳ߥ˥ƻΰǤȹͤȡʤ줬ŪķȳṲ̄ȤظäƤΤʬ롥ΰʸκǸʸǡ"a single linguistic code" "a single monetary system" ֤Ƥ⡤ΤޤǤ

Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.

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2016-11-09 Wed

#2753. dialect Ф language ȤѸˤĤ [dialect][terminology][sociolinguistics][language_or_dialect]

ε#2752. dialect ȤѸˤĤơ ([2016-11-08-1]) ˰³ Haugen (923) 򻲾Ȥʤ顤dialect ȤѸ椷Ĥ language ȤѸˤĤƹͤ롥ξѸ줬褹Τϡ줬ŪŪѸǤƱˡŪ̻ŪѸǤ⤢뤫Haugen (923) ۩

In a descriptive, synchronic sense "language" can refer either to a single linguistic norm, or to a group of related norms. In a historical, diachronic sense "language" can either be a common language on its way to dissolution, or a common language resulting from unification. A "dialect" is then any one of the related norms comprised under the general name "language," historically the result of either divergence or convergence.


Ūˤϡ"language" Ȥϡ1ĤεϤäѼΤ⤢СϢ뵬ϤäʣѼνΤŽĤ줿٥Ǥ⤢롥̻Ūˤϡ"language" Ȥϡ줫¤ʬƤȤ븵ζĸˤĤ줿̾Ǥ⤢Сդ˽Ѽ郎礷ƤȤɸѼθƾΤǤ⤢롥
̻Ūñ˿޼Сlanguage dialects language dialects . . . פȤʤ뤬"language" ʳڤˤƶŪˤߤСˤ "language" ĺȤơ۲ "dialects" ֤Ť޼ΩƤ"language" ʳǤϡ"language" ͣɹ¸ߤǤꡤ۲ "dialects" ʤΤ¸ߤʤ顤"language" ˤ¿ΤǤ롥Haugen (923) ϡѸ츯ʣ򼡤Τ褦ɽƤ롥

"Language" as the superordinate term can be used without reference to dialects, but "dialect" is meaningless unless it is implied that there are other dialects and a language to which they can be said to "belong." Hence every dialect is a language, but not every language is a dialect.


ǸΡ֤٤Ƥϸ٤Ƥθ줬ȤϤʤפȤϡ̯Ǥ롥

Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-06-10-1]

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2016-11-08 Tue

#2752. dialect ȤѸˤĤ [greek][terminology][dialect][standardisation][koine][literature][register][language_or_dialect][dialect_levelling]

Haugen (922--23) ˤСdialect Ȥñϡͥ󥹴˥ꥷ줫ؽѸȤƼѤ줿Ǥ롥OED ΡפθǤν1566ǯȤʤäƤꡤǤϱѸޤΡפɽ魯ȤѤƤ롥ե󥹸ؤϤΩ16ǯۤä褦ǡǤϥꥷɾ abondante en dialectes ɽƤ롥1577ǯαѸǤϡ"Certeyne Hebrue dialectes" ȸŵ˴ؤΤǤꡤ1614ǯ Sir Walter Raleigh The History of the World Ǥϡꥷ "Æeolic Dialect" ڤƤ롥ѸǤλȤȤƤϡΤ褦˸ŵΡפؤ dialect ȤѸ줬Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿ä褦顤ˤбѼñ̤ˤѤ褦ˤʤäΤ
ꥷä᤹ȡŵˤ줷ɸ८ꥷʤΤϤʤɸŪʽפνΤΤߤäդ٤ϡΡפϡäդȤƤФƤǤϤʤ񤭸դȤƤФͿ줿̾äȤǤ롥Τˤ̾̾ˤ䤫äΤǤϤäºݾϡˤäƻȤʬ񤭸դζʬɽ魯Τä㤨С˽ˤ Ionicβλˤ Doricˤ Attic ʤɤȤäǤ (see #1454. ꥷɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-20-1]))
Υꥷν񤭸դνϡϡäդν˴פäƤ˰㤤ʤԤϡӸŪ˺ƷǤŤʳ "Common Greek" ʬ줷̤νǤ롥ŵ᤮ȡäդνϾäꡤܼŪ˥ƥͤǤꡤ٤ä koiné ˤä֤Ƥä (= koinéization; see #1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])) ơ줬ꥷ줽Τ (the Greek language) ǧ褦ˤʤä
ĤޤꡤŵˤޤȤȡ"several Greek dialects" "the Greek language" ȿܤȤˤʤ롥פΰ㤤äơƸŪ줷Ρ줬ָפʤΤǤ롥褳Ūʰ̣򤵤٤ dialect ʤ languageˤȤѸ줬˱ѤڤӡѸ츯ʣ⤿餹ȤˤʤäʣˤĤƤϡεǡ

Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.

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2016-11-07 Mon

#2751. T. S. Eliot ˤѸλ˭ [literature][alliteration][rhyme][meter][stress][prosody][french][poetry]

ŵˡݼȤϲȿե󥹳̿鸽ܤޤǡ٤ɤǤơʸϤ˽вäT. S. Eliot (1888--1965) Ѹλ˭ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤսǤ롥

ʸ¿ͤʳϰʸˤäƹƱˡ˾̤ʸ³ƤʤФʤʤꥪåȤˤȤäơɤ䥹åȥɡ륺ʸ󥰥ʸȷӤĤǡˤ礭ʥ衼åѤʸΰüôȤפǤäդ˸С衼åʸȤϲŪʤΤǤäƤϤʤʤȤΤꥪåȤγοǤä
ΤȤϻͤǤ륨ꥪåȤˤȤäơܼŪʽäƤȤΤ⡤θȤѸλ˭ϡѸ줬衼åѤ¿ͤʸ줫줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥͳ褹뤫Ǥ롥¸³ʥ󥰥²ȤȤ˥֥ƥ˿ޥ̱²ΰġѹδäĤˤαΧΥޥե󥹡ʥΥޥ󡦥󥯥Ȥ濴Ȥʤäե󥹲Υޥ͡ˤαΧ륺αΧˤϥƥ䥮ꥷλθˤäơѹλ˭ʤΤˤʤäȤ򥨥ꥪåȤ϶Ĵ롥 (75)


ѸλϡŪˤä˸áֻΧ˿ǻȿǤƤ뤬ΧȤƱʸʸؤˤ⤪ȿǤƤ롥ǽҤ٤Ƥ֥Υޥե󥹡פαƶä礭űѸƬ (alliteration) Ѹʹߤ˵ӱ (rhyme) ˻¾֤Ȥž⤿餹ȤˤʤäǤϡե󥹸ˤӱѸλľܱƶڤܤȤȤϤޤǤʤΤۤˤ⡤#796. Ѹ˵ӱƳ줿Ūװ ([2011-07-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬̤ήȤˤꡤե󥹸켰ζѥ󤬤⤿餵졤ӱԹΤ褤郎äȤ⤢ä
Ƭ⡤̲ˤѸʹߡޤ̮ȼѤƤȤ¤Ǥ (see #943. Ƭˤ ([2011-11-26-1])#1560. Chaucer ˤƬ ([2013-08-04-1])) ȤСḽληˤĤơ󥰥ȥΥޥ󡦥ե礷Ƥɽ뤳ȤϡޤäʤȤǤ롥

ŵݼȤϲȿե󥹳̿鸽ܤޤǡ١ҡӡ2016ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-11-10-1] [2016-11-17-1]

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2016-11-06 Sun

#2750. "Present Perfect Puzzle" --- Ѹ줫βȸߴλ [perfect][preterite][aspect][tense][adverb][present_perfect_puzzle][me][french][prosody][poetic_license]

#2492. ɽ魯ȴλΡԡ˶ ([2016-02-22-1])#2633. ʤߴλϲɽ魯ȶǤʤΤ --- Present Perfect Puzzle ([2016-07-12-1])ڤӺε#2749. "Present Perfect Puzzle" --- ḽѸ줫Ρְȿ ([2016-11-05-1]) ˰³"Present Perfect Puzzle" ˤĤơѸˤϡΥѥȴϢȤơȸߴλư줬Ū뤤ʸ̮Ū󡦶Ƹ륱롥ξԤδ֤˺ΩäǽŪʶ̤ϴʤȤ顤ޤѸΤ褦Τʶ̤ϤʤäȤ򼨤ȲǤ롥Visser (2198) 顤Ĥ󤲤褦

c1386 Chaucer, C. T. E 1956, Adoun by olde Januarie she lay, That sleep til that the coughe hath hym awaked.
c1386 Chaucer, C. T. F 1082, His brother . . . Up caughte hym, and to bedde hath hym broght.
c1386 Chaucer, C. T. E 2132, er that dayes eighte Were passed . . . Januarie hath caught so greet a wille . . . hym for to pleye In his gardyn . . . That . . . unto this May seith he: Rys up, my wif!
c1390 Gower, Conf. Am. (Morley) II p. 107, And whan it came into the night, This wife with her hath to bedde dight Where that this maiden with her lay.
c1430 Syr Tryamowre (ed. Erdman Schmidt) 830, [he] bare hym downe of hys hors, And hath hym hurted sare.

ϡ"epic (present) perfect" ȤȤ򤹤뤳ȤǤ뤷ΧˤŪ (poetic_license) ͿƤ뤫⤷ʤVisser (2198) ϡե󥹸ˤƱͤɤ줬뤳Ȥ顤αƶβǽ⤢ꤽȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

It is not difficult to concur with 1960 Mustanoja and 1970 Bauer in assuming French influence as very likely. (As a matter of fact Modern colloquial French often prefers the type 'Je l'ai vu tomber' to that with the 'passé défini': 'Je le vis tomber.)'


Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-11-19-1]

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2016-11-05 Sat

#2749. "Present Perfect Puzzle" --- ḽѸ줫Ρְȿ [perfect][aspect][tense][adverb][present_perfect_puzzle][mode]

#2492. ɽ魯ȴλΡԡ˶ ([2016-02-22-1])#2633. ʤߴλϲɽ魯ȶǤʤΤ --- Present Perfect Puzzle ([2016-07-12-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡѸˤϡߴλȲλɽ魯϶ǤʤȤ§롥ȤѸȤ櫓ѸǤϡΤ褦ʶ㤬롥ѸˤơʤΤ褦µ§ޤäΤȤꡤ "Present Perfect Puzzle" ˤĤƤϡ͡ƤʤƤˤϲƤʤ
Visser (2197) ꡤѸ20ޤ夫򤤤Ĥ

1601 Shakesp., All's Well IV, iii, 3, I have delivered it an hour since.
1669 Pepys's Diary April 11th, which I have forgot to set down in my Journal yesterday.
1777 Sheridan, School f. Sc. I, i, I am told he has had another execution in the house yesterday.
1820 Scott. Monastery XXX, The Englishman . . . has murdered young Halbert . . . yesterday morning.
1847 Ch. Brontë, Jane Eyre XVI, Indeed I have seen Blanche, six or seven years ago, when she was a girl of eighteen.
1912 Standard, Aug. 16, Prince Henry has decided to travel to Tokio by the overland route. Twice already he has visited Japan, in 1892 and 1900 (Kri).
1920 Galsworthy, In Chancery IV, I have been to Richmond last Sunday.
1962 Everyman's Dictionary of Literary Biography p. 609--10, He [sc. Shakespeare] is, of course, unmeasurably the greatest of all English writers, and has been so recognized even in those periods that were antipathetic to the Elizabethan genius.

Τ褦ʸŪʵ§æƤˤĤơVisser (2197) ¾θԤ򻲾ȤĤļΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Several scholars (e.g. 1958 F. T. Wood; 1926 Poutsma) account for these idioms by suggesting that the writer or speaker has embarked on the given form before the idea of a temporal adjunct comes into his mind, and then adds this adjunct as a kind of afterthought. Another explanation is based on the assumption that instances like those quoted here may be seen as survivals of a usage that formerly---when there was not yet the strict line of demarcation between the different uses---occurred quite normally.


Ǥ2ĤƤʤƤ뤬Ԥ "afterthought" 򤷤䤹嵭Τ٤Ƥ夫פĤƤդ­ȤǤ뤫ɤϡҴŪȽǤǤʤ褦˻פ롥2ΡָŤλ¸ϡ̤ʤΤ⤷ʤѸˤƤζ¤ݤ줿ΤϤʤȤ "Present Perfect Puzzle" ľܤΤǤϤʤ
Υѥ̤ȸ虜ʤ

Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-11-06-1]

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2016-11-04 Fri

#2748. 첻ܤμҲ񲻱Ūͻ (4) [gvs][sociolinguistics][emode][contact][vowel][phonetics][rp][homonymic_clash]

[2016-10-01-1], [2016-10-11-1], [2016-10-31-1]³4ơޤǤεǡ15ޤǤˡChaucer ʤɤɽ볬λ¹äƤȹͤ첻η (System I)󥰥ɤǹԤʤƤη (System II)East Anglia ʤɤˤߤη (System III) 3बɥˤƺäƤ򼨤System II System III üԤϡAlexander Gil ˤơ "Mopsae" "Easterners" ȸƤФƤ롥
ηϤ1650ǯޤǤȼȯŸ뤲󥰥ɤǤϤȤ櫓Ťΰҿ System I ȡΤ System II 2郎Ԥʤ褦ˤʤäƤ

System I:
   ME /eː/ > EModE /iː/, e.g. meed
   ME /ɛː/ > EModE /eː/, e.g. mead
   ME /aː/, /ai/ > EModE /ɛː/, e.g. made, maid

System II:
   ME /eː/ > EModE /i:/, e.g. meed
   ME /ɛː/, /aː/, /ai/ > EModE /eː/, e.g. mead, made, maid

Ȥ18ˤʤȡޤ̤2ηϤ礹褦ˤʤäƤ1ĤϡSystem I ɤȴưҿΤ褦ʰ֤ŤȤ¸³Ƥ System II Ǥꡤ⤦1ĤϤϤŤǹԤʤƤ System III Ǥ롥System III ϡ[2016-10-31-1]εǽҤ٤褦ˡɥǤ System I Ȥ̤ܿưʲΤ褦Ѳ뤲Ƥ

System III:
   ME /eː/, /ɛː/ > ModE /iː/, e.g. meed, mead
   ME /aː, aɪ/ > ModE /eː/, e.g. made, maid

System III ϸŤηϤǤϤ뤬18ޤǤưҿϤƤꡤ̣ǿηϤǤ⤢äơθ塤 System III ޤޤͥȤʤꡤˤޤ³Ū RP δפȤʤäƤäSystem III ͥȤʤäΤϡSystem II ٤Ʊ۵ (homonymic_clash) ε򾯤ʤޤȤŪʥåȤˤϤäSmith (110) ϡSystem III II ǻܿϥɥ򤪤Ƥۤˤʤˤ⡤װ򸫤ȤƤ롥

. . . System III's success in London is not solely due to intralinguistic functional reasons but also to extralinguistic social factors peculiar to the capital. System II and System III could only come into contact in a major urban centre, such as London; in more rural areas, the opportunity for the two systems to compete would have been much rarer and thus it would have been (and is) possible for the older System II to have been retained longer. The coexistence of System II and System III in one place, London, meant that it was possible for Londoners to choose between them.


Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.

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2016-11-03 Thu

#2747. Reichenbach λ [tense][aspect][deixis][perfect][preterite][future][semantics]

ˤͭ̾ʻߤˡReichenbach ΤΤ롥3ĤλȻѤ뤳Ȥǡ礿Ū褦ȤΤ3ĤλȻȤϡʲ̤Saeed (128) ѡˡ

S = the speech point, the time of utterance;
R = the reference point, the viewpoint or psychological vantage point adopted by the speaker;
E = event point, the described action's location in time.


S, R, E λּŪʰִطԤˤ "<"Ʊξˤ "="³ˤ ">" εɽ뤳Ȥˤ롥㤨Сʸ "I saw Helen", λʸ "I had seen Helen"̤ʸ "I will see Helen" Τ줾λϡʲΤ褦ɽ魯ȤǤ

                                           
"I saw Helen"        >
(R = E < S)               R, E             S
                                           
"I had seen Helen"   >
(E < R < S)                E       R       S
                                           
"I will see Helen"   >
(S < R = E)                S              R, E

SRE ʬϤˤȡѸληϤϰʲ7Ĥ˶ʬ (Saeed 132)

Simple past(R = E < S)"I saw Helen"
Present perfect(E < S = R)"I have seen Helen"
Past perfect(E < R < S)"I had seen Helen"
Simple present(S = R = E)"I see Helen"
Simple future(S < R = E)"I will see Helen"
Proximate future(S = R < E)"I'm going to see Helen"
Future perfect(S < E < R)"I will have seen Helen"


SRE 3δط͡S = R ȤʤΤߴλñ㸽ߡ̤3ĤξΤߤǤ뤳Ȥܤͤ롥ѸüԤˤ򤷤ˤߴλΡָߤؤδͿ (relevance to "now") Ȥ¦̤ϡReichenbach ǤϡS = RפȤɽΤǤ롥

Reichenbach, Hans. Elements of Symbolic Logic. London: Macmillan, 1947.
Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

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2016-11-02 Wed

#2746. ʾȸ (2) [linguistics][metaphor][conceptual_metaphor][standardisation][prescriptivism][sign][semiotics]

#2743. ʾȸ ([2016-10-30-1]) ˰³"LANGUAGE IS MONEY" γǰ᥿եˤĤơʾȸζͤ뤳ȤǡȤΤɤޤǤͭǡɤ餬̵ʤΤä˸ܼȤϲʤΤˤĤƵ뤭äȤʲϡʥ롦ȥå (152--67) βʾˤΥʥ򰷤äʬʤɤ򻲾ȤĤġʾȸεǽ˴ؤбˤĤơʬʤ˥֥쥹Ȥ̤Ǥ롥

ʾ
ʾϼҲή̤ϼҲή̤
ʪήγȯ˹׸ʼȤƽ񤭸դˤ˾γȯ˹׸
ʾcf. ܻˤǤϲȹ650ǯˡִפʤɡɸಽcf. ѸˤǤϽ񤭸դɸಽ400?500ǯˡ
ʼβʾɼΤΤɸಽˤऱƤ "selection" (cf. #2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1]))
ʾβ "refinement" (cf. #2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1]))
ʾƥϥǤϤʤʻѼԴ֤ο¤ǽ쥷ƥϥǤϤʤʻѼԴ֤δط¤ǽ
ʾϤɤΤ褦߹԰٤ˤƤѤǤ櫓ǤϤʤϤɤΤ褦߹԰٤ˤƤѤǤ櫓ǤϤʤ
¨¸ݤꡤդǤλʧcf. Ģ񤭸դˤǽȤʤƱߥ˥
ʾϲͤ¢Ǥʡϲͤ¢Ǥʡᵭˡ
ߡߡߡʾΤδѼ˴֤ǽ
¤¤ΰˡϤ鳰줿ˡФȽ
ʾμʼ̣Υ쥯󡨲ʾDzʾ㤦äμʥ᥿ŪʴؿǸ
ʾϽκդϽκ
ʾʧcf. Ųߤ˵줿դ䳨
ʲͤΥܥΤʤΥܥǰͤΥܥΤʤΥܥ롩 (cf. semantic primitive)


ʾȸȤˤ⡤Ĥδ褦˻פ롥ŷβʪס첽ɸಽסξءǽספȤäޤֲʾϡΤȤƤμҲ񥷥ƥʸ̮ü첽Ǥסʥȥåɡp. 152--53) Ȥܤͤ롥λԾ (see #147. ѸλԾ͡ ([2009-09-21-1])) 䡤ȤȤƤθȤ¦̤⡤ʾȴط
ʾʪŪʲͤȷӤĤƤ뤬ϤޤdzǰŪʲͤȷӤĤƤˤʤȤϡषξԤ礭

硼֡ˡ ܸǴƽˡزʾ١Ʊҡ1999ǯ
ʥ롦ȥåɡˡƲ ãϺˡزʾμҲء١ڼҡ1998ǯ

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2016-11-01 Tue

#2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) [standardisation][sociolinguistics][terminology][register][style][language_planning]

[2016-10-29-1]ε˰³ɸಽ (standardisation) βǧ4ʳˤĤơHaugen 򻲾Ȥ롥ɸಽϡ (1) Selection, (2) Codification, (3) Elaboration, (4) Acceptance νǿʹԤȤ뤬4ĤβȽϡҲȸ졤ӷȵǽȤ2Ĥμ뤳ȤǤ (ޤ Haugen 933 Ȥ˺ˡ

 Form Function
Society(1) Selection (4) Acceptance
  
Language(2) Codification      (3) Elaboration


ޤϡϤȤʤѼ (Selection) 뤳ȤϤޤ롥ǤϡҲŪ˰ҿͥѼ郎Ǥ¸ߤƤΤǤС򤹤뤳ȤˤʤǤʤд¸Ѽ򺮹礹ʤꡤ˺ꤹʤɤơɸѼθäǡ򤹤뤳Ȥˤʤ
2ʳʸ (Codification) ǤꡤŵŪˤϡ򤵤줿Ѽ˴ؤ뼭ʸˡԤळȤ롥ɸŪȤʤùܤʸˡܤŪᡤʸƸʳǤ롥Ǥϡ"minimum variation in form" ܻؤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
3ʳ (Elaboration) ˤƤϡѼ郎Ҳ͡ʾ̡ʤѰ (register) ʸ (style) Ѥ褦֤롥Ǥϡ"maximum variation in function" ܻؤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ǹμ (Acceptance) ʳǤϡ줿Ѽ郎Ҳ˹졤ѼԿä롥ˤꡤɸಽλ롥
Ҳ񡦸졤ӷǽȤ2Ĥμʤޥȥåˤꡤɸಽ4ʳηϤȤƤȤƤ⤭줤ƤޤΤǤ롥θ⤢äơHaugen ϡߤ˻ޤɸಽε󶡤Ƥ롥

Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.

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ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46

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